EXPERIENTIAL MARKETING: EXPLORING THE DIMENSIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND LOGIC OF FIRM-DRIVEN EXPERIENCES
by
Clinton D. Lanier, Jr.
A DISSERTATION
Presented to the Faculty of The Graduate College at the University of Nebraska In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Major: Interdepartmental Area of Business (Marketing)
Under the Supervision of Professor Ronald D. Hampton
Lincoln, Nebraska
May 2008
UMI Number: 3307116
Copyright 2008 by Lanier, Clinton D., Jr. All rights reserved.
UMI Microform 3307116 Copyright 2008 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346
EXPERIENTIAL MARKETING: EXPLORING THE DIMENSIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND LOGIC OF FIRM-DRIVEN EXPERIENCES
Clinton D. Lanier, Jr., Ph.D. University of Nebraska, 2008
Advisor: Ronald D. Hampton
Although the marketing literature on experiences dates back 25 years, there are still considerable gaps in our knowledge in this area. This is especially true concerning the area of experiential marketing (i.e., firm-driven experiences in which consumers participate). The purpose of this dissertation is to fill some of these gaps by examining the dimensions, characteristics, and logic of experiential marketing. In order to address these issues, this research utilized a qualitative study of 188 consumers and 18 producers across eleven different experiential contexts. The findings reveal three distinct dimensions of experiential marketing: 1) the marketing experience, 2) the experiential interface, and 3) the consumer experience. The findings also suggest a fourth dimension – the producer experience. Although it is possible to separate these dimensions conceptually, they are intimately intertwined and affect one another. The study also finds four main characteristics of experiential marketing: 1) liminality, 2) narrativity, 3) connectivity, and 4) multiplicity. Each of these characteristics manifests itself differently among the dimensions. Lastly, the study finds that the experiential marketing logic is based on symbolic resources, engaging transactions, and internalized value. This logic poses unique challenges for marketers that are not addressed by traditional marketing strategies.
To My Parents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many people that have made this dissertation possible. They have all contributed in their own special way, and I would like to take this opportunity to thank them for their generous support during this process. First and foremost, I would like to thank my committee members. I especially want to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Ronald D. Hampton. Ron graciously agreed to be my mentor at a very difficult time in my program. His kindness and positive attitude helped me immensely during this time. Plus, Ron‟s unwavering belief in me and my ideas made this dissertation a reality. It was truly a pleasure to work with him on this dissertation, and I look forward to our future collaborations. I want to thank Dr. James W. Gentry for all of his guidance during this process. Jim had a way of getting me to see the real contributions of my research and showing me how to bring them to light. I especially want to thank Dr. Amit Saini for being such a wonderful mentor and friend. Amit kept me firmly grounded in the discipline and did not let me go too far afield. I also would like to thank Dr. Charles Braithwaite for agreeing to be part of the dissertation when it had dramatically shifted focus. I really appreciate your help and understanding during this process. I would also like to thank my family and friends. I wish that my father was still here to see the finished dissertation. I know that he would share in my excitement. I especially want to thank my mother, who has been with me on this journey from the very beginning. Thanks for always believing in me. To Monica, my wonderful wife who entered my life during the middle of this process, your love and support truly made the dissertation possible. I cannot imagine how I would have accomplished this incredible task without you. Lastly, I want to thank all of my friends for their encouragement.
i TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE ................................................ 6 The Domain of Experiential Marketing .......................................................................... 6 The Dimensions of Experiential Marketing .................................................................. 10 The Consumer Experience ........................................................................................ 11 The Experiential Interface......................................................................................... 13 The Marketing Experience ........................................................................................ 17 The Characteristics of Experiential Marketing ............................................................. 23 Narrativity ................................................................................................................. 23 Connectivity .............................................................................................................. 29 Liminality.................................................................................................................. 35 Multiplicity ............................................................................................................... 41 The Experiential Marketing Logic ................................................................................ 46
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................................. 52 Research Purpose and Approach .................................................................................. 52 Research Context .......................................................................................................... 55 Sampling and Recruiting............................................................................................... 56 Data Collection Methods .............................................................................................. 59 Observation ............................................................................................................... 60 Interviews .................................................................................................................. 62 Questionnaires........................................................................................................... 66 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 68 Quality Assessment ....................................................................................................... 69
ii CHAPTER 4 – FINDINGS: CHARACTERISTICS AND DIMENSIONS ..................... 72 Liminality and Experiential Marketing ......................................................................... 72 The Marketing Experience: Extraordinariness ......................................................... 73 The Experiential Interface: Adventure...................................................................... 82 The Consumer Experience: Exploration ................................................................... 96 Narrativity and Experiential Marketing ...................................................................... 106 The Marketing Experience: Narratives ................................................................... 107 The Experiential Interface: Storytelling.................................................................. 116 The Consumer Experience: Imagination ................................................................ 126 Connectivity and Experiential Marketing ................................................................... 135 The Marketing Experience: Holistic Offering ........................................................ 135 The Experiential Interface: Holistic Process........................................................... 150 The Consumer Experience: Holistic Ties ............................................................... 168 Multiplicity and Experiential Marketing .................................................................... 174 The Marketing Experience: Theatre ....................................................................... 174 The Experiential Interface: Performance ................................................................ 186 The Consumer Experience: Audience .................................................................... 198 CHAPTER 5 – FINDINGS: THE EXPERIENTIAL MARKETING LOGIC ............... 206 Symbolic Resources .................................................................................................... 207 Engaging Transactions ................................................................................................ 218 Internalized Value ....................................................................................................... 226 CHAPTER 6 – DISCUSSION ........................................................................................ 235 The Domain of Experiential Marketing ...................................................................... 236 The Dimensions of Experiential Marketing ................................................................ 240 The Characteristics of Experiential Marketing ........................................................... 245 The Experiential Marketing Logic .............................................................................. 261 Limitations .................................................................................................................. 264 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 265
iii
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................ 267 APPENDIX A: RECRUITMENT FLIER .................................................................. 267 APPENDIX B: RECRUITMENT EMAIL PROTOCOL ........................................... 268 APPENDIX C: OBSERVATION PROTOCOL ......................................................... 269 APPENDIX D: OBSERVATION CONSENT FORM ............................................... 271 APPENDIX E: PRODUCER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL......................................... 272 APPENDIX F: CONSUMER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL ........................................ 275 APPENDIX G: PRODUCER INTERVIEW CONSENT FORM .............................. 279 APPENDIX H: CONSUMER INTERVIEW CONSENT FORM ............................. 280 APPENDIX I: TRANSCRIPTION CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT .............. 281 APPENDIX J: PRODUCER QUESTIONNAIRE PROTOCOL ............................... 282 APPENDIX K: CONSUMER QUESTIONNAIRE PROTOCOL ............................. 285 APPENDIX L: PRODUCER QUESTIONNAIRE CONSENT FORM ..................... 289 APPENDIX M: CONSUMER QUESTIONNAIRE CONSENT FORM ................... 290
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 291
1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Although the public staging of experiences can be traced back thousands of years (e.g., Greek theater, Roman Circus, and Medieval tournaments) (Barker 1986; Flickinger 1936; Humphrey 1986) and the importance of the consumption experience has been shown to have its historical roots (Campbell 1987; Holbrook 1997), it is only within the last 25 years that marketing and managerial researchers have begun to focus on experiences as having their own specific logic and value (Arnould and Price 1993; Holbrook and Hirschman 1982; Pine and Gilmore 1998; Schmitt 1999). These initial insights have given rise to a recent surge in research that has explored many aspects of both the production and consumption of experiences (e.g., Carù and Cova 2007a, Joy and Sherry 2003; Kozinets et al. 2004; LaSalle and Britton 2003; Shaw and Ivens 2002). While we have learned much from this literature, there is still some confusion about the nature of experiences, their primary dimensions, and their essential characteristics. The purpose of this dissertation is to explore one type of experience, those labeled as firmdriven experiences (Carù and Cova 2007a) and its associated practices, labeled experiential marketing (O‟Sullivan and Spangler 1998; Schmitt 1999), in order to better understand this distinct and important form of marketing. For conceptual clarity, this dissertation focuses on firm-driven experiences (i.e., experiences that are developed and/or offered by firms and in which consumers participate) as opposed to consumer-driven experiences (i.e., experiences that are constructed by consumers and which may or may not involve market offerings) (Carù and Cova 2007a; Cova and Rémy 2007). In fact, I agree with the literature that consumerdriven experiences is a much broader category than firm-driven experiences because it
2 encompasses experiences that are both market- and non-market-based (e.g., Dalli and Romani 2007; Kozinets 2002; Penaloza 2001). Acknowledging this distinction, this dissertation takes more of a managerial approach in that the major focus and concern is on market-based experiences in which the firm produces an offering that is purchased and consumed by consumers primarily for the experience it provides. That is, this dissertation is neither interested in the random experiences that consumers have while acquiring, using, or disposing of an offering, nor in the experiences that consumers create for themselves outside of the market (e.g., Dalli and Romani 2007). Instead, the primary focus is on the production of market-based experiences by firms that are created and staged specifically to engage consumers and leave them with lasting memories (Pine and Gilmore 1999). While clearly the need for traditional goods and services has not diminished, firms realize that consumers seek other things than the functional and instrumental benefits these types of offerings provide (Carbone 2004; Holbrook and Hirschman 1982; LaSalle and Britton 2003; Levy 1959). According to Schmitt (1999, p.22), “what they [consumers] want are products, communications, and marketing campaigns that dazzle their senses, touch their hearts, and stimulate their minds. They want products, communications, and campaigns that they can relate to and that they can incorporate into their lives. They want products, communications, and marketing campaigns to deliver an experience.” In order to engage consumers at this deeply personal level, marketers must not simply rethink how they develop and market their goods and services to enhance the experience of these offerings, but they must also understand the underlying nature and
3 logic of experiential offerings in order to satisfy these consumer desires directly (Marconi 2005; Pine and Gilmore 1999; Shaw and Ivens 2002). This combined focus on creating and staging experiential offerings by firms to enhance the consumption experience has been labeled experiential marketing (Schmitt 1999). This dissertation proposes that experiential marketing is composed of three dimensions: the experiential object (i.e., the marketing experience), the experiential process (i.e., the experiential interface), and the experiential subject (i.e., the consumer experience). Under this approach, marketers focus on creating a unique experiential offering (i.e., a marketing experience) that engages and is engaged by consumers on multiple personal levels (i.e., the experiential interface) and that endures in the minds of consumers long after the consumption of the offerings is over (i.e., the consumer experience) (O‟Sullivan and Spangler 1998; Pine and Gilmore 1999; Schmitt 1999). Is this form of marketing unique, and if so, what distinguishes it from other forms of marketing? While many researchers have proposed a number of different characteristics associated with the three dimensions of experiential marketing (e.g., Arnould and Price 1993; Firat and Dholakia 1998; Holbrook and Hirschman 1982; Pine and Gilmore 1999; Santoro and Troilo 2007), this dissertation proposes that there are four main characteristics that distinguish experiential marketing: 1) narrativity, 2) liminality 3) connectivity, and 4) multiplicity. While some of these concepts have been explored in the marketing literature (e.g., Belk and Costa 1998; Deighton 1992; Schmitt 1999), this is the first attempt to use them to delineate the fundamental characteristics of experiential marketing, to integrate what we currently know about this type of marketing, and to fill in the gaps in our knowledge of this form of marketing.
4 These dimensions and characteristics suggest that experiential marketing is not simply an evolution or refinement of previous marketing practices, but that it constitutes a different marketing logic. That is, the dissertation proposes that experiential marketing operates on different assumptions concerning things like resources, transactions, and value than do the goods and service marketing logics. This is not meant to imply that the other logics are wrong or outdated; it just means that in order to understand experiential marketing, researchers need to approach it from its own set of assumptions. In fact, these assumptions may require different conceptualizations of common marketing terms such as expectations and satisfaction (Arnould and Price 1993; Deighton 1992) and even the use of new concepts (e.g., ludic autotely) that fully capture the essence of this type of marketing (Kozinets et al. 2004). In spite of the interest in the various aspects of experiential marketing in both the consumer behavior and marketing management literatures, there have been very few attempts by academic researchers to synthesize and integrate what we know about experiential marketing (e.g., Carù and Cova 2003) or to conduct a broad scale research project that looks across contexts and consumers to understand the underlying essence of experiential marketing. In order to address this gap in the literature and extend our knowledge of experiential marketing, this dissertation has three main objectives. The first objective is to distinguish the three dimensions of experiential marketing. The second objective is to examine the essential characteristics of these three dimensions. The third objective is to explain the logic of experiential marketing, and distinguish it from the logics of goods and services.
5 In order to address these objectives, the dissertation is organized as follows. Chapter 2 provides a review of the relevant literature in order to outline all of the factors that are necessary to understand experiential marketing. Section one discusses the domain of experiential marketing. Section two examines the broader nature of an experience and its three essential elements. The elements of an experience are translated into the three dimensions of experiential marketing. Section three draws on the extant marketing literature to propose the distinguishing characteristics of experiential marketing. Section four provides an explanation of the logic underlying experiential marketing. A priori themes that drive the empirical study are presented in each of the sections. Chapter 3 provides a description of the research methodology that is used in the empirical study to examine the a priori themes. The chapter explains why this particular methodology was chosen and describes the sampling procedures, the data collection methods, and the data coding and analysis techniques used in this research. Chapter 4 provides a detailed explanation of the findings of the research related to the domain, dimensions, and characteristics of experiential marketing. The findings are examined in terms of the themes that emerged in the data analysis. Chapter 5 presents the findings of the research related to the experiential marketing logic. This chapter is organized in terms of the three components of a strategic marketing logic: resources, transactions, and value. Chapter 6 discusses the theoretical and managerial implications of the findings and explains the limitations of the research. Chapter 7 provides concluding remarks.
6
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
This chapter reviews the experiential literature in marketing and consumer behavior in order to determine the current state of knowledge concerning experiential marketing and to propose a priori themes that guide the research. The first section begins by defining the domain of experiential marketing. The second section examines the dimensions of experiential marketing. The third section explores the essential characteristics of experiential marketing. The fourth section outlines the strategic logic of experiential marketing. A priori themes are proposed in each section.
The Domain of Experiential Marketing What is experiential marketing? Although the recent explosion of books in the business press have brought increased attention to the subject, there is still little consensus on what it actually entails. Worse yet, there is much confusion among both marketing scholars and practitioners about the nature of a market-based experience. For example, is a market-base experience a subjective function of the consumer or an objective function of the offering, or both? Depending on the particular perspective being promoted, readers of the various articles and books on this topic get very different answers to these questions. This section attempts to provide some clarification concerning the nature of experiential marketing and its specific domain. In order to understand what constitutes experiential marketing, we must first turn to the general concept of experience. The psychology literature on experience argues that all experiences are comprised of three components: the experiential subject, the experiential object, and the experiential process (Lyons 1973; Reed 1996; Russon 2003).
7 The experiential subject is the person who is doing the experiencing and in whom the experiential effect resides (e.g., the consumer). The experiential object is that which is experienced (e.g., the market offering). The experiential process is the act of experiencing the object by the subject. It is argued that the subject can experience the object in a variety of ways including sensorially, emotionally, intellectually, imaginatively, physically, socially, and spiritually (Ames 1910; Barrett et al. 2007; Bradley 2005). Higher order experiencing, such as aesthetic experiences, cultural experiences, and even sexual experiences are made up of combinations of these more basic experiences (Abrahams1986; Bader 2002; Joy and Sherry 2003). Although it is possible to separate the three dimensions of an experience conceptually, they are intertwined both theoretically and practically, and necessary components for any experience to take place. One of the major shortcomings of the experiential literature in marketing and consumer behavior is that it often focuses only a subset of the three dimensions when referring to an experience. In the consumer behavior literature, experience is usually defined in terms of the experiential subject and, more often, the experiential process. In fact, the experiential object is often devalued and considered simply as a minor input into the consumption process (e.g., Dalli and Romani 2007; Holt 1995). Experience, in this literature, is broadly referred to as experiential consumption (Carù and Cova 2007a; Holbrook and Hirschman 1982). In the marketing management/strategy literature, experience is usually defined in terms of the experiential object. The focus is primarily on how to create an experiential offering that will engage consumers in memorable ways (Marconi 2005; Pine and Gilmore 1999). The experiential process is usually taken for granted and the experiential subjects are usually viewed simply as passive effects in the
8 process. Experience, in this literature, is broadly referred to as experiential marketing (Marconi 2005; O‟Sullivan and Spangler 1998). While we have learned much from these two sets of literature, the arbitrary separation of the three dimensions of an experience has muddled the overall knowledge in this area. For example, Cova and Rémy (2007) argue that intention is the key to understanding consumption experiences and the active role the consumer plays in the process. But as Husserl (1962) points out, the key aspect of intentionality is its referentiality. Husserl argued that all consciousness is directed towards an object. There are three implications of intentionally. First, an object cannot be understood independent of our consciousness of it. Second, for consciousness to exist, it must be conscious of something. Third, it is this act of consciousness that imposes meaning on the object. The beauty of Husserl‟s argument is that it shows that not only are all three of the dimensions important, but that each one plays an active role in the experience. Thus, whether we are talking about experiential consumption or experiential marketing, all three dimensions of an experience are involved and should be accounted for and explained in relation to each other. The difference between the two approaches is their focus. Experiential consumption focuses primarily on the subject/process and experiential marketing focuses primarily on the object. It is primarily how the experiential object is defined that separates experiential consumption from experiential marketing. For experiential consumption, the object can basically be anything (i.e., non-market- or market-based). For example, I can have a consumption experience with tomatoes that I grow in my garden or buy from a store. In this case, consumer is defined in terms of the act of consumption rather than his/her role
9 in a market exchange process (i.e., customer). Even in a market-based exchange, the marketer/firm simply provides the raw materials, or what is now referred to as operand resources (Vargo and Lusch 2004), that are acted upon by the consumer in the creation of the experience. As Carù and Cova (2007a, p. 13) write, “Here, the firm is pursuing a traditional product or service marketing approach, and it is the consumer who organizes his/her own experience.” Thus, experiential consumption is primarily focused on the consumer as the source of the experience (e.g., Belk and Costa 1998; Kozinets 2002). For experiential marketing, the object is specifically a market offering that is developed by the firm and presented to consumers primarily for the experience that it can provide. The degree to which the consumer participates in the production/creation of the experience can vary, but the basic platform is manufactured or assembled by the firm and offered to the consumer, usually for a price. A major difference between experiential marketing and experiential consumption is that with experiential marketing, the offering is specifically created to engage the consumer in non-utilitarian or hedonic ways (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; Pine and Gilmore 1999). As such, experiential consumption implies a broader domain in which the experiential object can be either market- or non-market-based and in which the experiential process can be utilitarian or hedonic. For example, cleaning my carpet with my new vacuum is technically a consumption experience. Thus, this dissertation proposes that while experiential marketing addresses all three dimensions of an experience, it does so from a marketbased perspective. In keeping with this approach, this dissertation examines all three dimensions of an experience from a firm-driven, market-based perspective. This leads to the first a priori theme to guide this research:
10
A Priori Theme 1: Experiential marketing involves the creation and staging of a market offering by a firm that is meant to engage, but also to be engaged by, consumers in hedonic ways.
The Dimensions of Experiential Marketing The purpose of this section is to examine the three dimensions of experiential marketing based on the extant literature. Part of the problem with understanding experiential marketing is that the literature often does not clearly make these distinctions and blurs elements of one into the other. Thus, in an effort to facilitate our understanding of experiential marketing, this section will extract from the literature what has been proposed and what we know on each dimension. The first part will examine the experiential subject, the second part will examine the experiential process, and the third part will examine the experiential object. In order to translate the three dimensions of an experience into a more marketingoriented context, I will label the experiential subject as the consumer experience (Shaw and Ivens 2002), the experiential process as the experiential interface (Schmitt 1999), and the experiential object as the marketing experience (Marconi 2005). The consumer experience refers to the consumer inputs and outputs associated with the experience (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982). The experiential interface refers to the process in which the consumer and offering interact (Schmitt 1999). Since neither one is totally active nor passive in this process, no privileged perspective is granted (e.g., the consumption process or the production process). The marketing experience refers to the market-based offering that is specifically created and staged for the consumer (Marconi 2005).
11 The Consumer Experience Because much of what we know about market-based experiences comes from the consumer behavior literature, this section will begin by examining the consumer experience. One shortcoming with this literature is that it often combines information on the consumer and the consumption process under the generic heading of consumption. The following two sections will attempt to extract these two dimensions from the general discussion of consumption. Though not in the consumer behavior literature per se, the earliest recognition of the consumer experience can be found in the writings of Abbott (1955) and Alderson (1957), both of whom acknowledged the importance that consumers place on their experiences with offerings as a source of customer value (Holbrook 2005). In addition, Levy (1959) brought attention to the consumer experience by arguing that the relationship that customers have with products is not simply functional, but often symbolic. According to Levy (1959, p.118), “people buy things not only for what they can do, but also for what they mean.” He argued that there is often a relationship between a consumer‟s lifestyle and the symbolic meanings of a product (Levy 1963). In 1982, Holbrook and Hirschman provided the first systematic study of the consumer experience by outlining an “experiential view” of consumption. Their experiential view focuses on the subjective and holistic experiences that consumers have with offerings rather than the objective and problem-solving nature of the decisionmaking process. According to Holbrook and Hirschman (1982, p.132), “This experiential perspective is phenomenological in spirit and regards consumption as a primarily subjective state of consciousness with a variety of symbolic meanings, hedonic
12 responses, and esthetic criteria.” In contrasting their experiential view with the information processing model, they argue that consumers utilize different inputs and obtain different outputs in an experiential context. Consumer experiential inputs include psycho-temporal resources and desires. Consumer experiential outputs include imagery (e.g., fantasies and daydreams), emotions, and ludic activities (e.g., play) (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982). Though not dealing specifically with experiences, a recent article by Arnould, Price, and Malshe (2006) also examines the inputs that consumers bring to experiential consumption. They argue that consumer inputs include social (e.g., family, brand, consumer, and commercial relationships), cultural (e.g., knowledge and skills, life projects, and imagination), and physical (e.g., sensory-motor endowment) resources. In addition to outlining the experiential view of consumption, Hirschman and Holbrook also examine the intrinsically motivated hedonic aspects of consumption. According to the authors, “hedonic consumption designates those facets of consumer behavior that relate to the multi-sensory, fantasy, and emotive aspects of one‟s experience with products” (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982, p.92). Looking specifically at the individual, the authors propose that consumers seek out experiential offerings based on desire rather than motive, that they imbue experiential offerings with subjective meaning, and that they seek out sensory-emotive stimulation from these offerings (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982). Building on this early research, consumer behavior researchers have examined many different types of experiential consumption including leisure experiences (Unger and Kernan 1983), play experiences (Holbrook et al. 1984), high-risk experiences (Celsi et al. 1993), extraordinary experiences (Arnould and Price 1993), and fantasy experiences
13 (Belk and Costa 1998). A study of leisure experiences found that intrinsic satisfaction, perceived freedom, and involvement apply across all types of leisure experiences, whereas arousal, mastery, and spontaneity are more activity-specific (Unger and Kernan 1983). A study of videogame play experiences found that performance, perceived complexity, and personality-game congruity affect emotional responses and that performance depends on previous involvement and individual abilities (Holbrook et al. 1984). A study of high-risk sky-diving experiences found that three motives – normative, hedonic, and self-efficacy – influence the decision to engage in this behavior and evolve with the level of involvement and risk acculturation (Celsi et al. 1993). A study of extraordinary river-rafting experiences found that consumers who had never been riverrafting had vague expectations of the experience that were based mostly on imagery and emotions (Arnould and Price 1993). Lastly, a study of mountain men reenactment found that consumers often draw upon historical accounts, romantic myths and invented traditions when engaging in a fantasy experience (Belk and Costa 1998). This leads to the second a priori theme that guides this research: A Priori Theme 2 – The consumer experience encompasses subjective inputs and outputs, underlying perceptions and desires, and emotionally and imaginatively based expectations.
The Experiential Interface While the experiential consumption literature has addressed some issues concerning the consumer experience, much of the literature focuses on the experiential process, or what I call the experiential interface. That is, much of the literature is focused on the factors that are involved in the process of consuming experiences (e.g., Carù and
14 Cova 2007a). In addition, the literature has also focused on the factors that are involved in producing experiences (versus elements of the offering). As a result, I resisted calling this dimension either the consumption experience or the production experience because it privileges one side of the equation over the other. An experience involves the interaction between both consumers and producers, so a more neutral term was chosen. Going back to the early work in experiential consumption, Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) argue that the experiential interface is focused not on the acquisition and utilization of knowledge and skills (which interestingly happens to be the underlying proposition of the service-dominant logic) (Vargo and Lusch 2006), but on exploratory behavior. This discovery-based experiential behavior is not based on problem-solving, but on ludic desire. Simply put, consumers engage experiential offerings in order to play. Holbrook et al. (1984, p.729) define play as an “intrinsically motivated [behaviors that] involve the expenditure of time on activities that produce experiences enjoyed for their own sake.” Consumers engage experiences not to meet a need or achieve a goal, but simply to have fun. Holt (1995) reinforces this view in his typology of consumption practices by describing “consumption as play” as an autotelic practice that has no ulterior end; it is simply interaction for interaction‟s sake. But while Holbrook and Corfman (1985) argue that play is self-oriented, Holt demonstrates that it is also other-oriented. For Holt (1995), play allows consumers both to share their experiences with others (i.e., communing) and to entertain others (i.e., socializing). Building on this social framework of play, Deighton and Grayson (1995) and Grayson (1999) emphasize the rules that are part of play and argue that while the structured aspects of play allow for consumers to be manipulated and seduced, it also provides them opportunities to be subversive by
15 “breaking the rules.” Kozinets et al. (2004) demonstrate that in an experiential context, issues of self-orientation and other-orientation are woven together in a rule-based environment in which consumption is dialectically negotiated as all participants endlessly adapt and change. In his study of consumption practices, Holt (1995) also argues that market offerings are rarely experienced completely on their own terms, but are structured by an interpretive framework that the consumer brings to the consumption experience. According to Holt, these frameworks serve three main purposes: accounting, evaluating, and appreciating. Consumers use their interpretive frameworks to make sense of the offering, to construct value judgments regarding the offering, and to respond to the offering. One kind of interpretive framework that consumers use in experiential contexts is narrative (Abrahams 1986; Holbrook 1987; Levy 1981). In his study of performance, Deighton (1992) argues that it is through the construction of a narrative that an event becomes an experience. The story organizes the multidimensional and polysemic aspects of an event, which in turn, allows the consumer to make sense of their experience. Similarly, in their study of river-rafting, Arnould and Price (1993) explain how the essence of the experience for the consumer lies in the narrative scripts that evolve over the course of the experience rather than in the traditional relationship between expectations and outcomes. Ladwein (2007) points out that these narratives do not have to be, and are often not, true reflections of “reality” or presented in a linear fashion, but are simply used to organize the events and situate the experience in the person‟s life. Another important aspect of the narrative process in the experiential interface is storytelling. Deighton (1992) argues that storytelling is important because it facilitates the
16 creation of memories. According to Ladwein (2007, p. 105), “experience is fundamentally anchored in discourse. This imbues experience with a durability that the simple remembrance of the emotions that one felt cannot reproduce.” In addition, storytelling reinforces the communal bonds of those who shared the experience (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh 1993; Muñiz and Schau 2005) and community beliefs (Thompson 2004). In analyzing fashion discourse, Thompson and Haytko (1997) show the relationship between the intra- and inter-personal experiences by examining how consumers personalize fashion narratives in order to situate themselves in the larger cultural system. In addition to the narrative/discursive element of the experiential interface, there is often a deeper and more visceral social/communal element. Arnould and Price (1993) highlight how river rafters develop a sense of communitas, or a feeling of belonging and group focus on a common goal. One way this is done is through a leveling process of removing items that differentiate group members and by engaging in teamwork activities (Arnould and Price 1993). Although the establishment of rules and norms facilitates the building of communitas, the playful aspects of the experience also facilitate the construction of community. The study of the mountain men experience by Belk and Costa (1998) show similar findings in the construction of communitas, with the additional element of shared fantasy engagement. The mythic and symbolic elements of the experience that are shared by the participants often influence the feeling of community. This is evident in Kozinets‟ (2001, 2002) studies of both Star Trek fans and Burning Man participants in terms of how both groups use different types of myths and symbols to develop utopian and non-commercial communities. This leads to the third a priori theme that guides this research:
17 A Priori Theme 3 – The experiential interface encompasses exploratory behavior that includes play, storytelling, and social engagement.
The Marketing Experience While much of the experiential literature has focused on the consumer experience (i.e., the experiential subject) and the experiential interface (i.e., the experiential process), considerably less attention, at least in the academic literature, has been paid to the nature of the marketing experience (i.e., the experiential object). In fact, the offering has been discounted in much of the consumer behavior research as either unimportant or oppressive (Carù and Cova 2007a; Holt 1995; Kozinets 2002). Instead, the experiential literature focuses primarily on the symbolic aspects of the consumption experience and neglects the material aspect of the offering. This dissertation argues that the vehicles/platforms in which these symbols and meanings are transmitted play an important part in the overall process. This does not mean that an experiential offering determines the exact experience the consumer has or that all consumers have the same experience with the experiential offering. It simply means that the marketing experience plays a significant role in the experiential process. In fact, as argued above, many consumers seek out particular experiential offerings specifically for the experiences they provide. It is hard to believe that the baseball fans in Holt‟s study (1995) could possibly have anything like the same experience at a fine arts museum. Early experiential research tried to categorize experiences and their corresponding offerings into various types. Hedonic experiences are defined as those activities that have multisensory, fantasy, and emotive aspects to them (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982). Examples of hedonic offerings include the performing arts (e.g., opera, ballet, and
18 theater), the plastic arts (e.g., painting, sculpture, and photography), and the popular arts (e.g., movies, rock concerts, and fashion). Leisure experiences are defined as those activities that people engage in during their free time and involve some type of recreation and play (Unger and Kernan 1983). Examples of leisure offerings include social activities (e.g., dancing, dining, and sporting events) and crafts (e.g., carpentry, sewing, and decorating). Play experiences are defined as intrinsically motivated experiences (Holbrook et al. 1984). Examples of play offerings include hobbies, games, sports, and aesthetic appreciation. High-risk experiences are defined as activities that involve high levels of effort and physical and psychic risk (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh 1993). Examples of high risk experiential offerings include skydiving, mountain climbing, and scuba diving. Lastly, extraordinary experiences are defined as unusual events that are characterized by high levels of emotional intensity (Arnould and Price 1993). Examples of extraordinary experiential offerings include river rafting, theme parks, and Renaissance festivals. While all of these types of experiences and their offerings fall within the realm of experiential marketing, there is much conceptual overlap among these categories and little consensus of their relationships or underlying nature. In an attempt to bring some order to this confusion, some researchers have tried to classify experiential offerings along certain dimensions. One of the first books to explore the nature of marketing experiences is Experience Marketing by O‟Sullivan and Spangler (1998). These authors argue that all marketing experiences are made up of three dimensions: 1) experiential elements, 2) participant interaction, and 3) experiential outcome. Each of these three dimensions is composed of a number of sub-dimensions that exist as a set of continua. First, marketing experiences can be classified based on six
19 elemental sub-dimension continua: 1) natural or man-made, 2) real or virtual, 3) individualized or mass produced, 4) people-based or object-based, 5) authentic or created, and 6) routine or novel. Second, marketing experiences can be classified based on three participant interaction sub-dimension continua: 1) discrete interaction or continuous interaction, 2) self-directed or assisted, and 3) spectator or participant. Third, marketing experiences can be classified based on three experiential outcome sub-dimension continua: 1) temporary change or personal transformation, 2) pleasure or preservation, and 3) rush versus relaxation (O‟Sullivan and Spangler 1998). According to these authors, all marketing experiences can be classified depending on where they fall on each of the sub-dimensions. Unfortunately, these authors do not attempt to label all of the different types of marketing experiences or to classify them according to new or existing types. In their book, The Experience Economy, Pine and Gilmore (1999) argue that marketing experiences can be classified based on two dimensions: 1) guest participation and 2) environmental relationship. Like the dimensions described above, these dimensions also exist on a continuum, but they do not include sub-dimensions. Guest participation refers to the degree to which the customer influences the marketing experience. It ranges from passive participation, where customers do not affect or influence the experiential offering (e.g., the ballet), to active participation, where customers directly affect or influence the experiential offering (e.g., river rafting) (Pine and Gilmore 1999). Environmental relationship refers to the connection that the customer has with the marketing experience. It can range from absorption, in which the customer is mentally connected to the experience (e.g., watching a movie), to immersion, in which
20 the customer is physically (or virtually) connected to the experience (i.e., Renaissance festivals) (Pine and Gilmore 1999). Based on these two dimensions, four “realms” of marketing experiences can be identified: 1) entertainment, 2) education, 3) esthetic, and 4) escapist (Pine and Gilmore 1999). Entertainment experiences are characterized by passive participation and absorption, and would include most types of performances (e.g., plays, musicals, and operas). Educational experiences are characterized by active participation and absorption, and would include offerings like science museums, children‟s museums, and zoos. Esthetic experiences are characterized by passive participation and immersion, which would suggest venues like national parks, art galleries/museums, and heritage sites. Escapist experiences are characterized by active participation and immersion, and would include venues like amusement/theme parks, casinos, and cruises. While it is possible to define all marketing experiences narrowly in terms of these four categories, Pine and Gilmore (1999) argue that the richest marketing experiences are those that encompass all four realms. Renaissance festivals are a good example of a marketing experience that offers entertainment experiences (e.g., the joust), educational experiences (e.g., blacksmith demonstrations), esthetic experiences (e.g., the medieval village), and escapist experiences (e.g., manually controlled rides). In addition to classifying marketing experiences, scholars have also proposed other elements that they see as critical to any experiential offering. Many researchers have argued that it is important to theme a marketing experience in order to give consumers something around which to organize their impressions and to ascribe meaning (Gottdeiner 1998; Pine and Gilmore 1999; Schmitt and Simonson 1997). Firat and
21 Dholakia (1998) argue that in addition to a theme, a marketing experience must also be enclavized (i.e., it must have boundaries that separate the offering from consumers‟ daily lives) and secure (i.e., it must be a safe environment in order to reduce consumers‟ fears and concerns). O‟Guinn and Belk (1989) emphasize the relationship among all three of these elements by arguing that boundaries, both spatial and temporal, are important because they aid in the creation of an organized and safe experience. Filser (2002) builds on this framework by arguing that three major elements of any marketing experience include décor (i.e., the stage from which to present the offering), intrigue (i.e., the events that make up the offering), and action (i.e., the elements of the offering that engage the consumer). All of these facilitate the experiential interface and the consumer experience. Santoro and Troilo (2007), in their study of rock concerts, argue that the performers and the atmosphere are also important elements of an experiential offering. These elements both direct the consumers‟ attention and influence the type of experiential effect the consumers will have. Although the consumer‟s experience is very personal, researchers argue that the marketing experience needs to be designed with the experiential effect in mind (e.g., LaSalle and Britton 2003; Marconi 2005; Schmitt 1999). In fact, the earliest research suggests that it is the multidimensional, subjective, and holistic way that the offering affects the consumer that distinguishes a marketing experience (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982). Schmitt (1999) argues that the best experiential offerings affect the consumer in multiple ways. He argues, “Ideally, marketers should strive strategically for creating holistically integrated experiences that possess, at the same time, SENSE, FEEL, THINK, ACT, and RELATE qualities” (Schmitt 1999, p.70). LaSalle and Britton (2003) argue
22 that all of these elements need to be incorporated into the three main components of a marketing experience: 1) the offering, 2) the service, and 3) the atmosphere. In addition, the company must carefully control and manage all of the elements across these three components to deliver a successful experience (LaSalle and Britton 2003). In keeping with the managerial perspective, Podestà and Addis (2007), in their analysis of the Rose Center for Earth and Space in New York, argue that three critical factors of a marketing experience include integration (i.e., all the elements of the offering must symbolically fit together), updating (i.e., the offering must continuously incorporate innovation), and skill recognition (i.e., the offering must be accessible to consumers with varying skill levels). On this last element, Price, Arnould, and Tierney (1995) emphasize the important role of employees, or what I call “experience providers,” in the deliverance of the marketing experience. In many cases, they are not merely service providers, but are an essential element of the offering (e.g., the Disney characters). Lastly, it has been proposed that three conditions to creating a successful marketing experience include a responsive customer base, congruent positioning throughout the experience, and the ability to connect with customers (Badot and Filser 2007; Kozinets et al. 2002). This leads to the fourth a priori theme to guide this research: A Priori Theme 4: The marketing experience encompasses both environmental factors (e.g., boundaries, themes, atmosphere, events, and security) and managerial factors (e.g., integration, updating, and experience providers) that impact the degree of participation (i.e., active vs. passive) and environmental relationship (i.e., absorption vs. immersion).
23 The Characteristics of Experiential Marketing The literature review pertaining to the three dimensions of experiential marketing suggests a number of different elements of each dimension. This leads to one of the main questions that drives this dissertation: what are the essential characteristics of experiential marketing? That is, is it possible to distill all of the elements of the three dimensions down to those aspects that underlie experiential marketing and distinguish it from other forms of marketing? Based on an analysis of the elements of the three dimensions, this dissertation proposes that there are four main characteristics of experiential marketing: 1) narrativity, 2) connectivity, 3) liminality, and 4) multiplicity. Unlike the specific elements, these characteristics represent broad concepts that encompass multiple aspects of experiential marketing across the three dimensions. While it helps to separate these characteristics in order to facilitate the examination of their properties, this approach should not suggest that they are unrelated in theory or practice. As such, the dissertation also seeks to understand the relationship between the four characteristics. The remainder of this section will examine each of the characteristics and propose a priori themes that will guide the research in these areas.
Narrativity The first proposed distinguishing characteristic of experiential marketing is narrativity (Deighton 1992). Narrativity, which derives from narratology and narrative discourse, refers to the properties and relationships of a narrative (Genette 1980; Prince 1982, 1987). For this dissertation, a narrative is defined as a story that functions as an organizing structure or framework that is used to make sense of experiences or events (Bruner 1990; Escalas 1998; Mandler 1984). In fact, it has been argued that “narrative is
24 the mode of thought that best captures the experiential particularity of human action and intentionality . . .” (Baumeister and Newman 1994, p.677). The narrative properties include its formal structure and contextual features (Prince 1987). The structure of a narrative refers to the elements of temporality and causality that are used to suggest relationships between entities and events (Escalas 1998). Elements of the narrative structure include themes, plots, characters, and settings. The context of a narrative refers to the specific events or experiences represented in the story (Prince 1987). Elements of the narrative context include time, goals, and outcomes. The narrative relationship refers to the process by which the story or theme is transmitted by a narrator and interpreted by a narrate (Audet et al. 2007; Prince 1987). Elements of the relationship include imminence, discourse, and voice. While the experiential literature contends that the broader narrative properties (i.e., structure and context) and relationships are important to experiential marketing (Arnould and Price 1993; Deighton 1992: Ladwein 2007), there is far less information on the specific narrative elements of each dimension. For example, Arnould and Price (1993) found that the narratives associated with a whitewater river rafting experience were central to how consumers recollected the event and their overall evaluations of the experience. This dissertation seeks a deeper understanding of the narrative elements that are necessary in the production and consumption of an experiential offering. Related to narrative is the concept of theme. A theme, which is derived from the Greek word théma (something placed) and the Latin word thēma (a position to be maintained), is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as “the subject of discourse, discussion, conversation, meditation, or composition [that is] organized round a unifying
25 idea or group of ideas.” A theme has also been defined as a semantic frame that unifies distinct elements of a text and expresses them in a more general and abstract way (Prince 1987, 1992). Based on these definitions, I define a theme as a semantic framework that groups a set of ideas into a meaningful whole that can be easily assimilated and communicated. Thus, a theme emphasizes both unification and communication. From a strategic perspective, it has been suggested that a theme is an important element of experiential marketing (Bryman 2004; Gottdiener 1997; Kozinets et al. 2002; Pine and Gilmore 1999; Schmitt and Simonson 1997). First, the function of the theme is to unify the facts, events, characters, and settings of a marketing experience in a coherent and meaningful way (Bryman 2004; Herman, Jahn, and Ryan 2005). The thematic aspect of a marketing experience gives consumers a framework around which they can organize their impressions, develop their own stories, and create lasting memories (Bryman 2004; Deighton, Romer, and McQueen 1989; Pine and Gilmore 1999). Second, a theme provides consumers of a marketing experience with a common point of reference that they can share and elaborate with others in order to further the experience and retrieve memories once the experience is over (Ladwein 2007; Shankar, Elliott, and Goulding 2001). Although some marketing experiences may have a natural association with a particular theme (e.g., Dodge City and the Wild West theme), many experiential offerings do not necessarily come with a theme beyond the context of the offering (e.g., skydiving). As a result, in order to create and stage an engaging marketing experience, it has been suggested that marketers have to creatively theme the offering (Bryman 2004; Gottdiener 1998). The process of theming involves applying particular meanings and/or symbols to a
26 marketing experience (Bryman 2004). The theme typically transcends the experience and is often based upon a much more abstract and symbolic cultural reference (e.g., progress, nostalgia, or paradise) (Gottdiener 1997; Schmitt and Simonson 1997). Pine and Gilmore (1999) offer five principles that should be considered when choosing and developing an experiential theme: 1) the theme should alter a guest‟s sense of reality; 2) the theme should address alternate forms of space, time, and matter; 3) the theme should integrate space, time, and matter into a cohesive whole; 4) the theme should be enhanced by creating multiple instantiations of it within a space, and 5) the theme should correspond with the firm staging the experience. Because the experiential literature suggests that theming is a critical factor in creating and staging a marketing experience (e.g., Firat and Dholakia 1998; Gottdiener 1998; Pine and Gilmore 1999), this dissertation seeks to empirically determine its importance to experiential marketing and the particular role it plays in the overall process. In addition to a theme, the literature suggests that a marketing experience should convey some type of story (Imagineers 1996; Pine and Gilmore 1999). Themes by themselves are fairly abstract ideas that need to be brought to life for the customer. One way to instantiate the theme of a marketing experience is to present it as a story in the form of theater (Barron, Harris, and Harris 2001; Sherry et al. 2001; Williams and Anderson 2005). In order to develop “experiential theater” or “theaters of consumption,” marketers can apply the elements of performance (Firat and Dholakia 1998; Pine and Gilmore 1999). According to performance theory, staged events consist of four things: drama, script, theatre, and performance (Schechner 1988). The drama is the story, the script is the means to transmit the story, the theater is the context of the story, and the
27 performance is the production of the story. Applying this to a marketing experience, the theme provides the basis for the story the firm wants to convey, the script describes the particular manifestation of the story, the theater is the instantiation of the story, and the performance is the enactment of the story (Pine and Gilmore 1999). Research has found that the communicative staging of the experiential environment is an important component of a marketing experience (Arnould et al. 1998). This dissertation seeks to understand the relationships between themes and stories in a marketing experience. From a consumption perspective, stories serve a very important role in the overall experience. Deighton (1992) argues that it is the story that the consumer constructs that converts an event or performance into an experience. The story provides coherence to all of the fragments of the event and helps the consumer make sense of the experience (Hopkinson and Hogarth-Scott 2001). In addition, research suggests that the consumers construct their own stories to situate the meaning of an experience in their lives (Escalas 1998; 2004). These stories are rarely literal or factual descriptions of the experience, but represent the recontextualization and reconstruction of the events to fit the consumers‟ life experiences (Arnould 2005; Braid 1996; Hopkinson and Hogarth-Scott 2001). Ladwein (2007) found in his study of trekking (i.e., commercial hiking trips) that it was not simply the construction of the stories that was important, but the telling of the stories both to those who shared the experience and those who did not, especially those who have never had this type of experience. This narrative discourse allows consumers to set the experience in the context of their lives and give the experience a kind of “durability.” Even though the experiential literature has focused on the importance of stories to experiential marketing, there is far less research into the function of storytelling,
28 especially among consumers. This dissertation seeks to understand the importance of communicating stories in experiential marketing. This idea of narrative discourse also plays a role in the marketing experience. In order to tell an effective story, you need a storyteller, or in the case of most marketing experiences, multiple storytellers (Imagineers 1996; Pine and Gilmore 1999). The story can be told through both the physical aspects of the offering and the experience providers (Imagineers 1996). Instead of viewing employees of a marketing experience merely as salespeople or service providers, the experiential literature takes its cue from Disney and refers to them as performers or cast members (Pine and Gilmore 1999). This “performative labor” (Bryman 2004) is also viewed from a theatrical perspective in which the staging of a successful experience requires a cast, roles, characterization, and an ensemble. Marketers must cast the appropriate people to enact the performance, provide roles for each person to play in the story, coach the performers to characterize their roles in ways that enhance the experience, and make sure that the entire ensemble works together and fits the overall theme of the experience (Pine and Gilmore 1999). An important role of the storytellers is to help consumers sort their experiences into narratives (Arnould et al. 1998). The experiential literature suggests that various elements of narrativity (i.e., theme, story, performance, and storytellers) play important roles in experiential marketing. The major gap in the literature is that we do not fully understand the relationships between these elements, especially across the three dimensions. For example, since the purpose of a marketing experience is to create memorable consumer experiences (LaSalle and Britton 2003; Pine and Gilmore 1999), and since memories of
29 the experiential interface are often constructed and saved as stories (Abrahams 1986; Deighton 1992; Escalas 2004), marketers should clearly instantiate the narrativity elements into the marketing experience and provide consumers with the narrative resources they need to develop stories around the offering in order to facilitate the creation of memorable experiences. As a result, narrativity is proposed as a fundamental characteristic of experiential marketing. This leads to the fifth a priori theme: A Priori Theme 5: Narrativity encompasses the fundamental structure by which meanings are instantiated, transmitted, interpreted, remembered, and situated in experiential marketing.
Connectivity The second proposed distinguishing characteristic of experiential marketing is connectivity. Connectivity is a term that is used in a number of different disciplines including physics, conservation, and information technology. One of the common applications of the term is in the area of general systems theory, which explores the nature of complex systems (Bertalanffy 1968; Weinberg 1975). General systems theory proposes that systems are not simply the sum of their parts, but are the arrangements and relationships of the parts that make up the whole (Heylighen and Joslyn 1995). Within this theory, connectivity refers to the relationships among the parts that make up a system, as well as the relationship between the system and its environment (Laszlo 2003). In reaction to scientific reductionism, systems theory argues that systems are not static, but are dynamic and evolve over time. That is, the connectivity of elements in a system is not determined or fixed, but can change based on the system‟s interaction with other systems and its environment (Bertalanffy 1968; Heylighen and Joslyn 1995).
30 One development of the concept of connectivity that may apply to experiential marketing is in the area of information technology (IT). Here it commonly refers to those aspects that are important in the transmission of information between two or more parties (Hirchheim and Adams 1991; Jackel, Rovekamp, and Wurfel 2006; Mah 2005). Three aspects of the IT conceptualization of connectivity that are potentially important to experiential marketing are network connections, information flow, and communication. First, it is vital that all of the elements of a network are interconnected in order for it to function properly. Second, it is necessary that all aspects of a network use compatible protocols in order to establish and maintain the connection and transfer of information. Third, networks must facilitate communication between all of the parties involved in order to be effective. While it may appear on the surface that experiential marketing is very different than IT, this dissertation proposes that all of three aspects of connectivity are important to the successful creation and staging of marketing experiences by firms and their enjoyment by consumers (Bryman 2004: O‟Sullivan and Spangler 1998; Ritzer 2002; Schmitt 1999). In fact, it is probably not a coincidence that the rise of experiential marketing coincides with the rise of IT and the Internet. Schmitt argues that developments in information technology are important to experiential marketing because they allow information to be sent and received in any medium, to anybody, anywhere in the world, thus allowing “people and companies to connect and to share an experiential universe with one another at any time” (Schmitt 1999, p.7). In terms of the first aspect of connectivity (i.e., network connections), the literature suggests that it is very important that all of the structural elements of a
31 marketing experience are connected in order to produce the desired consumer experience (Bryman 2004: Francaviglia 1981; Johnson, Mayer, and Champaner 2004). While connectivity often focuses on the information aspects of a system, the material components are also important in conveying an experience (Heilbrunn 2007; Podestà and Addis 2007). At its theme parks, Disney is very careful to separate the frontstage activities (i.e., what the visitor sees) from the backstage activities (i.e., the operations of the parks) in order to prevent customers (or “guests”) from coming into contact with anything that does not contribute to, or potentially distracts from, the experiential interface (Imagineers 1996; Johnson 1981). In fact, Disney manages the architectural barriers between the different “lands” (e.g., Fantasyland, Adventureland, and Tomorrowland) at its theme parks so that features of one land are not viewed from another land, thus ruining the experiential effect (Bryman 2004). This dissertation seeks a better understanding of the connections between the material aspects of a marketing experience. The idea of network connection is also important in the experiential interface and the consumer experience. Research suggests that the relationship that the consumer has with the marketing experience impacts the consumer experience. As mentioned previously, Pine and Gilmore (1999) argue that the environmental relationship exists on a continuum from absorption (i.e., the experience occupies the person‟s attention) to immersion (i.e., the person becomes part of the experience). In other words, they argue that in absorption, the experience “goes into” the consumer, and in immersion, the person “goes into” the experience (Pine and Gilmore 1999). Others have argued, though, that it is strictly immersion that lies at the heart of experiential marketing (Carù and Cova
32 2007b; Firat and Dholakia 1998; Goulding, Shankar, and Elliott 2002). These researchers argue that consumers seek to be fully immersed in hyper-real and spectacular environments in order to escape their daily lives (Carù and Cova 2007; Ritzer 1999). In terms of the second aspect of connectivity (i.e., information flow), the literature suggests that all of the symbols and meanings of the marketing experience must be compatible in order to produce a consistent message. This part of connectivity addresses the issue that marketing experiences are essentially sign systems (Santoro and Troilo 2007). It is here that we see the connection between narrativity and connectivity, as well as between the material and the symbolic. It has been argued that the producers of a marketing experience must not only theme the experiential offering, they must also make sure that every aspect of the experience instantiates the theme and reinforces the message (Pine and Gilmore 1999). If multiple themes are employed, the producers have to make sure that they are compatible (or at least do not interfere) with each other and that they all fit with the general theme of the marketing experience. As Bryman (2004, p.134) writes, “The different lands in the Magic Kingdom are sealed off from one another both visually and experientially, so that the visitor‟s appreciation of the narrative will not be undermined.” This example shows the inherent relationship between the material and symbolic aspects of the offering in transmitting the experience to the consumer. In relation to the experiential interface, research suggests that the consumers must receive and understand the symbols and meanings of the sign system in order for the marketing experience to have meaning (Belk and Costa 1998; Santoro and Troilo 2007). This has led to a major debate about how much control the consumer has, or should have, in the meaning of the marketing experience. Some researchers have criticized marketing
33 experiences for not giving consumers any control over the flow of information and basically telling them what to think (e.g., Firat and Dholakia 1998; Ritzer 1999). Carù and Cova (2007a, p. 11) criticize the “limited and planned nature of these consuming experiences, which are very manipulative and predetermined ... and leave the consumer very little room to really participate in their conception and construction.” Others suggest that consumers find a way to control the flow of information in the marketing experience, but that this control is always limited by the interplay between consumers and producers (Kozinets et al. 2004). Whatever the case, the literature suggests that the consumer experience is dependent upon a meaningful information flow in the experiential interface. This dissertation seeks to understand the nature of the information flow between the experiential offering and the consumer in facilitating the experiential interface. In terms of the third aspect of connectivity (i.e., communication), the experiential literature suggests that connectivity not only refers to the consumer‟s connection with the material and symbolic elements of the experience, but also to the consumer‟s connection with the producers of the experience (i.e., the “experience providers”) and with the other consumers (Arnould and Price 1993; Belk and Costa 1998; Haythornthwaite 2005). One of the main things that facilitates these connections is communication (Jackel et al. 2006). By directly communicating the meanings and messages associated with the marketing experience through its personnel, the experience providers can enhance the consumers‟ experience by reinforcing their common beliefs, encouraging them to consider new possibilities, and helping them to achieve a deeper identification with the experience (Durgee, Holbrook, and Sherry 1991; O‟Guinn and Belk 1989). Arnould and Price (1993) explain how the experience providers can play both overt and subtle roles in the delivery
34 of a marketing experience and how consumers‟ perceptions of the marketing experience are greatly influenced by the interpersonal relationships that develop between consumers and producers. The dissertation seeks a fuller understanding of the experiential connection among producers and consumers and its effect on the overall enjoyment of the experiential offering. Communication can also stimulate connections among consumers. This communication can take the subtle form of everyone laughing together at a movie or screaming on a roller coaster (Anderson 1999; Telotte 1991) to the development of a communal bond, or communitas, with other consumers (Arnould and Price 1993; Belk and Costa 1998). This communicative connection between customers is often facilitated through the sharing of stories of different events that have taken place during the experiential interface (Arnould and Price 1993). The literature suggests that the degree of communication among customers will depend upon the nature of the experience (e.g., attending an opera versus participating in an extended river rafting trip) and its duration (e.g., a couple of hours to a number of days/weeks). Whatever form it takes, the communication between customers is considered a vital component of experiential marketing because it helps the customer interpret the experience, create their own stories, and develop memories of the experience (Ladwein 2007). As a result, connectivity is considered a distinguishing characteristic of experiential marketing. This leads to sixth a priori theme guiding this research: A Priori Theme 6: Connectivity encompasses the relationships, interpretations, and effects among the material, instrumental, and symbolic aspects of the three dimensions of experiential marketing.
35 Liminality The third proposed distinguishing characteristic of experiential marketing is liminality. The concept of liminality used in this dissertation is based on Van Gennep‟s seminal work on rites of passage and Victor Turner‟s concept of pilgrimage. According to Van Gennep (1960 [1908]), a rite of passage is a type of transformative ritual that consists of three stages: the preliminal (rites of separation), the liminal (rites of transition), and the postliminal (rites of incorporation). In the preliminal stage, individuals leave their ordinary, everyday lives by removing themselves from things that are familiar and structured (Turner 1969). In the liminal stage, individuals cross a “limen,” or threshold, and move into “a no-man‟s land betwixt and between the structural past and the structural future” (Turner 1986, p.44). In the liminal realm, a person‟s status is often ambiguous, and s/he often encounters both the unfamiliar and the extraordinary. In the postliminal stage, individuals are incorporated back into their everyday life, but with a changed status and/or perspective (Turner 1982). While is has been suggested that the rite of passage, or pilgrimage, ends in the marketing experience (i.e., the postliminal stage of experiential marketing is integration into the marketing experience and the experiential community) (O‟Guinn and Belk 1989), this dissertation argues with others that most marketing experiences are situated in the middle “liminal” stage (Arnould and Price 1993; Kozinets et al. 2004; Sherry 1990). That is, a marketing experience usually represents the “betwixt and between” into which people journey. As Turner (1974, p. 197) argues, “A pilgrimage center [i.e., a liminal space], from the standpoint of the believing actor, also represents a threshold, a place and moment „in and out of time,‟ [through which] such an actor ... participates in symbolic
36 activities which he [or she] believes are efficacious in changing his [and her] inner and, sometimes, hopefully, outer condition ...” More importantly, the liminal stage represents a state of possibility, where fantasies, desires, and conjectures can all be accepted and played out, often in a carnivalesque fashion (Bakhtin 1981; Belk, Ger, and Askegaard 2003; Turner 1974). Turner (1982) argues that the concept of liminality only applies to tribal and early agrarian societies based on their particular structures and customs. Given the difference in organization and norms in post-agrarian, industrialized societies, he argues that the features of this intermediate ritual stage should be considered as liminoid rather than liminal. In drawing this distinction, he argues that the liminal is characterized by obligation, community, and seriousness, whereas the liminoid is characterized by choice, individuality, and play; the liminal is integrated into the total social process, whereas the liminoid is set apart from the economic and political process; the liminal is based on common intellectual and emotional meanings shared by the society, whereas the liminoid is based on idiosyncratic and specialized meanings of particular groups; the liminal is functional to the social order, whereas the liminoid is often a critique of the social order (Turner 1982). While the liminoid concept may accurately describe elements of certain “outlying” types of marketing experiences (e.g., Belk and Costa 1998; Kozinets 2001, 2002), particularly the marginal, individual, and critical, this dissertation proposes that various aspects of the liminal concept underlie many of the “mainstream” marketing experiences that make up most people‟s lives, particularly the universal, communal, and functional. As a result, the dissertation uses the liminal concept, though perhaps in a somewhat modified way (i.e., neo-liminal), instead of the liminoid.
37 Because the liminal represents a state of transcendence (Turner 1982), the spatial and temporal separation from one‟s normal “reality” is often proposed as a key component of experiential marketing. Whether it is driving through the gates of Heritage Village (O‟Guinn and Belk 1989), shedding your belongings before embarking on a river rafting expedition (Arnould and Price 1993), or making a hajj through the desert to Burning Man (Kozinets 2002), there is often a physical transition across a spatial boundary that moves the consumer from their ordinary life into the liminal world of the marketing experience. While this is more clearly evident in escapist venues, it also appears to exist in entertainment venues such as movie theaters where you pass through the ticket/concession area in order to enter the viewing area (Huss and Silverstein 1968), in educational venues such as historical landmarks where you move from the modern to the ancient world upon entering the site (Chronis 2005), and in esthetic venues such as fine arts museums where you transform your behavior upon entering the building or exhibition (Bhattacharya, Hayagreeva, and Glynn 1995; Joy and Sherry 2003). In addition to crossing the spatial boundaries, consumers often pass through a temporal boundary (Turner 1969). Many marketing experiences are situated in the past (e.g., Renaissance festivals), the future (e.g., Star Trek conventions), or both (e.g., Frontierland and Tomorrowland at the Magic Kingdom) (Bryman 2004; Kozinets 2001; Lanier 2007). The structural features (e.g., the buildings, the décor, and the costumes) of the marketing experience are often used to facilitate this transition to the particular time period (O‟Guinn and Belk 1989). In addition, symbols such as cultural values or meanings are often associated with the particular time period in order to facilitate this transition, such as the idealized version of small town America projected by Disney‟s
38 Main Street USA (Francaviglia 1981; Meinig 1979), thus indicating a link between liminality and narrativity. In addition, many marketing experiences try to create a sense of time that is set apart from “ordinary” time, either by structuring the events of the marketing experience to take place in a certain order (Bryman 2004) or by emphasizing particular temporal elements of the context, such as natural time, sacred time, or noncommercial time (Belk and Costa 1998; Kozinets 2002; O‟Guinn and Belk 1989). In addition to the spatial and temporal boundaries, scholars have argued that the overall liminal aspect of a marketing experience is often enhanced by the exaggerated simulation of reality (Baudrillard 1988; Firat and Dholakia 1998; O‟Guinn and Belk 1989). For example, the Rainforest Café creates a hyper-real tropical atmosphere through the strategic use of dense foliage, wild birds and fish, and thunder and falling rain (Brown 1995). This research argues that consumers are no longer interested in unmediated reality, but seek out more simulated realities that are increasingly spectacular (Carù and Cova 2007a; Ritzer 1999). As a result, many marketing experiences strive to transport the consumer to a place that challenges or transcends consumers‟ ordinary experience and engages them on a deeper level (Sherry 1990). One of the most important aspects of liminality is that it allows the suspension of disbelief and the relaxation of inhibitions (Durgee et al. 1991). As Turner (1974) suggests, the liminality is a place of possibility. At the same time, another group of researchers argues that consumers desire more authentic experiential offerings (Gilmore and Pine 2007; Grayson and Martinec 2004; Ladwein 2007). As the world becomes more mediated, consumers seek out “real” experiences (Gilmore and Pine 2007). Whether the experiential offering is perceived as iconically or indexically authentic, authenticity is an assessment made by the consumer
39 based on particular cues associated with the offering (Grayson and Martinec 2004). For example, Ladwein (2007) found in his study of commercial hiking trips that most consumers are on a search for an authentic natural experience. From the perspective of the consumer, it has also been argued that the experiential effects are always authentic, despite whether the experiential stimuli are real or not (Pine and Gilmore 1999). Given the seemingly contradictory nature of these concepts, the dissertation examines hyperreality and authenticity and their liminal importance to experiential marketing. Specifically in terms of the experiential interface and the consumer experience, the experiential literature focuses on three liminal rites: 1) integration, 2) intensification, and 3) transformation (Arnould and Price 1993; Belk and Costa 1998). Rites of integration are activities that participants use to consolidate and understand the various material and symbolic factors of the liminal experience (Siehl, Bowen, and Pearson 1993). For example, Arnould and Price (1993) find that consumers develop and use cultural scripts to makes sense of their whitewater river rafting experience and transform it into positive memories. Rites of intensification are activities that center on the shared aspects of the liminal experience to increase the relationships among participants (Coon 1958). For example, Belk and Costa (1998) find that participants of the mountain men rendezvous use the mythic time, space, and traditions of the event to develop a sense of community and invert social roles. Rites of transformation are activities that allow the participants to affect some sort of change in themselves as a result of participating in the liminal experience (Goffman 1963). Both studies find that the liminal characteristics of the marketing experience encourage participants to shed their inhibitions and engage in a form of play (Arnould and Price 1993; Belk and Coast 1998). Through this process, the
40 participants can explore the possibilities and opportunities available through this liminal space and engage in personal discovery. The dissertation seeks to examine the liminal nature of the experiential interface and the specific liminal relationships between the consumer and the marketing experience. In summary, the literature suggests that the key liminal factors of experiential marketing include the degree to which the marketing experience transports the person to the liminal realm, the degree to which the experiential interface allows for participation and integration, and the degree to which the consumer can engage in play and discovery. This is where we see the possible relationship between narrativity and connectivity. The narrativity elements of a marketing experience give consumers a sense of the world that they are entering (e.g., the happiest place on Earth). The connectivity elements of the marketing experience keep the customers engaged in this world and minimize anything that could potentially draw them out of the experience. In addition, it is often the liminal aspect of diminishing established hierarchies and encouraging participation in shared experiences that leads to the connections among consumers. Because many of the dimensions of liminality underlie the engaging nature of a marketing experience, facilitate the interface between the consumer and the offering, and absorb and integrate consumers into the entire experience, liminality is proposed as a distinguishing characteristic of experiential marketing. This leads to the seventh a priori theme that guides this research: A Priori Theme 7: Liminality encompasses all of those factors that contribute to the ambiguous, unusual, and extraordinary aspects of experiential marketing and that allow for the realization of possibilities among consumers.
41 Multiplicity The fourth proposed distinguishing characteristic of experiential marketing is multiplicity. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, multiplicity refers to “the quality or condition of being manifold,” and manifold refers to “having various forms, features, components parts, relations, applications, etc.,” and “performing several functions at once.” In the present context, multiplicity refers to the idea that a marketing experience has multiple stimuli that feed into the experiential interface in multiple ways and which affect, and are affected by, the consumer experience on multiple levels, which in turn leads to multiple interpretations. Thus, multiplicity is present in all three dimensions of experiential marketing. From a strategic perspective, the literature suggests that a marketing experience can affect the consumer in seven major ways: sensorially, emotionally, imaginatively, intellectually, physically, socially, and spiritually (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; LaSalle and Britton 2003; Schmitt 1999). It has been proposed that the purpose of a marketing experience is to impact the consumer in so many positive ways that it leaves lasting and memorable impressions (Pine and Gilmore 1999). To do this, the marketing experience can be designed to affect a consumer‟s senses, emotions, imagination, intellect, body, social relations, and/or core being (Schmitt 1999). Sensory stimuli are meant to affect a person‟s sense of sight, sound, smell, taste, and/or touch (Schmitt 1999). Emotional stimuli are meant to evoke feelings such as happiness, joy, fear, horror, and surprise (Shaw and Ivens 2002). Imaginative stimuli are meant to facilitate the recall or creation of mental images (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982). Intellectual stimuli are meant to encourage cognitive thoughts related to things like problem solving, information
42 processing, and decision making (Schmitt 1999). Physical stimuli are meant to engage the person bodily and kinetically (Anderson 1999). Social stimuli are meant to engage the person socially and communally (Belk and Costa 1998). Spiritual stimuli are meant to touch our core being and address our existential concerns (LaSalle and Britton 2003). How these stimuli are instantiated will have an impact on the experiential interface and the consumer experience by affecting the way that consumers processes and interpret the marketing experience and how memories are created (Kozinets et al. 2004; Santoro and Troilo 2007). The dissertation seeks to understand the relationships among these different stimuli and the ways that they affect consumers through the marketing experience. One question that arises is how many of the experiential stimuli need to be incorporated into a marketing experience for it to be successful? In addressing this question, Schmitt (1999) makes a distinction between holistic and hybrid marketing experiences by classifying marketing experiences in terms of the number of different experiential stimuli they contain (i.e., holistic experiences contain all seven experiential stimuli, while hybrid experiences only contain a subset of them) and argues that firms should seek to produce holistic marketing experiences, primarily because he believes they are more appealing. This dissertation proposes that marketing experiences do not have to contain all of the different types of experiential stimuli or induce all of the experiential affects in order to produce an engaging experience (e.g., Santoro and Trolio 2007). Instead, this dissertation suggests that multiplicity is the mixing of different stimuli in creative ways (based on the type of marketing experience and the desired consumer effect) in order to provide an engaging gestalt experience (Thompson, Locander, and Pollio 1990). Different stimuli are used to create a distinct marketing experience that is
43 greater than the sum of its parts. That is, a successful marketing experience engages the person on multiple levels simultaneously, with the whole experience being irreducible to any one stimulus or any other marketing experience (Pine and Gilmore 1999). Here we see the relationship between multiplicity and connectivity. This dissertation argues that a “holistic” marketing experience does not refer to the number of experiential stimuli, but in the melding of the stimuli to produce a specific gestalt experience. Schmitt (1999) provides the most comprehensive strategies for instantiating these particular experiential stimuli. In these strategies, we also see the connection among multiplicity and the other three characteristics of experiential marketing. According to Schmitt (1999), marketers must consider six general issues when creating multiplicity in a marketing experience: 1) the number of stimuli and their intensity; 2) the breath, depth, and linkage among the stimuli and their effects; 3) the degree of consistency between the symbols and meanings (i.e., narrativity) of the marketing experience and the experiential stimuli; 4) the degree of connection (i.e., connectivity) between all aspects of the marketing experience and the experiential stimuli; 5) the degree to which all of the stimuli maintain consumer engagement in the marketing experience (i.e., liminality) and, 6) the degree to which the stimuli and the effects makes sense cross-culturally (for multinational companies). The dissertation seeks to understand how experiential stimuli are instantiated in a marketing experience and their relationships. In addition to the number of stimuli incorporated into a single marketing experience, another aspect of multiplicity is the incorporation of different types of marketing experiences into an experiential environment (Bryman 2004). By incorporating multiple marketing experiences under one overarching experiential theme, firms can
44 provide a variety of experiential offerings that stimulate consumers in many different ways. This allows the producers to make sure that they have offerings that appeal to a wide base of consumer tastes and that engage consumers in multiple ways and on multiple levels. The dissertation examines the role of choice and variety in an experiential venue. From the consumer perspective, multiplicity is not meant to imply that there is a perfect match between the experiential stimuli and their effects or that the consumers are merely passive recipients in this process (Carù and Cova 2007b). What it suggests is that there is a relationship between the marketing experience and the consumer experience and that both are important inputs into the overall process (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982). Just as services can only “propose” value (Vargo and Lusch 2004), marketing experiences can only propose experiential effects. What the actual effects will be depends on the consumer (Pine and Gilmore 1999). In fact, contrary to both the marketing management and consumer behavior literatures, neither the object nor the subject is important by itself. It is only when they come together in the experiential interface that the magic happens (Imagineers 1996). That is, it is through the experiential interface that consumers process the marketing experience stimuli, interpret them based on their personal and cultural interests and perspectives, and sort them into meaningful categories (Arnould and Price 1993; Csikszentmihalyi 1991; Kozinets et al. 2004). Looking more closely at the experiential interface, one related issue that has received a lot of attention recently in the marketing literature is consumer co-creation (Lanier and Schau 2007; Prahalad and Ramaswamy 2004; Vargo and Lusch 2004). This is the idea that the consumer and producer work together in the value creation and
45 delivery process (Vargo and Lusch 2004). In the experiential context, consumer cocreation refers to the idea that experiences are developed by both the producers and consumers. As Carù and Cova (2007a, p.13) write, “Here, the firm provides an experiential platform base on which the consumer can develop his/her own experience. The firm imbues the [marketing] experience with a potential, turning it into a veritable raw material composed of certain diffuse elements that the consumer can mold, and which will therefore assume the shape of his/her own [consumer] experience.” According to these researchers, both the firm and the consumer provide inputs into the process, and it is through the experiential interface that the experience is shaped and imbued with meaning. A major issue of multiplicity that impacts the co-creative aspect of the experiential interface that has not been clearly addressed in the literature is the relationship between the nature of the marketing experience and the desires underlying the consumer experience (Belk et al. 2003). Firms have been criticized for controlling all aspects of a marketing experience and forcing consumers to passively accept the meanings of these offerings (Ritzer 1999). As Carù and Cova (2007a, p.11) write, “Indeed, such experiences leave the consumer very little room to really participate in their conception and construction.” These ideas give rise to the following questions: how much of the offering can the firm control, how much do consumers really want to participate, and what aspects of the offering do they want to participate in? The key to addressing these experiential co-creation questions lies in fact that there are both material and symbolic aspects of any marketing experience (Heilbrunn 2007; Santoro and Troilo 2007). While it may be possible for consumers to co-create the
46 material aspects of a marketing experience, this dissertation argues that they will always be able to co-create the sign system associated with the experiential offering. This does not mean that they can necessarily alter the symbols and text of the marketing experience, but they can alter their meanings and interpretations of the offering. For example, the customers at ESPN Zone in Chicago altered the meaning of the rifle simulation by pretending to be assassins without altering the material aspects of the game (Kozinets et al. 2004). In fact, even those consumer researchers who argue for more active consumers in the experiential interface argue that firms need to control every detail of the marketing experience (e.g., Kozinets et al. 2007; Ladwein 2007; Podestà and Addis 2007). What they mean is that firms need to control the material aspects of the marketing experience, while letting consumers control the symbolic aspects. Based on the multiple stimuli and effects, as well as the multiple forms of participation, this dissertation proposes that multiplicity is a distinguishing characteristic of experiential marketing. This leads to the eighth a priori theme that guides this research: A Priori Theme 8: Multiplicity encompasses all of the various stimuli, both material and symbolic, that are used by firms to produce a gestalt and engaging marketing experience, and which are used by consumers to interpret and situate the meaning of the offering in their lives.
The Experiential Marketing Logic In addition to defining the domain, dimensions, and characteristics of experiential marketing, this dissertation proposes that experiential marketing constitutes a new form of marketing that possesses its own unique logic. While some proponents view experiential marketing as simply an extension of existing strategy to sell more goods and
47 services (e.g., Smith and Wheeler 2002), this approach fails to understand the richness of this perspective and the distinctive characteristics of each of its three dimensions (i.e., the customer experience, the experiential interface, and the marketing experience). As a result, this dissertation argues that it is important to examine the underlying logic of experiential marketing in order to understand this particular form of marketing and what distinguishes it from other strategic marketing logics. One way to distinguish among marketing logics is to examine their assumptions concerning resources, transactions, and value, though some have suggested that these concepts do not really apply to experiential marketing (Brown 1999; Firat and Dholakia 1998; Venkatesh, Penaloza, and Firat 2006). It has been argued that the strategic logic of goods is based on tangible (operand) resources, discrete transactions, and exchange value (Vargo and Lusch 2004). The goods logic is focused primarily on the utilization of material resources in the production and distribution of physical goods (Cherrington 1920; Nystrom 1915). During this process, goods are embedded with value by imbuing them with qualities that are sought by consumers and constitute the fundamental unit of exchange (Beckman 1954; Shaw 1912; Weld 1916). As a result, the main focus of the goods logic is on managing costs, optimizing time and place utility, and providing reliable and dependable products (Converse 1921; Cowan 1964; Garvin 1983). The underlying assumption is that if customers‟ needs are met at a low cost, they will continue to purchase the product. The inherent focus on the firm and the manufacturing process underlying this perspective is captured by the marketing mix (i.e., product, price, place, and promotion) (McCarthy 1960).
48 As opposed to the goods logic, it has been argued that the strategic logic of services is based on intangible (operant) resources, relational transactions, and use value (Vargo and Lusch 2004). This service logic is focused primarily on the utilization of specialized knowledge and skills to produce value propositions that are useful to customers. As Vargo and Lusch (2006, p.43) explain, service is defined as “the application of specialized competences (operant resources – knowledge and skills), through deeds, processes, and performances for the benefit of another entity or the entity itself.” The service logic seeks to understand the customer in order to assess their needs and provide them with the proper instrumental resources needed to help them accomplish their goals. It is therefore the use of the knowledge and skills, rather than their exchange, which constitutes the source of value for the customer. One way for firms to institute this logic is to develop relationships with customers and involve them in the production process (Dwyer, Schurr and, Oh 1987; Prahalad and Ramaswamy 2004). These types of relational transactions are important because they ultimately lead to value creation for the consumer. Keeping with the structure of the other logics, this dissertation proposes that the strategic logic of experiences is based on the assumptions of symbolic resources, engaging transactions, and internalized value (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982; Pine and Gilmore 1999; Schmitt 1999). This experiential marketing logic is focused on utilizing, integrating, and instantiating a wide range of symbolic resources in creative and imaginative ways to produce stimulating effects and generate positive memories (Kozinets et al. 2004; Santoro and Troilo 2007; Venkatesh et al. 2006). Unlike the goods logic, which is focused on satisfying customers‟ needs through a material object, or the
49 service logic, which is focused on helping customers reach their goals through knowledge or skills, the experiential marketing-centered logic is focused on fulfilling customers‟ autotelic desires through an instantiated sign system. The autotelic aspect of experiences suggests that consumers seek experiences for their own sake (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; Holbrook et al. 1984; Kozinets et al. 2004). As such, it is not the nature of the offerings that is important; it is the meaning and possibilities that they help to create for the consumer that lies at the heart of the experiential marketing. Likewise, it is not simply the duration of the transaction or the level of involvement by the parties involved that is important, but the degree to which the offering stimulates the customer and leaves a lasting positive impression. As Pine and Gilmore (1999, p.12-13) write, “while the work of the experience stager perishes upon its performance, the value of the experience lingers in the memory of any individual who was engaged by the event.” While there is much debate in the literature about the extent to which the customer has to be directly involved in the material production of the offering for it to have this effect, there is evidence that the customer will always be involved in the appropriation and interpretation of the meaning of the experience (Arnould and Price 1993). As Hoch (2002) argues, the value of the experience lies not in what is encountered, but in what is remembered. The main point is that in order for firms to create “memorable customer experiences” (Pine and Gilmore 1999), they must utilize a strategic logic that is directly geared to these types of effects. That is, the goods and service logics are based on assumptions that are not specifically focused on the dimensions and characteristics of experiential marketing. If the firm wants to produce memorable customer experiences, then it needs to utilize a logic that specifically addresses the creation of a symbolic
50 experiential offering, management of an engaging experiential interface, and facilitation of intrinsic personal enjoyment. From a managerial perspective, the proper strategic mix will depend on the creative resources and capabilities of the firm, the type of experience it wants to create, and the degree to which the experience is related to the goals of the firm (Badot and Filser 2007; Podestà and Addis 2007). It is important to note that the dissertation does not argue that the goods or service logics are inherently incorrect or that they cannot be used to great effect. In fact, it is also important to point out that the application of the various logics is not limited to the offering from which they have derived their names, though there is a natural affinity between the two. For example, while Dell and HP clearly follow a goods marketing logic by focusing on maximizing the utility of the marketing mix, Apple follows a more experiential marketing logic by focusing on the symbolic, extraordinary, and intrinsically valuable nature of its products. Likewise, just because a firm‟s offering falls in the traditional entertainment/experience category does not mean that the firm cannot apply a goods or service marketing logic. There is nothing preventing a theatrical director from considering his actors as service providers who are utilizing their knowledge and skills to help the audience achieve their goals. Whether or not this is a successful strategy is a different issue. In fact, one of the major works on river rafting, which most people would consider to be a highly experiential offering, describes this offering as an extended “service” encounter (Arnould and Price 1993). Thus, depending on the logic(s) being utilized by a firm, an offering can be marketed in a number of different ways. If anything, this dissertation challenges the idea that the goods logic has evolved into the service logic and that the service logic is, or should be, the dominant paradigm in
51 marketing (Vargo and Lusch 2006). At the same time, this dissertation does not argue, as do some experiential marketing proponents (e.g., Pine and Gilmore 1999), that the experiential marketing logic is the next step in the marketing evolutionary ladder. Instead, the dissertation argues there are multiple logics in marketing, each with their own specific assumptions, which can be utilized by firms. Although well beyond the scope of this dissertation, the author proposes that there may even be distinct marketing logics rooted in people (e.g., movie stars, sports figures, and politicians), places (e.g., coffee shops, books stores, and bars), and ideas (e.g., consumerism and environmentalism). For firms to be successful and achieve a sustainable competitive advantage, they need to understand the assumptions and goals of these logics and decide which one(s) fits their goals. In fact, it may be the creative incorporation of multiple logics into a single consumption space (e.g., Disney World) that can lead to differentiation and a sustainable competitive advantage (Bryman 2004). This leads to the ninth a priori theme that guides this research: A Priori Theme 9: The experiential marketing logic is based on the assumptions of symbolic resources, engaging transactions, and internalized value.
52 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the research methods that were used in this study of experiential marketing. In order to understand the dimensions, characteristics, and logic of experiential marketing, the research involved various methods in the collection and analysis of qualitative data related to these topics. The remainder of this chapter explains the rationale, purpose, and procedures for this study, the sampling techniques employed, and the data collection and analysis methods.
Research Purpose and Approach The empirical research for this study involved a qualitative exploration of experiential marketing. The purpose of this study was threefold: 1) to examine the dimensions of experiential marketing, 2) to understand the essential characteristics of experiential marketing, and 3) to determine the logic underlying experiential marketing. Because the function of this research was to explore and describe the categories and concepts of experiential marketing through the process of the study, a qualitative research design was employed (McCracken 1988). As part of this design, the study utilized a variety of methods including observation, interviews, and questionnaires to examine both consumers‟ and producers‟ views of various aspects of experiential marketing (Arnould and Price 1993; Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry 1988; McCracken 1988). Unlike grounded theory, this study did not start the data collection from a blank slate (Goulding 2001), but employed a descriptive-theoretic framework design (Braithwaite 1997; Hymes 1974; Philipsen 1977).
53 A descriptive-theoretic framework consists of a set of a priori categories that is used to guide discovery and provide a format for descriptive statements about the phenomenon of interest (Philipsen 1977). The framework should consist of descriptive units (e.g., concepts, categories, or processes) and any relationships among them. The framework, though, should not specify the particularities of the phenomenon of interest or the descriptive units, but should allow these to be revealed through the data (Philipsen 1977). Ultimately, the purpose of the research design is to interrogate the framework in order to reexamine and reconstruct the descriptive theory (Burawoy 1998; Stewart 1998; Wolcott 1994). As such, the descriptive-theoretical framework is expected to change as the researcher refines his/her understanding of the phenomenon (Philipsen 1977). The units that formed the basis of the descriptive-theoretical framework used in this study were based on the a priori themes developed in the literature review. These descriptive units consist of the three dimensions of experiential marketing (i.e., the marketing experience, the experiential interface, and the consumer experience), the four proposed characteristics of experiential marketing (i.e., narrativity, connectivity, liminality, and multiplicity), and the assumptions underlying the logic of experiential marketing (i.e., symbolic resources, engaging transactions, and internalized value). All of these units and their corresponding elements served to guide the research, but were always open to modification and revision throughout the study. The benefits of using a descriptive-theoretical framework are that it provides a means for assessing the research design and the findings, it permits both the writer and the reader of the ethnography to discern what is relevant from what is irrelevant, and it directs the researcher to develop his/her concepts clearly in order to provide a format for
54 comparison among future studies of the phenomenon (Philipsen 1977). Although it is possible that the use of a framework may bias the researcher to only consider the proposed descriptive units, it alternatively allows the researcher to explicitly state his/her assumptions and conceptual focus up front and correct for any bias during data collection. In addition, the use of the descriptive-theoretical framework allows the researcher to more easily detect surprising and unexpected results based on what is known or proposed (Lazarsfeld 1972; McCracken 1988; Philipsen 1977). Two additional ways to minimize researcher bias are to choose a context that is unfamiliar to the researcher and to elicit the categories and assumptions of the native informant (Philipsen 1977; Spradley 1979). A novel context forces the researcher to confront his/her own assumptions because the researcher is often unsure of his/her own behavior in the context (McCracken 1988). That is, the researcher is not “preprogrammed,” as are natives, in terms of what to do, when to do it, where to do it, how to do it, or why to do it. In a novel context, the researcher must explicitly address all of these basic questions. This research involved contexts that were both unfamiliar and familiar to the researcher in order to account for possible researcher bias. In addition, the researcher should strive to use the native‟s language, should receive agreement from the native that the terms used to describe the phenomenon are correct, and should receive agreement that the insights based on the phenomenon are correct (Philipsen 1977; Spradley 1979). Member checks were employed with a small set of informants to verify the concepts as well as the theoretical and managerial insights.
55 Research Context Because this dissertation seeks a deeper understanding of experiential marketing rather than control and prediction (Hudson and Ozanne 1988), I decided to choose research contexts in which this phenomenon was especially rich. There were two main requirements in the choice of contexts: 1) the offering had to be market-based and commercial in nature (i.e., the offering is produced by a firm, the offering is available to the general public, and customers have to pay to “consume” the offering) and 2) the experience had to be the primary benefit being offered (i.e., the value proposition is not functional and instrumental, but is symbolic and hedonic) (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982). In addition, because the dissertation seeks to distinguish the logics of goods and services from the logic of experiential marketing, this dissertation did not examine any experiential offerings that were goods- or service-based (e.g., books, CDs, and beauty salons). Possible contexts highlighted in the literature include sporting events, amusement/theme parks, zoos, festivals, movies, theatrical performances, museums, and casinos (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; O‟Sullivan and Spangler 1998; Pine and Gilmore 1999; Unger and Kernan 1983). In an attempt to prevent the research from becoming context bound (e.g., the river rafting study or the sky-diving study), this study examined the phenomenon of experiential marketing across multiple contexts. Utilizing the framework proposed by Pine and Gilmore (1999), different contexts were chosen from each of the four experience realms: 1) entertainment, 2) escapism, 3) educational, and 4) esthetic. Entertainment contexts that were studied included sporting events (e.g., college and professional sports), performances (e.g., plays, musicals, and operas), and concerts (e.g.,
56 rock concerts and symphonies). Escapist contexts that were studied included amusement parks (e.g., Disneyland, Worlds of Fun, and Six Flags), cruises (e.g., Carnival, Norwegian, and Princess), resorts (e.g., Sandals, Ritz-Carlton), and festivals (e.g., Renaissance Fairs and Octoberfest). Educational contexts that were studied included museums (e.g., air and space, natural history, and science museums), zoos (e.g., Henry Doorly Zoo and Lincoln Children‟s Zoo), and aquaria (e.g., National Aquarium and Shedd Aquarium). Esthetic contexts that were studied included fine arts museums (e.g., Joslyn and Sheldon Museums) and national parks (e.g., Grand Canyon, Mount Rushmore, and Yellowstone).
Sampling and Recruiting Theoretical sampling was used to select participants for this research (Glaser and Strauss 1967). Because the purpose of this study is to develop a descriptive theory of experiential marketing, participants were selected who could contribute to the theory (Creswell 1998; Miles and Huberman 1994). Theoretical sampling began with the selection of both producers in each of the context categories and consumers who had recently attended one of the contexts. As sampling continued, a more selective sample was chosen to ensure at least one producer and at least 15 consumers in each category. A limited number of producers and consumers in related product, service, and experience categories were selected to understand the conditions under which the descriptive theory holds. In addition to theoretical sampling, snowball and purposive sampling was also used (Lincoln and Guba 1985). Snowball sampling was employed to locate and recruit participants based on other participants‟ weak and strong ties (Miles and Huberman 1994). Purposive sampling, in which the sample is chosen on a continuous basis rather
57 than a priori, was used to choose participants based on information obtained from the previous participants and the desire to focus on particular research questions and interpretations (Belk et al. 1988; Spiggle 1994). There were two main criteria that were used to select producers: 1) they worked either directly or indirectly (i.e., as consultants) with the marketing experience and 2) they had direct knowledge of the strategies that were employed in the marketing experience to specifically affect the experiential interface and the consumer experience. There were two criteria that were used to select consumers: 1) they must have direct contact with a particular marketing experience (e.g., they actually attended the opera and did not watch it on television) and 2) they had attended the marketing experience within the last two years. Homogeneity in the initial sample was established by finding individuals who had attended the same marketing experience (Creswell 1998). Heterogeneity in the sample was established by finding individuals who varied in the number of times attended and their level of participation. These participants were included because research suggests that consumers focus on different aspects of the marketing experience based on their attendance level of participation (Lanier 2007). In terms of the overall sample, attention was devoted to selecting a broad range of participants in order to maximize variation in the data (Miles and Huberman 1994). Diversity of participants not only allowed for a variety of patterns to be discovered in the data, but also allowed for differences, or “conflicting discourses,” to be represented (Arnould 1998; Clifford 1990). Although it is suggested that the researcher should conduct at least twenty to thirty interviews in order to represent adequately the various perspectives of the phenomena under study, the actual number of interviewees depends
58 upon when theoretical saturation occurs (i.e., when another interview does not provide any new information) (Strauss and Corbin 1990). Although theoretical saturation across contexts occurred before the final sample was completed, more participants were recruited in order to ensure theoretical saturation within each context. The unit of analysis for this study is the individual. Whenever possible, dyadic data from both consumers and producers was obtained. Dyadic data are not absolutely necessary to develop an understanding of experiential marketing, but the producers‟ perspective adds a degree of richness to the findings. Plus, it also provides more information specifically about the logic of the experiential marketing. The dyadic data in the study do not necessarily represent a one-to-one correspondence of producers and consumers, but simply provides two different perspectives on experiential marketing. Every attempt was made to sample producers and consumers from the same context. When it was not possible to collect producer data, only consumer data were obtained. Initial recruiting was done by posting fliers (e.g., at schools, coffee shops, and bookstores), sending emails to various groups (e.g., school groups, special interest groups, etc.), offering extra-credit assignments, and directly contacting individuals based on the researchers‟ strong and weak ties (i.e., direct and indirect personal contacts) (see Appendices A & B). All methods were IRB approved. The fliers, while garnering some participants, proved the least effective. Emails and direct contact proved to be the most effective means of locating participants. As with most qualitative studies, the sampling did not take place all at once, but occurred over time. The total sample is composed of 188 consumers across twelve categories and 18 producers across nine categories (see Table 1).
59 Table 1: Sample Information CONTEXT
CONSUMERS
PRODUCERS
Entertainment Sporting Event
35
2
Performance
15
0
Concert
15
1
Amusement Park
28
0
Cruise
12
0
Resort
14
1
Festival
20
6
Fine Arts Museum
10
1
National Park
11
1
Museum
10
2
Zoo & Aquariums
15
0
3
4
188
18
Escapist
Esthetic
Educational
Other TOTAL
Data Collection Methods This study utilized various methods in the collection of qualitative data including observation, interviews, and questionnaires (Spradley 1979; Stewart 1998). The use of multiple data collection techniques is important because it not only provides a means of triangulating the results, but it also increases the representativeness of the informants‟ perspective (Arnould 1998; Wallendorf and Belk 1989). The use of multiple methods also helped to provide a thicker description of experiential marketing and added depth to the final descriptive theory (Denzin 1989; Gertz 1973; Philipsen 1977).
60 Observation The study utilized observation at a number of different marketing experiences to collect data (Emerson et al. 1995) (see Table 2). Different observational roles (e.g., complete observer, participant as observer, and complete participant) were employed in this portion of the study (Sayre 2001). I took the role of a complete observer at most of the venues by observing the marketing experience in order to map the context, the experiential interface in order to understand how consumers interacted with the offering, and the consumer experience in order to explore consumers reactions to the offering. In some contexts, I also took the role of complete participant in order to get a first-hand understanding of what the producers and consumers were describing. I recorded my personal thoughts of the marketing experience both during and after the encounter. This role allowed me to reflect on what I considered the most important aspects of the marketing experience as well as my role as the researcher (Lincoln and Guba 1985). This information allowed me to address my own assumptions and to probe more deeply into the producers‟ strategies and consumers‟ experiences. In addition, I also utilized the role of participant as observer to collect consumer data (Sayre 2001). This role allowed me to participate with consumers in the marketing experience and to talk with them about various aspects of interest. During this type of observation, I focused specifically on the consumers‟ perceptions of the marketing experience (e.g., what aspects of the marketing experience they considered important/unimportant), how they interacted with the marketing experience, and what benefits they derived from different aspects of the marketing experience. An observation protocol based on the descriptive-theoretical framework was used to guide and record the
61 observation (see Appendix C). All consumers were required to read and sign an IRBapproved consent form before participating (see Appendix D). Observational data includes roughly 100 pages of field notes, 200 pages of observational data, over 1,000 photographs, and various artifacts including brochures, maps, programs, and schedules. Table 2 – Observation Venues VENUE
EXPERIENTIAL TYPE
LOCATION
DATE OF OBSERVATION
INFORMANT
1850s House
Education Museum
New Orleans, LA
December 2007
X
Barber of Seville
Performance
Omaha, NE
September 2007
X
Beauregard House
Education Museum
New Orleans, LA
December 2007
X
Bob Dylan Concert
Concert
Lincoln, NE
October 2006
Cabela‟s
Retail
Omaha, NE
January 2008
Cabildo Museum
Education Museum
New Orleans, LA
December 2007
Disneyworld
Theme Park
Orlando, FL
September 2006
Durham Western Heritage Museum
Education Museum
Omaha, NE
April 2007
Gibson Factory Tour
Service
Memphis, TN
October 2007
Hard Rock Café
Service
Minneapolis, MN
December 2006
Henry Doorly Zoo
Zoo
Omaha, Ne
August 2007
X
Husker Football
Sporting Event
Lincoln, NE
Fall 2007
X
Joslyn Museum
Fine Arts Museum
Omaha, NE
July 2007
Kansas City Renaissance Festival
Festival
Bonner Springs, KS
October 2007
Lou Rawls Concert
Concert
Lincoln, NE
September 2005
Man of La Mancha
Performance
Lincoln, NE
March 2007
Minnesota Renaissance Festival
Festival
Shakopee, MN
September 2007
Minnesota Twins
Sporting Event
Minneapolis, MN
September 2007
Mud Island Museum
Education Museum
Memphis, TN
October 2007
Natchez Steamboat
Cruise
New Orleans, LA
December 2007
X
Presbytere Museum
Education Museum
New Orleans, LA
December 2007
X
Pro Bass Shop
Retail
Council Bluffs, IA
January 2008
Rain Forest Café
Service
Kansas City, KS
October 2007
SeaWorld
Amusement Park
Orlando, FL
September 2006
Sheldon Art Gallery
Fine Arts Museum
Lincoln, NE
January 2008
Air & Space Museum
Education Museum
Ashland, NE
February 2008
Thoroughly Modern Millie
Performance
Lincoln, NE
December 2005
U.S. Mint Museum
Education Museum
New Orleans, LA
December 2007
Universal Studios
Amusement Park
Orlando, FL
September 2006
W.C. Handy Home
Education Museum
Memphis, TN
October 2007
X X
X
X
X
X
X
62 Interviews In order to get in-depth information and insights from both producers and consumers, the study also utilized long interviews (McCracken 1988). The long interview was chosen over the ethnographic interview because it is more structured and efficient, thus allowing more information to be gathered over a shorter period of time. As McCracken (1988, p.7) writes, “It [the long interview] is a sharply focused, rapid, highly intensive interview process that seeks to diminish the indeterminacy and redundancy that attends more unstructured research processes.” Likewise, given that the scope of the study (in terms of the number of contexts) warranted less time in the field than what is advocated by traditional ethnography, the long interview was used to compensate for the reduced amount of observation through its structure and method, though it did not completely eliminate the need for observational data to inform the interview data (McCracken 1988). The long interview is also an appropriate method because this research examines the phenomenon of interest through an a priori descriptive-theoretical framework. McCracken (1988) outlines four steps in the long interview process relative to the use of a theoretical focus. The first step involves a review of the analytic categories that pertain to the phenomenon of interest. This requires an extensive review of the literature to establish the domain of inquiry and define the problems that will be addressed (Lazarsfeld 1972; Philipsen 1977). The literature review can even help to manufacture distance by providing the researcher with a set of criteria or expectations from which surprises or unexpected results can easily be detected (McCracken 1988). This was accomplished through the examination of the domain and dimensions of experiential
63 marketing. The second step involves a review of the nature of the categories. The researcher must examine all of the assumptions and associations concerning the phenomenon of interest (Agar 1983). This review is important because it allows the researcher to consider categories and relationships not identified in the literature review, to establish templates for data analysis, and to establish critical distance from the phenomenon. This was accomplished through the proposal of the four characteristics of experiential marketing. The third step involves construction of the interview questionnaire and conducting the interview. The interviews were constructed based on the a priori themes developed in the previous two steps. The fourth step involves the discovery of analytic categories through data analysis. In terms of the actual interviews, the interview protocols consisted of various types of open-ended questions based on the theoretical-descriptive framework (McCracken 1988; Spradley 1979). Separate, though conceptually similar, interview protocols were created for both producers and consumers. Different types of questions (e.g., descriptive, structural, and contrasting) were used to elicit various types of information from the interviewees (Spradley 1979). These questions began with an overall perspective of a particular marketing experience and then probed more deeply into the various elements associated with the dimensions, characteristics, and logic of experiential marketing. In general, producers were asked about the nature of the offering, the role of experiential marketing in their overall strategy, and the specific elements of the offering that impacted the consumer experience (see Appendix E). Consumers were asked to comment on their overall perceptions of the marketing experience, their degree of involvement and engagement in the marketing experience, their perceptions of the
64 characteristics of the marketing experience, their evaluations of the marketing experience (e.g., satisfaction, quality, value), and their desire to go again (see Appendix F). The interviews took an average of 75 minutes to complete. All interviewees were required to read and sign an IRB-approved consent form before participating in the interview (see Appendices G & H). All of the interviews were recorded using both analog and digital audio devices and were electronically transcribed by a professional transcriptionist following the interview (see Appendix I). There were a total of 68 consumer interviewees (see Table 3) and 20 producer interviewees (see Table 4). Interview transcripts amounted to approximately 1,400 pages of single-spaced typed pages. No follow-up interviews were conducted. Table 3 – Consumer Interviewee Profile Pseudonym
Age
Sex
Abby Aileen Alan Andrew Ashley Ava Beck Bert Betty Bill Bob Brooke Carlos Carol Chris Claire Daisy Darlene Debbie Diane Doug Elaine
42 51 20 26 46 52 46 64 62 30 22 62 52 32 32 41 55 56 46 27 22 32
Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Male Female Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female
Marital Status Divorced Divorced Single Married Married Married Married Married Divorced Single Single Married Married Married Married Married Divorced Married Married Single Single Single
Education
Occupation
High School Master‟s Some College College Master‟s Master‟s Master‟s High School High School Master‟s Some College Master‟s High School Master‟s College Master‟s High School High School Master‟s Master‟s Some College College
Bank Manager Teacher Student Teacher Teacher Social Worker Counselor Construction Retired Grad Student Student Retired Construction Teacher Teacher Teacher Secretary Housewife Music Teacher Teacher Student Chiropractor
Household Income 40,000-59,999 40,000-59,999 0-19,999 40,000-59,999 80,000-99,999 80,000-99,999 80,000-99,999 100,000+ 60,000-79,999 0-19,999 0-19,999 80,000-99,999 80,000-99,999 100,000+ 60,000-79,999 100,000+ 20,000-39,999 100,000+ 100,000+ 20,000-39,999 0-19,999 60,000-79,999
65
Pseudonym
Age
Sex
Ethan Gladys Heather Heidi Ian Jean Jamie Jennifer Jessica Kathy Kathy Kitty Kylie Larry Laura Lauren Lilly Lydia Malcolm Margaret Maria Mary Michelle Molly Morgan Nancy Natalie Paige Peter Rachel Robert Sally Samantha Sara Sabrina Stephanie Steven Sydney Taylor Tina Wade Wanda William Wynona
63 60 27 30 26 62 34 35 36 37 24 37 49 57 53 53 19 32 28 48 34 35 47 50 34 45 23 55 51 58 52 27 36 26 39 33 28 41 29 27 58 57 59 39
Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female
Marital Status Divorced Single Single Married Single Married Single Single Married Divorced Single Married Married Divorced Married Divorced Single Single Single Married Married Married Married Married Married Married Single Married Divorced Divorced Married Married Single Married Married Married Married Divorced Single Divorced Divorced Divorced Married Married
Education
Occupation
College College Master‟s College College College Master‟s Master‟s Master‟s Ph.D. College Master‟s High School College Master‟s Some College Some College Master‟s College High School High School Master‟s Master‟s College Master‟s Master‟s College Master‟s Master‟s College Master‟s Some College Master‟s College College College College Master‟s Master‟s Master‟s College Master‟s Master‟s Master‟s
Consultant Retired Teacher Auditor IT Specialist Retired Auditor Teacher Teacher Technician Service Rep Secretary Secretary Claims Rep Librarian Para-Educator Student Teacher Programmer Housewife Cosmetologist Teacher Counselor Teacher Teacher Administrator Grad Student Teacher Teacher Church Director Counselor Secretary HR Manager Teacher Para-Educator Teacher Teacher Teacher Grad Student Teacher Engineer Teacher Music Teacher Artist
Household Income 60,000-79,999 20,000-39,999 20,000-39,999 40,000-59,999 40,000-59,999 100,000+ 40,000-59,999 20,000-39,999 60,000-79,999 40,000-59,999 0-19,999 20,000-39,999 80,000-99,999 100,000+ 100,000+ 20,000-39,999 0-19,999 20,000-39,999 40,000-59,999 80,000-99,999 60,000-79,999 80,000-99,999 100,000+ 60,000-79,999 60,000-79,999 80,000-99,999 0-19,999 100,000+ 40,000-59,999 40,000-59,999 80,000-99,999 0-19,999 60,000-79,999 20,000-39,999 100,000+ 60,000-79,999 60,000-79,999 20,000-39,999 20,000-39,999 20,000-39,999 60,000-79,999 40,000-59,999 40,000-59,999 80,000-99,999
66 Table 4 – Producer Interviewee Profile Pseudonym Carol Raymond Bob David Tim Robert Megan Betty John Brittany Kathy Jack David Betty Michael Samantha Jim Laurie
Title Assistant Director of Marketing Director of Marketing Concert Promoter Director of Marketing Merchant Merchant Merchant Food Services Merchant Merchant Education Curator Park Ranger Associate Director Education Curator Director of Marketing Spa Owner Consultant Marketing Manager
Years in Position 1 year 5 years 17 years 7 years 4 years 20 years 3 years 15 years 1 year 3 years 30 years 20 years 16 years 25 years 2 years 6 years 8 years 1 year
Context Sporting Event Sporting Event Concert Resort Festival Festival Festival Festival Festival Festival Fine Arts Museum National Park Educational Museum Educational Museum Sporting Goods Service Retail Healthcare Industry
Questionnaires In addition to observation and interviews, self-report qualitative questionnaires were also used to collect data (Arnould and Price 1993; Bernard 1998; Zhao, Stephens, and Meredith 1997). Given the scope of the study and the limited resources, conducting the suggested 25-30 interviews in each of the 11 contexts was not feasible. In order to reach theoretical saturation in each of the contexts, questionnaires were used to supplement the interview data and increase the number of cases in each context. In addition, the questionnaires also provided a check on researcher bias in the interview process. With the questionnaire, there were no prompts or suggestions by the researcher beyond the questions themselves to influence the respondents‟ answers. Although the questionnaire format led to the collection of less data than the interviews, the analysis of the data found overall consistency between the questionnaire and interview responses.
67 The format of the questionnaires matched the long interview guides and included the same open-ended questions (see Appendices J & K). Before filling out the questionnaire, the respondents were required to read the IRB-approved consent form and sign and date it (see Appendices L & M). Instructions were provided at the beginning of the questionnaire that asked participants to choose one offering that they had attended from a list of the eleven different contexts chosen for this study. They were also asked to pick a context that they had attended within the last two years and one that they had paid to attend. In most cases, the questionnaires were emailed to respondents, who were mainly college students, and were returned to the researcher by email. In a small number of cases, the respondents were provided hardcopies of the questionnaires and selfaddressed envelopes so they could mail the questionnaire back to the researcher. A total of 120 completed questionnaires averaging seven single-spaced typed pages were utilized in this study (see Table 5). Table 5 – Respondent Information Sex Female – 72 (60%) Male – 48 (40%)
Age 19-20 – 05 20-24 – 86 25-29 – 05 30-34 – 05 35-39 – 03 40-44 – 03 45-49 – 01 50-54 – 02 55-59 – 02 60-64 – 04 65-69 – 02 70+ – 02
Marital Status Single – 98 Married – 20 Divorced – 2
Education High School – 2 Some College – 99 College – 9 Master – 8 Ph.D. – 2
Occupations Accountant Bank Manager Counselor Church Worker Daycare Director Housewife Leasing Agent Marketer Secretary Para-educator Professor Social Worker Student Teacher Technician Waiter
Income 0-19,999 – 91 20,000-39,999 – 10 40,000-59,999 – 04 60,000-79,999 – 06 80,000-99,999 – 03 100,000 + – 06
68 Data Analysis For this study, analysis will follow the basic stages/operations for qualitative data analysis outlined by McCracken (1988) and Spiggle (1994). In the first stage, all of the data (e.g., field notes, interview transcripts, and completed questionnaires) were coded and categorized using Atlas.ti, a software package specifically designed for qualitative data analysis and management (Miles and Huberman 1994; Spiggle 1994). This involved reading the field notes, interview transcripts, and questionnaires and labeling “chunks” of data (or observations) based on their own coherent meaning. The process of open coding, in which codes are created and assigned to the text, was used to categorize the data. The codes consisted of a single term or a couple of words that were either based on the a priori themes or derived from the data. Although I resisted looking for relationships between the observations and codes at this stage and focused more on their internal consistency (McCracken 1988), I did record memos during this stage highlighting those things that I thought were interesting or surprising in the data (Strauss and Corbin 1990). After the initial coding, a constant comparative approach was used to abstract the codes into higher-order conceptual constructs and identify the properties/dimensions of each construct (Glazer and Strauss 1967; Spiggle 1994). These properties were used to define each of the themes and establish their boundaries. In the second stage, axial coding techniques were used to structure and integrate the data. Axial coding was used to organize the coded categories into broader conceptual themes, or central phenomena, based on their logical relationships and conceptual consistency (Miles and Huberman 1994; Spiggle 1994; Strauss and Corbin 1990). During this process, I sought to identify the conditions, context, strategies, and outcomes related
69 to the central phenomena (Spiggle 1994). I also consulted the memos that I had created during the coding stage to aid in the process. As with the open codes, some themes were suggested by the descriptive-theoretical framework and others simply emerged from the data analysis (Belk et al 1988; Philipsen 1977). In the third stage, selective coding was used to identify and develop the core constructs of the study and to examine the inter-relationships among the central phenomena (McCracken 1988). Specific focus was given to understanding the relationships between the general dimensions of experiential marketing and its underlying characteristics. At this stage, the core constructs represent a higher level of abstraction and the relationships among these constructs are more theoretical in nature (Charmaz 2006; Spiggle 1994; Strauss and Corbin 1990). As McCracken (1988, p. 46) writes, “It is here that a process of transformation takes place in which the cultural categories that have been unearthed in the interviews become analytic categories.” This is also when the analysis moves from the “emic” perspective (i.e., the empirically grounded perspective of the informant/interviewee) to the “etic” perspective (i.e., the analytically developed perspective of the researcher) (Gertz 1973). Based on the overall findings, the emergent theoretical constructs were examined, the theoretical relationships were determined, and the overall theory was refined.
Quality Assessment McCracken (1988) outlines seven conditions that should be met to establish the quality of a qualitative study. The first two conditions address the condition of parsimony. First, explanations must be stated as precisely as possible so that no unnecessary ambiguity exists on the part of the reader. This was achieved by scrutinizing
70 the codes and the themes for their exact dimensions and expressing these dimensions in the findings. Second, explanations must be as concise as possible to keep the reader from making any unnecessary assumptions. This was achieved by breaking down explanations into their simplest components and explaining the assumptions behind each one. The next three conditions address the condition of consistency and logic. First, all of the explanations must be mutually consistent and not contradict one another. This was achieved by examining all of the relationships between the concepts and themes in order to determine their boundaries. Second, the explanations must be externally consistent in that they conform to what we know about the subject matter. The data analysis process, which moves from the particular to the general, should always strive to link the findings to the data. This was achieved by making sure that all of the analytic results provided were grounded in the data. In addition, member checks, in which some participants are allowed to review and comment on the findings, were conducted to make sure that the findings were consistent with participants‟ perspective on the phenomenon. Third, the explanations must exist as a set of organized and interrelated ideas. These explanations should provide a unified view of the phenomenon that can be scrutinized by others. This was achieved by providing a descriptive theory of experiential marketing that relates the various dimensions, characteristics, and logic in a consistent and logical manner. The last two conditions address the condition of impact. First, the explanations must be powerful in that they explain as much of the data about the phenomenon as possible. The goal of this study was to move beyond the current literature by providing a detailed understanding of all of the aspects of experiential marketing. All explanations based on empirical data were used to substantiate the findings. Second, the explanations
71 should be fertile in that they suggest a way to make sense of the world beyond the context. Although generalizability is not the goal of qualitative research, the findings should provide us with new insights that we can use to examine other related aspects of the world. Unlike most of the studies in the past, this research looked beyond a single context and attempted to extract a theoretical understanding of experiential marketing based on an examination of multiple offerings. Because of the lack of theory in experiential marketing, the findings of this research will hopefully provide empiricallybased explanations that can serve as the basis for more abstract reasoning in this area of research.
72 CHAPTER 4 – FINDINGS: CHARACTERISTICS AND DIMENSIONS
The purpose of this chapter is to present the first part of the research findings of the empirical study of experiential marketing. The specific focus of the first study was on the dimensions and characteristics of experiential marketing. The data analysis suggests that rather than examine the characteristics of experiential marketing in terms of the three dimensions, another approach is to explore the dimensions in terms of the characteristics. While it is feasible to present the data either way, the latter approach was chosen because it highlights the interrelationship of the dimensions within each characteristic and it frankly tells a more interesting story. As a result, this chapter is organized around the four proposed characteristics of experiential marketing: 1) liminality, 2) narrativity, 3) connectivity, and 4) multiplicity. Each characteristic will be explained in terms of the three dimensions of experiential marketing: 1) the marketing experience, 2) the experiential interface, and 3) the consumer experience. While this approach helps to present the data in a structured manner, it should not suggest that these components are unrelated. In fact, it was often impossible to find data that referenced a single factor. Many of the quotes utilized in the findings represent multiple aspects of experiential marketing. In addition, this approach should not suggest that the research was merely confirmatory, because in fact it was primarily exploratory. Given this approach, emergent themes are presented in each section that capture the essence of each of these factors.
Liminality and Experiential Marketing The data suggest that liminality is the driving force behind consumers‟ desire to engage experiential market offerings. Based on the literature review, the liminal
73 represents a break, often spatial and temporal, from a person‟s ordinary life in which their status is often ambiguous and in which they exist in a world that is unusual, extraordinary, and full of possibilities (Turner 1982). A vast majority of participants in the study referenced the importance of some form of liminality in relation to the nature of the marketing experience, the processes involved in the experiential interface between the offering and the consumer, and the inputs and outputs of the consumer experience. Three themes that emerged from the data in this part of the research include extraordinariness, adventure, and exploration.
The Marketing Experience: Extraordinariness Many of the consumers in the study stated that what they desired most from an experiential market offering was something different from their everyday life. Whether this came from seeing a unique species at the zoo, feeling the thrill of a 200-foot rollercoaster drop at a theme park, or being surrounded by 80,000 fans at a football game, all of the offerings provided consumers something extraordinary that they could not get in their “normal” lives. For example, Terri talks about why she visits the zoo: You know, it‟s just not something that you experience in everyday life. And so it‟s just the unusual, the enormity of the place, the animals and their characteristics and their lifestyles, it‟s just so amazing ... They come up really close to you. And that‟s exciting … They‟re just wonderful creatures, and you just don‟t get to, you know, experience that every single day. For Terri, the extraordinary nature of the zoo is the real attraction. She suggests that various factors help to create this sense of the extraordinary (e.g., the size of the place, the types of animals, and the interaction), but it is the transcendence of the ordinary that
74 underlies her enjoyment. That is, not only does she not get to see animals like the ones at the zoo every day, but she also gets to go to a place where she sees them up close and personal. In turn, the extraordinary nature of the zoo fuels her excitement and enjoyment. While the literature often associates extraordinary experiences with high physical risk and immersive venues (e.g., Arnould and Price 1993; Celsi et al. 1993), the data from this study suggest that extraordinariness can be driven by many different things – many of which are low risk. For example, Bert talks about the appeal of a resort in Mexico where he and his wife stayed: It‟s unique. I mean, it‟s just so different than any place we‟ve been before … You know, it‟s just something about the country and the culture and the beauty of it, there‟s just a lot to see and a lot to do, yet you still miss out. There are things you wish you would have done, even after being there two times, that you didn‟t do before. For Bert, the spatial difference of Mexico and the resort where they stayed was so different than both their home in the Midwest U.S. and the other places that they had travelled that it was extraordinary. In addition, the fact that there was so much that was unusual that they could not see and do everything they wanted to added to the extraordinary nature of the offering. Here we see that the temporal component of liminality is not limited to a particular sense of time, but also to the duration of the extraordinariness. This temporal component is also related to the liminal aspect of possibility. For example, even though Bert and his wife have been to the resort twice, the fact that it offers so many different opportunities to pursue causes it to remain appealing.
75 In fact, it may simply be the possibility of experiencing something unusual that makes the marketing experience appealing. For example, two consumers make similar comments about attending professional sporting events: I think that cool events like a player hitting a grand slam are extraordinary and different from everyday life. On a day to day basis, you usually don‟t get to see something rare like that (Jennifer, Baseball Game). What I liked most about the game was the fact that they won and that I saw Tony Gonzalez break the tight end touchdown record (Nick, Football Game). Both Jennifer and Nick state that the possibility of something extraordinary happening is one of attractions of going to a sporting event. Whether it is seeing a baseball player hitting a home run or a football player making an incredible play, experiential offerings provide consumers with a venue where the extraordinary can, and often does, occur. While it is possible to encounter the extraordinary anywhere, these offerings increase the chances that consumers will encounter something extraordinary. In addition, the literature argues that the appeal of experiential offerings is the total immersion of the consumer in something extraordinary (Firat and Dholakia 1998; Gottdiener 1998; Ritzer 1999). Jennifer and Nick suggest that this is not necessarily the case, showing that both the rarity of extraordinary events and the possibility of encountering one make these types of offerings very appealing. In addition, the extraordinariness of a marketing experience can be driven simply by a change in perspective. For example, Nancy talks about a history museum she visited in Alaska:
76 I was up in Alaska in Fairbanks, and we went to a museum, you know, of Alaska life. And that was really cool, just seeing it because that was so different from anything that I‟ve personally experienced. You know, and just like the igloos and that kind of stuff that, the whales and the seals, and, you know, just their way of life is so different than what I typically have known. While the literature suggests that consumers seek, and essentially need, more and more spectacular venues to keep them interested (Carù and Cova 2007a), Nancy says that simply encountering a different way of life was exciting and “cool.” In fact, she was not even encountering the “real” thing, but a representation. The quote suggests that it is not the extravagance of the venue that is important, but the extraordinariness that consumers find interesting. Nancy states that the appeal of the museum exhibits was not that it was over the top, but that it was different than anything that she had personally experienced. This quote raises the issue of whether it is representation or reality that consumers seek in an experiential offering. The experiential consumption literature suggests that what consumers seek in a marketing experience is a hyper-real experience. Hyper-reality is the idea that people now prefer simulations of reality (i.e., representations) to the real thing to such a degree that even the real has become a simulation of itself (Baudrillard 1988). According to Carù and Cova (2007a, p.7), “all in all, today we can clearly observe consumers‟ tendency to prefer simulated experiences to reality. Moreover, these simulated experiences have become increasingly spectacular and extravagant.” While Nancy enjoyed the simulated nature of the way of life of the indigenous people from that area of the world, inferring that it was the simulation that was appealing would be incorrect. It was not the constructed nature of the offering that intrigued Nancy, but its
77 extraordinariness. While this extraordinariness can be captured in a simulated representation, it is not limited or restricted to these types of offerings. Clearly there are hyper-real dimensions to most marketing experiences. As Gilmore and Pine (2007) correctly state, all experiential offerings are managed to some degree. At the same time, though, the data indicate that consumers do perceive a difference between the real and the representation and prefer the real, or at least as close as they can get to it, over the simulation. More importantly for firms and marketers, consumers are willing to pay for this perceived distinction. In fact, it may be the prevalence and ordinariness of simulations (e.g., televised events, CDs, and DVDs) that make the real more extraordinary and appealing. For example, Bill talks about the importance of seeing Garth Brooks live: It was definitely a different experience … I mean I wouldn‟t say it was like a surreal experience … but I would probably say the senses has to play into it because while you can still, you know, watch the music videos and get the sight and, you know, crank up the stereo to try to get the sound, it‟s still just not the same impact on the senses as it is live … He‟s famous for adding additional verses and that type of thing when he does it live, that you can‟t get on a album ... That‟s part of the experience of going to his concert that you can‟t get on a CD. You know you‟re going to get those additional fringe benefits. Bill‟s quote suggests many different issues related to the real/representation aspects of extraordinary marketing experiences. First, he stresses that there is a perceived difference between the simulated and the real, and that live musical performances (i.e., the real) are not the same as recordings (i.e., the simulated). Second, he states that extraordinary
78 experiences do not have to be spectacular, in this case surreal, to be appealing. Third, he reinforces the idea of possibility in extraordinary experiences by saying that live performances contain opportunities to receive “fringe benefits,” in this case additional verses, which you do not get with the recordings. The situation becomes much more complex when we examine experiential offerings that contain an obvious mixture of the real and simulated. Consumers still make a distinction between the two, but accept their mixture in an experiential offering given their limited resources and capabilities. For example, Lilly relates her experience at the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago: I guess you‟re paying to get the privilege to see a lot of those animals that you wouldn‟t ever see normally, especially the creatures that live like thousands of feet below the surface. I mean, I‟m probably not going to get down there any time. You know what I mean. It‟s just things like that that you would never get to see - I mean, yeah, you might see a picture in a book, but actually seeing it is quite cool. And even a lot of the species of fish that they have from different areas of the world that I haven‟t been to, and that I haven‟t seen, you know … So I guess you‟re paying for that. Lilly understands that the aquarium is a simulated habitat and that the fish are real, but is willing to accept the mixture because, as she says, she is probably not going to get the chance to see these creatures in their “real” habitat. Plus, Lilly says that it is still better than looking at the fish in a book. The simulation is not necessarily preferable to the real; it just makes the real more accessible. For example, Bob makes a similar observation about his visit to the Omaha zoo:
79 I got to see animals that I don‟t get to see in any other setting, realistically. It was something where it was kind of like my imagination, but it was also reality. You know, you dream about, oh, I wish I could go to Africa, I wish I could go there and I could see all that, and here it was in one area. So I could combine that experience of, kind of like my imagination and reality. For Bob, the combination of the simulation and the real allowed him to have an experience that he would not normally have. He said that he would like to go to Africa, but he knows that is not possible. As a result, he did not deliberately desire the simulation over the real thing, but realized that this was what he could manage within the scope of his resources. This does not mean, though, that he necessarily received a diminished experience. In fact, the combination actually allowed him to have a unique experience by encouraging him to engage his imagination in ways that he may not have if he was in Africa. Although a detailed discussion is beyond the scope of this dissertation, an examination of the real versus the simulated always comes back to issues of authenticity (Brunner 1994; Evans-Pritchard 1987; Grayson and Martinec 2004). Researchers argue that in this postmodern, artificial world, consumers seek out authenticity (i.e., the real, natural, and original) as opposed to culturality (i.e., the simulated, contrived, and fake) (Gilmore and Pine 2007; Ladwein 2007). Grayson and Martinec (2004) have distinguished two kinds of authenticity, indexical (i.e., the original) and iconic (i.e. an accurate representation of the original). The data from this study suggest that while consumers may indeed seek the authentic, they also desire, for lack of a better word, the inauthentic. This does not mean that they are helpless pawns of the culture industries
80 (Adorno and Horkheimer 1979); it means that they seek a range of experiences that have different sources. For example, Megan discusses her trip to the Baltimore Aquarium: The most significant aspect of the aquarium was its ability to incorporate an authentic experience while incorporating some of the more stereotypical and “touristy” attractions such as the shark tank and dolphin shows. While we didn‟t get to see an actual dolphin show, we were able to sit near the tank and watch the dolphins do some tricks on their own. It was fun to see them just play in their tank with one another. An example of a more unique or authentic attraction the aquarium offered was the rainforest, which was filled with all kinds of birds and frogs. Being able to have both of these experiences left me feeling like I had a very well rounded experience. I think some of the most memorable experiences for consumers come when there is a presence of both tourism and authenticity. People often visit places like aquariums, theme parks, and Disney World for the tourist experience the site promises. However, they want to feel like they are taking home a trip and an experience of their own that can be their own experience. Something they take with them that is authentically theirs. Megan argues that the most important aspect of the aquarium is the combination of both the authentic and inauthentic (touristy) in one venue. In fact, it was the combination that caused her to feel that she received a total experience. This suggests that consumers perceive the authentic as only one desirable feature of an offering with the inauthentic being another desirable feature. In fact, both aspects can be fun and lead to memorable customer experiences. In the end, while it is possible to classify different parts of a marketing experience as authentic and inauthentic, all of the consumer‟s personal
81 experiences are authentic. In fact, Megan argues that it is the presence of each of these factors that allows each consumer to create their own authentic, and unique, experience. In summary, these sentiments regarding the appeal of the extraordinary nature of marketing experiences are expressed by most of the informants in the study and in almost every context. While the literature suggests that consumers can have engaging experiences with all types of offerings (e.g., ordinary and extraordinary) (e.g., Badot and Filser 2007), the data indicate that consumers deliberately seek and pay for experiences that are markedly different from their everyday lives. It does not matter if the nature of the offering is real or simulated, or authentic or inauthentic. What is important is that it is extraordinary. If the offering is ordinary and boring, consumers are not going to care if it is authentic and real or inauthentic and simulated. While the study finds that consumers often perceive a difference between the real and the representation, and sometimes seek the real because it provides them with something extraordinary that they cannot get from the simulation, other consumers realize that the simulation allows them to encounter things that they normally could not. Thus, it is the liminal, rather than issues of reality or authenticity, that seems to underlie the appeal of experiential offerings. At the same time, this does not mean that the offering has to be spectacular or extravagant. Simply a change in perspective or the possibility of encountering something extraordinary is enough to make the marketing experience appealing. While recent literature has examined the immersive nature of marketing experiences (Carù and Cova 2007b), very little research has examined the marketing experience as a source of extraordinary possibilities. Because possibilities, as the expression goes, are endless, the extraordinary quality of marketing experiences can take a variety of forms. As a result,
82 this research suggests that extraordinary experiences are not simply a type of marketing experience (e.g., high-risk leisure activities), but constitute the essence of all experiential offerings. Whether or not we call these types of offerings hedonic, leisure, or extraordinary experiences (Arnould and Price 1993; Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; Unger and Kernan 1983), there seems to be an underlying liminal dimension that is captured by all of these types of offerings.
The Experiential Interface: Adventure A major theme that emerged from the data on the liminal characteristic of the experiential interface is the idea of adventure. For this dissertation, an adventure is defined as an undertaking or venture that involves both transcendence and risks (Vester 1987). Transcendence refers to the idea of existing outside of the continuity of a person‟s daily life (Simmel 1997). In an adventure, the person exists in a different world that contains its own logic and meaning. The person also exists in a state of transcendence as s/he is often freed from the logic and meanings that lie outside the adventure and essentially lives in the moment (Simmel 1997). In addition to transcendence, an adventure also involves risks (Vester 1987). Risk in this context implies that there is a certain loss of control and predictability, that there is a sense of the unknown, and that the outcome of the adventure is uncertain (Addison 1999). Although the person may strive to exert a certain amount of control over the risk by matching the perceived risk with the person‟s level of competence (Celsi et al. 1993), it has been found that too much predictability and control negatively affect the sense of adventure (Ewert 1989; Ladwein 2007).
83 Many of the consumers in the study talked about the experiential interface as a form of adventure that involved both transcendence and risk. In terms of transcendence, the liminal aspects of the marketing experience often facilitate a sense of existing in a different world. For example, Terri talks about a special trip she took to the zoo: One of the fun events was to come pitch a tent at the zoo. My friend and I shared a tent, and we slept in the jungle pavilion by all the macaws, you know, cackling at us all night long. And then the waterfall was making noise all night, and then the thunder and lightning and rain, it was just, it was quite the adventure. Yeah, that was a lot a fun. The smell, though, I didn‟t really love that part. As part of an immersion program at the local university, Terri was able to spend the night in a large jungle habitat at the zoo. This event was clearly different from the continuity of her daily life, which usually involves her sleeping in her own bed in her house. In addition, the habitat also contained its own logic and meanings, with all its unique sights, sounds, and smells. The animals and the environment transported her to a different world that had both its positive and negative aspects, but one that she found enjoyable and adventurous. In addition to transcendence, adventures also involve some risks. One of the most common references to risk was encountering the unknown. This sense of risk can be facilitated by how the experiential offering is organized. For example, Nancy talks about her visit to a fine arts museum: Well, it‟s kind of like a maze and you wander. It could be all one room, but the way they‟ve positioned it, it‟s more like a maze. You don‟t just look across and see like everything‟s just up against the four walls. It‟s not set up that way.
84 You‟re walking through a maze … It enhances the experience because when you get right at the beginning, you don‟t see the whole thing. You have to literally go through the maze and you don‟t know what‟s around the corner … And I like that, you know, as opposed to if it was just all displayed out on the four walls where you could really just take a whole big quick glance at it … whereas this makes you look more at the individual paintings or the individual artifacts because you don‟t know what‟s coming next … Part of the fun is not knowing … Yeah, it‟s definitely an adventure. While we often think of risk as something that needs to be managed or minimized, risk actually adds to the adventure. For Nancy, she likes the risk of not knowing what is around each corner or what is coming up next. The structure of the museum restricts what she can see and forces her to walk through the space in order to encounter the unknown. Maybe she will like it and maybe she will not, but it is the risky nature of the adventure that enhances the experience for her. While the experiential literature focuses on ritual activities that allow participants to integrate aspects of the marketing experience into the continuity of their lives (Arnould and Price 193), the study finds that it is actually the stepping out of the continuity of one‟s life and engaging the offering on its own terms that consumers find engaging. This is evident in the combination of the transcendent and risk-taking aspects of the adventure that are involved in the experiential interface. For example, Jill talks about an excursion that she and her husband participated in on their cruise: We went and fed the stingrays, that was one thing we did … Well doing that with the stingrays, I still can‟t believe I did that. That‟s probably the most
85 adventuresome thing I ever did. And it was fun when you do something so different. It‟s like maybe you do things like that when you‟re on a trip like that, because you‟re just, it‟s almost like you‟re a different mindset than you normally are, you know, kind of thing. So I enjoyed that. I can remember enjoying that. And so it‟s like, wow, like the stingray - I still look back out of all the things that were offered and, like doing the thing with the stingrays is so out of character. I mean we‟re not risk takers, we‟re just way too cautious most of the time … I don‟t know if it‟s just because you‟re like, you‟re not yourself, because everything is so different that you‟re thinking, you know, here we are, we might not ever have this opportunity again, we‟ve got to do this. Jill‟s comments shows how transcendence acts on two levels and impacts the level of risk people engage in. First, the transcendent nature of the offering puts consumers in situations that are very different from their ordinary lives. Second, the transcendent nature of the offering allows consumers also to transcend their own views of themselves. These two dimensions of transcendence allow the consumers to engage in activities and take risks that they normally would not engage in. Jill clearly felt that she was not herself and that she was doing things that she normally would not do. Although she recognized the adventurous nature of the events, she still had trouble attributing a cause to her actions. Rather than trying to integrate these activities in her life, she recognized the fun in stepping outside of the boundaries of her life and having an adventure. Rather than pursuing rituals of integration, adventure seems to enhance rituals of transformation. The adventure allowed Jill to step outside of her comfort zone and to seize an opportunity.
86 The idea of adventure raises many questions about the liminal nature of the experiential interface. Three related issues discussed in the literature include the degree of the environmental relationship, the level of consumer participation, and the perception of safety (Kozinets et al. 2004; Lynch, Jonson, and Dibben 2007; Pine and Gilmore 1999). While these studies do not directly address the idea of adventure, these issues have a direct bearing on the liminal aspects of the experiential interface. In terms of the environmental relationship, the experiential literature suggests that what consumers desire most from a market experience is total immersion in an experience context (Carù and Cova 2007b; Firat and Dholakia 1998). That is, consumers need to be immersed in an all encompassing experience in which the distance between them and the context has been removed in order to truly access the experience (Carù and Cova 2007b). The data from this study, though, suggest that this is not necessarily the case. Along with Pine and Gilmore (1999), this dissertation finds that the environmental relationship exits on a continuum from absorption to immersion and that consumers can have an adventure anywhere along this continuum. For example, while many consumers felt transported to a completely different world, others were not so engrossed in the experience. This did not mean that those who were simply absorbed missed out on the adventure as compared to those who were immersed in the offering. It simply meant that the adventure took on a different form. For example, Nancy, who talked earlier about the museum being an adventure because she did not know what was around each corner, also said that she did not feel that she was immersed in the museum. When asked if she felt transported to a different world, she states:
87 Not when I look at the paintings. I mean, I don‟t get in the paintings. You know, like I‟m more picturing that time. I‟m more standing and just looking at the different things … Well, I just kind of go and, like if it‟s on a specific artist, I like going to those and just seeing how they started off, you know, like Adam Warhol, how he started off and how his work changed over his career. So I‟m more geared I think to the history and seeing what that person‟s life was like and just what they created throughout their career … The exhibit, I thought it was really good. There were just a lot of different pieces there, and how they portrayed his life, that was very interesting. Nancy said that she really enjoyed the exhibit and seeing the connection between all the paintings. But while Nancy accepts the art on its own terms and appreciates the logic and meaning of the museum, she did not feel immersed in the experiential offering. Her adventure unfolded inside of her as she absorbed the paintings while moving through the maze of the museum. Terri, who talked about her overnight stay in the jungle exhibit at the zoo as an adventure, said that she felt completely immersed in the experience. She states: When you walk into the jungle, I mean, you totally feel like you‟re in a jungle. It‟s humid, the water‟s running, the birds are making noise. Yeah, you totally feel like you are in the jungle. Absolutely … Inside the jungle, you wind around the waterfalls and, you know, see all the animals. Terri states that she felt like she was in the middle of a jungle. She did not merely absorb the various aspects of the jungle, but felt like she was part of the environment. Her adventure unfolded outside of her as she became a part of the jungle. The temperature,
88 the sounds, and the sights kept her captivated as she moved through the exhibit. These two examples show that both women were able to have an adventurous interface with the marketing experience, but through two very different environmental relationships. Although it is possible to have an adventure anywhere along the environmental relationship continuum, there is data to suggest that the degree of adventure may also exist on a continuum. The degree of adventure appears to be partly a function of the level of transcendence, in this case the environmental relationship, and also a function of the risks involved. For example, Alvin talks about his adventure at Yellowstone: It‟s the environment that you‟re getting. You know, you‟re not standing behind a piece of glass with people right next to you. You‟re out there in the middle of nowhere by yourself … I mean you feel like you‟re part of it. I mean, at the zoo you feel like a viewer, here you feel like you‟re on your own. I mean, it‟s almost like an adventure. I mean you know you never feel threatened or anything, but you feel like you‟re… yeah, I mean you definitely get more of a feeling of adventure than you do if you‟re you know viewing at the zoo … I mean you get can out of the car and walk a little closer [to the animals], you know, if you really want to. That‟s permitted, and I definitely can see how people would take advantage of that and use it as adventure. But I didn‟t feel as though I needed the risk for it to be [an adventure]. I definitely wouldn‟t be opposed to it. You know, I mean, that‟d definitely be a completely different trip if I was to get out and hike through it. I mean, you never know what you‟re going to come across. That‟s a whole other type a trip.
89 Alvin clearly differentiates types of adventures based on the level of transcendence (i.e., the environmental relationship). The type of adventure changes depending on whether you are part of it (i.e., immersed) or viewing it at a distance (i.e., absorption). In addition, he also suggests that the level of risk is also a factor in this equation. While he sees the zoo as low risk (i.e., high control and high predictability) and his car trip through Yellowstone as medium risk (i.e., high control and low predictability), he states that a hiking trip through Yellowstone would be high risk (i.e., low control and low predictability). This does not mean that the zoo is not an adventure and that the hiking trip is an adventure, it just means, as Alvin states, that they are completely different types of adventures. In terms of consumer participation, the recent experiential literature has taken up the issue of co-creation and argues that consumers have to be actively involved in the marketing experience for them to have an engaging experience (Carù and Cova 2007a; Hetzel 2007; Kozinets et al. 2004). Once again, the data seem to confirm Pine and Gilmore‟s (1999) claim that guest participation exists on a continuum from passive to active. Where consumers fell on this continuum may have distinguished the type of adventure they had, but it did not appear to diminish their level of enjoyment. In fact, many consumers in the study sought and enjoyed marketing experiences precisely because they did not have to do anything. Jill talks about the interaction of passive participation and adventure on her cruise: I would guess that some of it too is how adventuresome a person is. If you want to just go and have everything planned for you, the cruise is really a great way to do it as far as everything is there, then you make the choices … I‟m very cautious.
90 I‟m very much a worrier. That‟s why I say like just to take off, like you say, „oh, let‟s just plan a trip and go to Guatemala,‟ I mean, we never would have done anything like that … I mean, and so it [the planned nature of the excursions] makes you do, I don‟t know, it made us do things we‟d never have the opportunity to do, but we certainly had fun … They did a great job, I think, of thinking about the different things people might want to do there. Which is their job of course, but still they do a good job of lining everything up. Jill says that she is a very cautious person and would not venture out too far on her own. Here we also see the interaction between participation and risk. Although she is a more passive participant, the fact that the excursions were organized by the cruise actually allowed her to be more adventurous, take more risks, and do things that she would not normally do. She still maintained some control in that she and her husband got to choose which excursions they wanted to go on, but then took a more passive role in that the logistics, transportation, and guides were provided for them. Other consumers in the study suggest that more active participation and less risk management is necessary for them to have an adventure. Bob talks about his trip to the zoo: I mean, I‟m very happy when I‟m at the zoo, because I guess sometimes I let go, and I‟m being totally, you know, in my mind I feel like a kid. I‟m just on this adventure. I‟m walking around seeing these animals … Yeah, because you can navigate and walk through these habitats and choose your own path. You‟re not actually sitting in a room watching a movie. It‟s definitely more engaging, and you feel more free to do whatever you want, when you want to do it. I mean, you
91 can go over here, then you can walk across the park, and then you can find your own path, and some of the paths kind of diverge, they cut off from each other and you can go one way and they‟ll meet back up … So you‟re going in, and you‟re like, I don‟t know what‟s going to be in here. I have no idea. And so we‟re just going to walk in and see what happens. Bob suggests that more active participation is needed for him to have an adventure. He is able to navigate the different zoo habitats and choose his own route. He also suggests that adventure exists on a continuum, and that the type of adventure a consumer has changes with the degree of participation. He compares going to the zoo with going to the movies. At the zoo, he is in control, whereas at the movies, he is not in control. Having more control allows him to more actively participate and vary the level of predictability and risk. Unlike Jill, he likes the risk of not knowing what might happen, though clearly the level of risk at the zoo is not very high, as Alvin suggests. While some consumers may want to be completely active and in control of everything in order to be truly engaged in the experiential interface (e.g., Kozinets 2002), many of the consumers in this study felt that this high level of involvement and control actually detracts from the adventure. For example, Adam talks about the benefits of staying at an all-inclusive resort: I mean, sometimes you‟re on a vacation and you feel like you‟re doing so much work to plan and everything. But since everything is taken care of, you‟re really just there to enjoy yourself, enjoy each other, so that makes it easy to want to go back again. It‟s just a lot of freedom, and I think, maybe it‟s the idea of knowing that you had a safe, fun, rewarding experience.
92 While part of the allure of an adventure is the fact that it may turn into an ordeal (Addison 1999), this is something that best remains as a possibility and not a given. As Andy relates, a vacation that starts as an ordeal really detracts from its enjoyment. Given the ludic nature of the experiential interface, the moment it turns into work, the enjoyment diminishes. In fact, none of the consumers in the study suggested that they had to be in total control to achieve a sense of adventure. In terms of safety, the data suggest that the degree to which consumers engage in adventure often depends on perceptions of safety. How safe the consumer feels will determine their degree of transcendence and risk-taking in the marketing experience. Here again, these perceptions of safety exist on a continuum from security maintenance to risk management. Security maintenance is the idea that consumers need to feel that they are relatively safe and that the offering is relatively risk free in order to engage in an adventure. For example, Lydia talks about her visit to an amusement park: We get to go on rides that are always there. It‟s not like a carnival where they take them down every night, you know. The rides are safe and they‟re inspected and they‟re all always there, and so that‟s important to me too, safety… If something happens [to the ride], you know, or if they‟re even in doubt about it, they‟ll close the ride down for the day and say, „hey, sorry, you know, you can‟t go on this one.‟ So the safety factor is there. They‟ve got a lot of variety of different kinds of rides. And something that appeals to each age group and, you know, whoever wants to take the chance and ride it. Research suggests that consumers seek out high levels of security in marketing experiences because this frees them from the pressures of everyday life and the stress of
93 harsh reality (Carù and Cova 2007; Goulding et al. 2002). While this may be the case, it does not fully account for the adventurous aspect of the experiential interface. Lydia suggests that safety and security allows her to engage the offering by taking chances rather than using it as a refuge. Security maintenance allows consumers to maintain their level of transcendence by not having to constantly focus on elements of risk. Risk management is the idea that some consumers seek marketing experiences that contain some perceived risks and dangers, but ones that they can reasonably manage (Celsi et al. 1993; Ladwein 2007). These risks and dangers cannot be completely managed because they always involve the unknown and unpredictable (Lynch et al. 2007). Although this study did not contain any high-risk marketing experiences, there were some examples of where consumers perceived high-risk in their adventures. Jill, the very risk-adverse consumer mentioned previously, relates one excursion that she and her husband took on their cruise: Probably the most memorable, or two of the most memorable things on that cruise were when we were in Guatemala and we went to the Mayan ruins and we went to a banana plantation. So we got off the ship … and then got on a bus. And you felt like you really got to know, to see the country a little bit. It was a little scary when we got off because there were a lot of armed guards around and everything. I think it was one of the first times they did this. I don‟t think they offer this trip anymore. But like I said, to get to see the countryside was absolutely gorgeous, and going through the plantation. Because here we‟re on this ship and we go into this country which is so beautiful, but, the poverty was, it‟s like what you see in a movie when you‟re driving on the bus and you see people walking along the road
94 with very little possessions and then you see the places where they live. I have a vivid picture of this as we were driving to the plantation. Although Jill and her husband did not seek out a high-risk adventure, they still felt the dangers and risks involved with encountering the unknown in a foreign country. Jill relates how the excursion was a bit scary with all of the armed guards around. She also felt the effects of the risk associated with confronting a different culture when looking at the indigenous population from the bus window. What is interesting is that she says that this was one of the two most memorable things that they did on the cruise. Once again, the element of safety and risk allowed Jill and her husband to have an adventure. And rather than escape from the harsh realities of life, confronting even harsher realities in another country, though indirectly, was one of the things that made this adventure memorable. In summary, while the study finds that the appeal of the marketing experience is its extraordinariness, it finds that the appeal of the experiential interface is the sense of adventure that the consumer has when engaging the offering. This adventure is made up of two main components: transcendence and risk. The data suggest that the relationship between these two components is very complex and is affected by many different aspects of both the offering and the consumer. This reinforces the idea that the experiential interface is not simply a function of the offering, as the experiential marketing literature suggests, or the consumer, as the experiential consumption literature suggests, but a complex relationship between the two. The study finds that there are three factors that impact the degree of transcendence and risk inherent in an experiential adventure: environmental relationship,
95 consumer participation, and security. The data indicate that the degree of transcendence is directly impacted by the type of environmental relationship (i.e., absorption to immersion) that consumers have with the experiential offering. That is, the liminal sense of being removed from the continuity of daily life will range from simply witnessing something different (i.e., absorption) to being completely immersed in a different world (i.e., immersion) (Pine and Gilmore 1999). While the producer can do things to enhance the environmental relationship, the sense of transcendence is ultimately determined by the consumer. The data also indicate that the level of risk involved in the experiential interface (i.e., consumer participation and security) both directly impacts and mediates the effect of the environmental relationship on the type of adventure the consumer has. In this context, consumer participation is equated with control. In some situations, consumers wanted to feel like they were in control of the interface (i.e., active participation) and were able to plot out their own strategies. Part of the adventure for these consumers lay in the logistics of managing the experiential interface and the process of discovery. In other cases, consumers wanted to relinquish the logistic control of the interface to the producers (i.e., passive participation) in order to enjoy communing with the offering. Part of the adventure for these consumers was not wondering whether they were going to discover anything, but was in exploring the discovery. Relinquishing control guaranteed that they were going to discover something. As a result, the study finds that passive participation led to a sense of adventure by minimizing the perceived risks of not discovering anything (i.e., guaranteeing the actuality of encountering the extraordinary) and active
96 participation led to a sense of adventure by maximizing the perceived risks of the discovery process (i.e., managing the potentiality of encountering the extraordinary). Lastly, the study also found that the degree of security encompassed by the experiential interface also impacted the type of adventure the consumers had. The data suggest that security exits on a continuum from security maintenance to risk management. Security maintenance (i.e., high predictability) is the degree to which the consumer feels safe in the experiential interface by being able to predict what is going to happen or not happen. It allows consumers to have an adventure based mostly on a sense of exploration of the known. Risk management (i.e., low predictability) is the degree to which the consumer feels that there is some danger in the experiential interface by not being able to predict what is going to happen. It allows consumers to have an adventure based mostly on a sense of discovery of the unknown. Both types of risk encompass a complex relationship between the producers and the consumers involving both actual and perceptual factors.
The Consumer Experience: Exploration A major theme that emerged from the data on the liminal characteristic of the consumer experience is the idea of exploration. The data suggest that consumers on this adventure into the extraordinary often desire to take on the role of explorers. The consumer wants to engage the extraordinary offering in an adventurous way in order to explore the range of experiential effects (i.e., sensorial, emotional, intellectual, fanciful, physical, social, and/or spiritual) that are directly or indirectly associated with the offering. Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) outlined exploration, as opposed to information acquisition, as a key input into the experiential process. They suggested that
97 this exploratory behavior is linked to intrinsically motivated behavior (Deci 1975), and more specifically to play (Berlyne 1960; Huzinga 1970). Although some research has examined the ludic and autotelic behavior of consumers (e.g., Kozinets et al. 2004), very little experiential research has examined the concept of exploration or the consumer as an explorer. The extraordinary nature of the marketing experience definitely sets the stage for the consumer to become the explorer on an adventure. While it is possible to explore the ordinary, this is usually done for a specific purpose and goal. The intrinsically motivated and autotelic aspects of the consumer experience allows for a sense of discovery and unfolding that is driven more by desire than motivation. For example, Bill talks about his trip to the zoo: I think they set up the zoo, or at least they do a good job, to where you‟re walking through exhibits, even if it‟s outside just to look at animals, so you feel like you‟re exploring. You‟re on this adventure and you can do whatever you want to do. If you went to the rain forest, you just walk in and there are pathways that go wherever. So it‟s your job to be like, alright, where are we going to go, what are we going to see? And you get to kind of explore what‟s out there, and if you take a wrong turn, maybe it leads to like a cave with rocks and stuff like spiders, or maybe it has some bats, or maybe you find like all these islands with monkeys and different animals on them. You just get to walk around and it‟s up to you. So, it makes your imagination go and intrigues it, because you start to think about what‟s going to be around the next corner, where are you, what are you going to do when you get to the end of this path, things like that.
98 Bill explains that part of being an explorer is that you have a certain degree of choice about what you are going to do, where you are going to go, what you are going to see. Choice does not necessarily imply control, because part of the adventure into the extraordinary is not knowing what these choices are going to produce. Maybe your choice will lead to an island full or monkeys or a cave full of bats. As we saw in a previous quote, not knowing what is around the corner enhances the role of explorer and makes the adventure more fun. How much control the explorer wants to have is up to the consumer. One tool of explorers is a map. As with Columbus or Jack Sparrow, it is what lies at the edge of the map that usually inspires the explorer to go on the adventure. While some experiential research has examined “edgework” in which the person explores the edge of their abilities (Celsi et al. 1993), there is also a sense of “edgework” here in which the person explores the edge of the context (Lyng 1990). For example, Bill talks about the use of a map at the zoo: I think it‟s important. It‟s really important because, you know, you can look on your map and they‟ll say this is where you go to see the tigers. But when you walk in that rain forest, it just says like, “the rain forest.” So you‟re going in, and you‟re like, I don‟t know what‟s gonna be in here. I have no idea. And so we‟re just gonna walk in and see what happens … I think it would be good to have it [a map], because, you know, there‟s probably some people that want to be able to see a particular thing. But I just wouldn‟t, I‟d just choose not to look at it … I would keep it closed and be like, let‟s just go. But I know that one of my friends was looking for something specific, and we were like, I don‟t know where it is.
99 We‟re like, we‟re just gonna have to go find it. So that was frustrating for him, but I thought it was more of an experience not to have that available, but you know, some people need it. Bill suggests that there are two types of explorers. Those that want to use a map and those that do not. The explorers that want a map are those that have a specific goal in mind and want to find, rather than discover, the object of their adventure. This is more of a deductive process. The explorers that do not want to use a map are those that want the adventure to unfold and to see “what happens.” Instead of finding, they want to discover. This is more of an inductive process. The first type of explorer is more akin to the information processor, whereas the second type of explorer is more like the discoverer. Two dimensions of the role of explorer that emerge from the data are freedom and surprise. Many of the consumers expressed the feeling of freedom that came with their ability to explore in the extraordinary marketing experience. The experiential literature has examined freedom as a condition of intrinsically motivated behavior (i.e., one engages in these activities voluntarily and without obligation) (Unger and Kernan 1983), as a counter-balance to the rules and structure of a consumption space (Belk et al. 1988), and as the cultural values that underlie a marketing experience (Penaloza 2001), but it has not examined freedom as the foundation of exploratory behavior. In this study, freedom, as both freedom from and freedom to, feed into the condition of being an explorer. Most consumers associate the idea of freedom with not having to worry about normal everyday concerns (e.g., time, money, and safety). But this idea of “freedom from” is also associated with the idea of “freedom to.” That is, being
100 freed from their ordinary concerns and constrains, consumers were able to explore. For example, Adam talks about his trip to an all inclusive resort in Jamaica: Yeah, since it was all inclusive, I think that was a big part of it. I guess the nice thing was that you never have to worry about carrying money. I mean the dinner was really, I mean, everything was taken care of. I mean, obviously you paid for it ahead a time, but you could order anything, you know, try different things, so I guess there‟s just a lot of freedom, you know, from paying for it ahead of time … and probably just doing different things, you know, I guess kind of feeling more relaxed and not worrying about it. Adam says that because he and his wife did not have to worry about carrying money or paying for anything at the resort, they were free to try different things and to explore. It seemed to put them in a more relaxed state of mind where they could be more adventurous. Kelly makes a similar comment about her trip to Disney World: The main thing we purchased were the Hopper Passes into the different parks. These passes allowed us to go from park to park without worrying about how many times we visited or when. It was a freedom from worry and the all-access nature [of the passes] that “made” the experience for us. The Hopper Passes allowed Kelly and her family to go to the different theme parks in the Disney World Resort as many times as they liked without having to worry about paying each time. This freedom from the worry of time and money allowed them the freedom to do what they wanted. As another consumer, Chris, mentioned, “we could do whatever we wanted, whenever we wanted, and didn‟t have to worry about it.” Freedom, in both its forms, allows consumers to realize the intrinsically motivated aspect of exploring and
101 have a true adventure by removing any constrains or demands on the consumers and allowing them to chart their own course. Not only does the element of freedom affect what people can do, but it also affects what people can be. As Simmel (1997) explains, in an adventure, the participants are removed from the continuity of their lives, from their past and future, and exist in a state of presence. While the literature suggests that this is a time when people can construct new identities and work on their life projects (e.g., Arnould and Thompson 2005; Belk and Costa 1998), the data suggest that exploration involves both a freedom from the roles and responsibilities of self and the freedom to engage in a form of embodied ludic agency (Kozinets et al. 2004). For example, Taylor talks about the sense of freedom she gets from attending Renaissance festivals: I like going to Ren Fairs because I strap on a backpack and I‟m not [Taylor] anymore and I‟m not somebody having to represent [my job]. I am just with the crowd, but apart from the crowd. I can do what I want. I don‟t know how to explain that. I just like to go and watch. I don‟t want to be forced to be on and I don‟t want to, I mean, I know there probably are a lot of very cool people there, but I need to be off of people, you know what I am saying, because Monday through Friday, I have to be a certain person, I guess, and I always have to be on, and I always have to be smiling, and I always have to be very much in control of what‟s going on, very organized and very meticulous. That‟s the nice thing I guess about being anonymous is that you can put on a sweatshirt and jeans and backpack and nobody is not going to bother you. You can fit in anywhere.
102 Taylor states that one of the reasons she goes to the Renaissance festivals is not to dress up or take on a new identity, but to blend in and become anonymous. The festival allows her to shed her roles and responsibilities and just simply relax. This freedom from her sense of self allows her to do whatever she wants without anyone bothering her. There are others, though, that use the Renaissance festivals to take on different personas and explore the effects of these new roles. For example, Maria talks about how she and her sister took the role of lesbian lovers at a Renaissance festival they attended: Like last year, my elder sister and I acted like we were lesbians, which really freaked a lot of people out. I mean we weren‟t kissing or anything. Like for instance, a guy would come up and he would propose or make a proposal to my sister and I would go, “oh no, she is mine,” and things like that, and they‟d say, “I‟ll take both of you,” and I‟d say, “oh no, we don‟t like that.” That was kind of fun, but definitely isn‟t things I would do by myself … So it‟s the role playing, and just that little imagination that you don‟t get in the real world and everyday life that you can go there and experience that. Any other time I would think that was crazy because I'm just not that kind of person, but when we go there, it‟s different, you just feel different about it because I guess everyone is there for the same reason to experience that and maybe live a little bit of that life. Perhaps we can attribute Maria‟s actions as some deep-seated psychological desire to have an incestuous, homosexual relationship with her sister as the identity literature would suggest, or it may be, as she suggests, it is just a fun thing to do. As far as I can discern, Maria is not trying to construct a lesbian identity or work out a life project, but is simply exploring the “edge” of what is acceptable and appropriate. She is free from the
103 bonds and constraints of everyday life and is able to engage her imagination and play with different roles. In addition to the element of freedom, the data suggest that the element of surprise also underlies the notion of exploration. While the literature has examined the relationship between surprise and satisfaction (Westbrook and Oliver 1991), very little research has examined it as a key element in the consumer experience. Surprise, whether pleasant or unpleasant, is something that is usually considered ancillary to the main consumption process and simply amplifies other main effects (Izard 1977; Westbrook 1987). The data suggest that surprise plays a major role in the consumer experience and the process of discovery, as it is part of the effect that the consumer seeks when engaging a marketing experience. If everything is known or projected ahead of time, then there is no discovery or adventure. For example, Adam talks about the desire for surprise during his resort vacation: Because, you know, you‟re spending that much money, you don‟t want to go with a ton of unknowns, but you also, you know, you want to be kind of surprised. You don‟t want to know every little thing that‟s going to happen … I think the photographers were a nice surprise … Also, I think the friendliness of the staff and the way they really just created the atmosphere, the romantic atmosphere was a pleasant surprise. Adam suggests that part of what he is paying for is the surprise. Like any explorer, he wants to make sure that he has the basics covered, but he also wants to engage in discovery. He does not want to know everything about the marketing experience, which would detract from the extraordinary nature of the offering, or what the outcome of
104 experiential interface is going to be, thus ruining the adventure. For Adam, the whole nature of the offering was a surprise, which greatly enhanced his enjoyment. This sense of surprise is also related to the liminal concept of possibility that was discussed earlier. For example, Katie talks about the role of chance at a football game: At the football games, you never know what exactly you are going to get. Whether or not the game will be good, how the weather will change, who will get thrown out of the game - it‟s all a part of the experience. One game, someone was screaming so loudly behind me that I had to leave because of my headache. This year, there was a game where I was yelling/cheering so loud that I lost my voice. The fact that chance plays a part in the experience makes it that much more enjoyable. Katie argues that not knowing what is going to happen is an integral part of the overall experience. Surprise, or in this case “chance,” is not simply something that enhances or amplifies the experience, it is a fundamental part of the offering and critical to its overall enjoyment. Even when consumers knew relatively what to expect from the marketing experience, either from a previous visit or knowledge of the venue, the anticipation of whether they would encounter these aspects of the marketing experience or how it would play into the overall adventure still maintained the element of surprise and the enjoyment of the exploration. For example, Bill talks about wondering which songs Garth Brooks would play at the concert: I think that is part of it because even within the 2½ hours, you know, there were still songs that at some point one of us would guess was going to come up but
105 never did. It‟s because there‟s so many of them that it could have gone for 4 hours probably ... Yeah, I think that did add to the experience. Just because, you know, you have different opinions of how other people - it‟s kind of like getting to experience it in two different ways at the same time. Because you know, one person‟s expecting one thing or thought, you know, something about the previous song and then the other person expresses, well, you know, no, that wasn‟t the best one yet, even though you thought it was, or I expect this is going to be next. So you kind of get, you have the advantage of two or three, depending on how many people you‟re with, viewpoints on the same event, all at the same time. Bill suggests that even though he knew all of the possible songs that could be played, trying to guess which ones Garth Brooks would perform maintained the element of surprise and made the concert more enjoyable. In addition, he could discuss the songs with his friends, which led to an element of surprise in the fact that their reactions and evaluations were not the same as his. In summary, the study finds that the liminal characteristic of the consumer experience is captured by the concept of exploration. Consumers seem to want to access the extraordinary features of the marketing experience through a process of discovery. This is not a deductive process of problem recognition, information search, evaluation, and decision, but an inductive process in which the person operates on the edge of the unknown. While a map may be used to situate the consumer in the offering, the study finds that most consumers want to discover the extraordinary on their own. The study finds that two factors that influence exploration are freedom and surprise. Consumers enjoy the freedom from the roles and responsibilities that exist
106 outside the experiential venue and the freedom to explore both the context and themselves. In addition, consumers do not want to know everything about the offering before they arrive, but want to feel the anticipation of not knowing what is going to happen and to be surprised by what actually comes to pass. These important consumer inputs and outputs facilitate the role of explorer, the sense of adventure, and the discovery of the extraordinary.
Narrativity and Experiential Marketing The data suggest that narrativity underlies all of the dimensions of experiential marketing. While liminality seems to address the desire behind all of the elements of experiential marketing, narrativity seems to address the representation and expression of those desires. One of the characteristics that makes experiential marketing unique is that the representation and expression of all of the dimensions take some narrative form. All narratives are a construction of reality, and thus emphasize certain elements and deemphasize others (Brunner 1990; Burke 1945; Deighton 1992). As a result, these narratives do not embody truth, but perspective (Lanier and Schau 2007). The producers decide on the type of story they want to tell with the offering, the producers and consumers engage in a form of creative narrative discourse during the experiential interface, and the consumers sift through the narrative elements when interpreting and evaluating the offering and when constructing memories. Rather than seeking some form of ontological correspondence or coherence, experiential marketing embodies the ludic autotelic behavior that comes with exploring and constructing different perspectives (Lanier and Schau 2007). This section examines the nature of narrativity in all three dimensions of experiential marketing.
107 The Marketing Experience: Narratives The study finds that marketing experiences are a complex relationship of themes and stories captured in an overall narrative. While themes serve an organizing function, stories are the main vehicles that transmit the essence of the offering to the consumer. Because most marketing experiences contain many different components (which will be discussed more in the multiplicity section), the narrative helps to sort and structure these elements to make it easier for the consumer to access and process them. The combination of these two characterizes the narrative of a marketing experience. The experiential marketing literature has focused primarily on theming as the key narrativity aspect of a marketing experience (e.g., Bryman 2004; Gottdiener 1998; Pine and Gilmore 1999). In fact, normative theory (i.e., you need to theme your offering) has been presented as descriptive theory (i.e., theming is an underlying characteristic of all experiences), with the implication that if you theme it, consumers will come. The failure of themed restaurants such as Dive!, Planet Hollywood, and Fashion Café suggest that merely theming an offering is not enough to guarantee success (Badot and Filser 2007). This leads to the main question that drives this section: what is the role of theming in a marketing experience and what other elements are necessary to guarantee success? Many of the consumers in the study could not identify an overall theme with the marketing experience they attended. While part of the reason for this is that some of the marketing experiences did not have had an explicit overall theme, these findings extended to offerings that were highly themed, such as the Disney theme parks and Renaissance festivals. When pressed on the issue, consumers usually described the overall theme in terms of what the offering represented to them. But while many
108 consumers could not identify an overall theme, they usually could identify themes related to specific aspects of the marketing experience. For example, Abby talks about the themes of the zoo she visited: I don‟t think there‟s an overall theme. I think it‟s just all animal conservation. I think zoos intentionally have that as their theme, which is conservation and preserving animal life and the earth … There are specific themes, though, like the rain forest, you know. When you walk in the rain forest, they have these products that are from the rain forest. They show you in this big area all these products, you know, like makeup and different foods and things that all comes from the rain forest …Yup, then they have the desert dome. And I‟m trying to think what the theme would be in there. Just, it‟s just the life that‟s in the desert. Despite the dryness and everything else, all the different creatures that are there and the plants are from the desert. While Abby had trouble attributing an overall theme to the zoo besides its overall purpose of conservation, she was able to identify themed areas within the zoo, notably the rain forest and desert dome. What is important is that she linked certain elements to each of the themed areas. The themes organized the different areas of the zoo for her into a coherent subject matter that she could access and differentiate. Terri makes similar comments about her visit to the zoo when asked if there was an overall theme: Besides the animals? Well, if there is one, it‟s subliminal. But I don‟t really know if there‟s an overlying, or underlying theme, I don‟t know … Yeah, I mean like the aquarium has fish, and the monkey house has monkeys and the jungle has jungle animals and birds and stuff, so individually they‟re themed that way, sure.
109 It‟s like when you go into the aviary, you know it‟s birds, so you know that you‟re focusing on that particular aspect of the zoo at that time. And then when you go to the aquarium, you know you‟re focusing on the fish. So, maybe they‟re grouping them together, it helps them sort everything out and know where they‟re supposed to be or where they belong. Like Abby, Terri cannot identify an overall theme, but does attribute particular themes to specific areas of the zoo. She finds this an important part of the marketing experience because it sorts the disparate elements of the zoo, groups objects together, and transforms them into a coherent system. This helps to direct the consumers‟ attention and helps them to interpret the particular aspects of the marketing experience. This organizing function of theming is even more evident in the quotes from the consumers who detected an overall theme. The benefit of the organization is not simply that it groups similar things together, but that it provides a particular perspective. For example, Nancy talks about the importance of the theme at the Civil Rights Museum: Yeah, definitely there was a theme, you know, the Civil Rights Movement of course … It‟s actually the Loraine Hotel that‟s been turned to the Civil Rights Museum, because that‟s where Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated. They did a fantastic job of going through the history of the civil rights movement. You‟d go into the different rooms and then you‟d see how it progressed through the ages and its origins, like in the 1800s, what it was like versus the 1920s, 1930s, and 1960s. They took it in eras. And you could really see how people treated other people. And then going through there, you could see, I can‟t remember the name of the drugstore, but they have the original drugstore that‟s been there forever and
110 you could actually see the signs, “Whites Only,” the colored staircase, and the restrooms and all of that. You can still see that. And at the very end is where you go through the hotel room where he [Martin Luther King, Jr.] stayed and you could actually go out on the balcony where he was shot … You know, and then you see, wow, we really haven't gone that far. You know, we have more to go. The theming of the Civil Rights Museum organized the civil rights movement for Nancy and brought her through its history. It allowed her to see how people of different races treated each other during this time and how this was manifested in very specific aspects of everyday life. The fact that she could actually see the lunch counter and the room where Dr. King was assassinated made the offering that much more real for her. The theme of the museum provided her with a perspective that had a strong impact on her. The particular perspective that comes from the organizing aspect of theming provides consumers with a means to situate the offering in their lives. For example, Adam talks about the impact of the theme of the resort he and his wife stayed at: It‟s obviously a couples‟ resort, so they focus on the couple. I guess kind of romance and fun, you know, and memories … I guess a lot of it is the way the rooms are set up, you know, the way they do the dinners. They make it, you know, they have tables for 4 and stuff, so you could see a lot of bigger groups, but everything was really was set up for couples. They would have everything, especially dinners at night, would have candlelight and they would treat you as though you were on your honeymoon. They really made you feel that. Also, the photographers walking around, they‟d always have you go through literally a three step process – you know, side by side, face each other, and then kiss. And
111 so, really by the end, we just kind of did it without even them telling us, and they got a kick out of that. But just little things like that, you know, how they set up the clubs and the dinners and stuff and most of the activities were couple based. Because it was their honeymoon, Adam and his wife specifically chose this resort based on its couples theme. Not only did the theme provide them with a particular perspectives (i.e., couples), but it also provided them with a means to incorporate the offering into their lives. Everything at the resort was set up for couples including the rooms, the dinners, and the activities. This reinforced the romantic atmosphere and the feeling that they were on their honeymoon. As Adam‟s wife comments, Well, for us it was huge because it was our honeymoon. It makes you, I don‟t know, just happier, and it makes it easier to be a couple, like PDA [public displays of affection], they don‟t care about that type of thing. There, it‟s just like they know it‟s all couples, so it‟s okay. The theme not only organized and defined the resort for them, but it also influenced how they participated in the activities and the atmosphere of the resort. They liked the fact that this thematic structure made it easy for them to do things as a couple. Based primarily on the success of the Disney theme parks, scholars have advocated the use of theming as a device to attract customers (Bryman 2004; Gottdiener 1998; Pine and Gilmore 1999). For these scholars, the driving force of a theme is that it is compelling and captivating (Pine and Gilmore 1999). In fact, it appears that they confuse the narrativity of the marketing experience with its liminality. For instance, Pine and Gilmore (1999) argue that themes must alter consumers‟ sense of reality. The data from this study suggest that themes play a more a subtle and important role. Rather than
112 serving as a marketing gimmick to dazzle consumers, themes provide perspectives through which consumers situate the offering in their lives. This explanation is reinforced by the shear amount of consumer responses that talked about the theme in terms of the personal relevance of the offering. It is interesting that while most of the experiential marketing literature focuses primarily on the theming of a marketing experience, the masters of theming, the Disney Imagineers, focus primarily on the story (Imagineers 1996). That is, while a theme is simply a macrostructural frame that organizes elements into an abstract category, a story weaves these elements together in meaningful relationships (Prince 1987). According to the Imagineers, it is the story that really engages the consumer (Imagineers 1996). For example, Tina talks about a country music concert that she attended and the effect of one of the songs: It‟s just your typical, you know, pop country concert - you cheered, you clapped, you cried. You know, when the soldiers came out, that was just really touching. It was good; I mean it was a great show … That was a tear jerker, yeah, „cause it was actually, they sang a song about this actual battle that took place [in Vietnam] and one guy that they had met in Deadwood, wherever it is, that told them his story, so they wrote a song about it, and then it was just like, 7 or 8 people that were in that battle that they had walk up on stage, and, they all had their garb on, they carried a flag, and one was in a wheelchair, and it was, just a great story line. And they had on the big screen the flag behind them waving. So it‟s just, obviously with everything that‟s going on in the world right now, it was just a really touching, heart wrenching piece … Whether it was a touching, heartfelt
113 story like that or whether it was like my wife left me and she took the dog, you know, I mean, you had the fun ones, but I mean it still told a story, but it was just in a funny, different way … You have to mix them, so that way your emotions are up and down, up and down. Tina says that the theme of the concert was pop country, but that is not what really engaged her. In fact, she said that she has been to so many of these concerts that it has become kind of normal and ordinary. What really stood out in her mind were the different songs and the stories that they told. The one song she describes in the quote is about a battle that took place in Vietnam in which 400 U.S. paratroopers were overrun by 1,200 Viet Cong. The performers told the story of the battle and even had some of the actual soldiers come on the stage. Tina said that this was one of the best songs of the night, and one that she could really relate to given the current events in the world. The stories do not have to be complete in order to be engaging. Research suggests that it is what is left untold that actually engages the consumer (Lanier and Schau 2007). In fact, it may not simply be the main story that the consumer finds intriguing, but also the back story. For example, Laura talks about a particular painting she saw in a museum: It makes me imagine what they [the artists] were thinking. Why they chose that, why did they crop it that way, why did they include the cat in the picture? These things cause you to imagine and draw you into the story … There‟s a painting down there where there‟s a man sitting there smoking and a woman is laying in a hammock and she‟s turned away from him and you‟re like, they‟re fighting aren‟t they? You can tell they‟re just tired. She‟s just like, “oh, I‟m not gonna talk to you anymore.” And he‟s just been smoking „cause there‟s all these cigarettes there, so
114 they‟ve been fighting for a while. And it does, it makes you imagine, it draws the imagination in, because I don‟t know if that‟s true or not. That‟s just what I imagine the story would be. Laura is intrigued by both the stories in the painting and the stories behind the painting. She wonders what is going on in the painting and why did the artist paint it that way? What is the painting saying and why is the painter saying it? She knows that there is a story to the painting, but she is not exactly sure what it is. She becomes engaged in the painting by trying to figure out the story. Because the story never quite reveals itself, she has to engage her imagination in order to fill in the gaps. This also helps her to relate it to her life because she has to draw on her own experiences to fill in the story. A distinguishing characteristic of a story is that it unfolds over time. In addition, not only does the story tie together all of the elements of the narrative (e.g., themes, characters, events), it provides the causal relationships between these elements (i.e., the plot) (Prince 1987). It is these unfolding relationships, either explicit or implicit, that serve to engage the consumer. Here we see the connection between narrativity and liminality. It is often the story that turns the ordinary into the extraordinary. For example, Luis, the curator of an American history museum, talks about an exhibit on teacups: Let‟s take, for example, an exhibit that highlights a collection of tea cups that were, or are being used, by first ladies in the nation. So here you have the perfect pretext [to exhibit teacups]. You capture the audience by telling all the [visitors] that we‟re going to be showing the entire collection, gee from Mrs. Washington all the way up to Mrs. Bush - every single tea cup that has been used at the President‟s house. And then, just by directing the attention to that factor, which is
115 fashion, marketable, and everything, if you can start from behind providing information as layers, then you can drive peoples‟ minds, your audience. You can let them know that probably the first cups that were used during the colonial times were all imported from England, and very few were locally made by potters in Virginia, for example, and Pennsylvania. But, as the country was getting into to the industrial revolution, there‟s an influx of, you know, locally produced pottery. And then there is this super fashion at turn of the century of importing again, but now French or German teacups. So we have the market full of those. By following all those patterns, you can see how the nation was shaping itself, the trends that were important at one moment, and then the invasion of, you know, products made in Japan after World War II, for example. You can start seeing just with the pretext of talking about the cups. By creating a story around teacups, Luis is able to take something as mundane as a drinking cup and infuse it with the history of American politics, fashion, and marketing. This information is provided in layers and revealed over the course of the exhibit. The museum visitor has to move through the exhibit to get the next piece of the story and to see how it all fits together. While the theme of presidential teacups frames the exhibit, it is the story that weaves all of these different factors together and turns the ordinary into the extraordinary. In summary, the study finds that marketing experiences are complex narratives that encompass both themes and stories. The theme serves as a frame, or in more literary terms, a focalization, that provides a particular perspective of the elements of the narrative. The data indicate that it not only serves to organize the elements of the
116 offering, but it also provides a means by which the consumer perceives and situates the offering in their lives. The story provides the causal relationship between the elements of the theme. In fact, the data suggest that it is the story that converts the ordinary to the extraordinary. In addition, the story takes the consumer on a journey through the narrative as it weaves the elements together temporally. The stories, though, do not have to be complete. The ability of the consumer to fill in the gaps of the story actually facilitates engagement with the offering.
The Experiential Interface: Storytelling The experiential literature has focused primarily on the importance of narratives and stories in the experiential interface between the consumer and offering (e.g., Adaval and Wyer 1998; Arnould and Price 1993; Deighton 1992; Escalas 2004). Less attention, though, has been paid to the role of discourse, or storytelling, in this process (Ladwein 2007). The study finds that both the offering and the consumer engage in some form of narrative discourse in the experiential interface. The offering does not merely instantiate a narrative; it also communicates this narrative to the consumers (Imagineers 1996). The exact manner of storytelling will depend on the nature of the offering and can involve a variety of different media. In addition, consumers are not simply passive participants in this process, but also engage in the process of storytelling. The study finds that in order for the experiential interface to take place, consumers have to receive the narrative, interpret its symbols, and construct their own stories. The data suggest that it is only when they engage in narrative discourse that they take part in this process and fully engage in the experiential interface (Ladwein 2007).
117 It is important to note that because this section is based on qualitative data in which both producers and consumers were required to pull together and relate aspects of the experiential interface through a form of narrative discourse, this may have influenced the storytelling findings. At the same time, the results are not based simply on the form of the answers, but also on their substance. The producers specifically talked about creating a story and communicating it to the consumers. In fact, in the following paragraph, a Disney Imagineer specifically talks about the importance of storytelling in any thrill ride. In addition, the consumer findings were not based solely on the interview and questionnaire data, but also on non-participant observation at various experiential venues. My field notes indicate many examples of consumers engaging in some form of unsolicited narrative discourse during their experiential engagement. Thus, while the method could have influenced the findings in this section, the triangulation of results across the different forms of data suggests the legitimacy of these findings. The idea of an offering, at least a non-human offering (e.g., painting, roller coaster, resort), engaged in storytelling seems quite odd. How is it that an inorganic object can tell a story? Most of the research in this area focuses on marketing communications and how advertising and brands communicate the offering through narrative form (e.g., Adaval and Wyer 1998; Holt 2004). In experiential marketing, it is the offering itself that tells the story. For example, Theron Skees (2004), a Walt Disney Imagineer, talks about the freefall drop ride, The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror, attraction at Disney‟s Hollywood Studios theme park in Orlando, Florida: Theming and storytelling are critical in any thrill attraction. The way that we accomplish that is by wrapping the theme and the story around the ride
118 technology… From the moment guests walk down Sunset Boulevard, they see Tower of Terror looming in the distance, and that‟s when we begin our storytelling. The sound of guests screaming is evident the moment you walk down Sunset Boulevard, and that begins to set up the anticipation … The attention to detail there is very critical to setting up the story that an event has taken place that dramatically affected not only the architecture of the hotel, but all the guests because there is nobody there … Guests enter this dark, very ominous looking, boiler room. And that‟s done very purposefully. It layers not only the storytelling, but it also builds anticipation. The Tower of Terror is designed to look like an old Hollywood Hotel that has been abandoned and is in an advanced stage of disrepair. As Theron states, the building is dark and ominous, and the screaming from inside communicates to the park visitors that something scary lies inside. Similar to Luis‟ quote, Theron states that it is the layering of narrative elements that facilitates the storytelling. Anticipating the next characteristic of connectivity, all of the details of the building are coordinated and designed to tell the story of the building and what happened there. As mentioned previously, the story is not told all at once, but is revealed a little at a time so the visitor has to continue through the offering to experience the whole narrative. Another example of a theme park offering that tells a story is the Incredible Hulk roller coaster at Universal Studio‟s Islands of Adventure in Orlando, Florida. This roller coaster is based on the Marvel comic strip character of physicist Dr. Bruce Banner. According to the story, after being exposed to high doses of gamma radiation, Dr. Banner
119 transforms into the Hulk. Mark Woodbury (2002), the Chief Creative Officer at Universal Creative talks about the design of the roller coaster: To me, the appeal of a roller coaster is really when you can sync up the technology with the story, with a composition of moves that creates what I like to call on Hulk as a heavy metal ballet … Throughout the development of The Hulk, there were literally thousands of drawings and sketches and details that are thought through the process of bringing a ride like this to life … As you walk through the experience, you circulate around the big gamma tube, you‟re introduced to the whole story of Bruce Banner‟s work, and as they get to the loading platform, they are being loaded into the chamber, into the vehicle itself, which in effect is we‟re trying to simulate the idea of Bruce Banner loading himself into this chamber and exposing himself to the gamma rays. It was really that moment, that transition between when he was mild mannered Bruce Banner and when he became the Hulk that we wanted to capture in the experience. The design of The Hulk was to tell a story. As Mark states, it was not simply about focusing on the technology of the ride, but bringing the roller coaster to life. This is done by engaging the park visitors from the moment they see the roller coaster. Based on the author‟s observation of the ride at the park, it is a huge green thing, it has mist rising up around it, and it makes a loud growling noise. The inside of the attraction is set up like Bruce Banner‟s lab. You are told the story of the physicist, but you participate in the story. You are told that you are going to be subjected to the gamma radiation and that you have the opportunity to leave before the exposure. The roller coaster itself simulates the transformation of the mild mannered Banner, or in this case yourself, into the Hulk.
120 In this process of the experiential interface, the consumer plays the role of both the receiver and the sender. That is, they receive the stories, interpret them, and relate them to others – almost like the old telephone game, where one person whispers to another and then another until the last person reveals the final version of the message. Interestingly, from an information processing perspective, this game represents errors in communication. From a semiological perspective, this game represents the interpretive nature of communications (Barthes 1964; Chandler 2002; Saussure 1916). As Santoro and Troilo (2007, pp. 110-111) argue, “The sign is not a thing, but a social and cultural relationship. The process of producing and disseminating sense (semiosis) comes into play only when someone (an interpreter) links a unit, which then becomes expression, with a unit that functions as content in an anthropological frame of reference that serves as an intepretant of the sign relationship.” Thus, it is not the story, but the discursive relationship that underlies the storytelling process in the interface. How do consumers engage in this storytelling process with a marketing experience? While a marketing experience may promote a particular story, there are always multiple stories that circulate in the accompanying sign system (Barthes 1964). Part of the consumers‟ job is to bring some coherence to the stories in ways that are meaningful to them. For example, Stanley talks about all of the stories involved in a college football game: There are hundreds of different stories taking place before, during, and after the game. Each individual player has his own story that fans follow. It could be a story of a comeback from an injury or a story about the competition between two players for a starting spot on the team. Each coach has his own story about the
121 strategy they are using or the personnel that is on the field. That is what contributes to the amazing intelligence of the fans from following every single detail of the program … I don‟t know if you make any friends at a football game but you definitely can have a great conversation with whoever you are sitting by due to the common interest in the [stories]. I have sat next to complete strangers at a game and didn‟t stop talking to them from the moment I sat down to the moment I left … It [the stories] definitely affects what you talk about after the game. It seems like no matter where you go, you can hear or see people talking about the game. No matter who you are talking to, you can always know that you have something in common to talk about during football season … Like any sport, everyone likes to give their advice or insight about the game. In hind sight, everything is 20/20 and everyone likes to pretend they knew before hand what the coach should have done. Also, people are always talking about what new players had a big game or who is going to get benched later … Everyone knows if you aren‟t at or close to [the stadium] on game days you are missing out and are going to continue to miss out on different conversations after the game. Stanley‟s quote shows the whole gambit of consumer storytelling. First, he points out that there are many different stories associated with a football game that the fans can focus on, communicate, and interpret. Plus, based on the author‟s observation at the college football games, the stories extend and change as the game progresses. The quote points out that the storytelling is a social and cultural exchange because it not only forges this common bond, but also allows for individual interpretation. Lastly, Stanley points out the importance of storytelling in the experiential interface by highlighting that if you do not
122 attend the game, you are going to miss out on the discourse. While you can read the stories in the newspaper the next day, you do not get to participate in the actual storytelling that takes place during the game. The data suggest that the storytelling that takes place during the experiential interface often prepares the consumers and directs their attention. For example, at a Renaissance festival that I observed, the official cast members (i.e., king, queen, court) performed a show at the main gate before the opening of the festival in which the theme of the festival was revealed and the specific story line that was going to be played out during the weekend was explained. Mary, an informant, describes the effect of the show: Yes I think the show is kind of, um… it makes everybody who is outside waiting feel like they‟re in the same boat. It, like, prepares everyone for what they‟re going to see. If they didn‟t have the show, it would be like, okay, you buy your ticket and you enter whenever you want. So the show is a kind of a connection, like something to prepare you for what‟s going to be there. The storytelling, in this case the opening performance of the Renaissance festival, sets the stage by preparing the visitors for the festival and by creating connections between the visitors and the festival. While the theme frames the offering, the storytelling directs the consumers‟ attention within this frame and provides them access to the offering. As Mary states, otherwise, it is all up to the consumer. In addition, the storytelling can extend both before and after the actual engagement of the offering and influence expectations and satisfaction. For example, Heather talks about a specific football game she attended:
123 It was supposed to be the biggest game of the year and if we would have won, then we would have been ranked higher and a better bowl game would have been in reach … I had been excited and ready for this game since I first heard about it … Because of the stories, I paid extra attention and was more into it then I would have normally been … During the game, we talked about the enthusiastic crowd and afterwards talked about the famous fumble … the outcome sucked … We lost and everyone was talking about it … All my friends and family from Oklahoma were calling and giving me a hard time about the loss. The storytelling around this particular football game caused Heather to get more excited about the game prior to going and to pay more attention to it during the game than she normally would have. The stories caused her to engage in storytelling with her friends about the crowd and the plays, and the ultimate outcome of the game. In fact, the storytelling extended beyond the offering as her family and friends called her to talk about the outcome. While Deighton (1992) argues that an event becomes an experience through the creation of a story, Sartre (1949) argues that an event becomes an adventure through the telling of the story. That is, storytelling does not merely structure the offering for the person, it helps to create a sense of transcendence by absorbing or immersing the consumer into the offering and highlighting the risk of the unknown, that may or may not be revealed. This finding is reinforced by the social and communal aspects of the interface. In fact, this social category represents the second largest code that emerged from the analysis. A vast majority of consumers indicated that the experiential interface would not have had the same engaging effect if they were not able to share it discursively
124 with others. As a result, storytelling is critical in the experiential interface, especially in terms of accessing the liminality of the offering. As Ladwein (2007) argues, a fundamental aspect of this type of discourse is the storytelling that goes on between participants. For example, Bill talks about how the storytelling he engaged in before, during, and after the Garth Brooks concert transformed the offering: Well, pretty much going in, I kind of had an idea that, well, having talked to people leading up to the concert, you know, just running into people, “hey, what are you doin‟ this weekend,” “oh, I‟m goin‟ to this concert,” and then having them recounting stories of when they had gone or someone they knew who had gone, you know, talking to people that have been to all these concerts, “that‟s the best one I‟ve ever seen,” you know, pretty much that was the response from about everybody. So that was kind of building it up … All that combined to make the expectations really high … I went with my sister. At the concert, we were just, you know, guessing what song was going to be next, or, commenting on, you know, that was the best song ever, oh, if he‟s played that one, I wonder what‟s going to be the next one, if he was going to add the verses … I think that it does, to have that interaction and just to share the experience, it has a major impact … I would say there is definitely a buildup to the event which has a major impact, then, you know, the event itself probably is weighted more heavily than anything else, but even after the event is still part of the experience, talking about it with other people who went on the other nights. Bill‟s comments show how storytelling affected his experience of the concert. Talking with other fans before the concert about previous concerts helped to buildup Bill‟s
125 anticipation and expectations. It caused him to think about what songs would be played and if Garth Brooks would include the additional verses in the live songs. All of this preconcert discourse set the stage for the adventure by getting Bill to consider all of the unknowns and the transcendent nature of the event. During the concert, he talked with his sister about which songs were going to be played, which ones they liked, and the atmosphere of the event. Storytelling added to the transcendent nature of the concert. Afterwards, he was able to relate his stories and position the adventure in his life. For Bill, all of the storytelling, before, during, and after the concert, had a major impact on the experiential interface by transforming the event into an adventure. In summary, the study finds that while stories make up the marketing experience, it is the communication of these stories and the stories they engender through storytelling that underlie the narrativity of the experiential interface. In terms of the experiential offering, storytelling does not refer to the communication or branding surrounding the offering, but how the offering itself communicates to the consumer. While the actual process of storytelling depends on the nature of the offering, the data indicate that it is the layering of narrative elements that facilitates this form of communication. The storytelling of the offering helps to create a sense of anticipation, direct the consumer‟s attention, and manage the interface. In terms of the consumer, the study finds that storytelling helps consumers to participate in the perspective of the offering. In addition, it helps consumers to transform the experiential interface with the offering into an adventure. Storytelling facilitates transition into the offering, participation in the transcendent nature of the offering, and
126 management of the risks associated with the offering. All of this is brought about through the storytelling that occurs before, during, and after the engagement with the offering.
The Consumer Experience: Imagination If stories and storytelling underlie the narrativity characteristic of the experiential offering and interface, then consumers must have some means to participate in these two components. The data suggest that consumers do not simply process information to participate in the stories and storytelling, but that they utilize their imaginations. That is, consumers draw upon their imaginations to access the stories surrounding the offerings and to engage in the storytelling that is part of the interface. Through this process, consumers interpret the offering and create their own stories. Although the consumers‟ stories are based on the narratives of the marketing experience, it is through the storytelling that the consumers extract what is relevant to them, apply their imaginations, and create a new story that is consistent with their desires. Ultimately, it is through their imaginations, and the stories they create, that they forge their memories of the marketing experience. Because narratives and stories are constructed realities, by their nature they require a certain amount of imagination just to access them. That is, while it is tempting to think that of the narratives that make up a marketing experience as complete and unambiguous, and attribute any difficulties that people have in accessing the offering to their lack of understanding or ignorance, this would completely misconstrue the nature of narratives or the interactive component that is necessary for them to exist. For example, Mary talks about the importance of the imagination at Renaissance festivals:
127 Imagination is very important because if those people who work there don‟t have the imagination and the fantasy to create that epic time period and to make people feel engaged and to make people feel that they are in the past, then things would not work. So I think it‟s also pretty important because as you walk in, you are transporting yourself to those places and things, you know, and, looking at these how they do things in that time or whatever with your imagination. They are transporting you to the past. So your imagination gets you engaged with the time. Mary‟s quote points out that it is both the imagination of the producers to create a compelling story and the imagination of the consumers to engage this story that is important to experiential marketing. Renaissance festivals, like all marketing experiences, are imaginative constructions. These constructions, or narratives, have to transport the consumer into the experience, otherwise, as Mary states, they will not work. At the same time, the consumers have to utilize their imaginations to accept these narratives in order to take part in the story. As Maria states, it is your imagination that connects you to the story and facilitates the engagement with the offering. This does not mean that consumers have to accept the producer narratives without question for them to be engaging. In fact, research has found that it is the unfolding nature of the story and what is not included that often captures consumers‟ imaginations (Lanier and Schau 2007). While information processing typically focuses on what is known about the offering (i.e., typically goods or services) as a function of understanding, imaginative processing usually focuses on what is unknown about the story (i.e., associated with marketing experiences) as a function of interpreting. In a sense it is the difference between abstracting out information from the offering (i.e., deductive
128 reasoning) and imagining aspects as part of the offering (i.e., inductive reasoning). The former deals with answers, whereas the latter deals with questions. For example, Laura talks about using her imagination at a fine arts museum: I always think of imagination when I do go through the very contemporary area [of the museum]. I think to myself, what were they imagining when they did that? Like you know, there‟s one where it‟s a mound of black artificial flowers. And you think, why did they do that? And are they in a particular order or did someone just throw them down there? You know, did they physically move this one over? You know, it just makes me wonder, you know, what were they imagining to do that? … You want to know what they are doing, why did they include this, why did they do that, you know, what are they trying to say and portray there? Laura is not focused on what is known about the paintings, but on what is unknown. The paintings present a story that is being told to the consumer, but the story needs to be “read” and interpreted. Part of the function of the imagination is to focus on those aspects of the story that are intriguing and to make sense out of them. As Laura indicates, she uses her imagination to focus on those questions regarding the offering and its story that were of interest to her. Other consumers use their imaginations to wonder what songs were going to be played at a concert, if they were going to get sick on a particular amusement park ride, or if their team was going to win the sporting event. Many of the consumers used their imaginations to engage the unfolding stories. One way that consumers try to answer these questions is by using their imaginations to put themselves into the narrative. For example, Dan talks about using his imagination at an air and space museum:
129 I would consider the most important aspect of this experience to be how the aircraft were displayed. Because all of the planes were in one giant, open space with no barrier between people and the exhibits, you are able to walk directly up to the aircraft and see them up close. In some exhibits, you are even able to walk up into the planes, and imagine what it must have been like to be inside one during the war. Because of the way the aircraft were displayed at the museum, Dan was able to put himself in the story being told by the museum. In addition, because he was able to actually climb inside some of the aircraft, he was able to use his imagination to take himself beyond the museum narrative and put himself in the story of the pilots and the aircraft in wartime situations. As Dan states, this was one of the most important aspects of his experience. A second way that consumers use their imagination to participate in the narratives is by relating them to something in their lives. This usually involves linking the stories associated with the offering to something in their past. For example, Lydia talks about how the narrative elements of Adventureland imaginatively transport her back to her childhood: I definitely think the imagination plays a part, yeah, with the rides and everything. There‟s not specific characters, but they‟ve got all the little, there‟s like a dog that says you have to be this high to go on the rides, you know, those types of things. The characters, the games for the kids, I mean, it‟s just kind of reliving your own childhood through all that. It‟s kind of nice. And like I said, when you originally
130 come in, you‟re going under the railroad tracks and kind of coming into this, you know, Candy Land world. You‟re in your childhood again and that‟s kind of nice. Lydia talks about how all of the elements of the narrative let her relive her childhood. She uses her imagination to participate in the entire narrative of Adventureland, which she reinterprets in terms of the narrative of Candy Land, a game that she used to play in her youth. She is then able to position the rides, characters, and games in the narrative from the perspective of her youth. This allows her to conjure up memories of her youth, which she can also use to engage the offering‟s narrative. A third way that consumers use their imaginations is to make predictions about the producer‟s narrative. Because marketing experiences transpire over time, the specific events and the final outcome of the narrative are not known ahead of time. Consumers often use their imaginations to speculate on various elements of the narrative such as what is going to happen next, if particular things are included in the story, and how the narrative is going to end. For example, Matt talks about using his imagination at college football games: It‟s exciting to watch and just guess what might happen. It‟s like the lottery. You can always imagine like, oh, it would be great if we would win by 30 points and we‟d get ranked and everything and all this other great stuff would happen. Like, we could go to a bowl game. And then you‟re like, no, it didn‟t happen. Or else, yes, it did happen, I got it right for once. Matt says that part of the fun of going to a football game is guessing what might happen. In fact, his imagination is not limited to the narrative taking place on the field or in the stadium, but the narrative of the whole season. Obviously, this whole narrative is not
131 being played out before his eyes, so he has to use his imagination to see the bigger story. He says that it is fun to project the future and what might happen over the course of the season. It is interesting that he compares it to the lottery. He seems to indicate that another part of the fun of using his imagination is to see if his predictions come true. While the imaginative component of the consumer experience is an important factor of narrativity, it also provides a connection between this characteristic of experiential marketing and the other characteristics. For example, Jamie talks about the role imagination plays in attending a baseball game: I think that baseball games really bring people together and gives them a nostalgic feeling that makes for a wonderful atmosphere to relax and enjoy time with friends and family, and it‟s an entertaining way to forget about the real world for a few hours … For me I think the value is watching a sport I love and remembering how much I love playing it … Because I used to play softball, baseball brings back a lot of emotions for me and imaginatively takes me back to those times. Intellectually the games are great because you have to know what is going on and use critical thinking about what you would do if you were a player. The whole game is a social facilitator; bonding with strangers and being with your friends and family is about as social as things can get. I don‟t necessarily know if there are any spiritual results that a baseball game facilitates. Earlier I talked about how amazing it is to see someone hit a grand slam; I guess that kind of event in a baseball game can be somewhat spiritual because it helps us believe that extraordinary things can happen.
132 Jamie uses her imagination to relate the baseball games to her past participation in the sport and to project what she would do if she was actually out there playing the game. In addition, she uses her imagination to conjure up nostalgic narratives of baseball, which adds to the enjoyment of the game. All of these imaginative processes provide a means by which she can engage in storytelling with her family and friends. In addition, this quote shows how the imagination connects the narrativity and liminality characteristics of experiential marketing. The imaginative projection of “amazing” events in the baseball game reinforces her narrative that extraordinary things can happen in life. While imagination serves as an important input into the narrativity of the consumer experience, it also functions to produce an important output, namely memories. That is, it is both the stories and storytelling facilitated by the imagination that give these moments meaning and fix them in the memories of the consumers. For example, Dan talks about his memories of his trip to Disneyland: I went with my fiancée and she had been to Disneyland when she was young. She tied in some of the stories to her childhood memories … After the Disneyland experience we went through our pictures and reminisced about every aspect we could remember. From taking a picture with Mickey to the final theme song at the end of the day, we had nothing but positive memories about the experience. Additionally, there were so many things to soak in at the park that we could only remember which aspects we discussed previously that day or saw in our pictures. For Dan and his fiancée, it was only when they reminisced about the events and wove them into a story that they were able to remember specific events about the trip. While the information processing model conceives of remembering as a schematic process
133 (Biehal and Chakravarti 1986), the data suggest that it is an imaginative process of creatively piecing things together. Dan‟s fiancée was able to use her imagination to tie some of the stories of their trip with her childhood memories of Disneyland, showing the web of meanings and connections between stories and memories. Storytelling played a role in making these imaginative connections and facilitating the process of remembering. The imagination is not limited to first-hand accounts to create memories. A consumer can draw upon many different stories to create memories. For example, Ashley talks about her memories of a trip to Disney World: There have been so many different memories about going to Disney World. I have heard stories about the trip when I was a baby, then there is my first trip that I actually got to participate in when I was in about 5th grade, we went again when I was in 7th grade with friends of the family, and then my recent dance trip and trips with friends. The stories do not have to be the person‟s own for them to fix the events in the person‟s memory or to give these events memories. Ashley heard stories about her first trip to Disney World when she was a baby that produced certain memories that she was able to imaginatively connect with her own personal memories of her more recent trips. Thus, storytelling also serves as an imaginative resource that consumers can draw upon to create memories. In addition, these stories are then imaginatively combined to create Ashley‟s narrative of her trips to Disney World. This narrative can serve as a resource that she can use to retrieve different memories and imaginatively fashion into a new story (e.g., all of her adventures on a particular ride).
134 In addition, like the telephone game mentioned previously, consumers can use their imaginations to share their memories with others and keep them alive. Amy talks about how she remembers her trip to Disneyland: It [the trip to Disneyland] continued in stories that I tell my friends, photos that I have and share with others, my scrapbooking of the day, and my mouse ears that I display with my other pairs. It also continues when it is talked about amongst my aunt, uncle, and myself. Amy states that her memories are maintained and elicited when she engages in storytelling with her family, friends and even with herself. Scrapbooking is interesting in that it is usually not just a random assortment of memorabilia, but it is a creative story that weaves together various artifacts. There is not a fixed format to scrapbooking, but is a product of the person‟s imagination. The scrapbook allows her to retain and activate her memories in a form of creative self-storytelling. In summary, the study finds that imagination plays a key role in the narrativity of the consumer experience. Because all narratives are constructions of realities, they need to be accessed and interpreted. This study finds that consumers use their imagination to participate in the narratives of marketing experiences. Because stories unfold over time, consumers are confronted with incomplete narratives. The data suggest that this is actually an engaging aspect of narratives. Consumers use their imagination to ask questions about the narrative and to project answers to these questions. Consumers use a number of different methods to address these questions and the unfolding nature of marketing narratives. First, consumers use their imagination to put themselves into the narrative. Second, consumers use their imagination to relate the marketing narratives to
135 some aspect of their lives. Third, consumers use their imagination to make predictions about the narrative. In addition, consumer imagination also serves to facilitate the creation, retrieval, and refashioning of memories associated with a marketing experience.
Connectivity and Experiential Marketing In addition to the liminality and narrativity characteristics of experiential marketing, the study finds that connectivity underlies this form of marketing. In this context, connectivity is a broad concept that refers to the various connections among the elements of a marketing experience, between the offering and the consumer in the experiential interface, and among the consumer and other aspects of the consumer‟s life in the consumer experience. While all of these elements together form very complex relationships, they are all interrelated and make up a fundamental aspect of experiential marketing. The rest of this section will examine these connections in relation to the three dimensions.
The Marketing Experience: Holistic Offering The experiential literature suggests that marketing experiences need to be enclavized, integrated, and congruent in order to ensure the success of the offering (Deighton 1992; Firat and Dholakia 1998; Kozinets et al. 2002; Podestà and Addis 2007). What exactly do these elements entail and what processes are necessary for their realization? This study finds that connectivity is not simply creating a physical and/or symbolic boundary, aligning all of the communication aspects of the offering, or matching the intention and the staging. It is the creation of a holistic offering, or gestalt, which is more than the sum of its parts. The strategies mentioned above feed into this
136 process, but they are simply means to an end. Based on the data, the rest of this section will examine the types of connectivity that underlie a marketing experience. Holistic Connectivity. The data suggest that marketing experiences are perceived as holistic offerings that are experienced as gestalt phenomena (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982). While Schmitt (1999) distinguishes between holistic and hybrid marketing experiences based on the number of experiential stimuli utilized in the offering, the data suggest that all marketing experiences are perceived in a holistic manner regardless of the number of experiential stimuli. For example, Bill talks about what he thinks are the least important aspects of the Garth Brooks concert he attended: I‟m not sure I would say any of them, that it would be the same experience without any one of them. Yeah, I mean they were all, they were kind of all necessary for it to be as interesting an experience as it was. Some maybe played a lesser role, but without those, it still wouldn‟t of been the same … I would say the specific factor that contributed to it was the way all the factors fit together. It was, yeah, everything was just done so well and came together so well. I mean, it was the circumstances surrounding the concert, the concert itself, the crowd, I mean just everything. Bill states that everything associated with the concert was necessary to the marketing experience. He nicely points out that all of the elements played different roles and impacted the experience to different degrees, but that the concert would not have been the same had any of them been removed. In addition, it was not just the presence of all of the elements, but also how they all fit together that made the concert. Another interesting point is that the holistic nature of the offering was not confined to the spatial “enclave” of
137 the marketing experience (Firat and Dholakia 1998), but extended beyond its spatial boundaries to all of the elements surrounding the concert. These types of comments were made by consumers of many different marketing experiences. For example, Jennifer talks about what aspects of a college football game are the most important: “I enjoy everything at the game and I think it all contributes to the overall experience. Everything is a little piece to the whole puzzle and without it, it would not be complete. I wouldn‟t change anything.” Jennifer sees the football game as made up many different pieces that add up to the overall experience. This quote really shows the holistic nature of a marketing experience. While the football game cannot be reduced to any one element, the removal of one piece would diminish the offering. Likewise, Kathy talks about what she feels are the most important aspects of a Cirque de Soleil performance: Even though not all of the audience appreciates all of the little “attention to detail” aspects of any Cirque du Soleil performance, I feel that the overall experience would not be as great if any aspect was removed. For example, most Cirque du Soleils have crowd entertainers that get involved with the audience and do not take part in any on-stage act. Also, Cirque du Soleil is notorious for extremely elaborate and odd costumes and makeup, and while the performances would still be impressive without these two aspects, Cirque du Soleil would not be as neat of an experience. Kathy reinforces the idea that while the performance is not contingent upon on one element, the overall effect would not be as great if any element was removed. Likewise, she points out that the boundaries of the offering are often unclear. Is the performance
138 just what takes place on the stage, in the theater, or outside the theater? Both Bill and Kathy suggest that there are many elements, some of which are under the control of the firm and others that are not, that make up the holistic nature of the marketing experience. Thematic Connectivity. While no one element makes up the holistic marketing experience, the data suggest that there are different types of connections that make up an experiential offering. The data suggest that thematic connectivity is an important element of marketing experiences. While the experiential literature highlights the importance of theming of a marketing experience, simply applying a theme is not enough. The marketing experience must embody the theme, and more importantly the story, in every aspect of the offering. If the firm fails to do this, then the marketing experience will be greatly diminished. For example, Marie talks about the various elements that she associates with Renaissance festivals: The characters, like the princess, the dragons, the knights, yeah, the battles and the joust, the music, like the Renaissance music, and the poverty, too. There were many people dressed like poor peasants that I saw, and I liked that because it‟s something real that happened at that time. It‟s not all princes and knights and battles and things like that … Yeah, pretty much all of those things. There wasn‟t a castle though. Just the gate, I mean the one at the front. But there was not like a big castle building where you can go inside, and that was, maybe, one missing thing for me … I liked the singers who were like a big group, you know, singing in a little chapel, and I think that the chapel was also very similar to what a chapel would be like in medieval times. It was very dark inside, because it was like how medieval churches are, very dark, and then everyone was quiet and they were all
139 singing, everything was like very harmonious. It was very, very neat. I felt myself like transported to those times. Marie points out that there were many different things that she associates with Renaissance festivals including the characters, the events, the structures, and even the social order. It was the connection of all of these symbolic elements through the theme of the festival that produced a “harmonious” offering. Because themes are usually abstract, idealized concepts, they usually provoke much criticism for what they leave out (Project on Disney 1995). Marie liked the fact that the Renaissance festival she attended included even the less fashionable and desirable elements of that time period. It made the theme and the story that much more real and interesting. More importantly, it is the thematic connection that helps to transport the consumer into the narrative, as well as into the liminal aspects of this created world, and keeps them engaged. Structural Connectivity. The second type of connection that is important to marketing experiences is structural connectivity. This type of connectivity refers to all of the physical, atmospheric (e.g., music, lighting, and signage), and servicescape (e.g., ambient, spatial, and information dimensions) elements that must be integrated in order to produce a holistic experiential offering. The difference between structural connectivity and these traditional marketing practices is that the focus is not simply on incorporating stimuli to evoke an effect, a la Schmitt (1999), but on the organization of all the spatial elements to imbue the offering with meaning and keep the consumer engaged. That is, structural connectivity is not simply isolated decisions about what music to play to stimulate purchase or what color to paint the walls to affect consumers‟ moods, but involves matching all of the physical and structural elements with the narrative in order to
140 produce an extraordinary offering. For example, Lilly talks about the structural features of the aquarium she visited: Like, you know you‟re in the marsh because there are reefs painted on the wall and it‟s lighter, I mean the light changes a lot in the rooms. You know, some of that is the paint on the wall, like how dark the paint is, say in the deeper ocean, I mean you get this dark blue on the walls … Even the air grates and things are painted to look like, you know, whatever … You know, I don‟t know if the lights change at all, but it seems darker in there … I also think you‟re walking on a slope. Like the slope isn‟t big, but you go deeper as you get to the bottom. You kind of feel, like okay, we‟re now deeper in the ocean. We‟re now going to see maybe larger animals, or, you know, different things than what I saw in the tide pool. And the tide pool, again, you know a lot of that was painted like a beach, and so you had the palm trees, and then you had like this pool kind of on the side … You really feel like you‟re getting into different areas. For Lilly, the physical and structural aspects of the aquarium did not simply produce an experiential effect (e.g., sensory, emotional, or intellectual), but transported her to each of the different aquatic realms. In fact, everything down to the smallest detail was integrated in the space including the air grates and the doors. All of the elements came together to instantiate each of these ocean realms, which in turn influenced the consumer‟s expectations regarding the offering. For example, Lilly expected as she moved deeper into the aquatic realms that she would encounter different sea life. Another way to distinguish the traditional structural marketing practices (e..g, atmospherics) from structural connectivity is the fact that while the former is an optional
141 strategy that firms can utilize to enhance the offering, the latter is a necessity that must be applied in order not to detract from the offering. That is, without structural connectivity, the offering is diminished by negatively affecting the liminal and narrative elements. For example, Terri talks about the train ride that she took around the zoo: Well, on the train ride for example, riding around looking at the animals, there was one area where there was a fence with a bunch of junk there. And so that was kind of disconcerting to me. Yeah, if they would clean that up that‟d be awesome. But yeah, that was definitely out of place. You wouldn‟t see that in the, you know, where the elephants actually live, or whatever animals we were looking at, the zebras. You know what I mean? While Terri was riding on the train, she passed an area of the zoo near one of the animal habitats that was used as a storage area for equipment, crates, and other odds and ends. Terri got a glimpse into the backstage area of the zoo, which was definitely not part of the narrative of the front stage. For her, it detracted from the offering because it did not fit with the narrative. It was not a part of the natural habitat of the animal and drew her out of the experience. The lack of structural connectivity can also affect the liminality of a marketing experience. For example, Bill talks about the structural elements of a specific habitat of the zoo: It was darker in some of the habitats and, you know, you would get like really absorbed, and then there would be a flashing exit sign or there would be something unrealistic, you know. They did some very realistic things, like I‟d be walking in the everglades on these wooden types of docks that were kind of
142 floating and you‟d be walking around checking things out, but then there would just be some random piece of machinery or there would just be like a bench, and you‟d be like, well, you know, you forgot and actually this is reality. It‟s like, I‟m not in the everglades anymore, you know. For Bill, the lighted exit signs, the equipment, and the benches did not fit at all with the everglades habitat. He considered them “unrealistic” to the setting they were trying to create and brought him back to “reality.” Essentially, these items did not fit the narrative and made the extraordinary feel ordinary. Structural connectivity does not just involve managing the front-stage items and keeping the back-stage items hidden, but also managing the whole environment of the offering and its boundaries. This idea is closer to the notion of enclave noted earlier. For example, Michelle talks about aspects of the zoo that enhanced and distracted from her experience: The environment most affected my experience … the aquarium and the underground are of the desert exhibit. The night exhibit under the desert was where I was most involved. I was close to the animals without any protection between me and them. It was very dark, and I didn‟t know which way I was going … The houses that are right next to the zoo distracted me. I thought it was weird that they were so close. For Michelle, the environment of the zoo was the most important aspect of the offering. She liked the aquarium, the desert, and the everglades environments because they created an atmosphere that transported her from the real world and caused her to get more involved in these particular environments. Unlike these habitats, another part of the
143 environment of the zoo was distracting because it was breached by the outside environment. At one area of the zoo, Michelle could see the bordering neighborhood and it brought her back to reality. The borders of the experiential offering are just as important as the specific environments within the offering to maintaining the structural organization and consistency. The study finds that one of the most important aspects of the structural connectivity of marketing experiences is the atmosphere. This concept is somewhat different than the notion of atmospherics in that it is not simply the background or setting in which the offering is presented. The atmosphere is the offering, or at least a large part of it. In experiential marketing, the atmosphere is the embodiment of the liminal and narrative qualities. For example, Sara talks about the atmosphere of the resort where she and her husband spent their honeymoon: The atmosphere, it was like, a loving place, and you‟re happy and like, oh my gosh, look what they did tonight, which also made the whole rest of the vacation better … The loving atmosphere, I think they do that because it‟s a couples‟ resort. Like especially at night, they had candles on all tables and they always had wine or champagne available. Some of their restaurants were on the ocean and you could see like the sunset and stuff as you ate. It is a couples‟ resort, so I mean they do try to make it a very loving atmosphere, and they did a good job … The employees were very friendly, and you never had to wait on anything or to ask twice. They were always smiling, happy, and joking … I was always called Princess, every time. I mean, the waiters or the guys, if it was the waiter or our butler, it was always Princess and such, I mean, and here you don‟t ever hear that.
144 Sara‟s quote shows how the narrative and liminal aspects of resort are instantiated in the atmosphere. The theme of the resort revolves around couples and romance, and the resort is structurally set up in such a way that this theme is captured in the atmosphere. The restaurants are set up with cozy tables for two with candles and champagne and sweeping ocean views. They were treated with warmth and humor, and got anything they wanted without waiting. The whole atmosphere was extraordinary, and really made them feel like they were on their honeymoon. As Sara states, she felt it was a very loving atmosphere. Process Connectivity. The third type of connection that is important to marketing experiences is process connectivity. Process connectivity refers to the way that the marketing experience operates and flows. While much of the experiential literature focuses on the “flow” experience of the consumer (Csikszentmihalyi 1991), the study finds that the “flow” of the marketing experience is also important. The skydiver is not going to have any type of experience if the plane is broken (Celsi et al. 1993). As a result, data indicate that the offering should run smoothly and the transitions should be seamless in order to keep the consumer engaged. For example, Tina talks about the quality of the concert she attended: Just because you know so much work goes into that, and you can tell that by the way that the show‟s put on and how smoothly everything goes. And, one of the guitars broke down and they had another guitar on that stage just like that. I mean it was like somebody had its place, and so you know that they put a lot a time and effort into it … When you‟re able to go enjoy the singing and the show itself, that is good. I enjoyed it … I mean, if it was a show that wasn‟t exciting and that didn‟t have everything put together, I wouldn‟t want to go see it again. But
145 because they had the music, and the way that they sang it, they were good performers, and they had the visual aspect, and it wasn‟t like you were waiting on them to fix the sound or to fix the lights, I mean, everything just started and went as it was supposed to, and, they even stayed longer than what they were supposed to. Like they were supposed to stop after an hour and a half, and I think we were there for 2 hours and 15 minutes. I mean so they were enjoying it too. You could tell that they liked it. Tina says that she enjoyed the concert not simply because of the music and the singing, but also because of how smoothly everything flowed. She says that she liked the fact that they did not have to wait for the organizers to adjust or fix the sound, lights, or equipment. Everything operated “as it was supposed to,” which kept her engaged in the concert. Although consumers usually do not focus on the process factors when they go right, Tina states that she could tell that it was a quality concert by how well everything operated. In fact, she even states that if it everything would not have flowed properly, she would not go again to see these performers. Communal Connectivity. While it is tempting to think of all of the essential elements of a marketing experience as being under the control of the firm, the study finds that this is not necessarily the case (e.g., Kozinets et al. 2004). In fact, a key ingredient of all marketing experiences, and for that matter any market offering, which is not under the firm‟s control is the consumer. Although most of the consumer elements of connectivity will be addressed in the next two subsections, one consumer-oriented element that plays a role in the connectivity of a marketing experience is the communal aspect of the offering.
146 The experiential marketing literature has examined the communal in terms of communitas (Arnould and Price 1993; Belk and Costa 1998), subcultures of consumption (McAlexander and Schouten 1998), neo-tribes (Kozinets 1999), hypercommunities (Kozinets 2001), and brand community (Muñiz and O‟Guinn 2004). All of this research implies that consumption communities are organized, structured, short-lived, and connected (strongly or weakly). Muñiz and O‟Guinn (2004) argue that the three markers of community include consciousness of kind, shared rituals and traditions, and moral responsibility. The data suggest that while there is a communal aspect to all marketing experiences, it may not reach the level of community, especially in terms of the marketer of moral responsibility. While this may be the case, it is still an important aspect of the offering and impacts both the experiential interface and the consumer experience. For this study, communal connectivity refers to the collective and shared nature of a marketing experience. One key aspect of communal connectivity is the consumers‟ common purpose. For example, Adam talks about the communal aspects of the resort where he and his wife stayed: The nice thing, the common denominator, was that everyone, at least most people, were there for their honeymoon. We met a few couples, because, you know, if you‟re standing in line for something or you‟re at the bar or in passing, you just kind of get to talking, but you didn‟t have to talk to anybody if you wanted to. I guess the common denominator of that romantic getaway type of thing kind of brings people together. Because everyone at the resort was there for the same reason, they felt that they shared a communal bond and were more likely to engage each other. While Adam states that you
147 did not have to interact with anyone at the resort, the common bond facilitated, and even encouraged, interaction between the guests. Not only does the shared purpose encourage interaction, but the interaction feeds back into the shared purpose. That is, the communal nature of the offering brings people together, which reinforces the communal aspect of the offering. For example, Jill talks about the communal aspect of a cruise she and her husband took through the Caribbean: Well, I think it just is the tone, the atmosphere. It just lends itself to more interaction. Everybody knows they‟re on vacation and it‟s like, you know, in a greeting or where are you from, that kind of thing. And I think people were probably much more open to that than if you were on the street probably and you met them or sat down at a counter in a restaurant or that kind a thing. I think it lends itself more to that … Plus, I think something happens when you share an experience that‟s really meaningful. You become closer because it‟s like wow, this is something we all did together kind of thing. Jill reinforces the idea that the common purpose brings people together in these venues and encourages interaction. Because everyone was on a vacation cruise, they felt more comfortable to get to know each other and to go on the excursions together. Both Adam and Jill spoke further about how they made friends on their trips and did many activities together. In addition, Jill‟s quote shows the relationship between different forms of connectivity in facilitating the offerings‟ connections (i.e., the structural and the communal). In addition to the common purpose, communal connectivity implies a shared perspective. Not only does everyone at a marketing experience typically share a common
148 purpose (e.g., honeymooners, vacationers, sports fans, art patrons), but they usually share a similar perspective (e.g., pride in their team, love of travel, appreciation of fine art). It is this underlying shared perspective that enhances the communal bonds. For example, Alton talks about the appeal of the shared perspective of college football fans: The stadium, the players, and the event itself – they all played into the experience and gave me and my friends a common goal and common connection … We cheered for a common purpose which brought us closer together. When the [team] scored and our common purpose became initiated, we embraced each other with high fives and hugs … Again, the other participants at the stadium made the marketing experience. Going to the game is all about being with other people to root a common team. The common purpose interacts with the shared perspective to produce a more enjoyable offering. For Alton, because everyone around him was rooting for the team to score, when this happened, they were able to share the moment. In fact, many of the consumers talked about their ability to relate to others at the marketing experience as being one of the attractions of the offering. The excitement that consumers feel toward the offering often “rubs off” on other consumers or allows them to “feed off” each other in the enjoyment of the venue. In fact, one consumer states, “I always go with friends or my family, so if their experience wasn‟t pleasant, then it kind of drags the whole thing down.” As such, communal connectivity can have both positive and negative effects. Ritual Connectivity. A related type of connectivity that is important to marketing experiences is ritual connectivity. While it is difficult for marketers to control many of the communal aspects of the experiential offering, one thing that they have some control
149 over is the shared rituals and traditions that characterize the communal. The study finds that one of the reasons that many consumers go again to a particular marketing experience is to take part in the shared rituals that are part of the offering. For example, Jamie talks about the ritual connectivity of college football games: The football games are always of high quality. The athletic department spends quite a bit of money to help create this experience for all fans and does a nice job of keeping things uniform from game to game and season to season to build the tradition that is so strong. Without this, the games would not be as eventful … I love the tradition that we have built. I have been to other schools where the tradition and sense of school pride is lacking and you can tell immediately. The fans don‟t fill the stadium every game and the atmosphere is lacking the support that is so strong on our campus. I love our tradition and I wouldn‟t go to the games if it were lacking. Jamie says that the ritual connectivity of college football games is captured in the traditions that have evolved and that are maintained across the games. The traditions affect her expectations of the game in that she expects the stadium is going to be full of cheering fans and that it is going to be an exciting atmosphere. This quote also shows the relationship between the different forms of connectivity. Here, the ritual connectivity is related to both thematic connectivity and structural connectivity by linking everyone to the school narrative and the atmosphere of the game. In summary, the study finds that a marketing experience is characterized by holistic connectivity. This means that consumers usually perceive the offering as greater than the sum of its parts. In addition, the study finds that the marketing experiences are
150 made up of five types of connectivity: thematic connectivity, structural connectivity, process connectivity, communal connectivity, and ritual connectivity. Thematic connectivity refers to the idea that all of the elements of a marketing experience must fit the theme and the stories. Any element that does not fit with the story can potentially distract and ruin the enjoyment of the offering. Structural connectivity refers to the connection between all of the physical, atmospheric, and servicescape elements of a marketing experience. While the traditional marketing literature refers to these elements as additional elements that can enhance an offering, this study finds that they are a critical part of an experiential offering. Process connectivity refers to the way that the offering operates and flows. This is usually perceived as a negative form of connectivity that is invisible when it works, but becomes visible and distracting when it does not work. Communal connectivity refers to the collective and shared nature of a marketing experience. The study finds that an attractive feature of a marketing experience is the common purpose and shared perspective of participants. Ritual connectivity refers to the continuity of the core aspects of the offering over time.
The Experiential Interface: Holistic Process Just as the marketing experience is considered a holistic phenomenon that is irreducible to its parts, the data suggest that the experiential interface is also a holistic process in which the phenomenon is processed in an inclusive manner (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982). Based on hemispheric resource theory (Allen 1983; Dimond 1972; Janiszewski 1993), holistic processing involves an “orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships”
151 (Nisbett et al. 2001, p.293). The data suggest that the holistic processing that takes place in the experiential interface is a combination of intentional connectivity, temporal connectivity, and social connectivity. Intentional Connectivity. The study finds that intentionality underlies both the purpose of the marketing experience and the projection of the consumer. The intentionality of the marketing experience refers to those aspects of the offering that direct the consumers‟ attention. In a sense, it is the perspective being advocated (Lanier and Schau 2007). The intentionality of the consumers refers to how they direct their attention toward the marketing experience in order to interpret and ascribe meaning to the offering (Cova and Rémy 2007). The data suggest that the intentionality of the marketing experience only has meaning in terms of the intentionality of the consumers. That is, the elements of a marketing experience cannot be projected or apprehended in isolation, but only in terms of the whole. As a result, consumption of a marketing experience does not involve breaking down the offering into its constituent parts, abstracting them from their context, and analyzing their attributes. Rather, it involves taking in the entire offering as a whole, understanding its perspective, and participating in its meanings. For example, Diane talks about how she and her friends participated in a commercially-staged costume party surrounding the performance of Thoroughly Modern Millie, which is set in the U.S. during prohibition (circa 1920s): When we first walked in, they actually handed us like a password sheet, and they had a doorway that was all brick with a speakeasy window in it, and if you went up there and didn‟t say the password correctly, they wouldn‟t let you in. So it took me a couple times because I was like, I don‟t get what‟s going on, the password is
152 what, marbles? So then they let you in, and it was a catered, I wouldn‟t say banquet because they actually came around with the food. It was all Chinesebased food. There‟s a Chinese aspect to the play. There are actually a couple of characters that are supposed to be Chinese, and they‟re like the laundry guys, and the lady who runs the hotel in the play is also supposed to be Chinese. And so, it was all Chinese-based food. And they had waiters that were dressed up in like 1920s garb and whatnot. And then they had a photographer there that took pictures and they would pose you in front of period type things with guns and/or saloon type items. And then they also did different types of cocktails that were kind of more from that period, yeah … It was kind of more of like talking and hanging out and chatting and whatnot. And then they also had a couple people that would walk around and play characters, be it like a mob boss or somebody like that. They would kind of come and try to rile you up a little bit. And then, 10 minutes before the show, they did the raid and came through with 1920s police gear and were like shooting guns and blowing whistles and would get in your face and be like, “let‟s go! Come on! We gotta go! Let‟s go!” They shuffled us all into the theater. It was pretty fun. Diane‟s quote shows that the producers utilized many different elements to frame the preperformance party (e.g., the password, the food and drinks, the photographer, and the characters), but it was the combination of them that defined the event. Simply having period drinks before the performance or having your picture taken would not have created the same atmosphere or level of engagement. At the same time, the consumers were required to participate in the intention of the costume party for it to have its effect.
153 The consumers were encouraged to wear period clothes, to provide the appropriate password to access the event, and to mingle with the characters. By directing their attention to all of the elements as a whole, Diane and her friends were transported to a 1920s speakeasy, interacted with gangsters, and experienced a police raid. As Diane states, participating in all of it together produced a sense of excitement and fun. In addition, the study finds that intentional connectivity also refers to the relational aspects of the experiential interface. Cova and Rémy (2007, p.55) argue that “an experience occurs when a subject encounters a reality, keeping said subject informed as to the two meanings of the term, i.e., it informs him/her as to the reality itself (“doing the experience”) but also trains him/her in this reality (“having the experience”).” That is, the consumer is both affected by and affects the marketing experience in a reciprocal relationship. In a commercially produced experience, the offering exists as an environment in which the consumer must enter and from whose vantage point must make sense of the experience. At the same time, the way the consumer interacts with the offering affects the environment and its staging. For example, Diane further elaborates on the costume party: When you went in, you got a job description and you kind of had to play the part of the job description, if you wanted to. It was fun. It really enhanced the experience … It was actually interesting because we were so dressed up. Some people were less dressed up than others, but it still had the flavor aspect of it as well. But we were so dressed up that there were actually people that were worried that we were not going to get to our stage call on time. I was like, if I was on the stage I wouldn‟t be hanging out with you … I was like, at first, I was very
154 overwhelmed. I was like oh my goodness, what goes on here. I didn‟t even know what to do with myself. Being with that many people that were dressed up and in costume and just having a really, I mean a genuinely good time, it really allows you to have those conversations with people that you wouldn‟t normally have … But it totally enhanced it. I mean, I just, it was so exciting to like go and be with people who wanted to talk about theater and who wanted to talk about culture and who wanted to talk about food and, I mean it was just, a global experience, I guess, more so than anything. And it was very unusual, yeah, the unusualness of it. It was not at all what I was expecting. Diane‟s quote indicates that it was not simply the coming together or matching of the intentionality of the producers and consumers that facilitated the experiential interface, but it was the way the two interacted and fed off each other. Diane was provided with a character and asked to play the role in the event. By taking on this character, Diane not only participated in the offering, but also transformed it as she interacted with the other patrons and actors. In fact, it was this reciprocal relationship of assimilating and projecting intentionalities that facilitated the interaction. As a result, intentionality provides the means by which both the offering and consumer come together and interact in a holistic manner. Temporal Connectivity. The study finds that the holistic nature of the experiential interface is also characterized by temporal connectivity. The interface between the marketing experience and the consumer is a process that takes place over time. As Pine and Gilmore (1999, p.12) argue, “Buyers of experiences … value being engaged by what the company reveals over a duration of time.” The temporal connection with a marketing
155 experience, though, extends beyond confines of the marketing experience to both before and after the actual encounter with the offering. For analytical purposes, I will call these three temporal dimensions the pre-engagement, engagement, and post-engagement periods. Even Pine and Gilmore (1999) argue that the value of the experience is that it lingers in the memory of the consumer even after the event. But the time before the event is just as important. This section will examine temporal connectivity in terms of the three different time periods. The data suggest that the interface with the marketing experience begins before the actual event occurs. This pre-engagement interface can include any of the seven different experiential effects (e.g., sensorial, emotional, intellectual, fanciful, physical, social, and/or spiritual), but the emotional, intellectual, fanciful, and social seem to dominate. For example, Doug talks about his connection with a college football game the week before the game: I mean the whole event is kind of like the climax of it, but I mean, you got like a whole week, and then you‟re talking to your buddies or friends leading up to it. I mean, if it‟s a big game coming in … usually it‟s the anticipation of like, you know, if we‟re going to win, what‟s going to happen, how people are going to play, you know, what everyone else is doing in the conference to see what we need to do, you know, and just if we‟re going to enjoy watching the game. Doug‟s quote shows a range of temporal pre-engagement connections with the football game. First, there is the emotional connection in terms of the anticipation and the building sense of excitement before the game. Second, there is the intellectual connection of how the other teams in the conference are doing and what the team has to do to
156 maintain or raise its standing. Third, there is the imaginative connection of wondering how the team is going to play, what is going to happen during the game, and if they are going to win. Fourth, there is the social connection in that all of these elements tend to interact in a social sphere in which information, feelings, and speculations are exchanged. The study finds that the temporal connection between the offering and the consumer during the actual engagement of the marketing experience is very important to the overall experiential effect. The data indicate that the consumers‟ level of participation, as well as their overall enjoyment of the venue, is a function of temporal connectivity. In addition, temporal connectivity differs dramatically among marketing experiences. The nature of the marketing experience will determine who is in control over the temporal dimensions. For those offerings that fall into the passive participation and absorptive environmental relationship categories (e.g., performance, concerts, and sporting events) (Pine and Gilmore 1999), the firm is primarily in control of the temporal connectivity. For example, the consumer does not determine the flow of events or the overall time of a musical play. In fact, it is not uncommon to hear consumers complain about performances for being too slow. The television show “24,” which deals with the events in a single day, has become a hit as much for its treatment of time as for its subject matter. In these types of experiential offerings, the firm is in control and must understand the target market and their particular desires. They must design the offering to keep the consumers engaged and to fulfill their desires in the allotted time. For example, Carol talks about a symphony performance that she and her family attended: This performance was specifically geared for Halloween, it was called Creepy Classics … It took music from like Harry Potter, Star Wars, and other movies …
157 My favorite part was when they played the Darth Vader theme. They actually had people in Star Wars costumes walk in from all the entryways. So, like Darth Vader came down the center aisle with all of his Storm Troopers, and they kind of walked to the beat of the song, so it was really cool! … The Star Wars song stopped and started many times because Darth Vader and the conductor had this whole thing going on. As they‟re fighting over the baton, the music‟s changing as they‟re following the conductor‟s baton. So, there were, you know, fun changes in it that made it interesting … They also did like the Addams Family and they asked the audience to snap their fingers and sing along. They asked for, you know, applause to vote on the costumes. There was a lot of audience participation. It just made it, I mean it made it fun, you know. It wasn‟t just sitting back and listening to the music. It was actually getting to take part and help create some music which was, you know, it just made it a really enjoyable experience. Carol‟s quote suggests that it was not simply the characters and the music that she founding engaging, but also the timing of the event. She says that she especially liked Darth Vader because he and his storm troopers marched in with the tempo of the music. In addition, the timing of the music changed as he and the conductor fought over the baton. Both the synchronized and unsynchronized temporal dimensions of the concert kept Carol engaged. The synchronized aspects allowed Carol and her family to participate in the concert by snapping their fingers, singing along with the songs, and voting for their favorite costumes. The unsynchronized aspects of the concert kept the concert interesting.
158 In other types of marketing experiences, particularly those that are categorized by active participation and immersive environmental relationship (Pine and Gilmore 1999), the consumer is more in control over the temporal connectivity. For example, consumers usually decide on where to go and what to see in amusement parks, museums, and zoos. While the experiential literature seems to suggest that this consumer control and freedom provide for the most engaging experiences (e.g., Cova and Rémy 2007), the data suggest that many consumers often create plans and schedules to best manage their time. That is, too much control and freedom can have a negative impact on the experiential interface and detract from the consumer experience. For example, Debbie talks about how she and her husband plan their trips to Disney World: There is a lot of planning. It‟s not a place you can go and just say we‟re going to wing it for this next week. You have to kind of know what you‟re doing. And I‟ve seen families kind of blow up, you know, if they haven‟t planned because the kids are tired, the parents don‟t know where they‟re going, they don‟t have a dinner reservation. Well, you know, it can be very frustrating for families. It‟s frightening to see some things like that happen right in front of you. And you think, oh I wish I could help you, but I can‟t. So it does take a lot of pre-planning, I think. If you really want to have the best time, I mean, as much as it costs, I think you have to pre-plan so that you can use your time wisely and really enjoy what you‟re paying for. Debbie suggests that while it is nice to have choices and the freedom to do what you want, if you do not have some kind of plan, you are not going to be able to take advantage of all of the opportunities available in the marketing experience. Temporal
159 control does not automatically translate into an engaging interface. Time management allows consumers to holistically enjoy marketing experiences that are less temporally structured. That is, a plan allows consumers to use their time wisely and enjoy the marketing experience. The data suggest that temporal connectivity has to be managed, either by the consumer or the firm. While some researchers have romanticized this level of consumer choice as a sense of temporal freedom from the logic of the market (e.g., Cova and Rémy 2007; Kozinets 2002), consumers such as Debbie have actually witnessed the negative effects of this freedom such as when families “melt down” because of poor planning. In fact, other consumers argued that structuring their time and having a plan gave them the freedom to do what they wanted and the freedom from worries. For example, Adam talks about the temporal aspects of his resort experience: You know, we knew we would have choices and all that. See, you‟d kind of plan, we‟d like to do this or we‟d like to try that, you plan your day or else you could just kind of fly by the seat of your pants type a thing … You get your dinner plans made and you‟ve got a lot a freedom, but you know, okay, we‟re going to eat dinner, our reservation‟s for 8:00, and so you‟d spend your day and then you know okay, we‟ve got to go back and get ready. So, the organization of it, I think, is nice … It created freedom, I think, just kind of relaxation, that you, it‟s already taken care of, so you don‟t need to worry about it. Adam suggests that there is a connection between control and freedom in the temporal connectivity of the experiential interface. By making plans ahead of time, he and his wife were able to relax and did not have to worry about what they were going to do. They
160 knew the specific times of their reservations, and were able to do what they wanted both during and in between these events. In an interesting dialectical relationship, structure allows for freedom, and freedom allows for structure. Having some structure gives consumers the freedom to explore the periphery of the context without going over the edge. As Debbie suggests, too much freedom in an experiential context may be a bad thing. Thus, contrary to some of the experiential consumption literature (e.g., Cova and Rémy 2007), consumers do not need to have total control (i.e., no constraints) in order to have an engaging experience. What is interesting about the post-engagement of the marketing experience is that instead of simply talking about remembering aspects of their engagement, many of the consumers talked about re-living the experience. That is, just as the pre-engagement activities encompass many of the different experiential effects, the data suggest that they also play a role in the post-engagement activities. Remembering is primarily an intellectual activity. While reliving includes an intellectual component, it also includes many of the other experiential components. For example, Stacey talks about her postengagement activities associated with the College World Series: I talked about it for a while. I can relive the experience in my head. Also, when other people bring the event up, I can participate in and add to the conversation. The fact that I have been to a game is a way that I can connect with others who have also had this same experience. Also, I still look through the pictures I took of the game, which serve as a strong retrieval cue for the event. Stacey‟s quote shows the intellectual aspects of reliving the experience of the College World Series, but it also shows the social dimension. Her engagement with the venue
161 allows her to “connect” with others who have also attended the games. She can relive the marketing experience with others by actively participating and adding to the discourse. Reliving the experience is also important because it aids in the development of a communal bond. For example, Rebecca talks about the effects of attending a performance of The Lion King with her friends: The new friends I attended the show with definitely were a positive impact on my experience there. Not only was it more fun to be able to see a fun and exciting show, it was almost just as fun to be able to talk about it and relive it with my friends after it was over. Now it is something that those friends and I can still talk about, even though none of us live in the same state. It gives us a connection that we can use to keep in touch. Like Stacey‟s quote, the post-engagement activities are important because of the “connection” and social bond it creates. Besides the friendships that the offering helped to create, the communal sharing also makes the post-engagement activities more fun. It is interesting that Rebecca makes a distinction between talking about the performance and reliving it. While the primary post-engagement activity may be discourse, the discourse is simply a means of reliving all of the other experiential effects associated with the offering. In addition, post-engagement activities also facilitate reliving the emotional aspects of the interface. For example, Kelly talks about seeing a performance of The Phantom of the Opera: I think the overall experience of seeing a live play is unlike anything else, and I enjoy how I feel after leaving such a performance … On our way home we were
162 able to talk about how much we had enjoyed the play, and we had the soundtrack so we were able to “re-live” some of our favorite moments from the play. Kelly talks about how she likes the way she feels after the performance. In order to tap into these emotions, she and her friend were able to relive the experience by singing along with some of their favorite songs. Thus, post-engagement activities are not simply an intellectual activity, but encompass many different aspects that allow consumers to relive the interface holistically. Social Connectivity. The last type of connectivity associated with the experiential interface is social connectivity. While this section mainly deals with the connection between the consumer and the offering, the data suggest that the connection among consumers plays an important role in the experiential interface. Unlike communal connectivity, which deals with consumers in the aggregate as a feature of the marketing experience, social connectivity deals with the interactions between consumers based on a shared experiential interface. While communal connectivity may facilitate social connectivity, the data indicate that they are not the same thing, nor does one necessarily imply the other. That is, just because you are awed by the huge crowd at a football game does not necessarily imply that you are going to interact with those around you. Likewise, just because you interact with your family at Disney World does not mean that you are going to have a favorable view of the crowd in the theme park. While this is more likely, it is a false assumption made in much of the experiential literature The data suggest that social connectivity plays a large role in the engagement of a marketing experience. In terms of the data analysis, it was the second largest coded category derived from the data. While it is possible to consume goods and services as a
163 group, this consumption process seems to be at the heart of experiential marketing. In fact, the study found that many consumers felt uncomfortable and unable to take full advantage of the marketing experience without being with a group. For example, Maria talks about her decision to attend a Renaissance festival in costume: No, I didn‟t dress up the first time. Everyone else did. All of my sisters did and my nephew did, and I didn‟t. And it‟s not that I really felt left out because they did and I didn‟t, I just saw all of the excitement and all of the fun that they were having. So I said, okay, I can do this … I wouldn‟t dress up if the others didn‟t. When I went with them that first time, I saw all of the enjoyment they were having by being dressed up and that made me think that I want to have fun, too- I want to be involved in those things … That‟s what makes it the most fun to dress up, it‟s that you‟re in it all, you are intertwined in that whole little realm of things … Now, I have went before when I haven‟t been dressed up and it‟s boring – it‟s very boring. You just walk through and you just do your own thing. You‟re not involved in anything. So it‟s kind of like being a team player - dressing up, I guess. Maria states that because she did not dress up in costume like the rest of her family the first time she went to the Renaissance festival, she found it boring because she was on her own and not part of the team. Because she was with her family, she decided to dress up the next year and she had a much more enjoyable time. She felt more integrated into the festival and more of an active member of her family. Thus, social connectivity affected both the way she participated and her level of involvement.
164 While we typically associate the experiential interface with direct participation, many of the consumers talked about how they enjoyed experiencing the offering indirectly through others. For example, Terri talks about why she goes to the zoo: You know what I‟m purchasing? I‟m purchasing a day with my granddaughters, where I get to see them laugh and be overwhelmed and amazed and wondered. It‟s a joyous day for me. So I‟m buying happiness. Really I am. That‟s what I‟m buying. That is true. It‟s just the looks on their faces is just priceless … So when I‟m actually teaching them or getting them interested, that‟s how I feel the most engaged. It‟s like explaining something to them. It‟s kind of like being a teacher. When you‟re teaching something to students, you‟re hoping they‟re engaged. So that‟s when I feel the most involved is when I‟m trying to help them learn about whatever creature they‟re looking at. Terri enjoys the zoo through her grandchildren. Her grandchildren, in a sense, become mediators of the market experience. She really enjoys seeing her grandchildren‟s unprompted reactions to the animals and exhibits. She also enjoys actively teaching her grandchildren about the animals that they are looking at. Either way, Terri gets to experience the zoo through her grandchildren, which in turn increases her engagement. This vicarious engagement of the marketing experience can even take on a more subtle form as consumers feed off others without any contact whatsoever. Whether it is listening to the other consumers‟ comments at an art museum, singing along with others at a concert, or rowing a boat with a group of strangers at a resort, social connectivity can take on many forms and promote different degrees of interaction. For example, Bob talks about the role of other people, in this case strangers, in his enjoyment of the zoo:
165 It was fun because you feel like a kid when you‟re like standing over here looking at snakes or something and then all these kids over there are looking at gorillas and you hear them yell and squeal, so you‟ve got to run over and see what‟s going on. So I think it has a big effect on interaction, especially with kids and their noise level or whatever sounds they‟re making, because you‟re like, what‟s going on over there? And that makes it better, because, you feel more like a kid. Unlike Terri, Bob did not go to the zoo with children nor did he directly interact with the children that were there. For him, just hearing them and their reactions made him more engaged in the offering. He wanted to see what they were so interested in and what was going on in the other areas of the zoo. It completely changed his perspective and made him feel like a child. Other consumers in the study also commented on the power of other people to change their perspective and engagement in ways that they had not intended. While many consumers talked about the importance of participating in the experiential interface with family and/or friends, others enjoyed the marketing experience because they were able to make friends and interact with new people. For example, Adam talks about the social aspect of the resort he stayed at: Yeah, the couple that we met really, I guess, kind of made it comfortable in the sense that, you know, you‟re in kind of a new, foreign place. I guess we‟re social people and we like hanging out with other people. And, you know, spending our time together was fantastic. And then just sometimes running into them, you know, finding out what they did and hearing their stories, and saying, “oh, maybe we‟ll try that,” or, you know, getting information on a certain restaurant or
166 something like that. And just kind of being able to talk and share, you know, relaying our experiences. It was just casual and we kind of knew them for a while. While most of the consumers did not make lifelong friends at the marketing experience, the study finds that they did enjoy interacting with others. As Adam suggests, one of the reasons for this interaction was that he and his wife got to gather information. This allowed them to explore possibilities that they may not have considered. Another reason is that it gave them a chance to share their own experiences. As we saw in the narrativity section, storytelling plays an important part in the engagement of a marketing experience. The data suggest that while consumers enjoy telling their stories to others who directly shared in the same aspects of the marketing experience, they also enjoy telling their stories to others who did not directly participate in the same aspects of the offering. This allows the consumers to process their experiences in relation to the whole and to create memories of the offering. As we saw earlier, because most consumers engaged the offering as a social unit, they had to seek others outside of their social group to share their different experiences. Lastly, social connectivity can also take place between the consumer and the producers of the marketing experience. This usually takes place among the consumers and the front-line performers, characters, or experience providers. For example, Bill talks about what he liked most about the Garth Brooks concert: That‟s really hard. Yeah, because it was actually, well, he‟s an excellent performer - lots of interaction with the audience. And he seemed to be clearly, well, enjoying it, rather than, you know, I‟ve been to some concerts where, they‟re just kind of going through the motions and just performing. He also
167 seemed generally impressed and happy with the response of the crowd … It was such an amazing concert. Just the interaction between the performer and the crowd had a major impact. The experience of being with the crowd, and the impact of the crowd on the event, that was great. Everyone was so excited and into it, and the interaction with the crowd, and I think he kind of encouraged it. One of the things Bill liked most about the experiential interface with the concert was the social interaction between Garth Brooks and the audience. He would talk to the audience in between songs and encourage audience participation during the songs. Bill felt that this created more excitement than other concerts he attended in which the performer did not try to create a sense of social connectivity. In summary, the study finds that the experiential interface is made up of three types of connectivity: intentional connectivity, temporal connectivity, and social connectivity. Intentional connectivity refers to the projection of both the marketing experience and the consumer. The intentionality of the marketing experience directs the consumers‟ attention to provide a particular perspective. The intentionality of the consumers directs the consumers‟ attention to specific aspects of the marketing experience in order to interpret and ascribe meaning to the offering. Temporal connectivity refers to the fact that the production and consumption of a marketing experience takes place over time. Temporal connectivity includes the pre-engagement, engagement, and post-engagement connection between the offering and the consumer. The data suggest that it is the entire temporal connection that enhances the experiential interface with the offering. Social connectivity refers to both the connection that the consumer has with other consumers and the experiential provider and with other
168 consumers. Consumers‟ level of involvement is often affected by direct, indirect, or vicarious social participation. The connection between the experience provider and the consumers encourages more interaction with the offering.
The Consumer Experience: Holistic Ties The experiential literature has examined the connection between the consumer and the offering primarily in terms of processes involved in the experiential interface. The literature that has examined the connectivity of the consumer experience has focused mainly on issues of expectations and satisfaction (Arnould and Price 1993; Deighton 1992). While this research finds that there is a complex relationship between these consumer inputs and outputs, it is primarily through the experiential interface that these connections are forged. This study finds that not all of the connections with an experiential offering are an outcome of the experiential interface. The data suggest that there is also a deeper personal connection that underlies the enjoyment of experiential offerings. Even when consumers have never engaged an experiential offering before, their enjoyment usually comes from drawing some connection between the offering and their personal interests. As with the other forms of connectivity, this personal connectivity is not simply a matching of corresponding elements, but a holistic connection based on a combination of factors. This section will examine the nature of personal connectivity and the consumer experience. Personal Connectivity. The study finds that both the desire to engage a marketing experience and the enjoyment derived from this engagement is a function of a personal connection, past or present, with the offering. Whether the person is involved in sports, painting, or history, there is something about the marketing experience that they find
169 personally relevant. For example, Jamie talks about what she considers the most important aspects of college football: The first important aspect of a [college] football game is a love of football. The experience does not have as much impact if you do not enjoy the sport. Secondly, school pride is important. [College] football games revolve around a love and appreciation for our school and its athletic teams. Finally, and most importantly in my opinion, is the tradition involved. The [school] tradition is very strong and without a focus on this tradition, the experience would not be the same at all … My love of college football, school pride, and love of the [school] tradition is what absorbed me in the experience. Jamie indicates that she has a personal connection with college football on three levels. First, she loves football and feels that this is very important to enjoyment of the game. Without some kind of interest in football or sports in general, attending the games would not have as strong an impact beyond the spectacle of the event. Second, Jamie is connected to the college football games through her school pride. She shows her support for her school by attending the games and being actively involved. Third, she is connected to the football games through the school traditions. In fact, the traditions allow her to connect not only with the football games she attends, but to the whole history of the athletic program and the university. All of these aspects of personal connectivity provided her a means of accessing the offering. While there is much research that suggests that consumers use marketing experiences to construct or refine their identities (e.g., Arnould and Thompson 2005; Carù and Cova 2007a; Firat and Venkatesh 1995), the data casts some doubt on these
170 findings. None of the almost 200 consumers who participated in the study suggested directly or indirectly that they were involved in a particular marketing experience because of some self-actualization need to satisfy the goals of their identity projects. This rational, goal seeking behavior, whether overt or tacit, seems to run counter to the holistic and ludic nature of experiential consumption (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982). Rather than speaking about being motivated to work on their identity project, consumers simply talked about their desire to engage the marketing experience because they could “relate” it to aspects of their lives. These reasons were not based on logical or causal connections, but on holistic and hedonic associations between themselves and the offering. For example, Daisy talks about the connection she felt with the performance of Hairspray: I had like taken dance, and actually, the friends that I went with, they were totally impressed that I would know some of the dance moves. Not that I was standing up and doing them. But I kept whispering to them, I used to have a skirt like that, or my older sister had this, or you know, because it honestly did relate a lot to me, because I kind of lived through that … I think I was very involved with the music, with the dance routines, things like that. It didn‟t mirror my life. I‟m not sure it mirrors anyone‟s life. But the messages behind it, the Black/White issues, being overweight, being the outcast, no matter if it‟s overweight or a different race or whatever, could be related to anyone‟s life, and so I could see how, you know, she, or any person, when you‟re a teenager, you feel you‟re the only one that‟s ugly, that really hit home. I think they had a really good way of showing that. Like Jamie, Daisy could relate to many different things in the performance of Hairspray. She had taken dance classes when she was young, so she could relate to both the dance
171 story and the actual dancing in the show. She grew up as a teenager during this time period, so she could relate to the historical and cultural aspects of the story. She could also remember what it was like being a teenager and could also relate to that. As she mentions, the story does not mirror her life, nor does it involve her in some kind of identity production. In fact, later on in the interview, she states that she is glad that we no longer live during that time. Even so, she states that she really enjoyed the performance because of the music and the dancing, and it brought back memories of her teenage years. It is important to note that this personal connectivity does not mean that consumers are simply looking for a perfect match between their interests and the marketing experience. In fact, the data suggest that personal connection is usually just a starting point for consumers to extend their interests or alter their perspective. For example, Lilly talks about her interest in aquariums: They bred sharks for us one year, and, we got to raise them in the classroom. And so, I‟m always looking [at the aquarium], you know, where are the shark eggs. Like, I know they‟re probably out there. So I‟m really kind of looking deeper into what‟s really going on there. And the same thing with the other fish, like there‟s a tuna over there that only has half a tail. It must have gotten too close to the sharks. You know, I wonder if they have problems with predation in the tank and things like that. They have sharks and they have reef fish and they have, you know, I mean they have the entire cycle there. And so, I don‟t know. I like going through a place where it really does challenge, you know, my thoughts and things. Lilly is a water science major with a deep personal interest in the oceans and aquatic wildlife. So there is a definite personal connection between her interests and her desire to
172 go to aquariums. At the same time, she does not go simply to confirm what she knows, but also to challenge her ideas and extend her interests. This and similar quotes suggests that while a personal connection is important, there is also something incomplete, partial, or absent in this connection that makes these marketing experiences appealing. Here we see the relationship between personal connectivity and narrativity. Part of the desire to engage these offerings is to use one‟s personal connection to participate in the story. Lastly, while it is usually the desire to use one‟s personal connection to address the incomplete aspects of the marketing experience that makes the offering appealing, the data suggest that those consumers who did not have any personal connection with the marketing experience had the lowest level of involvement and satisfaction with the offering. For example, Jennifer talks about her trip to the amusement park, Six Flags: I went to the Six Flags in Dallas with four other girls. It was open during the week of spring break so many people were there … [I was least involved in] actually deciding to go to Six Flags. I could have cared less about going there. I would have preferred to go shopping. I‟m not into amusement parks. I also didn‟t choose the place to eat for lunch … It was barely satisfying … I only got to go on a ride 3 times - that‟s pathetic for paying $45. The lines were unreal, I couldn‟t believe it … My money was not spent well. I would rather have saved that. I just am not the biggest fan of amusement parks. Jennifer only went to Six Flags because she was with her friends on spring break vacation and that is where they wanted to go. As the quote indicates, she had no personal interest in the amusement park and would have rather gone shopping. Although she did not go on many rides, she indicates that this was mostly her choice. She stayed behind while her
173 friends went on the rides. It is interesting that the one ride she liked, the Batman rollercoaster, she decided to go on because this was her favorite comic book character. Overall, though, her lack of personal connection with amusement parks is reflected in her dissatisfaction with the offering. In summary, the study finds that the consumer experience is made up primarily of personal connectivity. While communal connectivity contributes to what the consumer finds interesting about the marketing experience and social connectivity contributes to how the consumer engages the experiential interface, personal connectivity contributes to why the consumer engages the marketing experiences. Unlike in goods or services marketing where consumers seek a particular functional or instrumental benefit, the data suggest that consumers of marketing experiences seek some form of personal connection with the offering. This connection is not based on some identity-based goal-related behavior, but is rooted in a form of intentionally-directed ludic desire. That is, the study does not find the traditional need activation, motivation, involvement, and goal-seeking process rooted in a person‟s identity project, but rather the data suggest a desire-driven, autotelic, and holistic process rooted in a form of personal relatedness. In addition, this connection does not have to be a perfect match. In fact, consumers usually seek out a marketing experience to explore and further their personal interests. This is not done in order to accomplish a goal, but rather in the sense of expanding one‟s horizons. Overall, the study finds that personal connectivity underlies the desire to engage a marketing experience and typically drives the consumer to choose one particular marketing experience over another.
174 Multiplicity and Experiential Marketing Many early works in the experiential literature sought to highlight the multidimensional nature of experiential marketing, especially in terms of its various constitutive elements (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; Holbrook and Hirschman 1982; Holbrook et al. 1984; Unger and Kernan 1983). Later works sought to refine and conceptualize these various elements (Pine and Gilmore 1999; Schmitt 1999), but a clear understanding of the constitutive elements of experiential marketing is still needed. This section will examine these elements in relation to the three dimensions of experiential marketing (i.e., the marketing experience, the experiential interface, and the consumer experience).
The Marketing Experience: Theatre The study finds that the key multiplicity characteristic of a marketing experience is captured in the idea of theatre. For this dissertation, theater refers to both the dramatic form and function of the marketing experience. From the very earliest experiential offerings mentioned in the introduction (e.g., Greek plays, Roman Circuses, and Medieval Fairs) to the more modern marketing experiences that are the focus of this research (e.g., Amusement Parks, Museums, and Zoos), all of them have some type of theatrical form and structure that facilitate the production of the offering. This raises the following question: what are the theatrical elements of a marketing experience? While the specific elements of a marketing experience will differ with the nature of the offering, it is possible to distinguish some more general characteristics of theater that underlie an experiential offering.
175 Intended Effect. Much of the research into the theatrical aspects of marketing has focused on the dramaturgical elements of theater (e.g., frontstage/backstage, scripts, roles, setting) that are important in producing and staging an exciting and participatory environment for consumers (e.g., Goffman 1959; Grove and Fisk 1992; Harris, Harris, and Baron 2003; Pine and Gilmore 1999; Williams and Anderson 2005). While this study finds that these elements are important to a marketing experience, the one that seems to lie at the heart of an experiential offering is its intended effect (Baron, Harris, and Harris 2001; Pavis 1993). As Baron et al. (2001, p. 103) state, “In the theater, each performance is designed to achieve a very specific audience reaction.” That is, a performance does not simply try to elicit any and all effects, but has a very specific intended effect that it seeks to achieve. The data suggest that it is this specific intended effect that directly impacts the production and staging of a marketing experience. Like the specific dramaturgical elements, the intended effect of the experiential offering is a marketing decision and will depend on the nature of the offering. For example, Tim, a Renaissance festival merchant, talks about the intended effect of the festivals: Oh absolutely I truly believe it is an imaginative experience. I truly believe it is because we‟re in the 21st century now and the Renaissance took place in the 15th and 16th century in a totally different country on a totally different continent and we‟re trying to replicate it here, which in some cases it might be close and in other cases it‟s way off, but it‟s all a matter of your imagination. How close do you believe it is and how realistic do you believe it is? It‟s all in your own mind.
176 If you use your imagination, it really does help to take you back to the actual period. For Tim, the intended effect of a Renaissance festival is to stimulate the consumers‟ imaginations and to transport them to this period in history. The fact that the festivals are not authentic reproductions of this time period not only requires the consumers to use their imaginations to access this offering, but it also keeps the intended effect from being an intellectual or historical response. In fact, many of the consumers who were interviewed acknowledged that the festivals were not historically accurate, but stated that this did not affect their enjoyment. For them, the lack of authenticity did not detract from the offering because this was not a part of the intended effect. It is important to note that a marketing experience does not have to have only one intended effect. In fact, it is possible to produce and stage a marketing experience that intends one or more effects either independently or in relation to one another. For example, Catherine, the Curator of Education, talks about the intention of the fine arts museum where she works: I think that, that the true experience in an art museum is an aesthetic response. And then how does education come into that? I would hope that the aesthetic experience causes your mind to wonder a little bit about why you‟re having that aesthetic response or experience. So at that point then enters the education aspect of it. What do I need to know more about why I‟m responding this way? What else can I find out about how this painter put this color on this canvas? Or, you know, help me understand why I‟m responding this way.
177 Catherine states that the intended effect of the fine arts museum is to produce an aesthetic response. In addition, the curators hope that this initial aesthetic response will lead to an educational response. That is, Catherine states that she hopes that viewing the art work will cause the visitors to wonder about the aesthetic response and cause them to ask questions and to seek answers to these questions. Experiential Stimuli. Pine and Gilmore (1999), utilizing a performance model, argue that two things that define theatre are its form and function. In addition to the function of theater (i.e., the intended effect), producers of a marketing experience need to consider the form of theater (i.e., the stimuli) by which to produce this effect. Schmitt (1999) argues that the ideal marketing experience instantiates all of the various experiential stimuli (e.g., sensorial, emotional, intellectual, fanciful, physical, social, and spiritual) into an integrated offering. But just as marketing experiences do not need to intend every possible effect for them to be engaging, it is not necessary to incorporate every possible stimuli into an experiential offering for it to have its intended effect. The data suggest that while all of these stimuli may be present in an experiential offering, it is only necessary to include those stimuli that lead to the effect. While the exact stimuli will depend on the nature of the exhibit, there are some strategies that underlie the utilization of stimuli. For example, Luis, the curator an American history museum, talks about the production of exhibits at the museum: The art of the museum professionals is how, and in what format, do you compile the information and deliver that information in order to make it effective … First you need a pretext – the point of view of the exhibit … Then you have to decide how these things are arranged on the stage. So the work is to stage the things
178 perfectly. Exhibiting art is to prepare a stage. You have to have a plan, though, of complementing the exhibit. It also has to be a multidisciplinary exhibit in terms of providing the types of things that the audience is going to be looking for … For example, we had an exhibit of personal documents from the first 23 presidents of the nation. The first 100 years of democracy in the U.S. You know, this is something that can be very boring for the family group. So how do you make this more effective? One thing is to provide variety. So complementing that, adding to the document itself are three dimensional items that are related to that person. Adding depth, that‟s what it is – depth. You need to add layers to stimulate the visitor and capture the essence of the exhibit. I mean, there needs to be something for everyone. Luis states that the intended effect drives the decisions concerning which stimuli to incorporate into the exhibit. The decision starts with the “pretext” of the exhibit. The pretext is essentially the intended effect or the purpose of the exhibit. This pretext then dictates what is going to go into the exhibit and how it is staged. The stimuli are not simply thrown together, but are deliberately staged according to a plan. Part of the plan is to add depth to the offering in order to reach consumers on different levels. One thing that makes it difficult to talk about experiential stimuli in a marketing experience is that almost anything can function as a stimulus. What is it that distinguishes experiential stimuli? The study finds that the theatrical staging of a marketing experience encompasses two main forms of stimuli: the material and the symbolic. While less attention has been give to the material experiential stimuli in the literature (e.g.,
179 Heilbrunn 2007), the study finds that these stimuli play an important role in most marketing experiences. For example, Debbie talks about her cruise ship: The sight for sure is just the huge ship. I mean it‟s just massive. I think it was just great. I guess I just never imagined the ship could look like that on the inside. I just thought it‟d be kind of plain and, you know. So just to see all that glitzy look and stuff, was just really neat. The physical part is just getting from end to end, you know walking. There are all kinds of things you can do, walking around the cruise ship and then you can also go down in the engine room, you can go to the gym, they have that. They have rock climbing. There are all kinds of physical things to do. Part of the enjoyment of the cruise for Debbie was simply the ship itself. The size of the ship and its décor were definitely part of her enjoyment. Plus, the ship itself provided many different physical activities in which she and her husband could engage during their cruise. All of these material factors play a key role in her cruise experience. While the material dimensions of the experiential stimuli are important to the intended effect, most researchers have focused on the symbolic aspects of the stimuli (e.g., Firat and Dholakia 1998; Santoro and Trolio 2007). According to the literature, a fundamental aspect of any experiential stimulus is its symbolic characteristics (Levy 1959, 1963). Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) argue that an experiential offering is not simply what it is, but also what it represents. This study finds that while most marketing experiences have a material aspect to them, the experiential offerings also exist as complex sign systems of signifiers and signifieds (Mick 1986; Santoro and Troilo 2007). That is, the material stimuli of a marketing experience may transmit the intended effect,
180 but it is the symbolic nature of the stimuli that attributes meaning to this effect. Although the relationship between signifier and signified is arbitrary (Saussure 1916), this study found that most consumers ascribe a particular meaning to the effect of the marketing experience and focus on the stimuli associated with this meaning. For example, Jim talks about what he thinks are the most important aspects of a theme park: The rides are definitely the most important aspect to the overall experience at Worlds of Fun. The rides are what create the atmosphere. You hear the screams from the roller coasters and see the tallest rides from miles away before you get there, and that creates excitement for the upcoming experience … I think that the ride themselves ARE the experience, and they are enhanced by the excitement felt as you wait in line to ride the ride. When you get into the canopy covering the loading area, the excitement hits its climax before getting onto the actual ride. You hear the announcement about buckling up and it mentions how fast or how high the ride will take you. This enhances the experience of excitement … Riding the actual rides physically excites you and for [visitors], they can be emotionally stimulated after they ride a ride that had previously scared them for the first time. As Jim mentions, the primary stimuli “are” the rides because they create the atmosphere at the theme park and generate the feeling of excitement. This quote is interesting because it shows the complex relationship between the stimuli and the effect in an experiential offering. The two are completely intertwined and are based on the consumers‟ perceptions. While the marketer may intend for a particular stimulus to produce a specific effect, it is the consumer who ultimately interprets the stimuli, determines the perceived effect, and ascribes the meaning to the offering. This can be
181 done in many different ways. For Jim, the rides are intertwined with the atmosphere of the theme park, the anticipation of waiting in line, the thrill that is experienced during the ride, and the excitement that is felt afterwards. Thus, the meaning of the theme park is filtered through his perceptions and attributed to what he thinks is important. The symbolic relationship between the experiential stimuli and effect can be attributed in many different ways. For example, Heidi also talks about what she thinks are the most important aspects of the theme park she attended: The most important aspects of this theme park are the quality of the rides, such as the speed of the roller coaster or the height of it. The scariness of the rides and the creativity of them are also important … The aspects I was most interested in were the height or scariness of the roller coasters. The more the adventure, the more fun they were and the more likely I was going to return to ride them again … The aspects that increased the value of the theme park were once again the roller coasters‟ uniqueness. There were some that went backwards and some that were made out of wood. Others went over 60 mph and some went upside down. Heidi also identifies the material rides, particularly the roller coasters, as the primarily stimuli at the theme park. At the same time, she associated the roller coasters with their symbolic liminal characteristics. For her, the roller coasters represented a sense of adventure (i.e., the perceived effect) in terms of their scariness, creativity, and uniqueness. All of these things made the roller coasters extraordinary. The greater the sense of adventure associated with a roller coaster, the more she sought them out and the more likely she was going to ride them again.
182 While the experiential effect that the consumer seeks may be the same, the symbolic relationship between the stimuli and the effect may differ among consumers. For example, Nate also talks about what he liked most about the amusement park he attended: The things that I liked most about Cedar Point were the roller coasters. Many of these roller coasters have world records for height and speed and are often shown on the Travel Channel … The main thing that I purchased was a fun and entertaining time. I was there for the thrill and the experience of going on these amazing roller coasters. I wanted to feel that adrenaline rush on the roller coasters and that was definitely what I purchased … The value of the park to me was the thrill of going on the amazing roller coasters. I have always loved thrill rides and am always looking for the parks that have the most exciting rides. I had a lot of fun and got to enjoy the thrills of being scared and excited all at once. All of these activities made for a very positive experience. I had an awesome time and found the thrill rides I was looking for when I went up there … For Nate, the primary experiential effect that he was seeking was the emotional thrill of being scared and excited at the same time. The primarily stimuli that he associates with these effects are the material roller coasters. But while Heidi associated the symbolic aspects of the stimuli with its liminal characteristics, Nate associates them with their narrative characteristics. He talks about how many roller coasters at Cedar Point hold world records for height and speed and have been featured on television. The narratives associated with the roller coasters are a big draw for Nate. He went to Cedar Point to experience the most exciting and amazing roller coasters in the world.
183 Multiple Stimuli and Effects. Although most consumers identify a primary experiential stimulus and effect with a marketing experience, this does not mean that the other stimuli and effects are not important. In fact, as previously mentioned, it is the combination of various stimuli and effects and that consumers seek in an experiential offering. In fact, consumers often get bored with an offering that has a limited number of stimuli and effects. For example, Steve talks about a music museum he visited: “It was mostly an intellectual experience. You just learned about what artists were from the area and got to look at some of the things they had donated to the place.” When asked if he would go again, he said that he had already seen everything it had to offer and had no reason to return. Instead, many consumers talked about the importance of the global experience, the total package, and the overall environment when assessing the marketing experience. For example, Stanley talks about all of the different factors that affected him at a college football game: The most important part of the [football game] has to be the environment … I think sight, sound, smell, taste and all involved. From hearing the crowd, to tasting the food, to smelling the stadium, to seeing the perfect field, they are all part of the overall experience. The games can definitely be an emotional roller coaster if they aren‟t going the right way for [team]. Intellectually, the game can get very interesting from the standpoint of sitting next to different people and attaining different point of views. It can stimulate you physically by standing and cheering the entire game! … Again, the environment is what I was most happy with and the primary reasons why most go the games.
184 Stanley indicates that while the main effect he seeks from the football games is the environment, all of the different stimuli contributed to this effect and affected his overall enjoyment of the games. The football game consisted of sensorial, emotional, intellectual, and physical stimuli all in one offering. Stanley says that it is this combination of factors that contributes to the environment and that causes him to go to the games. Because experiential offerings are based on both objective and subjective stimuli, the importance of specific stimuli and effects will differ depending on the consumer. For example, Tim talks about a rock concert that he attended: The sights, sounds, and smells of the concert were almost numbing … Typical concert stuff, lights, loud music, crazy band members doing anything to entertain the crowd, but the best was a ton of pyrotechnics that were used during the headliner band‟s show. They heated the already hot place up and made the experience ten times better than without the explosions and fire … Music is very emotionally charged, and if it is a good concert it will draw emotions out of the audience. I did not feel intelligent at all. The band tried to push its political points of view, and this was bad to me because it took away from the idea of going to a concert to avoid intellectually stimulating material. Physically this concert was tiring, and it was fun to bounce around for a while. Tim says that he specifically enjoyed the sensorial, emotional, and physical aspects of the concert. He liked the pyrotechnics, the music, and the mash pit, but he was turned off by what he felt was the band trying to push its political views on the audience. In this case, the intellectual stimuli actually detracted from the experience, but not enough to spoil the experience for him. So while most consumers focus on the particular set of stimuli they
185 liked the most about the offering, the other factors play a role in the creation of the global experience, which ultimately underlies the perceived effect. While each consumer will focus on different aspects of the marketing experience, the data suggest that each person perceives all of the factors as either contributing to or detracting from the symbolic meaning of the offering. Each factor plays a different role in the process, but they all contribute to the overall meaning in the sign system of the offering. Conclusion. In summary, the multiplicity characteristics of the marketing experience are captured by the idea of theatre. Theatre encompasses the dramatic form and function of a marketing experience. The key function of theatre is that every performance is designed to create a specific intended effect in the audience. While the intended effect will depend on the nature of the offering and the desires of the producers, it directly impacts the production and staging of the marketing experience. In addition, the marketing experience does not need only one intended effect, but can have multiple effects. These effects can be related or separate. The study finds that the intended effect directly impacts consumers‟ expectations regarding the offering. The study also finds that the intended effect directly affects the dramatic form of the marketing experience. The two forms of stimuli that are used to produce the intended dramatic effect include the material and the symbolic. While the material is often used to elicit the effect, it is the symbolic which gives it meaning. The particular stimuli that are used in a marketing experience will depend on the intended effect. The fact that stimuli exist in a sign system means that although the producers may intend a particular effect, it is the perspective of the consumer of both forms of stimuli that determine the actual effect. Thus, it is the consumer that translates the intended effect of the marketing
186 experience into the perceived effect. The study finds that if multiple effects are intended, the consumer will perceive them separately, but evaluate the offering in terms of the total effects.
The Experiential Interface: Performance Continuing with the theatrical perspective, this study finds that the key multiplicity aspect of the experiential interface is the performance. A performance is the set of activities that occur between the performers and an audience (Grove and Fisk 1992). Within a performance, both the actors and the audience play a role in the unfolding event. It is this mutual involvement by both the producers and the consumers that distinguish the performance nature of the experiential interface. The nature of these roles and the level of involvement depend on the type of offering being performed. This section will examine the roles of both the producers and consumers in the performance of the experiential interface. Producers. While research has examined the role of the producers in the performance of a marketing experience, it suggests that the producers play a direct and important role in the experiential interface (e.g., Arnould et al. 1998). This study finds that the role of the experience providers in the actual performance is extremely variable. This can range from providing basic information about the marketing experience to leading the consumer through the offering. For example, Catherine talks about the role of the producers of a fine arts museum: Those are curatorial decisions. Curators are those museum professionals who choose what will be exhibited, and as a general rule, they determine how much additional information is going to be hanging beside those paintings. But
187 educators recognize the multiple ways in which people learn, so some people don‟t want any stuff. They‟re just like, “I came in here to look at the Rothko. Leave me alone. Don‟t tell me anything.” Somebody else is going to come in and say, “do you have a book on Rothko? I want to take it down and sit on the bench in front of that Rothko painting and read this book while I‟m looking at it. I need that information.” Some people want an audio guide. They want someone with a nice voice telling them what it is they‟re looking at and why they‟re looking at it. Some people want a brochure, so we provide brochures. Some people want a docent to give them a tour. So, you know, I understand all those multiple ways, and it is incumbent on the staff to see that those are available. Catherine states that the museum staff can play multiple roles in the experiential interface, many of which are indirect and unobtrusive. For example, some visitors do not want to interact with the experience providers and just want to enjoy the offering by themselves or with other visitors. This result was supported by many consumers across various types of marketing experiences. From a liminal perspective, while some people want a guide on their adventure, for others it seems to ruin the overall effect. Here, the offering itself is the attraction and consumers want to engage it directly. For others, they simply want some kind of map (e.g., brochure, book, or audio-tape) to help them with their adventure. And still others need a guide. While the literature suggest that this may be a result of the level of expertise of the consumer (Podestà and Addis 2007), this study finds that it is more of a function of the type of adventure the consumer wants to have. The data suggest that while there is considerable variance in the role of the experience provider in the performance of the offering, the actual execution of
188 performance is extremely important to a successful experiential interface. For example, Eddie, the Director of Marketing for a major resort, talks about staging events: Have we put on events that people don‟t like? Yeah, because sometimes we weren‟t expecting certain things to happen that did. Sometimes it was because it was of out of our control and sometimes we just didn‟t have our ducks in a row. We tried to put out an event too quick and we didn‟t have it planned well enough. And so a lot of it‟s execution of the event. Execution, I think, that has a lot to do with it. And you‟ll always know too if it was a good event by the response of how many people are there. If it was an experience that they felt had value, that‟ll tell us a lot. Eddie states that execution is critical to minimize any problems with the performance. While it is impossible to control everything associated with the offering, it is necessary to have a well planned script to guide the performance. Depending on the type of offering, the script may simply determine the content of the marketing experience and its presentation, or it may determine the actual course of events during the actual performance. Either way, it is important to manage the performance in order to facilitate the experiential interface. At the same time, it is neither possible nor desirable, in many cases, to control everything in the performance. In fact, it is often the unexpected that leads to a memorable performance. For example, Karen, an assistant marketing director for a college sports team, talks about the level of control of a football game: Before the game and during the timeouts, I mean, it‟s all scripted out so it‟s not random or anything. We know weeks ahead of time what‟s going to be taking
189 place … I mean with any sporting event, you can‟t plan for a memorable experience. And with a memorable experience, I think, the biggest chance that you‟ll have one of those is if something special happens during the game. You know, like, going to that game, you‟ll always remember the event if something big happens like a player does something amazing or scores really big. I think the events of the game can really dictate the experience. Sure, we can try to do fun things during the game or do stuff to entertain the fans, but I don‟t think that would create a memorable experience. Karen states that although all of the events during the breaks and the half-time are planned, they cannot control what happens on the field. In fact, she says that while they can try to do things to entertain the fans, they cannot create memorable experiences. Execution and control are thus ways to minimize any negative effects of the performance, but it does not guarantee a successful, or in this case, memorable performance. Performances can be executed perfectly and still be boring. Consumers. How involved does a consumer have to be in the performance of the marketing experience for it to engaging? The concept of involvement has a long history in the marketing literature (e.g., Celsi and Olson 1988; Houston and Rothschild 1978; Howard and Sheth 1969; Krugman 1967) and is usually defined as an internal state of arousal that is evoked by motivation and directed towards achieving a goal (Arnould, Price, and Zinkhan 2004; Zaichkowsky 1985). The experiential literature, while perhaps not directly using the involvement construct, has focused attention on the degree of consumer participation in the production and meaning of experiential offerings (e.g., Arnould and Price 1993; Belk and Costa 1998; Kozinets et al 2004). This literature
190 suggests that the more the consumer is involved in the production of the experience, the more rewarding it will be (Cova and Rémy 2007). This study finds that while most consumers perceived their involvement as only moderate, they still indicated that they were very satisfied with the offering. In fact, there were even some consumers who classified their involvement as low, but who indicated that they were highly satisfied with the marketing experience. For example, Kelly talks about her involvement in The Phantom of the Opera: I: How would you rate your overall involvement? K: My overall involvement was low. I did not have to go anywhere or do anything to enjoy the play; I just had to sit in my seat and watch. I: How would you evaluate the quality of the performance? K: High. I: What factors affected the quality? K: The talent of the actors and musicians, the atmosphere that was presented in the theater. I: Were you satisfied? K: Yes, very much so. The performance was very well done. Although Kelly indicated that her involvement was very low, she said that the performance was of high quality and that she was very satisfied. She was not involved in the staging of the performance and she took mainly a passive role in the production of the play. At the same time, she enjoyed the quality of the acting and the atmosphere of the theater. This suggests that involvement in the actual production of the offering may not be directly related to enjoyment or satisfaction.
191 What is interesting is that most consumers in the study interpreted involvement as participation in the material production of the offering. Consumers readily admitted that they were not in control of what happened on the football field, the music at a rock concert, or the layout of the paintings at a fine arts museum. For example, Katherine talks about her involvement at a rock concert: It was pretty low to medium involvement; we were really just there to listen to the music being played and sang, and to watch the light and video effects happen. We were most involved when audience participation was asked for during the songs, and rewarding the entertainers with applause and singing. The actual playing of the music and talent of the performers has nothing to do with the audience. All of that was provided for our enjoyment. Katherine makes a clear distinction between being involved as a spectator rather than as a performer. She was involved in listening, singing, and applauding, but she clearly felt that she was not involved in playing the music or the talent of the musicians. While it is possible for the spectators to have an effect on the performers, many of the consumers in the study equated involvement with control over the material production of the offering. Unlike the experiential literature that suggests that consumers have to be involved in the material production of the offering in order to enjoy it (e.g., Belk and Costa 1998; Kozinets 2002), most of the consumers in this study did not want to be that involved in the material production of the marketing experience. For most of them, this was their vacation and they wanted to relax. For example, Cathy talks about her involvement on a cruise that she and her husband took around the Caribbean: I was able to sit at the pool for hours at a time relaxing and doing nothing or I
192 could be very active in the day shore excursions. The activity director did a fantastic job of scheduling many varied activities the entire week and it was just a matter of deciding what to participate in. From what I could see there was truly something for everyone. Like many of the consumers in the study, Cathy said that she enjoyed the cruise because she could just relax and do nothing. Even when she wanted to be more active, she let the activities director do all of the work and was simply involved in choosing the different excursions and going on the trips. Material production is usually associated with work. Work, in turn, is usually associated with goals and the processes to achieve these goals. Thus, it is not surprising that consumers perceived their involvement in the marketing experience as only moderate. The data indicate that most consumers in the study did not engage the marketing experience to work or to achieve particular goals. In fact, the experiential literature shows that most consumers do not have clear goals or know what to expect from an experiential offering (Arnould and Price 1993). Instead, the data suggest that most consumers seek what Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) proposed over 25 years ago: “feelings, fantasy, and fun.” For example, Sara talks about her involvement at the resort at which she and her husband stayed: They always tried to make it fun for you, and to get you involved and part of it and have a great experience … Like everybody there went out of their way to help you have a good time, or do what they could for you to make it better or more relaxing, or whatever you wanted to do. And like, I mean, it really felt like it was all about us. I mean, I know they just work there, but they always had fun too, the
193 employees did … No, we were probably at the low end [of involvement]. We, the both of us, would just kind of, you know, it‟s more fun for us to sit back and watch. They would try to bring people out of the crowd to do like dances or different routines. They wouldn‟t make you do it if you didn‟t want to, though, but we were definitely like, let‟s sit back here so we know that we‟re not going to get grabbed out of the crowd to do something. It was fun to watch some different people, you know, like try and dance. Sara says that the resort was all about fun and relaxation. The resort staff members were not there to put the visitors to work, but to help them have fun. Even when they tried to get the visitors “involved,” it was not to help them achieve goals or work on projects, but simply to be part of the experience. Even with this low level of involvement, Sara still says that she felt that it was all about them. This raises the question, what are the multiplicity aspects of the performance that help consumers to achieve a sense of fun? The literature suggests that one way that consumers can do this is through play (Holbrook et al. 1984; Holt 1995, Kozinets et al. 2004). According to Huizinga (1970), play has three fundamental characteristics: 1) play is free and voluntary activity, 2) play is secluded and limited, and 3) play exists outside the sphere of ordinary life. Based on these characteristics, play is distinguished from work in that it is engaged for its own sake, it contains its own process and meaning, and it involves a sense of the extraordinary. Play, though, will differ greatly depending on the nature of the experiential offering. The data suggest some ways that play is enhanced in the different venues.
194 One thing that stimulates play in marketing experiences that contain more active consumer participation is choice. Providing an array of choices to consumers in a marketing experience gives them more opportunities to play and have fun. For example, Jill talks about all of the choices she had on her cruise: There were a lot of activities on board, and the other thing was, you have, an incredible number of choices once you reach a port, whether you want to stay on the ship or whether you want to go out and you want to do things … So I guess the great thing about a cruise is you could be as busy or as relaxed as you wanted to be. So I think that‟s, you know, the advantage of them. Lots of times [my husband] would want to just relax on the deck, and I wanted to take classes. So I would always go to the lectures before we went to the port where we were going to go, or I took line dancing just for fun, you know, a variety of kinds of things … When I look back, we didn‟t research all that much before we left. At least that work was all done for you, so you could really find an activity that fit what it was you liked to do. I mean they had submarine kind of tours out into the water or you could go biking to private beaches. There was just a huge variety of things you could choose to do … Personally I thought that was fun, because I don‟t ever get to do anything like that. Jill says that number and variety of choices allowed her and her husband to choose those activities that fit their desires. She says that all “work” was done for them, and all they had to do was to relax and enjoy themselves. The multiplicity of choices allowed them to engage in activities for their own sake, experience things out of the ordinary, and have fun.
195 In marketing experiences that contain more passive consumer participation, the data suggest that immersion facilitates the full enjoyment of the multiplicity aspects of the offering. For example, Riley talks about her enjoyment of the performance of The Lion King: Sitting in the theatre and being able to watch all the performers and see the production was the most important aspect of the show. My experience was heightened by having a seat close to the stage, so the production was more intense for me because I could see everything close-up and paid more attention to the details. For example, at the beginning of the show all the performers paraded down the aisles of the theatre in their costumes and walked up to the stage. Because I was sitting on the bottom level, they all walked right by me and I was able to see the costuming and all the actors really close, which made the production a lot more fun. I think the costumes of this particular show really helped to make the experience. Because all the characters are actually animals, it took a lot of creativity and innovation to be able to let humans play the parts of the animals and yet when I watched the show I really felt like it was animals up there on stage. For Riley, the fact that she had a seat close to the stage made all of the elements of the performance “more intense.” This caused her to focus her attention on the details of the various stimuli and to be more engaged in the show. She enjoyed the freedom of letting her imagination go in the secluded and cohesive nature of play. This allowed her to experience the extraordinary. All of these multiple elements came together to facilitate the feeling of fun.
196 One thing that seems to facilitate involvement in the performance of the experiential interface is the sharing of the experience with others. The data indicate that when a marketing experience is consumed by a group, it allows for a broader and deeper level of engagement in the performance of the offering. For example, Jessica talks about how the social aspect of going to an amusement park enhanced her experience: My friends were probably the main source of my enjoyment. I wouldn‟t have had nearly as much fun if I didn‟t have them with me and I went alone. We all shared in the experience together, sitting next to each other, psyching each other out, sharing in our anxiety for a scary ride, telling one another we‟ll make it through and we won‟t die … Socially, I got to share in all of this with my friends and take pictures and laugh and scream together. Jessica says that her friends were the primary source of her enjoyment at the amusement park. They made the trip fun for her because they got to share in all of the various elements of the amusement park. They talked about the various rides, shared in the emotions surrounding the rides, and physically endured the rides together. This practice of sharing is an interpretive process which gives meaning to the performance. This interpretive process does not deny the ludic quality of the engagement. As Huizinga (1970) argues, play creates a sense of order and meaning. Meaning is a creative social process, and one that takes on an important role in experiential interface where consumers must make sense of multiple factors associated with the offering. For example, Heather talks about her trip to Yellowstone National Park: Going on a trip and seeing what we saw creates different experiences as far as like what you even talk about, you know. I think it is important because maybe
197 sometimes you‟ll be in a situation and you‟ll be thinking about something, and it‟ll be like does this remind you of that? Or how do you think that works? And so like thinking about the geyser and it‟s like, how is it so timely? And I feel like, if you would be on some guided tour where I don‟t have relationship with these people, I may be having these questions in my head, and I mean, depending on the relationship I‟ve built, I may ask like, hey, so what do you think about that? But deeper things that you‟re like, you would need somebody you were more in relationship with to care, you know, feel comfortable sharing thoughts or whatever. I think that‟s, yeah, an invaluable thing. I just think there‟s something important about being able to share life with somebody else and not just, well this is nice, I‟m just taking it in. Heather says that the sharing with her other family members was a very important aspect of the trip. She was able to move from simply being a spectator and “just taking it in,” to being a more active participant in the meaning of the park. This did not mean that she had to be involved in the material production of the park, but only that she had someone to share her thoughts with and was able to engage in a discussion about the things that interested them. This allowed her to negotiate the various symbolic aspects of the park in a much deeper way, which made it much more meaningful for her. Conclusion. The multiplicity aspects of the experiential interface are captured by the theatrical idea of performance. Performance includes all activities engaged in by both the performers and the audience in the theater. In terms of the performers, the study finds that the role of experience provider varies with the type and level of adventure desired by the consumer. For those who want less risk, the experience provider often plays a larger
198 role. For those who want more risk, the experience provider often plays a lesser role. The data suggest that the experience provider should strive to control the material execution of the performance through a carefully planned script. This will help to minimize any negative effects of the performance. At the same time, the study finds that it is difficult to control the positive effects, particularly the memorable effects, of the performance. Memorable experiences are usually the result of something that is extraordinary, unexpected, and personally relevant. The study finds that most consumers are not that highly involved in the material production of the performance. They usually consider this a form of work that runs contrary to the very reasons for engaging the offering. Instead, they prefer to have the material aspects provided for them so that they can engage in some form of play. This play allows them to negotiate the material production of the performance, interpret the symbolic dimensions of the offering, and create their own meanings. Things that facilitate play and fun in a performance include choices, immersion, and sharing.
The Consumer Experience: Audience The study finds that the key multiplicity characteristic of the consumer experience is captured by the idea of audience (Baron et al. 2001; Grove and Fisk 1992). While some definitions of audience imply passive individuals that act simply as spectators, this dissertation defines the audience as individuals who deliberately engage an offering in order to participate in its dramatic form and function and to whom the proposed intended effect is directed. While the experiential consumption literature finds that most consumers only have vague expectations concerning an experiential offering (Arnould and Price 1993; Deighton 1992), this study finds that the audience anticipates the intended effect
199 whether it is unknown or known. That is, because the audience knows that a marketing experience inherently has an intended effect, the desire to discover or explore this effect is what drives the consumer experience. This section examines the perspective of firsttime and repeat audience members. First-Time Audience Members. The data indicate that not only do most first-time audience members have vague expectations regarding a marketing experience, but also that not knowing what to expect is a large part of the enjoyment of the offering. It is hard to imagine that not knowing if the new television that you just bought is going to function properly or if the surgery that you are about to undergo is going to be a success leads to a sense of enjoyment of the good or service, respectively. But with marketing experiences, this is precisely the case. For example, Diane talks about how not knowing what to expect of the costume party/performance she attended enhanced her experience: I really was expecting to just go and maybe there were some other people dressed up and that would be it, and we would go to the show … I think if I had known, it would have still been impressive. I mean, I think they just really did an outstanding job. I mean, if they had said, “Oh, by the way, you‟re going to go to this party and you‟re going to get free food and it‟s going to be like a 1920s theme,” I would have been like, okay. I mean it still would have been way better than what I was expecting. However, I think that in not knowing, I mean, I walked in and it was just almost completely overwhelming. You‟re just like, what is this? This is crazy. It was overwhelming, but in a really good way. So yeah, it probably did enhance it overall.
200 Diane states that her expectations were fairly vague and based primarily on the general nature of the offering. She thought that they were just going to dress up, see a couple of other people in similar attire, and then just go to the show. Instead, by not knowing what was going to happen, she was overwhelmed by all of the different stimuli in a very positive way. For her, the unknown positively enhanced the entire event. The sense of the unknown also affects the consumer‟s sense of anticipation. By not knowing what to expect, the data suggest that consumers grow more excited wondering what possible stimuli they are going to encounter and what will happen next. For example, Abbey talks about how the unknown impacted her experience of a concert she attended: It just made me anxious more than anything because I didn‟t know what to expect. I think if I knew what to expect, it would have decreased the value of my experience because I would have seen it all coming. While having a general understanding of the marketing experience and its intended effect is what attracts first-time audience members to a particular experiential offering, knowing too much about the offering detracts from its enjoyment. For Abbey, knowing beforehand everything that was going to happen at the concert would have detracted from the whole experience. Not only is the unknown a condition that audience members find appealing, but some consumers deliberately seek out experiential offerings for this sense of the unknown. For example, Sara talks about why she and her husband chose the particular resort they stayed at:
201 We chose the resort for the climate and atmosphere probably, and the price. We wanted to go someplace with the ocean, with the palm trees, and the beach. And we‟d never been there. We wanted to go someplace we‟d never been, either one of us had never been. While Sara and her husband knew that they wanted some specific things in a resort (e.g., ocean view, palm trees, beach), another driving force was to go someplace that they had never been before. They wanted to go someplace that was both different from where they live and from other places they had visited, and where they would come into contact with new and different stimuli. Thus, while they had some idea of the form and function of the resort (e.g., the climate and the atmosphere), a large part of their choice was driven by their desire to encounter the unknown. In addition, not knowing what to expect or what is going to happen can keep the audience‟s sense of anticipation throughout the engagement with the offering. For example, Ann talks about an acrobatic performance she attended: I think that I thought it was going to be a circus performance, funny and lighthearted, and I didn‟t even know if there might be animals. I just didn‟t have a clue. I think it enhanced it because I was totally on the edge of my seat waiting for the next thing to happen. I was most happy with its ability to keep me totally interested because I didn‟t know what was going to happen next … It was just an hour and a half of eye catching, really different entertainment. Like the other consumers, Ann had vague expectations based on the general nature and intent of a circus performance, but she really did not know what to expect. She says that not knowing kept her engaged during the whole performance because each act was so
202 different than the one before it. She could not wait to see what was going to happen next. In addition, other consumers stated that that not only did not knowing keep them engaged, but it also increased their level of involvement by trying to anticipate what was going to happen. Repeat Audience Members. One thing that is interesting about the multiplicity aspects of the consumer experience is that while not knowing what to expect attracted first-time audience members and enhanced their engagement, knowing what to expect actually caused them to want to go again. The data suggest that knowing what to expect, coupled with a pleasurable first experience, enhances the desire to repeat purchase because it lets people know what they will be getting from the offering. For example, Lydia talks about why she would go again to Adventureland: Probably just the experience, the rides, and the fact we‟ve been there before, so we‟re kind of familiar with the territory and know where everything is. And just the variety of things to do there, as opposed to, you know, going to someplace else … The fact that we‟ve been there before, so we know what to expect. And that‟s always good, because sometimes you go expecting great things, and you don‟t necessarily get the great things. Lydia says that she would go again to Adventureland because of the variety of things to do there and the fact that she knows what to expect. She was satisfied with her first visit, and would go back because she knows she will be happy with all of the different things that the amusement park has to offer. Although consumers often have vague expectations the first time they go, once they have been satisfied, they often desire to return to engage the stimuli and relive the effects. In a sense, it is a way to bring the memories back to life.
203 At the same time, the data also suggest that there has to be something new to keep the consumer engaged in the experience. For example, Jennifer talks about why she continues to attend sporting events: I think it [knowing what to expect] enhances it because I want to experience all the things I felt the other times again. I think the most awesome thing with sports is that there is always going to be some unexpectedness. Unlike movies or other forms of entertainment, sports are not predetermined. Therefore, although I know what to expect from the atmosphere, I still get to have that sense of not knowing what the outcome is going to be. Jennifer keeps attending sporting events because it allows her to experience all of the various things that she personally enjoys from these types of offerings. In fact, some of the consumers in the study mentioned that knowing the intended effects of the offering allows them to anticipate the things that they like most. At the same time, Jennifer mentions that she also gets to experience something new. Not only does she get to relive her memories, but she also gets to create new ones. Knowing what to expect allows her to assimilate the new events and her memories of them into the meaning structures that she has established around the marketing experience. As Beth states, “I wasn‟t expecting to be as well entertained as I was, I wasn‟t able to build it up in my mind because I didn‟t know what to expect. I want to go back to see my favorite parts now.” After assigning meaning to the marketing experience based on the first engagement, consumers can go again to participate more fully in this meaning. In addition, consumers stated that they wanted to return in order to expand their insights into the marketing experience. That is, by knowing what to expect and the
204 intended effects of certain aspects of the marketing experience, consumers want to go again and experience new aspects of the offering in order to compare and broaden their perception of the offering. For example, Alvin talks about why he would return to Yellowstone: I probably wouldn‟t want to go back again during the same time a year. But, you know, I think it almost adds to my wanting to go to it in a different part of the year so that way I could, you know, make a comparison in my head. I think that‟d be almost more fun to be able to compare it to, you know, how it was in the winter, and how the animals were acting, and what was missing, and different things like that … You know, I was unable to see a lot of it. And obviously it‟s going to be a completely different world, one season to the next. So yeah, I‟d go back to see everything I‟ve seen in a different way, I guess. Alvin states that knowing what to expect and the intended effects actually adds to his desire to return. He wants to go to the park during a different time of year in order to compare it to how things were in the winter. He realizes that the “known” is never complete and is always changing, especially in a venue that is rich in variety. This process would allow him to engage different aspects of the park and broaden his perspective. Conclusion. The multiplicity aspects of the consumer experience are captured by the concept of audience. An audience deliberately engages an experiential offering to participate in its dramatic form and function. While the audience may or may not know ahead of time what to expect, it knows that the offering has an intended dramatic effect. Discovering or exploring this effect underlies the desire to engage these types of
205 offerings. The study finds that first-time audience members are attracted to the offering precisely because they do not know what to expect or what the intended effect is going to be. Part of the excitement and anticipation of engaging a marketing experience for the first-time is to encounter the unknown. The data indicate that the unknown often facilitates engagement and involvement in the experiential offering. In addition, the study finds that actually knowing what to expect and the intended effects of the offering enhance the audiences‟ desire to engage the offering again. Knowing the effects of the offering, audience members want to reengage the offering in order to anticipate and experience these effects. The data indicate that repeat consumers also seek something new in the offering. They know that the “known” is never complete, and desire to reengage the offering in order to achieve a different perspective and expand their understanding.
206 CHAPTER 5 – FINDINGS: THE EXPERIENTIAL MARKETING LOGIC
Since the focus of the dissertation has been on firm-driven, market-based experiences, this chapter will specifically examine the strategic logic of experiential marketing. Current work on the different strategic logics in marketing has focused on three dimensions: 1) resources, 2) transactions, and 3) value (Vargo and Lusch 2004). Generally, resource refers to anything that is utilized by firms and/or consumers to generate an effect (Constantine and Lusch 1994; Hunt 2000). Transaction refers to the process in which producers and consumers engage in exchange (Dwyer, Shurr, and Oh 1987; Rindfleisch and Heide 1997). Value refers to the relative worth, utility, or importance of something to someone (Holbrook 1999; Narver and Slater 1992). While the experiential marketing literature has suggested that these constructs may not be adequate or appropriate in explaining alternative forms of marketing such as experiential marketing (e.g., Brown 1999; Venkatesh et al. 2006), this chapter will keep with the current terminology, though pointing out differences when necessary, in order to distinguish this form of logic from the other two main logics: the goods-based marketing logic and the service-based marketing logic. One thing that emerged from the data is that producers are either struggling with the marketing of experiential offerings or they are developing and implementing strategies that are unlike most of what is advocated in marketing. It is very doubtful that you will pick up a book in marketing strategy that highlights the central importance of stories and storytelling in the marketing of your product, but Disney has used this strategy successfully for over 50 years (Imagineers 1996). This chapter examines the logic of experiential marketing in order to provide a foundation for strategy in this area.
207 Symbolic Resources The marketing literature suggests that the goods marketing logic is predicated on tangible (operant) resources and the service marketing logic is predicated on intangible (operant) resources (Vargo and Lusch 2004). Contrary to these two forms of marketing logic, the data suggest that the experiential marketing logic is based on symbolic resources. A symbolic resource is anything that is used by firms and/or consumers as a sign to convey a particular perspective and meaning (Levy 1959; Mick 1986; Venkatesh et al. 2006). Experiential offerings are often made up of both tangible and intangible stimuli, as well as tangible and intangible effects. What makes these resources experiential is not what they are, but what they represent. For goods, resources represent functions; for services, resources represent solutions; for experiences, resources represent perspective and meanings. The perspectives and meanings provided by the symbolic resources underlie the intended dramatic effects that consumers seek from these offerings. These perspectives and meanings can be transmitted and received in many different ways, and will depend partly on the offering and partly on the consumer. While much focus in the literature has been on the specific type of stimuli associated with experiential marketing (e.g., sensorial, emotional, intellectual, fanciful, social, emotional, physical, and spiritual) (e.g., Celsi et al. 1993; Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; Schmitt 1999), the data suggest that the type of stimuli is less important than perspective and meaning it represents. That is, the stimuli are simply the carrier of the perspective and meaning that help to produce the experiential effect. For example, Nancy talks about her reaction to the Civil Rights Museum:
208 Well, I think the Civil Rights [Museum] did more on emotions, just, you know, „cause it was like I could picture, you know, myself being in like that type of situation - I mean, you know, just because you are a certain way, certain things happen to you, I mean that‟s fairly emotional and you have no control over that. I mean there was tons of information on what life was like, which is what I never realized, but I totally gear myself to those types of things. But just being able to see, you know, picturing yourself in their shoes. Although it was the informational stimuli that induced the effect on Nancy, the actual effect was emotional. Also, the effect was not simply a result of operant conditioning, but was based on the symbolic perspectives and meanings both instantiated and generated from the offering. The experiential effect of the museum on Nancy was that it allowed her to utilize the symbolic resources to take on the perspective of those who suffered. This was a very powerful effect because Nancy had to interact with and interpret the meanings of the museum to acquire this perspective. The level and degree of interaction and interpretation can vary greatly among consumers. For some, the symbolic resources utilized in an experiential offering can dramatically affect their imaginations. For example, Bob talks about his reaction to the zoo: Well, I think it goes back to - I‟d go to the zoo, you know, by myself, just to see those animals, you know, to use that imagination of those wild animals that I can‟t see anywhere else, realistically. So I like to see, you know, I like animals. I mean, I‟m not a huge animal freak, but when you see them, you realize how, like, you know, they‟re just really beautiful actually. I think the animals are really cool.
209 And they have all these little things that they do and how they take care of them. It‟s just interesting to see something that isn‟t every day … It was kind of like with my imagination, it made me feel, you know, like wow, look at all this stuff that‟s been created, how‟s it being created, you see all these animals and… you‟re like, I mean everyone is different, so it‟s kind of like, spiritualism like, who‟s out there taking care of us, because this is crazy. Like how can each one of us change? This, how can everything start from something and change so much to be all these different things? You know, you‟ve got to wonder, sometimes it makes me wonder. I‟m like, wow, look at the lion and the monkey and the giraffe and why is each one the way it is. And that‟s kind of a thought I have every time I go because of after a while, you‟re just like wow, there‟s just so many different types of animals. There‟s not just 3 or 4, there‟s millions and millions. And they have them there. And you‟re like, it‟s just crazy. Bob‟s quote indicates that one of the main things that encouraged his imagination and interpretation was the liminal characteristics of the marketing experience. Because he does not get to see wild animals every day, he had to interpret not only the immediate qualities of the animals and the zoo, but also what all these things meant to him. For Bob, this lead to a form of spiritual wonder, which would probably classify as one of the most extreme forms of imagination, in which he imagined both who had created all of these creatures and why. His imagination, spurred on by the symbolic resources of the zoo, lead him to a broader perspective on life and a deeper meaning concerning the nature of existence.
210 Even elements of a marketing experience that are more material and physical can be interpreted by consumers and become a source of perspective and meaning. As was discussed in the narrativity section, most roller coasters have both a name and a theme/story associated with them. The names usually represent some type of experiential stimuli. The theme/story surrounding the roller coaster (e.g., the physical characteristics such as the length, drop, or loops or some cultural referent such as Batman, the Hulk, or Rock „n‟ Roll) sets the consumer up for a particular type of experiential effect. Plus, the physical appearance of the roller coasters and the sounds emanating from them can have a powerful symbolic effect on consumers, causing some of them to decide not to ride on the roller coasters even though they have no physical referent to drawn upon. As a result, the symbolic aspects of roller coasters are very powerful features of these types of offerings that impact the consumers‟ level of anticipation, enjoyment, and evaluation. For example, Jessica talks about riding the Batman roller coaster at Six Flags: I suppose I participated in suggesting a ride. Also on the two other rides everyone else rode and that I chose not to because I was freaked out, I held their belongings … I chose the Batman because that‟s my favorite superhero and it looked like a lot of fun and the line wasn‟t as long. I had never been on an upside down roller coaster (Batman), so I was very proud of myself for being pretty brave and going on that ride. It turned out to be my favorite ride. I think the creative design of the rides themselves increase the value of the park. I just loved the superhero themed rides. Interestingly, one of the reasons that Jessica chose the Batman roller coaster was because of what it meant to her – it is her favorite superhero character. The symbolic nature of the
211 roller coaster actually prompted her to consume the offering. As she mentions, the creative design of the rides increased her enjoyment of the amusement park. Also, the scary nature of some of the other roller coasters actually caused her to choose not to ride them. It was her interpretation of the rides that actually influenced her behavior. In addition, the symbolic nature of roller coasters also affects the physical enjoyment of the rides. For example, Doug talks about his reactions to riding various roller coasters at Valley Fair: I remember going to the park for the first, well actually like before getting on the first ride, you‟re kind of like, you know I haven‟t done this in a while, like, I think I remember what it feels like, you know. We hit the Wild Thing first, so when we finally got over that first drop, like, my gut started dropping, I was like, okay, yeah, this is it, and now it‟s done. But then actually it dropped again, and then we kept on going, so like it started dropping even more and I wasn‟t expecting it, you know. So I guess that part. But then, after a little bit that kind of just goes away. I was just kind of like, oh, let‟s get on this ride and get that same feeling. But it was like that first ride was like the benchmark. I could never have my gut drop like again because it was like used to it or something. So that first ride was the best … I had an experience for the fun of it. I mean, I don‟t know, roller coasters and, they‟re just fun you know. It‟s just the thrill I guess. For Doug, the fun of going on a roller coaster is the thrill of it. This thrill is not simply the physical effect of the roller coaster, but is a combination of the web of meanings (e.g., memories, anticipation, and surprise) surrounding the ride. As Doug implies, if the enjoyment was simply tied to the physical effect of the offering, then he would have been
212 able to replicate it by going on the same again or going on similar rides. But he states that this was not the case. While he attributes this loss of experiential effect to physically “getting used to it,” other data suggest that it is the other symbolic “something” that surrounds the offering that contributes to the thrill and the fun. This does not negate the importance of the materiality of the offering. In fact, it is the tangible dimensions of the experiential offering that separates experiential marketing from branding. For example, Disneyland and the Disney brand, though very similar and consistent, are not the same. Disneyland instantiates the Disney brand in a very particular and material way. Instead, it simply means that the material cannot be fully separated from the symbolic. This brings up a very important question, how can marketers instantiate the symbolic aspects of their offering? One of the difficulties with an experiential offering is that the marketers are not fully in control of the perspectives and meanings of the offering. While Disney has been criticized for trying to impose its perspectives and meanings on consumers (e.g., Project on Disney 1995), this type of control is a lot harder to achieve in practice (e.g., subliminal messages). A more balanced perspective suggests that marketers only provide the symbols; it is up to the consumer to interpret and assimilate them. While this may seem like a weakness of this form of marketing, it is also one of its strengths. As we saw from the previous quotes, it was because the consumers had to interpret the offerings that they had such a very strong impact. While ceding a certain amount of control, the study finds that there are things marketers can do to instantiate the symbolic aspects of their offerings. First, the marketers need to decide on both the general and specific perspectives and meanings that the firm wants to transmit. While it is true that there is a symbolic dimension to every
213 offering (Levy 1959), a marketing experience focuses on and promotes a particular sign system. This usually revolves around a set of themes (Bryman 2004; Gottdiener 1998; Pine and Gilmore 1999). As we saw in the narrativity section, the theme sets the conceptual context in which the material aspects of the offering are situated. In addition, these offerings cannot simply represent an abstract concept, but must tell a story. For example, Betty talks about the appeal of an art exhibit on biblical angels that she visited: I think it‟s the coming together of so much with one theme. Because in permanent collections, they [the artworks] stand alone and you‟re jumping form a portrait to a landscape to something else. This keeps you in the mood of angels and you want to see what this artist‟s rendition is, and how did this artist portray the angels. So I like it. I like a themed exhibition I think better than permanent collections … It was like Peter being freed from prison by an angel. Well, Peter is in the Bible. And they did have Saint Francis „cause he had the stigmata, and I didn‟t remember that Saint Francis had the stigmata, but [my husband] did. And they had one painting about Mary Magdalene and how she went out after the death of Jesus, she went into the desert for 30 years and lived, and meditated. And it‟s like, I didn‟t know that about Mary Magdalene. I think, you know, it‟s kind of like a story that‟s been passed down. So, I think it was just the way they laid it out. It had a lot of flow, and the flow made sense, so it just moved along. For Betty, the theme was important because it organized all of the artworks and kept her focused on the topic of angels. The theme did not impose meanings on Betty, but simply provided her with a frame of reference, or perspective, from which she could interpret the exhibit. The interplay of both the producers‟ and consumers‟ symbolic resources in the
214 sign system of the exhibit is evident in the way that Betty situated the works of art in her own life story. The themes and stories reinforced certain beliefs, brought back memories, and revealed new meanings. Second, it is important to make sure that all aspects of the offering fit with the themes and stories associated with the offering. For example, Nancy talks about the things she liked about the Edgar Allen Poe House: When I went to, like, Edgar Allen Poe‟s house, you got a lot of the history behind it, and the people were there talking about even though he lived a hundred years ago, every year there‟s a person that comes and brings a half a bottle of cognac and puts it on his grave in Baltimore to this day. So you hear more of not just what has happened, from the past, but what‟s still going on. I like that part of it … The house itself was really, really cool. Just the smallness of the house, because it was the actual house that he lived in with his aunt and his cousin, I mean, it, there were like 5 people living in that house, and it‟s very, very small. And his bedroom, you know, way up at the very top, that it was the attic that you can barely get in or whatever and just the sparsity, there was a bed, and a little teeny tiny dresser where, and that was pretty much it in there. Also, he had another room down below that was like kind of a study type thing and that‟s where he wrote books. You know, and that was neat going into that room because, you know, he sat at that desk and actually wrote the bizarre stories. And now, knowing that he was in that little room doing that, you know, wee! Nancy talks about how all of the aspects of the Edgar Allen Poe house fit with the theme and caused her to envisage the writer sitting in one of the small rooms working on his
215 stories. Given her small emotional exclamation at the end of the quote, we see how all of the elements came together, provided a particular perspective, and created an emotional effect. Nancy also comments how she liked the fact that she got not only the past history of the home, but also the present history of activities surrounding the house and the author. This allowed her to move beyond the theme and to connect with the story. While it is important to use themes and stories to integrate the symbolic perspectives and meanings of the experiential offering, this process cannot be carried out arbitrarily or cavalierly. For example, many consumers talked about the random theming of different types of food at Renaissance festivals. It‟s actually kind of funny walking around the festival because you see things like the fried mozzarella cheese sticks, but they‟re calling them like dragon wings or something. And it‟s actually just kind of funny how they try and incorporate some kind of name from that time frame in there. And you‟re like, ok, and what is that exactly, because I‟m not sure what dragon wings are supposed to be. (Heidi) All the food at Ren Fairs just seems to be your basic festival food. I mean the food thing is just like, you know, turkey legs and ye ole funnel cakes, and the King‟s French fries. And this is like, okay come on, why am I spending five bucks for something that is really horrible and I can get at McDonalds for a dollar? (Natalie) As these consumers suggest, just putting a label that is consistent with the theme on different items does not necessarily incorporate them into the offering. This problem is compounded when meanings associated with the items outside the context are stronger than the ones being suggested. As Natalie suggests, just putting “King” on French fries does not alter the meaning of the food or dissociate it from the stronger cultural meanings
216 of McDonalds. For Natalie, these meanings interfered with the perspective that the producers were trying to create at the festival and her ability to participate in this perspective. Instead, marketers have to change the offerings enough to strip them of alternative meanings and cultural references or create new offerings that are more in line with the chosen perspectives and meaning embodied in the themes and stories. For example, Betty, a food vendor at a Renaissance festival, explained the nature of a Scotch Egg: Truly, it is a hardboiled egg. I can‟t say all this to everyone, but it‟s a hardboiled egg, rolled in, ah, two pieces of mild pan sausage, and then wrapped around, then we do some prep like two days before. Then we have to roll it in an egg wash then roll it in the breadcrumbs, then chill it, and when you desire it, we fry it. It‟s very good. When we eat it‟s basically finger food like for this era, you know they just break apart, or I can give you a fork. The Scotch Egg is not simply a hardboiled egg with a clever name; rather, it is created in such a way to have its own meaning that can be associated with the perspective of the Renaissance festivals. In fact, Betty even provided a story of the eggs that explained them in terms of types of food and how they are consumed. While these eggs may not have any real connection with the historical time period, they have their own meaning that consumers can associate with the festivals. Third, the data suggest that overt commercialism can interfere with and detract from the symbolic nature of the offering. On the one hand, most of the consumers explained how the overt commercial aspects of experiential offerings often drew them out of symbolic participation and caused them to focus on the business motives surrounding
217 the offering. In fact, some consumers even went so far as to say that the exploitation of the symbolic to promote the commercial made them feel like they were being “ripped off” and that some of the practices seemed “kind of shady.” On the other hand, most consumers did not have a problem with the commercial aspects of the offerings when they were considered reasonable and were integrated into the symbolic nature of the offering. For example, Marie talks about her visit to a Renaissance festival: As I said before, it‟s like the atmosphere that they create, with the imagination, and the way they place everything to make you feel like you‟re not buying things. It‟s just, they were having fun and feeling engaged to the time and to what they have prepared for you. It‟s not just buying. I didn‟t have the feeling that I was buying, even if I did. But I did not. So I think that, well we talked before about fantasy, or imagination, being important, I think it is … You have the feeling that you are walking in a different time, you know, being a citizen in that medieval town for that specific day. Like many others, Marie states that even though there is definitely a commercial aspect to Renaissance festivals, the integration of all the elements into the overall atmosphere entices consumers to participate in the sign system of the festivals. In fact, it encourages consumers to de-emphasize the practical in favor of the imaginative. As a result, unless the focus of the offering is on the commerce (e.g., the gold museum exhibit), the producers should minimize the commercial aspects of the offering in favor of the symbolic. The commercial aspects of an experiential offering can compete with the symbolic nature of its resources and diminish the overall experience.
218 In summary, the data suggest that the experiential marketing logic is based primarily on symbolic resources. What is important to this type of marketing is not what the resources are (e.g., tangible or intangible), but what they represent. In fact, anything can serve as a symbolic resource. The specific symbolic resources used by a firm will depend on the nature of the offering. For example, a fine arts exhibit on Impressionist art will utilize fundamentally different paintings than one on Renaissance art. What distinguishes these different sets of paintings is not the canvas, paint, and brushwork (though these are clearly different), but the perspectives and meanings they instantiate. A key strategic decision for marketers is to decide which symbolic resources to utilize. The data indicate that the use of a theme helps firms to both chose and organize the symbolic resources into a coherent sign system. Second, the data reveal that it is the interaction of all of the resources together that produces the particular perspectives and meanings. Third, the data indicate that marketers need to de-emphasize the commercial nature of the offering because it often competes with the perspectives and meanings of the symbolic resources. Last, because all consumers approach experiential offerings with different perspectives and meanings, various types of symbolic resources need to be utilized in order to appeal to a broad spectrum of customers.
Engaging Transactions The marketing literature argues that the goods marketing logic is based on discrete transactions and that the service marketing logic is based on relational transactions (Arndt 1979; Dwyer, Schurr, and Oh 1987; Macneil 1980). Unlike these two logics, the data suggest that the experiential marketing logic is not based on the duration of the transaction or the degree of dependence of the parties involved in the exchange, but
219 on producing engaging transactions (Pine and Gilmore 1999). An engaging transaction is defined as an exchange process that sustains a person‟s interest and attention. While there are some constructs in marketing that seem to address consumer engagement (e.g., motivation and involvement), they may not be adequate to explain what is going on in these types of offerings. Motivation often refers to an internal drive that is directed towards a goal, and involvement is the activity the person initiates to achieve the goal (Arnould et al. 2004). Most consumers in the study associated involvement with physical or material participation, whereas they associated engagement with things that were fascinating, engrossing, attractive, and even tempting (indicating something that was actually contrary to goal-striving behavior). For example, Bill talks about his different responses to the Garth Brooks concert he attended: My personal involvement, I guess I could split it and say, talking just straight up involvement, probably not as much as it could have been. My engagement with the concert, though, was very high. I wouldn‟t say I was as involved as others that were there in terms of, you know, doing as much as you possibly could as far as screaming and singing, and such. Not quite as much as everybody else, but, it was a very engaging concert still. Sometimes you go to concerts and you just can‟t wait for the next song to start, or you‟re like wow, you know, the first hour was great, but, okay, I‟m ready for it to be over. And that was never the case. It was consistent excitement over what‟s next. Bill states that although his involvement in the concert was rather low, his engagement was very high. That is, his enjoyment did not revolve around physical participation in the concert, but centered on excitement. It was the anticipation and stimulation of the concert
220 that he found engaging rather than the screaming and singing. In addition, many consumers stated that they were not involved in the production of the offering, but thoroughly enjoyed the venue. Other data suggest that engagement in the marketing experience requires involvement in the physical or material production of the offering, but that is not always the case. For example, while consumers in escapist venues like amusement parks and Renaissance festivals said that they were both involved and engaged in the offering, consumers of entertainment venues like symphonies and plays said that they were not very involved, but they were highly engaged in the offering. This raises the question, what constitutes an engaging transaction? The data suggest that the answer to this question is quite complex. First, what is engaging for one consumer may be boring for another. For example, while many consumers of Renaissance festivals are engaged by the interaction, others were turned off by this and went strictly to observe. Second, a consumer may be both engaged and bored by different aspects of the offering. For example, most consumers of zoos said that there were animals that were very engaging and others that were very boring. Third, engagement can be elicited anywhere along the consumer participation continuum. As the quote from Bob indicated, he was a passive participant, but was very engaged in the concert. Fourth, engagement seems to differ among venues. For example, consumers of sporting events talk about being engaged by the crowd, consumers of musicals talked about being engaged by the performers, and consumers of amusement/theme parks talked about being engaged by the rides. With all of this variance, it seems almost impossible to determine what constitutes an engaging transaction. A deeper analysis of the data suggests some commonalities
221 among the different marketing experiences that underlie consumer engagement. One theme that emerges, and which has been presented in the previous chapter, is the idea of providing a holistic offering. One of the definitions of engagement is to hold one‟s attention. Firms can do this by making sure that all of the elements of the marketing experience fit together to create a gestalt experience. If there is an element that does not fit, it is likely going to distract the person‟s attention or cause their attention to focus on something else. Based on a negative case analysis, one of the biggest complaints that consumers had concerned aspects of a marketing experience that they felt were out of place or inappropriate. In many cases, these elements caused them to disengage from the offering and to have a negative reaction towards the offering. For example, Betty talks about her engagement in the angel art exhibit she visited: I wasn‟t expecting to see contemporary angels. I thought it would just end with the Italian art because that‟s how they promoted it: Angels in Italian Art. And then the last room, they had contemporary angels … It [the whole exhibit] felt Godly; you felt it was a Godly world, it was religious, it made your thoughts turn to heaven. Your own guardian angel, and yeah, to see all those contemporary angels, it was jarring, I guess would be the word. It threw you kind of into a scary world where everything was harsh and angels are scary and creepy, and one angel looked like the devil. It was disturbing because you were looking at all this traditional, lofty, you know, eyes toward heaven art done in a very traditional manner, and then you hit this room with contemporary angels. So I think it could have been left off. Just end it with the Italian art.
222 Betty says that she liked almost everything in the exhibit because it fit with the biblical angels theme and flowed very nicely. What she did not like was the last room that contained different works of art of contemporary depictions of angels. While part of this can be attributed to subjective taste, there is also an objective component that can be managed. The point is that the whole exhibit kept with traditional portrayals of angels except for the last room. For Betty, this room was not simply out of place, it was jarring. This was not because the art was poorly done, but because it did not fit with the rest of the exhibit. Obviously this was a curatorial decision, but from what we know about primacy and recency effects, disturbing and upsetting the consumer at the end of their engagement with the offering may not be a good strategic decision, especially if you want the person to return. As with the symbolic resources, marketers can utilize aspects of narrativity to create an engaging marketing experience. While a theme can be used to organize the offering, it is the story that maintains the relationships among all the elements. While the contemporary angels may have kept with the overall theme, it did not fit with the story that was being told throughout the rest of the exhibit. This would be like sticking the last chapter of Moby Dick at the end of Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea. While they both deal with similar themes, the stories are completely different. To create and maintain engagement, all of the elements must fit together to tell a consistent story throughout the offering. For example, Kathy talks about her engagement in the Cirque du Soleil performance of Alegria: In each Cirque du Soleil, there is usually an underlying theme/story, some more than others. In Alegria, the theme of the performance was that each of the acts
223 was competing against each other to be “the best” in show. In the end, the strongman won, and all of this is illustrated through the interaction of the characters/performers as well as through the music … The unique costumes and make up enhanced the experience greatly. As I mentioned earlier, Cirque du Soleil is renowned for the over-the-top hair, makeup, and costuming, and the three combine to add to the story line and make the individual performances more visually stimulating. The costuming is made so that it adds to the synchronization of performers, or so that it enhances the skill of the contortionist. I‟m not sure if the average spectator realizes or thinks about all of this, but irregardless, the makeup and costuming greatly add to the experience. Kathy‟s quote shows how all of the elements revolve around the theme and add to the engaging nature of the story. One thing that Kathy‟s quote points out is that when it is done right, most consumers may not be aware or conscious of the interrelationships of the elements, but they have an effect on the consumer. In fact, it seems that the mark of an engaging experience is that it causes consumers to suspend analytic evaluation of the elements of the marketing experience and to just become absorbed in the offering. In addition, a second theme concerning engagement that emerges from the data involves the temporal connectivity of the marketing experience. The data suggest that how the offering unfolds over time adds to the engagement of the experience. That is, not only should all elements fit together to produce a holistic experience, but that they should be revealed over time. This process is important because it maintains the extraordinary nature of the offering and the sense of adventure. For example, Claire talks about her engagement with a musical performance:
224 I was very engaged. Probably more engaged towards maybe the second half of the first act, and then of course, the second half of the show as it all was coming together. The very beginning of the show sets up a little slowly. I was probably more engaged as, yeah, in terms of what‟s gonna happen, and how are they gonna make this work, and how do all these characters fit together, and how are they gonna make it all intertwined. Claire says that although she was less engaged at the beginning of the performance, her engagement grew over the course of the performance as all of the elements of the performance were coming together. The beginning of the performance had to introduce the various elements, and the remainder of the show weaved them all together. This quote is nice because it shows how the holistic nature of an experiential offering is enhanced by the temporal dimensions. Claire was engaged by how all of the elements were intertwined over the course of the performance. A third theme that emerges from the data is what Deighton (1992) refers to as the intention/performance connection. That is, a marketing experience must maintain consistency between the motive behind the offering that is being promoted and the actual performance of the offering (Deighton 1992). For example, many consumers in the study expressed disappointment in the college football games that they attended because the team was promoted as possessing national champion level skills and the actual performance during the games was perceived as far less. Many of these consumers talked about disengaging from the games to the extent that they left before they were over. Other consumers talked about how they remained engaged because the performance
225 either lived up to or exceeded the proposed intention/motive. For example, William talks about his engagement in the jazz concert he attended: I mean, to go down and see four people from New York who make their living doing jazz, and being able to see four outstanding players together, that have worked a lot together so there was a lot a communication on stage musically, and a lot a support for each other, and the audience was very well versed. This isn‟t an audience that‟s going to go there and wonder what‟s going on. I mean they are obviously, when you hear a good solo, you know it, you appreciate it, and you applaud it. Well, you know, the specific tunes were fine. I just think each player took over a song and just their virtuosity came forth. To say that one thing they did as a group was the ensemble was very tight, very together, and the communication was terrific. And you‟d have to understand that through a musician‟s eyes, when you say that, that‟s something. When they played their charts everybody knew what was going on. Chord changes were solid. You didn‟t hear a mistake in the group. I mean it was just flawless. And when each person took their turn taking a ride, in improvisation, it was just great to see that. So, I don‟t think there‟s one specific thing that I‟m going to say was all-star quality, I think it was the way the entire performance worked. William suggests that the experiential expectations of himself and the audience were very high, partially because the promoted motive behind the band was that of a very professional New York jazz quartet. He says that he was not disappointed because the performance was terrific. Each of the musicians played flawlessly, they worked very well as a group, and they all added something unique to the performance through their solos.
226 William‟s quote is informative because he also highlights the holistic nature of the offering by saying that he could not pinpoint one specific thing that engaged him, rather it was the entire performance that “worked.” In summary, the data suggest that the experiential marketing logic is not based on discrete or relational exchange, but is based on engaging transactions. These transactions are not a function of goal related behavior or level of involvement. Instead, they are a function of the degree to which the exchange interaction is fascinating, engrossing, and even tempting. A key strategic decision for marketers of experiential offerings is how to create and manage an engaging offering. First, the study finds that marketers need to produce holistic offerings. Anything that does not fit with the theme of the symbolic resources discussed previously can potentially diminish the level of engagement. Second, the data suggest that not only do marketers have to manage the material connections of the offering, they must also manage the temporal connections. The experience should unfold over time in a seamless flow of events. Anything that interferes with the flow will potentially cause the consumer to disengage. Third, the data indicate that there must also be consistency between the producers‟ motive/intention behind the offering and its actual performance (Deighton 1992). Because the expectations of first-time consumers of experiential offerings are typically vague, there is even closer scrutiny of how the offering is marketed and its actual realization.
Internalized Value The marketing literature suggests that the goods marketing logic is based on exchange value and the service marketing logic is based on use value (Vargo and Lusch 2006). Unlike these two forms of value that are economically derived, the data suggest
227 that the experiential marketing logic is based on internalized value that is socially and culturally derived. Internalized value is defined as the degree to which an offering produces a subjective, hedonic response in an individual (Bond 1983; Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; Pepper 1958). Unlike use and exchange value, which are primarily utilitarian and focused on achieving some further goal or purpose, internalized value is primarily autotelic and focused on the experience for its own sake (Holbrook 1994). While the experiential literature suggests that this internalized value is produced simply by providing memorable experiences, the data indicate that it is much more complicated than that (Pine and Gilmore 1999). As we saw from the previous chapter, what makes a marketing experience memorable is often very idiosyncratic and is often only tangentially associated with the offering. This section explores three factors that underlie the internalized value of a marketing experience: 1) personal connectivity, 2) liminality, and 3) social connectivity. Although this section is going to address these three factors independently, they are directly connected and cannot be fully separated. First, the data suggest that internalized value is strongly affected by consumers‟ personal connectivity with a marketing experience. This personal connectivity can range from just a desire to experience the specific marketing experience to a deeper personal association with the offering. For example, Beth talks about the value of the Michael Bublé concert she attended: I‟ve wanted to attend a concert of Michael Bublé for some time. I fulfilled that desire that night … I like Michael better than many other singers/entertainers … Michael was very funny and extremely talented. You could tell he loves being on stage … I don‟t get to see many shows, especially for that price. I don‟t get sung
228 to on a daily basis, and I certainly don‟t pay for it … I definitely imagined him singing to me directly… I was sitting back and being entertained. It created a wonderful break from the normal, everyday routine. Beth states that she really enjoyed the concert because she always wanted to see Michael Bublé and finally got to fulfill that desire. This desire was fueled by the fact that he is her favorite singer, and that she really appreciates his talent. Also, the fact that she does not get to see very many concerts and experience live music enhanced her desire because she could imagine Michael singing directly to her. This made the offering more enjoyable and memorable. The value of the concert was a function of her subjective tastes, desires, and imagination. In fact, it was the indulgence of the intrinsic factors that separated the event from extrinsic factors of everyday life. On the other end of the continuum, consumers often value a marketing experience because it relates to some aspect of their lives that is very important to them. For example, Lilly talks about the value of going to an aquarium: I love the ocean. I really do. I‟m a water science major for a reason. I don‟t necessarily want to live on the ocean, but I still, I just I love it. So being able to go, you know, Chicago‟s a lot closer than Miami Beach Florida, and you still get that experience of seeing the sea creatures and learning about new issues that have come in, like ocean quality, is really cool. You know, they keep up to date on like news and things having to do with like the oil spill that happened off the coast of California. They also had a big presentation on this island off the coast of Thailand where the community has been restoring their reef. There was no government action, there was nothing - and so it‟s just really neat to learn that
229 type a thing, „cause it‟s not something that you would normally read about, or you would see. And so for me, there‟s a lot of value in that. Just, you know, in education, in learning and in being able to see all those creatures that I don‟t get to see every day, that just fascinate me. Lilly states that she likes to go to the aquarium because she has a deep personal interest in issues concerning the ocean and sea life. The fact that she can address her personal interests in a commercial offering and not have to experience all of these things first hand allows her to fulfill her desires in a more practical and feasible way. By going to the aquarium, she can see many of the exotic sea creatures and learn about current oceanographic events, highlighting the relationship between personal connectivity and the liminal aspect of an experiential offering. Second, the data suggest that internalized value is strongly affected by the liminal characteristics of a marketing experience. Consumers value the extraordinary nature of the offering because it exposes them to things that they have never encountered before and stimulates them in many different ways. For example, Amy talks about the value of going to Disneyland: The value I got was a trip away from the stress of the real world and a chance to enjoy myself. I got to spend time away from the “real world” and in a world of fantasy. It was also a great opportunity to bond with my aunt and uncle. The sheer excitement of everything increased the value for me. Things were out of the ordinary and novel, so it really made you feel like you made a good investment of time and money to be there because things were unique. The long lines probably decreased the value for me because not one of us liked waiting in lines and it took
230 away some of the enjoyment when we were standing there waiting. But the enjoyment was restored after the thrill of the ride. Although the experiential literature often focuses primarily on escape as the primary liminal characteristic of an experiential offering, this quote suggests that there is something more. Getting away from the real world was simply the condition that allowed Amy to experience a new world – the fantasy world of Disneyland. This quote shows how the extraordinary nature of an experiential offering is intimately tied to the sense of adventure and exploration. The value of the experience for Amy was not merely the escape from the real world, but the journey to a place that was novel and unique. The sense of subjective excitement brought on by this adventure increased the value for Amy. Although some of the excitement and value was lost when the ordinary and extrinsic intruded upon the adventure (e.g., waiting in line), it was restored through the subjective thrill of the rides. Third, the data suggest that internalized value is strongly affected by the social connectivity of the experiential interface. Most of the consumers in the study talked about the importance of the enjoying a marketing experience with others. This is not simply due to the proximal characteristics of being with others with similar interests, though this can add to the enjoyment, but is more a function of sharing the experience with others. The internalized value of a marketing experience seems to increase when you can talk about it with others before, during, and after the engagement. In fact, this may be more valuable than the offering itself. For example, Tina talks about the value of the concert she has attended:
231 Well, if you‟re talking, did I have to go to this concert, absolutely not, but for the fact that it was fun and I got to go hang out with my friends, I mean, that‟s the deeper value I guess of it. The most important thing was that I got to do something fun and exciting with my friends. And with my brother especially, you know, that was a big deal. Did I need to be at this certain - like this specific concert, not so much. I mean I didn‟t have to pick one that was going to be as pricey, but for the fact that we all enjoyed what we were going to see made it just that much more exciting and enjoyable to be able to share amongst each other … A lot of the social stuff obviously, like, you know, getting to talk with my brother through it, and like saying, oh, this is a great song, or whatever they were doing, that was really cool. Tina suggests that the social interaction that takes place in a marketing experience is actually more important than the offering. The value of the offering is that it facilitates conversation between people, which allows them to play and have fun. Tina‟s quote suggests that consumers engage marketing experiences because it stimulates social connectivity. For Tina and her friends, the concert served as a resource that they could utilize in order to create their own internalized value by talking about such things as the performers, which songs they liked, and what songs were going to be played next. Although each of the dimensions of internalized value was discussed separately, it was easy to spot each of them in the various quotes. Internalized value, which lies at the heart of memorable customer experiences, is facilitated by personal connectivity, liminality, and social connectivity. One last example that integrates all of these dimensions is provided by Stacie, who talks about the value of going to the Omaha zoo:
232 The value was pretty high because I have not been to a zoo for many years. I love animals so much and I have wanted to go up to the Omaha zoo for the last two years since they opened up the new Desert exhibit. I had a blast and it was certainly worth the cost. I also valued the time spent with my family and friends, laughing and bonding with them while experiencing the environment. Probably the new exhibit [increased the value] for me. It was completely new to me and they did a really good job on it. They had many levels, dark caves, a middle level and an outdoor level, to encompass the entire desert environment. They kept the desert at a sustained temperature on the upper level by using a huge glass dome and kept it dark in the lower levels for the animals to enable you to actually observe the animals in their natural habitat. I think the bigger animals blew it for me because you had to walk so far to reach them and there was only one rhino or two giraffes or two elephants. Those spots were not worth it because the cost, in the amount of time it took to get there, far exceeded the benefit of getting there. Plus the animals were nothing new and we had seen them a hundred times before … My main memories still stand with the desert exhibit because you go underground in this cave and the very first thing I saw at the zoo when I got there was this tremendously deep hole in the floor right when you walked in and it was filled with this bright aqua-blue water and all I wanted to do was touch it to see if there was a plexi-glass covering on top of the hole. I am sure that there was because of safety issues but I regret not touching it since I still wonder to this day if it was covered since I saw little fish swimming on top. In the same place I vividly remember walking around in this extremely dark cave where there are all
233 sorts of animals just cohabitating together. They had alligators and ducks hanging out next to each other. They had beavers whom actually had made their own dam and there was glass on one side of the “home” of this dam and you could see the little family of beavers hanging out inside together. I loved the sounds, smells and lighting of the underground swamp cave. They did such a good job that it was kind of scary! Stacie‟s quote shows the connection between her personal love of animals, the extraordinary aspects of the desert exhibit, which actually incorporates a number of different habitats in one building, and the social dimension of bonding while sharing the marketing experience together. All of these dimensions facilitated the creation of her memories by fulfilling her personal desires, exposing her to new and unique things, and facilitating stories associated with the offering. Thus, while it is important to create memorable customer experiences, it is necessary for marketers to recognize their complex nature and to pay careful attention to the relationships between the various factors. In summary, the data suggest that the experiential marketing logic is predicated on internalized value that is fundamentally subjective and socially and culturally derived. For marketers, value is a very difficult thing to produce. In fact, Vargo and Lusch (2004), the primary purveyors of the service marketing logic, argue that firms cannot provide value, but only value propositions. Thus, a key strategic decision for marketers of experiential offerings is how to provide intrinsically motivated value propositions. First, marketers need to understand the personal connection that their customers have or desire with the marketing experience and build this into the positioning, brandings, and
234 symbolism associated with the marketing experience. Second, marketers need to maintain the liminal characteristics of the offering by transitioning the consumer from the “real world,” providing them an extraordinary offering, and maintaining the sense of adventure and exploration. Third, marketers need to realize that it is not simply the connection with the offering that is important, but also the connection that consumers have with each other that facilitates value creation. Providing opportunities for consumers to share with each other will enhance the value proposition and lead to more internalized value.
235 CHAPTER 6 – DISCUSSION
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the key findings of this research, highlight both the theoretical and managerial contributions derived from the research, provide directions for future research, and address the limitations of the research. Experiential marketing is a complex domain that includes different dimensions, characteristics, and logical assumptions. While we have learned much from previous research in this area over the last 25 years, there are still many gaps in our understanding of this topic. Like the blind men and the elephant, we know much about the specifics, but lack the big picture. For instance, the experiential consumption literature has neglected the nature of the experiential offering to focus on the consumer, and the experiential strategy literature has neglected the nature of the experiential consumer to focus on the offering. This dissertation sought to take what we know on this topic, interrogate it empirically, and expand our knowledge of this distinct and powerful form of marketing. While this chapter will discuss the findings in terms of the a priori themes, the relational nature of all of the elements of experiential marketing makes it impossible to discuss one without discussing the others. That is, the findings from one of the a priori themes often inform and elaborate another a priori theme. In fact, some of the theoretical and managerial contributions of the study arise when we look across the themes. Thus, while the a priori themes provide the basic structure of the chapter, information found across the findings will be utilized to discuss the major implications of each one.
236 The Domain of Experiential Marketing One of the main limitations of the experiential marketing literature is that it does not provide structure to this complex domain. While the experiential consumption literature initially provided a framework (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982), subsequent studies have simply reported their findings under the broader concept of experience (e.g., Arnould and Price 1993; Joy and Sherry 2003; Mathwick et al. 2002). For example, we do not really know how the findings of these studies relate to one another. The first a priori theme examined in this dissertation concerned the domain of experiential marketing. Based on the findings, this dissertation defines the domain of experiential marketing as the production, distribution, consumption, and internalization of marketbased, firm-driven experiential offerings. This definition differs slightly from the a priori theme, but reflects a more comprehensive understanding of the domain based on the data. In general, while most descriptions of experiential marketing focus on the firm (e.g., Carù and Cova 2007a; Marconi 2006; Schmitt 1999), this definition encompasses all of the dimensions (i.e., firm, consumer, and interface) associated with this form of marketing. First, the domain of experiential marketing is confined to market-based, firmdriven offerings. While this dissertation drew heavily on the consumption experience literature, it acknowledges that experiential consumption is a much broader domain than experiential marketing. In fact, experiential marketing could be considered a sub-domain of experiential consumption. That is, consumers‟ experiences are not limited to those that are market-based and firm-driven. For example, a consumer can have an experience with tomatoes grown in his/her own garden. In addition, consumers can have experiences that are both ordinary and extraordinary, and their experiences can be deliberate or accidental.
237 In short, consumers can have experiences with everything. This dissertation did not seek to catalog every possible consumer experience. Instead, it focused specifically on the experiences that consumers have with a particular type of market offering – those that are deliberately designed to provide an experience. Thus, experiential marketing focuses specifically on the production of experiential offerings. Second, the domain of experiential marketing is defined by the type of marketbased offering produced by a firm. Experiential marketing focuses specifically on offerings that incorporate symbolic resources, produce engaging transactions, and have personal value for the consumer. These products are not determined by what they are (i.e., tangible or intangible), but what they mean. These products are designed to capture the consumers‟ attention and maintain their interests. The value of the products is not based on their exchange or use, but on how they make the consumer respond. There are four main characteristics of these types of offerings: 1) they are extraordinary, 2) they represent a narrative, 3) they are perceived holistically, and 4) they have an intended effect. Given the nature of these types of offerings, it may be more appropriate to use the word creation instead of production to designate the function of the firm. Third, the domain of experiential marketing includes the distribution of the experiential offerings. The true value of the offering is not achieved in its production or creation, but in its distribution to the consumer. This value of the offering is not a function of the traditional time, place, and possession utilities, but the degree to which it captivates the consumer. Rather than distribution, it may be more appropriate to use a theatrical term and call it the staging of the offering (Pine and Gilmore 1999). This implies a direct link between the offering and consumer and reinforces the idea that the
238 value is not in the offering or its exchange, but in its confluence. The distribution or staging of the experiential offering is vital to making sure the intended effect of the offering is achieved. Fourth, just as distribution is part of experiential marketing, so is consumption. While the literature implies that consumers who engage in this form of consumption are passive and submissive (e.g., Carù and Cova 2007a), the data do not support these findings. In fact, if the consumer does not actively participate in some aspect of the experiential offering, it will have no effect. For example, while you can run your washing machine without being present or have surgery while being completely anesthetized, all of the offerings examined in this study required the consumer to be present, aware, and engaged for it to have an effect. Even a movie requires the person to focus their attention and interpret what they see. As a result, it may be more appropriate to use the term engagement rather than consumption to capture the essence of this form of interface. Fifth, the domain of experiential marketing also includes the internalization of the offering. One thing that distinguishes an experiential offering is that it is created with an intended dramatic effect. At the same time, it is up to the consumer to translate the intended effect, through the staging of the offering, into the perceived effect. This perceived effect is interpreted and internalized by the consumer. The internalization of the perceived effect is the ultimate source of value for the consumer. It is also this process that contradicts the claims of the experiential consumption literature that consumers serve merely as pawns in experiential marketing. It is through their interpretation, assessment, and incorporation of the offering that its worth is determined. If not, every movie would be a blockbuster, every play a hit, and every resort a paradise.
239 Based on the following discussion, it may help to redefine the domain of experiential marketing as the creating, staging, engaging, and incorporating of a marketbased, firm-driven experiential offering. The domain begins with the intended dramatic effect and ends with the perceived dramatic effect. The drama is captured in the type of offering that is created, distributed, and engaged. As a result, the dramatic intentionality of both the firm and the consumer play a key role in experiential marketing and distinguish it from the experiential consumption, in which only the intention of the consumer plays a role. Theoretically, defining the domain of experiential marketing helps to distinguish experiential marketing from experiential consumption, as well as from the more traditional goods and services marketing. Given the exploratory nature of this dissertation, this definition is presented as a work in progress that should be examined and refined by future research. At the same time, providing a definition takes us significantly beyond where we were in which every researcher defined experiential marketing in terms that fit their research agenda. This dissertation has hopefully provided a basis on which all work on experiential marketing can be examined and based. Managerially, providing a clear understanding of the whole domain of experiential marketing, this will give marketers who want to undertake this form of marketing a sense of what is involved. Experiential marketing is not simply making an offering fun and exciting, but encompasses much more. The experiential consumption literature is right to be critical of the experiential marketing literature because it has often presented experiential marketing as the latest strategy fad. This form of marketing is very powerful, but requires a clear understanding and commitment to the entire domain.
240 The Dimensions of Experiential Marketing Another limitation of the experiential literature is that it has narrowly defined the concept of experience as a subjective consumer process (e.g., Carù and Cova 2007b; Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; Schmitt 1999). Given that most of the research on this topic began in the consumer behavior literature, this definition is not surprising. Drawing upon the psychology literature, this dissertation has sought to expand the definition of experience to include the experiential object, the experiential subject, and the experiential process. While it is feasible to define only the process as the experience, this approach runs the risk of ignoring or marginalizing the other factors that are involved – namely the object and the subject. This study finds that all three are necessary components of experiential marketing and integral to our understanding of the domain. In order to translate these three factors to the domain of experiential marketing, the experiential object is labeled the marketing experience, the experiential subject is labeled the consumer experience, and the experiential process is labeled the experiential interface. The data support the fact that even though these three dimensions are intimately intertwined, they are conceptually distinct and contain different elements. The first a priori theme concerning the dimensions of experiential marketing addressed the nature of the consumer experience. The study finds that the consumer experience encompasses the subjective factors of the consumer that impact the overall experience. A synthesis of the findings suggests that the consumer experience is characterized by desire, intentionality, and perspective. Desire, rather than motivation, best represents the “input” of the consumer experience (Belk et al. 2003). The study did not find the traditional process of consumer needs and wants leading to motivation, which then led to involvement to
241 satisfy a goal. Instead, what emerged from the data was consumer desire that was intentionally directed to an offering, and which led to engagement for its own enjoyment. Consumers seek and engage marketing experiences not because of some need activation that is directed towards a goal, but because of a desire that is projected through an intention. Whereas motivation seeks an end, desire seeks a means. As such, desire does not have to justify itself with a final goal. The “experience” itself is justification enough. Although this dissertation did not specifically address the issue of identity, the findings regarding the consumer experience suggest that identity may not play as fundamental role as proposed in the literature (e.g., Arnould and Thompson 2005; Firat and Dholakia 1998; Ladwein 2007). Identities are often considered projects that consumers work on to develop a sense of self (Arnould and Thompson 2005; Belk 1988). Even though these identity projects may never be complete and are constantly ongoing, they still represent the traditional consumer behavior logic of motivation, involvement, and goals. The literature suggests that consumers have some fundamental need to create an identity or identities, to engage offerings that facilitate this creation process, and to maintain involvement in the offering in order to reach the goal of securing this identity (Ahuvia 2005; Schouten 1991; Thompson and Tambyah 1999). While the findings do not deny that consumers can use experiential offerings to construct identities, the data suggest that something else is taking place. The study found that most consumers focused less on working towards a goal and more on simply having fun. The whole idea of work, in any form, seemed to run counter to the ludic nature of these offerings. Also, consumers focused less on themselves and more on the social nature of the offering. In many cases, the enjoyment of the offering came through seeing
242 it through the eyes of others. This was not a case of subsuming someone else‟s identity or developing some type of collective identity, but was simply the case of enjoying a good time with others by indulging collective desires and sharing intentions. One the other side of the equation, the findings suggest that the “output” of the consumer experience is best explained in terms of perspective (Lanier and Schau 2007). Without a goal to determine the outcome of the offering (e.g., the washing machine cleaned my clothes or the surgery was a success), the consumer is left with their perspective of the offering. As a result, the outcome takes place in the consumer‟s imagination, not in the sense of a flight of fancy, but in the mental relationships that the consumer establishes to make sense of the offering. For example, it is the consumer‟s perspective that accounts for why one person thinks a musical performance was great and another person thinks it was terrible. Thus, the study finds that the nature of the consumer experience is best explained by the concepts of desire, intentionality, and perspective. The second a priori theme concerning the dimensions of experiential marketing addressed the nature of the marketing experience. The study finds that a key feature of the marketing experience is its intended effect. That is, an experiential offering is created and/or designed to produce a specific dramatic effect. The study finds that the dramatic aspect of the intended effect is intimately linked to the degree to which the offering is extraordinary. Other factors that facilitate and impact the intended effect include the narrative, holistic, and theatrical qualities of the offering. Despite the claims by the consumption literature that the essence of an experience lies solely with the consumer and only nominally with the offering, the data indicate that consumers deliberately seek, and even avoid, marketing experiences based on their intended dramatic effect. In
243 essence, it is the matching of the intentions of the consumer and the offering that allow for the overall “experience” to take place. The third a priori theme concerning the dimensions of experiential marketing addressed the nature of the experiential interface. This is the process in which the consumer and the offering interact. Like desire, this study finds that the interface is best explained by its autotelic and ludic qualities. Consumers do not engage the marketing experience in order to work, but to play. This playful behavior is characterized by a sense of freedom in which the consumer can take on various roles and perspectives. At the same time, the offering can also take on various roles and perspectives. It is not confined to real or ordinary life, but can take on any form that its creators can imagine. The experiential interface is also a form of communication. The offering communicates to the consumer and the consumer communicates to the offering, as well as to other consumers. The type of offering will determine the nature of the communication, but it goes way beyond the standard notions of integrated marketing communication. The communication revolves around possibilities to be explored rather than messages to be transmitted. This explains why the study finds that the social component of the interface plays such a large role, as it facilitates this communication. Another dimension of experience that emerges from the study, but which was not proposed a priori, is that of the producer experience. Both the psychology and consumer behavior literature view the experiential object as a passive component in the overall schema of an experience. That is, it is something encountered, processed, and assimilated. The idea that there is a dramatic intent behind the object that is directed towards the other dimensions of experience does not seem to enter the realm of
244 possibility – other than for nefarious, or worst yet, commercial purposes (Cova and Rémy 2007). The thing that makes experiential marketing unique is that the experiential offering is created with the intent of producing a dramatic effect. It is not simply the intent of the consumer that drives the process, but also the intent of the producer. Thus, it is necessary to posit a fourth dimension of experience, namely the producer experience. The producer experience is the source of the dramatic intended effect. The marketing experience is the combination of stimuli intended to produce the effect. The experiential interface is the interaction between the offering and the consumer to produce the effect. The consumer experience is the source of the desire and intention to engage the offering and the perspective to convert the intended effect into the perceived effect. Theoretically, outlining all of the dimensions of an experience helps us to understand all factors that play a role in experiential marketing. While it is perfectly acceptable for research to focus on only one dimension, to suggest, as much of the literature does, that only one factor is the key to experiential marketing is incorrect. This study finds that all factors are important, and it is their relationship rather than their essence that underlie experiential marketing. These relationships can only be explored and understood if we consider all necessary dimensions. Managerially, by neglecting any dimension of experiential marketing, firms stand to fail in their efforts to create and stage these types of offerings. While they may not be able to manage fully the consumer experience or the experiential interface, this does not mean that they can ignore or neglect these factors. Just as market orientation suggests that firms understand and listen to their customers, experiential marketing requires that firms
245 understand how to interpret consumers‟ desires and intentions, to communicate dramatic possibilities, and to match intended and perceived effects.
The Characteristics of Experiential Marketing In addition to outlining the dimensions of experiential marketing, this dissertation also sought to examine the distinct characteristics of experiential marketing. While the literature has proposed many different factors that distinguish various experiential offerings, there is no consensus on the underlying characteristics of experiential marketing. The next set of a priori themes addressed what emerged from the literature as four distinct characteristics of experiential marketing: liminality, narrativity, connectivity, and multiplicity. While separate a priori themes were proposed for each characteristic, the study finds that these themes cannot adequately be addressed independently from the dimensions of experiential marketing. In fact, this is part of the reason why there are so many gaps in the experiential literature. Much of the literature has only examined the characteristics in light of a subset of the dimensions. The following discussion will attempt to provide a more comprehensive understanding. Liminality. The first a priori characteristic of experiential marketing examined in the dissertation was liminality. While there has been some debate in the literature about whether experiential marketing constitutes the liminal or the liminoid (Belk and Costa 1998; Kozinets et al. 2004), the dissertation finds that this form of marketing does not really constitute either of them, but instead represents what I call the “neo-liminal.” Just as the tribal evolved into the individual and then to the neo-tribal (Cova 1997; Kozinets 1999; Maffesoli 1996), it appears that the liminal has evolved from the liminoid to the neo-liminal. The neo-liminal constitutes a synthesis of the two previous types to produce
246 a modern form of liminality that underlies the essence of experiential marketing. First, unlike the liminoid, these neo-liminal offerings are not set apart from the economic and social order, but are fully integrated into the macro-structures of society. Second, while the literature has examined some experiential enclaves that exist as a liminoid space in opposition to the social order (e.g., Kozinets 2002), most marketing experiences exist as neo-liminal realms that are functional to the social order (e.g., football games, theme parks, and theater performances). Third, the meanings/perspectives of experiential offerings (e.g., the Super Bowl or Disneyland) are shared and understood by society in general (i.e., the neo-liminal) and not just by small isolated groups (i.e., the liminoid). Fourth, experiential marketing encompasses both the liminoid characteristics of choice, freedom, and play and the liminal characteristics of communal and obligatory. Why is this new neo-liminal concept important? First, it highlights the importance of experiential marketing to society. It should not be surprising that Pine and Gilmore (1999) talk about the experience economy. This is not simply a rhetorical device, but a testament to the degree to which experiential marketing is a fundamental part of our lives. Second, this new concept challenges our notion of play. While most consumers would probably argue that experiential marketing is a necessary part of life (e.g., the need for vacation), they also appear to embrace the ludic characteristics of this form of marketing. The ludic is not simply an insignificant or marginal aspect of life, but something that seems to underlie our basic nature. Third, the neo-liminal emphasizes the importance of the social and communal function of experiences. These offerings bring people together and give them a common perspective and purpose. In general, all of the neo-liminal
247 factors suggest that experiential marketing is not simply a business strategy, but a practice that captures the essence of our time – the ludic, symbolic, and communal. Looking specifically at the liminal characteristics of each dimension, the study finds that in terms of the marketing experience, liminality refers to the extraordinary nature of the market offering. The data overwhelmingly support the idea that consumers seek out marketing experiences in order to encounter something that is different from their everyday lives. For an offering to be extraordinary, it has to provide consumers with something that is unusual, unique, and/or exotic. While the experiential literature argues this quest for the extraordinary has led firms to produce more hyper-real and spectacular offerings (Carù and Cova 2007a; Firat and Dholakia 1998; Ritzer 1999), the data suggest that consumers still prefer the “real” to the “simulation” and are willing to pay for this difference. This has less to do with the offering being “authentic” (Gilmore and Pine 2007) as it has to do with the offering being unique. What really makes these offerings unique is the fact that they represent possibilities. The more possibilities they present, the more extraordinary they become. While some marketing research has examined the concept of hope (MacInnis and de Mello 2005), more research needs to be conducted on the marketing of possibility, especially in an experiential context. In terms of the liminal characteristics of the experiential interface, the study finds that the process is best characterized as an adventure. The data suggest that this experiential adventure is a complex relationship of two main factors: transcendence and risk (Simmel 1997). Transcendence refers to the environmental relationship between the offering and the consumer that can be classified on a continuum from absorption to immersion (Pine and Gilmore 1999). Risk, in this context, refers to issues of control and
248 predictability (Ewert 1989). The study finds that control is a function of customer participation that ranges from passive to active. Interestingly, passive participation was often associated with low risk and active participation with high risk. The study finds that predictability is a function of security that ranges from high security (i.e., more predictability) to low security (i.e., less predictability). It is the combination of these various factors that determines the type of adventure that the consumer has and its appeal. Unlike the experiential literature that often classifies adventure with high-risk activities (Ewert 1989; Ladwein 2007; Lynch et al. 2007), this study found that an adventure can take a variety of forms depending on the level of transcendence and risk. More research needs to be done on the nature of experiential adventure. In terms of the liminal characteristics of the consumer experience, the study finds that consumers of marketing experiences envision themselves as explorers on this adventure. Contrary to the claims of the experiential literature that consumption of these offerings is all about escape from the oppressive conditions of modern society (Cova and Rémy 2007; Firat and Dholakia 1998), the study finds that escape is only a condition that allows for the real enjoyment of the offering. That is, the consumer desires the freedom that comes from leaving the ordinary world behind, if only temporarily, in order to explore new vistas. The study finds the desire for discovery is extremely strong among consumers of these offerings. In fact, it is usually what is suggested or what lies at the “edge” of the context that intrigues consumers. While the process of discovery is different for every consumer, they all seem to enjoy the new, or at least different, perspective that they get from exploring the extraordinary. Although research has examined “edgework” in terms of consumers operating on the edge of their abilities
249 (Celsi et al. 1993), more research is needed to examine consumers‟ desire to explore the edge of the unknown, which is facilitated through this form of marketing. Narrativity. The second a priori characteristic of experiential marketing examined in the dissertation was narrativity. While there has been an increase in research on the importance of narrative meaning in consumer behavior, the dissertation suggests that the major finding concerning the narrativity of experiential marketing is the concept of perspective (Genette 1980; Lanier and Schau 2007). The narrativity literature suggests that all narratives are made up of five main dramatic dimensions: act, agent, agency, scene, and purpose (Burke 1945; Prince 1987). What makes one narrative different from another is not simply the content of these dimensions, but also the perceptual or conceptual position that is determined by which dimensions are emphasized and which are de-emphasized (Burke 1945; Genette 1980; Prince 1987). As such, a narrative frames the dimensions in such a way to provide a particular perspective. In addition, the storytelling function of narrativity conveys the particular perspective, and the imaginative component of narrativity allows the assessment and assimilation of the perspective. Thus, contrary to the focus of the a priori theme on meaning, the study finds that it is the focus on perspective that underlies the narrativity characteristic of experiential marketing. Why is this focus on perspective important? First, it suggests that consumers of these types of offerings are not seeking “information” (i.e., meanings), but rather a means by which to view “information” (i.e., perspective). The Disney theme parks are not telling visitors what to think, as the Disney critics like to attest, but are presenting them with a way of viewing the world. Whether or not you agree with this vision is another issue. Second, perspective allows consumers the freedom to adapt the offering to their
250 interests by focusing on the narrative elements that are important to them. They do not have to simply accept or reject the espoused meanings, but can play with the proposed perspective. Third, perspective emphasizes the participatory nature of experiential marketing. While critics argue that marketing experiences turn consumers into passive zombies (e.g., Carù and Cova 2007a), this view is predicated on substantive meanings rather than on perspective processes. Perspectives, by their very nature, have to be engaged in order to function. The degree of participation in the perspective will depend partly on the nature of the offering and the desire of the consumer. In terms of the offering, the study finds that the narrativity of a marketing experience is captured by the concepts of theme and story. While theming is an important aspect of an experiential offering (Bryman 2004; Kozinets et al. 2002; Pine and Gilmore 1999), it plays a much more subtle role than proposed in the literature. Rather than operating simply as an organizer of the marketing experience, the theme serves as a means to frame the offering. It provides the perspective that the producers want to convey to the consumers. In addition to the theme, the story provides the relationships between the elements of the offering and the theme. Unlike the theme which simply provides a broad perspective, the story weaves together all elements of the offering and organizes them into meaningful relationships. In fact, it is often the story, rather than the theme, that reinforces the liminality of the offering by converting the ordinary into the extraordinary (e.g., converting the theme of teacups into the history of the United States) and providing the adventure as it takes the consumers on a journey. While research has examined how narratives provide meaning to an experiential offering (e.g., Arnould and
251 Price 1993), more research is needed to examine how these experiential narratives provide perspectives that are used as a means for interpretation. In terms of the narrativity of the experiential interface, stories are only meaningful if they are told. The study found that storytelling plays an important role in the experiential process in two ways. First, it is important for the producers to convey the theme and the story to the consumer through all elements of the offering. It is important to note that while the particular perspective of the marketing experience emphasizes certain elements over others, all elements impact the perspective. The storytellers can be the performers (i.e., the experience providers) and/or the offering itself. Usually it is the combination of these factors that go into conveying the particular perspective and telling a good story. Following good narrative form, the study finds that the function of storytelling is to intrigue the consumers and increase their anticipation, create a certain amount of positive tension, and provide a release. The commercial storyteller facilitates the movement through this process. Second, the study finds that the consumer also plays the role of storyteller in the experiential interface. While the literature argues that it is through the creation of a personal story that the consumer converts a set of events into an experience (Deighton 1992), this study also finds that it is the relating of these events to others that converts the experience into an adventure (Sartre 1949). In a sense, consumers are asked to participate in a perspective that is not their own. By engaging in storytelling, consumers can explore this new perspective and its associated risks. Consumer storytelling can occur before, during, and after engagement with the experiential offering. Consumers often like to relate the offering to other similar offerings before going in order to build the
252 anticipation. During the engagement, consumers engage in discourse about the different aspects of the offering in order to filter the different events and focus on those that fit their own perspectives. Talking with others after their engagement with a marketing experience lets consumers construct their own narrative of the offering by situating themselves as characters in the story. It is this reflective aspect of the storytelling that transforms the marketing experience into a memory for the consumer. While the research has focused on how people construct consumption stories to make sense of the world (Woodside et al. 2008), less research has focused on the interaction between consumer and producer storytelling, especially in experiential contexts. In terms of the narrativity characteristics of the consumer experience, the study finds that consumers use their imaginations to participate in the narrative of the marketing experience. All narratives are imaginative constructions of reality. It is not by accident that Disney calls its designers Imagineers (1996). As a result, narratives are projections of particular perspectives of some aspect of reality. Just as the producers use their imaginations to create and stage the marketing experience, the consumers also use their imaginations to access, interpret, and incorporate the offering‟s narrative. Various ways that consumers utilize their imaginations include putting themselves in the story, making predictions about how the story is going to unfold, and relating aspects of the story to their own perspectives. As a result, imagination serves as a means to interpret the narrative perspective and create a memory of the offering. Most research in marketing has focused on the imagination as a means to evoke memories or fantastic imagery (MacInnis and Price 1987; Martin 2004). More research is needed to understand how
253 consumers utilize their imaginations to participate in the narrative perspective of an experiential market offering. Connectivity. The third a priori characteristic of experiential marketing examined in the dissertation was connectivity. While connectivity refers to all of the relationships among the various elements of experiential marketing, its importance is found in the gestalt qualities that it produces. That is, the study finds that one thing that distinguishes this form of marketing is the holistic nature of the three dimensions. The essence of the three dimensions cannot be reduced to any one individual element, but is constituted by all of them together. It is the connections both within and among the dimensions of experiential marketing that fundamentally create the experience. It is important to note that connectivity does not refer to a rationalized process in which all of the elements are efficiently linked to improve the quality or function of the dimensions. Instead, it is similar to the concept of synchronicity in which all of the elements are meaningfully linked, though not necessarily causally related (Jung 1972). In keeping with the narrativity findings, the synchronous links are meaningful not in terms of some specific connotation or denotation, but in terms of the relationships among the elements that comprise the particular perspective. In addition, these connections are dynamic in that they can change and adapt as the elements of the system interact. Each dimension encompasses different types of connectivity that facilitate the holistic, synchronous, and dynamic qualities of experiential marketing. Why is the proposed connectivity characteristic of experiential marketing important? First, it takes this form of marketing beyond the traditional idea of integration proposed in marketing (e.g., Podestà and Addis 2007). Connectivity is not simply about
254 coordination and consistency; it is about the gestalt qualities that are produced by bringing everything together. In fact, the holistic nature of this form of marketing challenges the control aspect implicit in the standard conception of marketing integration. Integration is supposed to facilitate control; connectivity, in a sense, produces something that is beyond the control of the producers. While it is necessary to manage all of the experiential connections, the result transcends these connections and cannot be rationalized or fully controlled. Second, the fact that the connections are synchronous and not causal implies that creativity, rather than logistics, drives this form of marketing. Statistical analysis is not going to tell marketers how to develop these connections. Rather, the producers are going to have to creatively determine the perspective they want to convey and how to facilitate this perspective. Third, because the connections are dynamic, there has to be a certain amount of flexibility built into the whole system in order to allow both the offering and the consumer to adapt to one another. Otherwise, the dimensions may not mesh and the whole system could possibly collapse. In terms of the marketing experience, the study finds that the experiential offering is made up of five types of connectivity: thematic connectivity, structural connectivity, process connectivity, communal connectivity, and ritual connectivity. Thematic connectivity refers to the relationships among the symbolic elements, structural connectivity refers to the relationships among the material elements, process connectivity refers to the relationships among the temporal elements, communal connectivity refers to the relationships among the human elements, and ritual connectivity refers to the continuity of relationships over time. Each of these forms of connectivity come together meaningfully to produce a holistic offering. Most consumers in the study stated that all
255 elements of the offering were important, and that it would not be the same if anything were removed. The reason that the removal of any of the elements would negatively affect the offering is not because there would be a breakdown in the causal linkage, but because it would dramatically affect the meaning of the offering. As we saw in the previous section, the purpose of the narrativity elements of a marketing experience is to provide it with a particular perspective. If any of the elements are removed or altered, the perspective changes. As a result, all of these types of connectivity are important to instantiating the particular perspective of the offering. More research is needed to explain how elements of a marketing experience are connected to form particular perspectives. In terms of the experiential interface, the study finds that relationship between the offering and the consumer is made up of three types of connectivity: intentional connectivity, temporal connectivity, and social connectivity. It is during the experiential interface that the intentions and desires of both the producers and the consumers come together. There has to be some connection between these two sets of intentions for the process to take place. Consistent with Deighton‟s (1992) concept of performance, the study finds that the producers have to make sure that the intent of the marketing experience and its actual performance are consistent. This does not guarantee a connection between the intention of the producer and consumer, but it increases the chance that the consumer‟s desire to engage the offering is fulfilled. At the same time, the temporal connection of these intentions extends beyond the actual engagement of the offering to both before and after the interface. The data suggest that facilitating and maintaining this connection enhances the overall enjoyment of the experiential offering. In addition, the intentions of the producers and consumers are influenced during the
256 experiential interface by their social connections. For there to be a successful interface, desires need to be fulfilled. The study finds that part of the difficulty with this is that a consumer‟s desires are influenced by both the intentions of the producers and by other consumers. While some marketing research has examined consumers‟ desires (Belk et al. 2003), more research needs to be conducted on how consumers‟ desires are influenced and fulfilled in an experiential context. In terms of the consumer experience, the study finds that the consumer‟s relationship with an experiential offering is impacted by personal connectivity. The data suggest that consumers‟ desires to engage a marketing experience are not driven by some causal relationship, as they are with goods and services, but by a meaningful relationship between the nature of the offering and the consumer‟s personal interests. This holistic tie is not directed at any particular element, but at the common interests between the offering and the consumer. This is usually what facilitates the intentional connection in the experiential interface. In fact, this holistic tie only has to be a potential, rather than an actual, connection because most consumers seek to enhance their personal interest from engaging the offering. As a result, personal connectivity is usually the driving force behind the choice of marketing experience. While research has examined the relationship between strong and weak ties in consumers‟ relationships with one another (Frenzen and Davis 1990), research could examine the effects of strong and weak ties between consumers and experiential offerings. Multiplicity. The fourth a priori characteristic examined in the dissertation was multiplicity. Although much of the experiential literature has focused on all of the different stimuli that distinguish experiential marketing from other forms of marketing
257 (e.g., Schmitt 1999), the study found that the multiplicity characteristic is not enough to distinguish experiential marketing. What emerged from the data was a structure of experiential marketing based on effects rather than stimuli. The one concept that seems to capture this experiential approach is theatricality. While the theater/performance metaphor is not new to marketing (e.g., Grove and Fisk 1992), the focus here is less on its elements (e.g., frontstage/backstage, setting, cast members) and more on its form and function. As a result, the fourth distinguishing characteristic may be better captured by the concept of theatricality. Why is the concept of theatricality important? First, it focuses on the effects of experiential marketing rather than the stimuli. The study finds that simply instantiating multiple experiential stimuli is not enough to produce a successful marketing experience. Instead, the particular effect that the offering is trying to convey will determine which stimuli are necessary. Second, theatricality focuses on the interaction between the intentions of the producers and the intentions of the consumers. Intentionality is not just a function of the consumer, but also the producer. Thus, in order to have a successful marketing experience, it is necessary to facilitate the connection between these two. Third, theatricality suggests that the role the audience members play in the offering depends on their particular status relative to the performance. This highlights the importance of the relationship between narrative perspective and the position of the audience (i.e., spatially and temporally). In terms of the theatricality of the marketing experience, the study finds that an experiential offering is best explained as a type of theater. All theaters have a dramatic form and function (Schechner 1988). The function of a theater is to produce a specific
258 dramatic effect. This is somewhat different than the experiential marketing literature which suggests that marketing experiences need to incorporate as many different stimuli as possible to create the broadest range of effects (Schmitt 1999). Instead, most consumers in the study substantiated the theater perspective by identifying a primary effect as the essence of the experiential offering. This does not mean that the experiential offering has to have only one intended dramatic effect. It simply means that each one is deliberate and the product of a specific dramatic intent. In addition, it is this intended dramatic effect that is going to determine which stimuli are instantiated into the offering. The study finds that the two main types of stimuli that are used to produce the intended effect include the material and the symbolic. The study finds that it is usually the material stimuli that elicit the effect and it is the symbolic stimuli that provide the meaning. While some research has examined the different types of theater and their intended effects in the retail area (Baron et al. 2001), more research is needed to examine the particular types of theater that are appropriate for experiential offerings. In terms of the theatricality of the experiential interface, the study finds that the experiential process is best explained as a type of performance (Schechner 1988). Performance includes all activities engaged in by the producers and consumers within the theater of the marketing experience (Pine and Gilmore 1999). The study finds that the role of the producers is impacted by the type of adventure desired by the consumers. That is, the level of risk often dictates how involved the producer is in the actual performance. In terms of the consumers, the study finds that they engage the performance as a form of play. While much of the experiential literature has focused on consumer participation in the material production of an offering, this dissertation finds that consumers are more
259 interested in participating in the symbolic production of the offering (Lanier and Schau 2007). During the experiential interface, consumers engage in a form of play in which they elaborate, modify, and/or embellish the meanings of the marketing experience in order to maintain the sense of freedom of exploration and gain new perspectives from the adventure – thus showing the connection between multiplicity and liminality. While research has examined the ludic nature of the experiential interface (Kozinets et al. 2004), more research is needed to understand how the producers and consumers interact in order to negotiate the intended effect of the offering. In terms of the theatricality of the consumer experience, the study finds that the consumers of these types of offerings can best be understood using the concept of audience. Just as a performance is created with an intended dramatic effect, the audience deliberately engages a performance to participate in its form and function. While the study confirms previous findings that most first-time consumers of marketing experiences only have vague expectations regarding the offering (Arnould and Price 1993; Deighton 1992), it also finds that the unknown is a large part of the attraction of the offering. Firsttime consumers want to explore and discover the intended effect, thus linking the theatrical and the liminal. Interestingly, for those consumers who were repeat customers, the opposite was true. The study found that consumers returned precisely because of the known aspects of the offering. Whereas during their first engagement they were able to explore and construct their own meanings, the subsequent engagements allowed them to participate once again in the constructed meanings and stories instantiated in the particular stimuli that they found important, thus showing the relationship between theatricality and narrativity. Future research should explore the transition between first-
260 time and repeat consumers of a marketing experience and how this relationship changes over the course of multiple engagements. Theoretically, the findings of the four characteristics of experiential marketing provide a means of distinguishing this form of marketing from other forms of marketing – namely goods and services marketing. Experiential marketing is unique in that it encompasses liminality, narrativity, connectivity, and theatricality. This does not mean that goods and services cannot take on these characteristics. It just means that if they do, they are better characterized as experiences. In addition, this study fleshes out these four characteristics by examining them across the three dimensions. Many of the gaps concerning these dimensions in the experiential literature have been addressed by examining all of their elements and interrelationships. Managerially, the findings of the four characteristics provide marketers with a better understanding of all of the things they need to consider when creating and staging these types of offerings. For example, simply providing a theme is not enough. They must also propose some intended dramatic effect, develop a story to produce this effect, incorporate the extraordinary into this effect, and make sure that all of the elements instantiate this effect. In addition, marketers need to carefully manage the amount of control they exert over the experiential interface. The study finds that while some consumers want a lot of structure, others do not. The type of adventure and the status of the consumer both affect the type of experiential interface desired by the consumer. While the experiential marketing literature has touched on some of these characteristics, this dissertation brings them all together and provides some guidance on their implementation.
261 The Experiential Marketing Logic In addition to our understanding of the nature of experiential marketing, the dissertation also sought to understand the strategy of experiential marketing. Given that the focus of the dissertation is on market-based, firm-driven experiential offerings, one of the purposes of this dissertation was to advance our understanding of the logic behind this form of marketing. This section will discuss both the theoretical and managerial implications of the findings of the experiential marketing logic from the perspective of resources, transactions, and value. First, the study finds that the experiential marketing logic is based primarily on symbolic resources, which in turn are the fundamental units of exchange. Tangible and intangible resources, while important, are merely distribution vehicles for symbolic perspectives and meanings. Whether it is a B-52 bomber in an air and space museum or an actor playing King Lear, it is the perspective and meaning that is provided by the these different resources that lies at the heart of experiential marketing. While marketers are only partially in control of the perspectives and meanings surrounding their offerings, they can be instantiated and transmitted in a number of different ways. First, marketers need to decide on the general and specific perspectives and meanings that they want to transmit. Based on the findings of the theatrical characteristics of marketing experiences, this is driven by the intended dramatic effect of the offering. Based on the findings of the liminal characteristics of a marketing experience, it is important to link these perspectives and meanings to some aspect of the offering that is extraordinary. Second, marketers need to decide on how they are going to transmit these perspectives and meanings. Based on the findings in the narrativity section, this is best accomplished by linking them to a
262 particular theme and story. Third, marketers need to make sure that all aspects of the offering are consistent with the particular perspective and meanings. Based on the findings of the connectivity section, the consistency of symbols will make it more likely that the consumer will understand the perspective and meaning. Fourth, because consumers approach the offering with different personal resources, it is important for marketers to provide a variety of symbolic resources that consumers can use to participate in the perspective and to interpret and appropriate the intended meanings. In addition, the marketers need to make sure that these symbols do not have alternative perspectives and meanings that could possibly detract from the offering. Second, the study finds that the experiential marketing logic is based on engaging transactions. While there are often both discrete and relational exchange dimensions to marketing experiences, these alone are not sufficient to create an engaging transaction. Contrary to the experiential literature, the level of involvement is also not sufficient to ensure that the consumer is engaged (Carù and Cova 2007b). Instead, the data suggest that there are some things that marketers can do to produce an engaging offering. First, based on the liminality and connectivity findings, the marketers must carefully manage the temporal aspects of the offering and reveal the elements of the offering over time. It is not enough to create one engaging moment. The marketer must work to maintain constant engagement. Second, based on the connectivity findings, marketers must strive to produce holistic offerings. Anything that does not fit will potentially detract from the enjoyment of the offering and cause the consumer to disengage. Third, based on both the theatricality and connectivity findings, the marketer must make sure that the promoted
263 intention/motive behind the offering matches the actual performance. If they do not match, the consumer will not be able to reconcile the intention with the meaning. Third, the study finds that the experiential marketing logic is based on internalized value. The data suggest that there are three factors that underlie the internalized value of a marketing experience. First, based on the theatricality and connectivity findings, consumers value a marketing experience because it addresses some desire/intention and because they have a personal connection with the offer. As mentioned earlier, desire seems to capture the impetus to engage these offerings rather than motivation because desire is not goal directed nor does it have to justify itself (Campbell 1987). Most consumers in the study did not engage a marketing experience to fulfill a particular goal, but just to indulge their interests and enjoy themselves. Marketers need to make sure that they promote the marketing experience not as a means to an end, but rather as a means of personal pleasure. Second, based on the liminality findings, consumers value a marketing experience because it provides them with something that is different than what they are used to. In a sense, a marketing experience is not simply a resource to be used, but something to be assimilated. As many consumers commented, there were aspects of the experiential offering that they will remember the rest of their lives. Marketers need to constantly update the offering to provide consumers with new and different experiential stimuli to ensure that consumers always take away something new. Third, based on the narrativity findings, the internalized value of the marketing experience is increased by the sharing of the experience with others. This helps the consumer to assign particular meaning to the offering and create memories. While this is
264 difficult for marketers to control, providing discounts for families or groups can encourage consumers to participate together.
Limitations One limitation of the study is that the dissertation focused on only a subset of experiential offerings. The study utilized the experiential realms framework proposed by Pine and Gilmore (1999) to choose different experiential offerings for the study. It is important to note that there is no consensus in the literature that this framework captures all of the different types of marketing experiences or that it classifies them correctly. The framework simply provided one method for distinguishing between different types of experiential offerings. It was used to ensure some variance among contexts. While this research did move beyond the traditional qualitative study of a single context, the contexts that were chosen did not include every possible type of experiential offering, nor did it include goods or services that had a strong experiential component. While the author suspects that the findings will apply to other experiential offerings, the findings are limited to the particular contexts that were chosen for this study. Another limitation of the study is the fact that the research deviated from the traditional qualitative study of a single context and examined multiple contexts. The conclusions that were drawn were abstracted from across fairly different contexts. It may be argued that the conclusions drawn in the dissertation apply to some contexts and not others. Care was taken to make sure that the findings could be substantiated across contexts, but it is possible that the effects are stronger in some contexts and weaker in others. Data were chosen for inclusion in the dissertation based on the ability of the
265 findings to be transferred across contexts, though this still does not guarantee that the findings hold for all contexts. A third limitation of the study is that the data for the study were gathered primarily from consumers. While this alone is problematic, the fact that the dissertation focuses on experiential marketing and its strategic logic rather than on experiential consumption may cause some to wonder why the study was not conducted solely among producers. This also would have been problematic because experiential marketing is made up of issues concerning the offering, the consumer, and the interface between the two. The primary reason more producers were not interviewed was simply the lack of a willing subject pool. Although many producers were contacted, the response rate was very low. One interesting finding among the producers that were interviewed for this study was that many of them were struggling with the experiential marketing of their offerings. Some of the producers were still using what I would consider goods and services strategies to promote the experiential aspects of their offerings. So even if I would have been able to contact more producers, I may not have gotten the information that I needed.
Conclusion The purpose of this dissertation was to expand our understanding of the domain, dimensions, characteristics, and logic of experiential marketing. The study finds that experiential marketing is a very complex form of marketing that differs greatly from goods and services marketing. As others have argued, this form of marketing is especially suited for postmodern society in which the symbolic, the spectacular, and the surreal are prominent (Brown 1995; Firat and Dholakia 1998). It would be a mistake to dismiss this
266 form of marketing as simply a fad, or worst, as simply a derivative of other forms of marketing (Vargo and Lusch 2006). While it is possible to expand any theory to include other theories, this usually is done at the expense of clarity and explanation. Keeping with the postmodern position of incredulity towards meta-narratives (Lyotard 1984), it is this author‟s opinion that nothing is served by assuming experiential marketing into some other strategic marketing logic. This is not simply a matter of trying to protect a stream of research, but an attempt to show that these forms of marketing are based on assumptions that are incommensurable. To assume one into the other means that significant insights are going to be lost on either side. Perhaps one reason why experiential marketing has not been given its proper place in the field is that the domain has not been properly defined and the assumptions have not been made clear. This dissertation has taken one step in that direction, but much more work needs to be done. Now that we have a better sense of the three dimensions, the four characteristics, and the three assumptions of experiential marketing, future research can extend our understanding by interrogating and refining these various factors. This will hopefully lead to a stronger theory and better strategies.
267 APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: RECRUITMENT FLIER
Do you like to going to Sporting Events, Amusement Parks, Zoos, Performances, Festivals, or Museums? My name is Clinton Lanier. I am a Ph.D. student in marketing at UNL conducting research on the consumption of various experiential products. I am looking for people who have recently attended the types of events highlighted above and who would be willing to share their experiences. Individuals will receive $5.00 for participating in the study. If you would like to participate in a 90 minute interview, please call (402) 742-7370, or email:
[email protected]
268 APPENDIX B: RECRUITMENT EMAIL PROTOCOL
Dear [Name of Participant], I am a Ph.D. student at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln in the Department of Marketing. I am currently working on my doctoral dissertation which focuses on marketing experiences as a unique type of product offering. In general, a marketing experience is any product offering, or aspect of an offering, that is specifically designed to produce an effect in the person consuming the offering. These effects can be sensual, emotional, fanciful, intellectual, physical, social, and/or spiritual. This study seeks to understand the strategic logic, distinct characteristics, and quality of these types of product offerings. You have been identified as someone who has recently attended or participated in an experiential offering. You have been contacted because I feel that your personal perspective and interpretation of the experience could provide very important insights into these types of offerings for my dissertation research. I hope that you will consider participating in this research project. The data collection process for this part of the study consists of either a self-report questionnaire which you will fill out on your own or a face-to-face semi-formal interview. Either process should take no longer than 90 minutes to complete. The information that you can provide is critically important to the success of the project and will be greatly appreciated. The results of this research will provide marketers and managers greater insights into these types of offerings and will allow them to produce better experiences that more fully satisfy consumers‟ needs, wants, and desires. Participation in the research project is completely voluntary. If you agree to participate or seek more information concerning this research project, please contact me via email
[email protected] or phone 402-304-8113. Upon agreement, I will explain the informed consent information, the procedures for either the questionnaire or the interview and we will make all of the arrangements for sending the questionnaire or setting up the interview (i.e., date, time, and location). Confidentiality of the information provided will be strictly maintained by the principal investigator. Results of the data analysis may be published in scientific journals or presented at academic conferences, but your name and identity will remain completely anonymous. The informed consent form has been included as an attachment to this email. I look forward to working with you on this project. Thank you in advance for your consideration and cooperation with helping me achieve my goal. Sincerely, Clinton D. Lanier, Jr. Ph.D. Candidate Department of Marketing University of Nebraska-Lincoln 310 CBA, P.O. Box 880492 Lincoln, NE 68588-0492
269 APPENDIX C: OBSERVATION PROTOCOL
Information: Date: ________________________ Time: ________________________
Place: _______________________ Informant: ____________________
Observation Guide: (General Observations): Feature: Entering the Experience: Outside the venue: Entrance: Gatekeepers: General Features: Sense Elements: (sights, sounds, smells, temperature, etc) General Layout: Movement thru the space: Physical Aspects (things in the space): Permanent things: Temporary things: People in the Space: Number: Types: Behaviors: Activities taking Place: Related to experience: Not related to experience: Events taking Place: Sanctioned: Unsanctioned: Exiting the Experience: Activities: Conditions:
Descriptive Notes:
Reflective Notes:
270
Observation Guide (Specific Observations): Feature: Products: Purchased at experience: Brought to experience: Services: Full service: Self service: Experiences: Type: Nature: Narrativity: Themes Stories: Connectivity (Connection of Elements): Physical: Social: Liminality: Thresholds/Boundaries: Ambiguity: Absorption: Behaviors: Multiplicity: Sensual Experiences: Emotional Experiences: Intellectual Experiences: Imaginative Experiences: Social Experiences: Physical Experiences: Spiritual Experiences: Quality: Physical quality: Service quality: Social quality: Price: Variety of Experiences:
Descriptive Notes:
Reflective Notes:
Informant Questions: *Informants will be asked to comment on the various aspects in the observation guides.
271 APPENDIX D: OBSERVATION CONSENT FORM Experiential Marketing: Exploring the Logic, Characteristics, and Quality of Marketing Experiences Purpose and Selection: You are invited to participate in this study of experiential marketing. The purpose of the study is to explore various aspects of a commercially produced marketing experience. You were chosen to participate in this study because of your recent attendance and involvement in a marketing experience. Your personal perspective and interpretation of the experience will provide important insights into these types of offerings. You must be 19 years of age or older to participate in the study. Procedures and Compensation: If you choose to participate, the procedure for this study consists of the researcher accompanying you to a marketing experience and observing your behavior. During the observation, I will ask you questions concerning your perceptions of the experience. The participant observation will take place at the experience and will last the duration of the experience or a prespecified time. In addition to the observational data, demographic information such as your age, gender, and occupation will be collected. With your consent, the observation will be audio-taped and photographed. You will be compensated $5.00 for participating in this study. Confidentiality: Any information obtained during this study that could identify you will be kept strictly confidential. The data will be stored in a locked file cabinet in the principal investigator‟s office and will only be accessible to the investigators. Audiotapes will be erased after they are transcribed. Anonymous transcripts of the taped conversation, as well as all fieldnotes and photos, will be kept indefinitely. The information obtained in this study may be published in scholarly journals and/or presented at academic conferences. An anonymous summary of your responses, as well as exact quotes, may be used, but your identity will not be revealed. Your name will only be known to the researchers. If you agree to be photographed, your image may be also used in academic publications and/or presentations. Risks and Benefits: The only known risk of the study involves using your image in any publication and/or presentation. It is important that you understand that while we can protect your identity in the reporting of your verbal responses, your identity could be revealed through the use of your image. You can request at any time that your image not be used, with the understanding that any prior use cannot be rescinded. There are no direct benefits to you for participating in the study. Rights and Opportunities: You are free to participate, not participate, or withdraw from participation at any point during the study. Your actions will in no way affect your relationship with the researchers or the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. You may ask questions concerning this research at any time before, during, or after the study. You may contact the investigators at any time. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant that have not been answered by the investigators or if you need to report any concerns about the study, you may contact the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Institutional Review Board, telephone (402) 472-6965. Consent: You are voluntarily making a decision whether or not to participate in this research study. Your signature certifies that you have decided to participate after having read and understood the information presented above. You will be given a copy of this consent form to keep. Do you agree to be audio-taped?
YES
/ NO
Do you agree to be photographed?
YES
/ NO
_________________________________________ Signature of Research Participant
_________________ Date
Name and phone number of investigator(s) Clinton D. Lanier, Jr., Ph.D. Candidate, Principal Investigator Ronald D. Hampton, Ph.D., Secondary Investigator
Office: (402) 472-5606 Office: (402) 472-5321
272 APPENDIX E: PRODUCER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Information: Interviewee: _________________________________
Date: ___________________
Interview Location: ___________________________
Time: ___________________
General Description of Roles and Responsibilities: ______________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________
Overall Perspective: 1. Tell me about the _______________. a. How would you explain the nature of your offering (e.g., the product category, specific features/functions/benefits, positioning, etc.)
2. What is the mission (or overall strategy) of the ________________? 3. How important is the customer‟s experience to the mission or overall strategy? (What role does it play in the mission/strategy?) 4. Do you try to manage the customer‟s experience? If so, how? a. What do you consider as the most important things that impact the customer‟s experience? b. What do you consider as the least important things that impact the customer‟s experience?
5. What do you consider as the main thing that the customer purchases?
6. Are there any other offering(s) that you provide ________________ that specifically impacts the customers‟ experience? a. If so, how do these additional offerings fit into the overall strategy?
273 7. What do you consider is the primary value (i.e., core value proposition) of the ___________? a. What aspects of the _______________ increase its value? b. What aspects of the _______________ diminish its value?
8. Do you try to create memorable experiences for your customers? a. If so, what specific things are done to facilitate the creation of memorable experiences?
Specific Characteristics of the Offering:
9. Is there an overall theme/story associated with the ______________? If so, please describe it. a. Are there themes/stories associated with parts of the _______________?
NOTE: Only ask these questions if there are themes/stories associated with the offering(s). b. Has the theme/story changed over time? (If so, please explain) c. How do you manage/market these themes/stories? d. How do you communicate the theme/story to the customers? e. How are the themes/stories meant to impact customers?
10. What aspects of the _______________ are designed to get customers absorbed/immersed in the _______________? a. Is there anything extraordinary or unusual about the _________________?
11. What aspects of the _______________ are designed to get customers more involved in the ___________________?
12. Do you try to make customers feel like they are in a different world? a. If so, how do you create this world? b. If so, what specific aspects of the offering(s) can potentially pull customer out of this world and/or cause the feeling to diminish?
274 13. Are there any structural/physical aspects of the ___________________ that are used to engage the consumer?
14. How important is it to manage the connection between all of the aspects of the offering? a. If it is important, how and why do you do it?
15. How do you make sure that the customers understand the _________________? a. Do you actively manage the meaning of the ________________? If so, how?
16. What is the main experience(s) provided by your offering(s)? a. What strategies do you use to produce or encourage these types of experiences?
Evaluation of the Offering:
17. How do you evaluate the quality of the _______________? a. What specific factors of the ______________ impact its quality?
18. Please explain your pricing strategy regarding the _______________. a. Is their relationship between price and the experience you provide?
19. How do you evaluate customer satisfaction? a. If you don‟t measure customer satisfaction, how would you?
20. What strategies do you employ to get customers to come again? a. To what extent do these strategies focus on the customer experience?
Additional Information: 21. What additional aspects regarding your strategies for managing the customer experience with your offering(s) do you think are important that have not been addressed?
Demographic Info:
Age: ____ ; Gender: _____; Length of time with firm/in position: _____/______
275 APPENDIX F: CONSUMER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Information: Interviewee: ______________________
Time of Interview: _____________
Interview Location: ________________
Date: ________________________
Market Offering: __________________
When Attended: _______________ How Many Times: _____________
Overall Perceptions:
1. Briefly describe the ___________________. a. What things did you like the most about the ___________________? b. What things did you like the least about the ___________________?
2. How did you participate in the ___________________?
3. How would you describe your overall involvement in the ___________________? a. What aspects were you the most involved in and why? b. What aspects were you the least involved in and why? 4. In general, what do you consider as the main thing that you “purchased”?
5. Did you purchase any other products and/or services at/on the ___________________? a. If so, please describe some of them? b. If so, how did these goods and/or services impact your overall experience?
6. What specific memories do you have of the ___________________? a. What aspects of these things cause them to stand out in your mind?
276 7. Please explain the value of the ___________________ to you? a. What aspects of the ___________________ increased its value for you? b. What aspects of the ___________________ decreased its value for you?
8. In terms of before and after going to/on the _____________________: a. To what extent did any activities or feelings before going add to/or detract from the overall experience? b. To what extent did the experience continue even after going to/on the ________________?
Specific Characteristics of the Offering:
9. Was there an overall theme/story associated with the __________________? If so, please describe? a. If there is a theme/story, how was it represented or communicated in the ___________________? b. If there is a theme/story, how did it impact your experience? 10. How was the __________________ different from your “everyday” life? a. Was there anything usual or extraordinary that made the experience different than “everyday” life?
11. Did you feel like you were in a different world when you were at/on the _____________? a. If so, what aspects of the ___________________ created this world? b. If so, were there any aspects of the ___________________ drew you out this world?
12. What physical/structural aspects of the ___________________ enhanced your experience? a. Were there any physical/structural aspects of the ___________________ that seemed out of place?
13. What role, if any, did other people play in your enjoyment of the _________________?
277 14. How did the ___________________ facilitate any of the experiences listed below? a. Experiences of the Senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch) b. Emotional Experiences c. Intellectual Experiences d. Imaginative Experiences e. Physical Experiences f. Social Experiences g. Spiritual Experiences
15. Out all of the specific aspects associated with the ___________________ : a. What do you consider as the MOST important to the overall experience? (That is, if these things were removed, the experience would be drastically reduced.) b. What do you consider as the LEAST important to the overall experience? (That is, if these things were removed, the experience would be not be affected at all.)
Evaluation of the Market Offering:
16. How would you evaluate the quality of the __________________? (High, Medium, Low) a. What factors specifically affected the quality of the ___________________?
17. Prior to going, what were your expectations/attitudes towards the _________________? a. To what extent did not knowing what to expect enhance or detract from your experience?
18. Were you satisfied with the ___________________? a. What aspects of ___________________ were you most happy with? b. What aspects of ___________________ were you most unhappy with? c. What aspects of the ____________________specifically affected your level of satisfaction?
19. What role does price play in your overall evaluation of the ___________________?
20. What aspects of your experience with the ___________________ would cause you to want to go again? a. To what extent does knowing what to expect enhance or detract from your desire to go again?
278
21. What aspects of the ___________________ would cause you to choose this offering (or type of offering) over some other offering?
Demographic Information: Age:
_______________
Gender:
_______________
Marital Status:
_______________
Race:
_______________
Place of Residence:
_____________________
Education: (check appropriate) High School: _______________ Some College: _______________ College Degree:_______________ Graduate Degree: _______________ Occupation: _____________________________ Household Income (annual salary): 0 - $19,999 _______________ $20,000 - $39,999 _______________ $40,000 - $59,999 _______________ $60,000 - $79,999 _______________ $80,000 - $99,999 _______________ $100,000 + _______________
279 APPENDIX G: PRODUCER INTERVIEW CONSENT FORM Experiential Marketing: Exploring the Logic, Characteristics, and Quality of Marketing Experiences Purpose and Selection: You are invited to participate in this study of experiential marketing. The purpose of the study is to explore various aspects of the experience associated with a market offering. You were chosen to participate in this study because of your involvement in the management and/or marketing of an offering with experiential characteristics. Your knowledge and expertise will provide important insights into these types of offerings. You must be 19 years of age or older to participate in the study. Procedures and Compensation: If you choose to participate, the interview will take approximately 60 minutes of your time. The interview will be conducted either in the marketing department at the University of NebraskaLincoln or at a location of your choosing. The interview will consist of questions concerning your involvement in the strategic management and/or marketing of the experience associated with your offering(s). First, you will be asked general questions concerning the nature of your offering(s). Second, you will be asked about the specific features and characteristics of your offering(s) that affect the customers‟ experience. Third, you will be asked how you assess the quality of the customers‟ experience with your offering(s). You have the choice to participate in a possible follow-up interview. If you agree to participate, the follow-up interview will take place either in person or by telephone. This interview is intended to seek clarification of points raised in the main interview and, if needed, should take no longer than 15 minutes. With your permission, the interview(s) will be audio-taped. There is no compensation for participating in the interview(s). Confidentiality: Any information obtained that could identify you or your institution, as well as proprietary information, will be kept strictly confidential. The data will be stored in a locked file cabinet in the principal investigator‟s home office and will only be accessible to the investigators. Audiotapes will be erased after they are transcribed. Anonymous transcripts of the interview will be kept indefinitely. The information obtained in this study may be published in scholarly journals and/or presented at academic conferences. An anonymous summary of your responses, as well as exact quotes, may be used, but your identity will not be revealed. Any information labeled as proprietary will not be used in any form. Your name will be known only to the researchers. Risks and Benefits: There are no known risks or discomforts associated with this research. There are no direct benefits to you for participating in the study. The general benefit from your participation in the study is that we may derive a better understanding of the logic, characteristics, and quality of marketing experiences. This information will hopefully allow marketers and managers to produce better experiences that more fully satisfy consumers‟ needs, wants, and desires. Rights and Opportunities: You are free to participate, not participate, or withdraw from participation at any point during the study. Your actions will in no way affect your relationship with the researchers or the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. You may ask questions concerning this research at any time before, during, or after the study. You may contact the investigators at any time. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant that have not been answered by the investigators or if you need to report any concerns about the study, you may contact the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Institutional Review Board, telephone (402) 4726965. Consent: You are voluntarily making a decision whether or not to participate in this research study. Your signature certifies that you have decided to participate after having read and understood the information presented above. You will be given a copy of this consent form to keep. Do you agree to be audio-taped during the interview:
YES
________________________________________________ Signature of Research Participant Name and Phone Number of Investigator(s): Clinton D. Lanier, Jr., Ph.D., Candidate, Principal Investigator Ronald D. Hampton, Ph.D., Secondary Investigator
/ NO _________________ Date
Office: (402) 472-5606 Office: (402) 472-5321
280 APPENDIX H: CONSUMER INTERVIEW CONSENT FORM Experiential Marketing: Exploring the Logic, Characteristics, and Quality of Marketing Experiences Purpose and Selection: You are invited to participate in this study of experiential marketing. The purpose of the study is to explore various aspects of the experience associated with a market offering. You were chosen to participate in this study because of your recent consumption of an offering with highly experiential characteristics. Because not much is known about the nature of these experiences, your perspective will provide important insights into these types of offerings. You must be 19 years of age or older to participate in the study. Procedures and Compensation: If you choose to participate, the interview will take approximately 60-90 minutes of your time. The interview will be conducted either in the marketing department at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln or at a location of your choosing. The interview will consist of questions concerning your experiences with a particular market offering. First, you will be asked general questions about your perceptions of the offering. Second, you will be asked specific questions concerning your experiences with the offering. Third, you will be asked basic demographic information (e.g., age, occupation, and residence). You have the choice to participate in a possible follow-up interview. If you agree to participate, the follow-up interview will take place either in person or by telephone. This interview is intended to seek clarification of points raised in the main interview. The follow-up interview, if needed, should take no longer than 15 minutes. With your permission, the interview(s) will be audio-taped. You will receive $5.00 for participating in the main interview, but not the follow-up interview. Confidentiality: Any information obtained during this study that could identify you will be kept strictly confidential. The data will be stored in a locked file cabinet in the principal investigator‟s home office and will only be seen by the investigators. All audiotapes will be erased after they are transcribed. Anonymous transcripts of the interview will be kept indefinitely. The information obtained in this study may be published in scholarly journals and/or presented at academic conferences. An anonymous summary of your responses, as well as exact quotes, may be used, but your identity will not be revealed. Your name will be known only to the researchers. Risks and Benefits: There are no known risks or discomforts associated with this research. There are no direct benefits to you for participating in the study. The general benefit from your participation in the study is that we may derive a better understanding of the logic, characteristics, and quality of marketing experiences. This information will hopefully allow marketers and managers to produce better experiences that more fully satisfy consumers‟ needs, wants, and desires. Rights and Opportunities: You are free to participate, not participate, or withdraw from participation at any point during the study. Your actions will in no way affect your relationship with the researchers or the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. You may ask questions concerning this research at any time before, during, or after the study. You may contact the investigators at any time. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant that have not been answered by the investigators or if you need to report any concerns about the study, you may contact the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Institutional Review Board, telephone (402) 4726965. Consent: You are voluntarily making a decision whether or not to participate in this research study. Your signature certifies that you have decided to participate after having read and understood the information provided above. You will be given a copy of this consent form to keep. Do you agree to be audio-taped during the interview?
_________________________________________ Signature of Research Participant Name and Phone Number of Investigator(s): Clinton D. Lanier, Jr., Ph.D., Candidate, Principal Investigator Ronald D. Hampton, Ph.D., Secondary Investigator
YES
/ NO
_________________ Date
Office: (402) 472-5606 Office: (402) 472-5321
281 APPENDIX I: TRANSCRIPTION CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT
Research Study: Experiential Marketing: Exploring the Logic, Characteristics, and Quality of Marketing Experiences Researchers: Clinton D. Lanier, Jr. and Ronald D. Hampton, Ph.D.
Confidentiality Agreement 1.
I will protect the privacy and confidentiality of all information pertaining to individuals and institutions that may be disclosed to me by the researchers and/or the audio recordings.
2.
I will protect and secure all audio recordings provided to me by the researchers.
3.
I will protect the identity of all individuals involved in the research study.
4.
I will protect the identity of all institutions involved in the research study.
5.
I will not share any information pertaining to the audio recording with anyone other than the researchers.
I have read the information above and agree to abide by the terms of this Agreement.
____________________________________ Signature ____________________________________ Print Name
____________________ Date
282 APPENDIX J: PRODUCER QUESTIONNAIRE PROTOCOL
Information: Name: __________________________________ Date: _____________________ General Description of Roles and Responsibilities: ______________________________ ________________________________________________________________________
Instructions: In order to make the questions applicable across a wide variety of offerings, we simply use a blank line in the questions for the particular market offering. When reading the questions, just fill in the blank with your particular offering. The questions should be considered general guides on each topic. If you feel that there is information related to each question that is not explicitly asked for, it is appropriate to include that information. Please be as thorough as possible.
Overall Perspective: 1. Please explain the general nature of _________________ (e.g., the product category, specific features/functions/benefits, positioning, etc.)
2. What is the mission (or overall strategy) of the ________________? 3. How important is the customer‟s experience to the mission or overall strategy? (What role does it play in the mission/strategy?) 4. Do you try to manage the customer‟s experience? If so, how? a.
What do you consider as the most important things that impact the customer‟s experience?
b. What do you consider as the least important things that impact the customer‟s experience?
5. What do you consider as the main thing that the customer purchases?
6. Are there any other offering(s) that you provide ________________ that specifically impacts the customers‟ experience? a.
If so, how do these additional offerings fit into the overall strategy?
283 7. What do you consider is the primary value (i.e., core value proposition) of the ___________? a.
What aspects of the _______________ increase its value?
b. What aspects of the _______________ diminish its value?
8. Do you try to create memorable experiences for your customers? a.
If so, what specific things are done to facilitate the creation of memorable experiences?
Specific Characteristics of the Offering:
9. Is there an overall theme/story associated with the ______________? If so, please describe it. a.
Are there themes/stories associated with parts of the _______________?
NOTE: Only ask the following questions if there are themes/stories associated with your offering(s). b. Has the theme/story changed over time? (If so, please explain) c.
How do you manage/market these themes/stories?
d. How do you communicate the theme/story to the customers? e.
How are the themes/stories meant to impact customers?
10. What aspects of the _______________ are designed to get customers absorbed/immersed in the _______________? a.
Is there anything extraordinary or unusual about the _________________?
11. What aspects of the _______________ are designed to get customers more involved in the ___________________?
12. Do you try to make customers feel like they are in a different world? a.
If so, how do you create this world?
b. If so, what specific aspects of the offering(s) can potentially pull customer out of this world and/or cause the feeling to diminish?
13. Are there any structural/physical aspects of the ___________________ that are used to engage the consumer?
284
14. How important is it to manage the connection between all of the aspects of the offering? a.
If it is important, how and why do you do it?
15. How do you make sure that the customers understand the _________________? a.
Do you actively manage the meaning of the ________________? If so, how?
16. What is the main experience(s) provided by your offering(s)? a.
What strategies do you employ to produce or encourage these types of experiences?
Evaluation of the Offering:
17. How do you evaluate the quality of the _______________? a.
What specific factors of the ______________ impact its quality?
18. Please explain your pricing strategy regarding the _______________. a.
Is their relationship between price and the experience you provide?
19. How do you evaluate customer satisfaction? a.
If you don‟t measure customer satisfaction, how would you?
20. What strategies do you employ to get customers to come again? a.
To what extent do these strategies focus on the customer experience?
Additional Information: 21. What additional aspects regarding your strategies for managing the customer experience with your offering(s) do you think are important that have not been addressed?
Demographic Info:
Age: ____ ; Gender: ________; Length of Time with Firm/Position: ______/_______
285 APPENDIX K: CONSUMER QUESTIONNAIRE PROTOCOL Information: Name: __________________________________ Date: _____________________ The Market Offering: ______________________ When Attended: ____________ How Many Times: __________ Instructions: For this questionnaire, we would like for you to answer the questions below in terms of ONE of the following offerings that you have recently attended/participated in: Sporting Event (e.g., Husker Football), Amusement/Theme Park (e.g., Disneyland, Universal Studios, Six Flags), Zoo, Aquarium, Performance (e.g., play, opera, symphony), Museum (e.g., fine arts, science and technology, air and space),Concert, National Park (e.g., Grand Canyon, Yellowstone, Yosemite), Historical Site (e.g., Living History Farm, Pioneer Village), or a Cruise. Please choose an experience that you paid to attend or participate in (versus one that is free). Try to pick an experience that you have attended within the last two years because it will be easier for you to recall this information. Please indicate which experience that you are writing about and approximately when you attended the experience. In order to make the questions applicable across a wide variety of offerings, we simply use a blank line in the questions for the particular offering. When reading the questions, just fill in the blank with the particular offering that you have chosen to talk about. The questions should be considered general guides on each topic. If you feel that there is information related to each question that is not explicitly asked for, it is appropriate to include that information. Please be as thorough as possible.
Overall Perceptions:
1. Briefly describe the ___________________. a.
What things did you like the most about the ____________________?
b. What things did you like the least about the ____________________?
2. How did you participate in the ___________________?
3. How would you describe your overall involvement (e.g., high, medium, low) in the ___________________? a.
What aspects were you the most involved in and why?
b. What aspects were you the least involved in and why?
286 4. In general, what do you consider as the main thing that you “purchased”?
5. Did you purchase any other things at/on the ___________________? a.
If so, please describe some of them?
b. If so, how did these other purchases impact your overall experience?
Personal Relevance:
6. Please explain the value of the ___________________ to you? a.
What aspects of the ___________________ increased its value for you?
b. What aspects of the ___________________ decreased its value for you?
7. In terms of before and after going to/on the ____________________: a.
To what extent did any activities or feelings before going add to the overall experience?
b. To what extent did the experience continue even after going to/on the _______________?
8. What specific memories do you have of the ___________________?
Specific Characteristics of the Offering:
9. Was there an overall theme/story associated with the ___________________? If so, please describe? a.
If there was a theme/story, how was it represented or communicated in the ___________________?
b. If there was a theme/story, how did it impact your experience? 10. How was the ___________________ different from your “everyday” life? a.
Was there anything usual or extraordinary that made the experience different than “everyday” life?
287 11. Did you feel like you were in a different world when you were at/on the _____________? a.
If so, what aspects of the ___________________ created this world?
b. If so, were there any aspects of the ___________________ drew you out of this world or caused the felling to break down?
12. What physical/structural aspects of the ___________________ enhanced your experience? a.
Were there any physical/structural aspects of the ___________________ that seemed out of place?
13. What role, if any, did other people (employees and/or other people) play in your enjoyment of the ___________________?
14. How did the ___________________ facilitate any or all of the experiences listed below? a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
Sensorial Experiences (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch) Emotional Experiences Intellectual Experiences Imaginative Experiences Physical Experiences Social Experiences Spiritual Experiences
15. Out all of the specific aspects associated with the ___________________ : a.
What do you consider as the MOST important to the overall experience? (That is, if these things were removed, the experience would be drastically reduced.)
b. What do you consider as the LEAST important to the overall experience? (That is, if these things were removed, the experience would not be affected at all.)
Evaluation of the Market Offering: 16. How would you evaluate the quality of the __________________? a.
What factors specifically affected the quality of the ___________________?
17. Prior to going, what were your expectations/attitudes towards the ________________? a.
If you hadn‟t been before, what extent did not knowing what to expect enhance or detract from your experience?
288 18. Were you satisfied with the ___________________? a.
What aspects of the ____________________ specifically affected your level of satisfaction?
19. What role does price play in your overall evaluation of the experience?
20. What aspects of your experience with the ___________________ would cause you to want to go again? a.
To what extent does knowing what to expect enhance or detract from your desire to go again?
21. What aspects of the ___________________ would cause you to choose this offering (or type of offering) over some other offering? a.
To what extent does the type and variety of experiences impact your decision to choose this offering again?
Demographic Information: Age:
_______________
Gender:
_______________
Marital Status:
_______________
Race:
_______________
Place of Residence:
_____________________
Education: (check appropriate) High School: Some College: College Degree: Graduate Degree:
_______________ _______________ _______________ _______________
Occupation: _____________________________ Household Income (annual salary): 0 - $19,999 _______________ $20,000 - $39,999 _______________ $40,000 - $59,999 _______________ $60,000 - $79,999 _______________ $80,000 - $99,999 _______________ $100,000 + _______________
289 APPENDIX L: PRODUCER QUESTIONNAIRE CONSENT FORM Experiential Marketing: Exploring the Logic, Characteristics, and Quality of Marketing Experiences Purpose and Selection: You are invited to participate in this study of experiential marketing. The purpose of the study is to explore various aspects of the experience associated with a market offering. You were chosen to participate in this study because of your involvement in the management and/or marketing of an offering with experiential characteristics. Your knowledge and expertise will provide important insights into these types of offerings. You must be 19 years of age or older to participate in the study. Procedures: If you choose to participate in the study, the questionnaire will take approximately 60-90 minutes of your time. The questionnaire will consist entirely of questions concerning your involvement in the management and/or marketing of specific aspects of your offering(s). First, you will be asked general questions concerning the nature of your offering(s). Second, you will be asked questions concerning the specific features and characteristics of the offering(s) that affect the customers‟ experience. Third, you will be asked how you assess the quality of the customers‟ experience with your offering(s). Compensation: There is no monetary compensation for participating in the questionnaire. Confidentiality: Any information obtained during this study that could identify you or your institution, as well as any proprietary information, will be kept strictly confidential. The data will be stored in a locked file cabinet in the principal investigator‟s home office and will only be accessible to the principal and secondary investigators. Anonymous copies of the questionnaire will be kept indefinitely. The information obtained in this study may be published in scholarly journals and/or presented at academic conferences. An anonymous summary of your responses, as well as exact quotes, may be used, but your identity will not be revealed. Your name will be known only to the researchers. Any information labeled as proprietary will not be used in any form. Risks and Benefits: There are no known risks or discomforts associated with this research. There are no direct benefits to you for participating in the study. The general benefit from your participation in the study is that we may derive a better understanding of the logic, characteristics, and quality of marketing experiences. This information will hopefully allow marketers and managers to produce better experiences that more fully satisfy consumers‟ needs, wants, and desires. Rights and Opportunities: You are free to participate, not participate, or withdraw from participation at any point during the study. Your actions will in no way affect your relationship with the researchers or the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. You may ask questions concerning this research at any time before, during, or after the study. You may also contact the investigators at any time. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant that have not been answered by the investigators or if you need to report any concerns about the study, you may contact the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Institutional Review Board by telephone at (402) 472-6965. Consent: You are voluntarily making a decision whether or not to participate in this research study. Your signature certifies that you have decided to participate after having read and understood the information presented above. You will be given a copy of this consent form to keep.
________________________________________________ Signature of Research Participant
_________________ Date
Name and Phone Number of Investigator(s): Clinton D. Lanier, Jr., Ph.D., Candidate, Principal Investigator Ronald D. Hampton, Ph.D., Secondary Investigator
Office: (402) 472-5606 Office: (402) 472-5321
290 APPENDIX M: CONSUMER QUESTIONNAIRE CONSENT FORM Experiential Marketing: Exploring the Logic, Characteristics, and Quality of Marketing Experiences Purpose and Selection: You are invited to participate in this study of experiential marketing. The purpose of the study is to explore various aspects of the experience associated with a market offering. You were chosen to participate in this study because of your recent consumption of an offering with highly experiential characteristics. Because not much is known about the nature of these experiences, your perspective will provide important insights into these types of offerings. You must be 19 years of age or older to participate in the study. Procedures: If you choose to participate in the study, the questionnaire will take approximately 60-90 minutes of your time to complete. The questionnaire consists primarily of questions concerning your experiences with a particular market offering of your choosing. You will be asked about your general perceptions of the offering, the specific aspects of the experience that directly affected your enjoyment of the offering, and your overall satisfaction with the offering. You will also be asked basic demographic information at the end of the questionnaire. Confidentiality: Any information obtained during this study that could identify you will be kept strictly confidential. The data will be stored in a locked file cabinet in the principal investigator‟s home office and will only be accessible to the principal and secondary investigators. Anonymous copies of the questionnaire will be kept indefinitely. The information obtained in this study may be published in scholarly journals and/or presented at academic conferences. An anonymous summary of your responses, as well as exact quotes, may be used, but your identity will not be revealed. Your name will be known only to the researchers. Risks and Benefits: There are no known risks or discomforts associated with this research. There are no direct benefits to you for participating in the study. The general benefit from your participation in the study is that we may derive a better understanding of the logic, characteristics, and quality of marketing experiences. This information will hopefully allow marketers and managers to produce better experiences that more fully satisfy consumers‟ needs, wants, and desires. Rights and Opportunities: You are free to participate, not participate, or withdraw from participation at any point during the study. Your actions will in no way affect your relationship with the researchers or the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. You may ask questions concerning this research at any time before, during, or after the study. You may contact the investigators at any time. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant that have not been answered by the investigators or if you need to report any concerns about the study, you may contact the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Institutional Review Board, telephone (402) 472-6965. Consent: You are voluntarily making a decision whether or not to participate in this research study. Your signature certifies that you have decided to participate after having read and understood the information presented above. You will be given a copy of this consent form to keep.
____________________________________________ Signature of Research Participant
__________________ Date
Name and Contact Information of Investigators: Clinton D. Lanier, Jr., Ph.D. Candidate, Principal Investigator Ronald D. Hampton, Ph.D., Secondary Investigator
Office: (402) 472-5606 Office: (402) 472-5321
291
REFERENCES
Abbott, Lawrence (1955), Quality and Competition, New York: Columbia University Press.
Abrahams, Roger D. (1986), "Ordinary and Extraordinary Experience," in The Anthropology of Experience, ed. Victor W. Turner and Edward M. Bruner, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 45-72.
Adaval, Rashmi and Robert S. Wyer, Jr. (1998), "The Role of Narratives in Consumer Information Processing," Journal of Consumer Psychology, 7 (3), 207-245. Addison, G. (1999), “Adventure Travel and Ecotourism,” in Adventure Programming, ed. J.C. Miles and S. Priest, State College, PA: Venture Publishing.
Adorno, Theodor and Max Horkheimer (1979), Dialectic of Enlightenment, London: Verso.
Agar, Michael H. (1983), "Ethnographic Evidence," Urban Life, 12 (1), 32-48. Ahuvai, Aaron C. (2005), “Beyond the Extended Self: Loved Objects and Consumers‟ Identity Narratives,” Journal of Consumer Research, 32 (June), 171-184.
Alderson, Wroe (1957), Marketing Behavior and Executive Action, Homewood, IL: Irwin. Allen, Max (1983), “Models of Hemispheric Specialization,” Psychological Bulletin, 93 (January), 72-104.
292 Ames, Edward S. (1910), The Psychology of Religious Experience, New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Anderson, Dana (1999), "Sign, Space, and Story: Roller Coasters and the Evolution of a Thrill," Journal of Popular Culture, 33 (2), 1-22. Arndt, Johan (1979), “Toward a Concept of Domesticated Markets,” Journal of Marketing, 43 (Fall), 69-75.
Arnould, Eric (1998), "Daring Consumer-Oriented Ethnography," in Representing Consumers: Voices, Views, and Visions, ed. Barbara B. Stern, New York: Routledge. Arnould, Eric J. (2005), “Animating the Big Middle,” Journal of Retailing, 81 (2), 89-96.
Arnould, Eric J. and Linda L. Price (1993), "River Magic: Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter," Journal of Consumer Research, 20 (1), 24-45.
Arnould, Eric J., Linda L. Price, and Avinash Malshe (2006), "Toward a Cultural Resource-Based Theory of the Customer,” in The Service-Dominant Logic: Dialog, Debate, and Directions, ed. Robert F. Lusch and Stephen L. Vargo, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 91-104.
Arnould, Eric J., Linda L. Price, and Patrick Tierney (1998), "Communicative Staging of the Wilderness Servicescape," Service Industries Journal, 18 (3), 90-115.
Arnould, Eric J., Linda L. Price, and George M. Zinkham (2004), Consumers, New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
293 Arnould, Eric J. and Craig J. Thompson (2005), "Consumer Culture Theory (CCT): Twenty Years of Research," Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (March), 868882.
Audet, Rene, Claude Romano, Carl Therrien, and Laurence Dreyfus (ed.) (2007), Narrativity: How Visual Arts, Cinema, and Literature Are Telling the World Today, Paris: Dis Voir.
Bader, Michael J. (2002), Arousal: The Secret Logic of Sexual Fantasies, New York: St. Martin‟s Press. Badot, Olivier and Marc Filser (2007), “Re-enchantment of Retailing: Toward Utopian Islands,” in Consuming Experience, ed. Antonella Carù and Bernard Cova, New York: Routledge, 166-182.
Bakhtin, Mikhail (1981), The Dialogic Imagination, Austin: University of Texas Press.
Barker, Juliet R.V. (1986), The Tournament in England, 1100-1400, Suffolk, England: Boydell Press.
Baron, Steve, Kim Harris, and Richard Harris (2001), "Retail Theater," Journal of Service Research, 4 (2), 102-117.
Barrett, Lisa F., Batja Mesquita, Kevin N. Ochsner, and James J. Gross (2007), "The Experience of Emotion," Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 373-403.
Barthes, Roland (1964) Elements of Semiology, trans. Annette Lavers and Colin Smith, London: Jonathan Cape.
Baudrillard, Jean (1988) Selected Writings, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
294 Baumeister, Roy F. and Leonard S. Newman (1994), "How Stories Make Sense of Personal Experiences: Motives That Shape Autobiographical Narratives," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20 (6), 676-690. Beckman, Theodore N. (1954), “The Value Added Concept as Applied to Marketing and Its Implications,” in Frontiers of Marketing Thought, ed. Steward H. Rewoldt, Bloomington, IN: Bureau of Business Research, Indiana University, 83-145.
Belk, Russell W. (1988), "Possessions and the Extended Self," Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (September), 139-168.
Belk, Russell W. and Janeen Arnold Costa (1998), "The Mountain Man Myth: A Contemporary Consuming Fantasy," Journal of Consumer Research, 25 (December), 218-240.
Belk, Russell W., Guliz Ger, and Soren Askegaard (2003), "The Fire of Desire: A Multisited Inquiry into Consumer Passion," Journal of Consumer Research, 30 (December), 326-351.
Belk, Russell W., John F. Sherry, Jr. and Melanie Wallendorf (1988), "A Naturalistic Inquiry into Buyer and Seller Behavior at a Swap Meet," Journal of Consumer Research, 14 (March), 449-470.
Bernard, H. Russell (1998), Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology, Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
Berlyne, Daniel E. (1960), Conflict, Arousal, and Curiosity, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Bertalanffy, Ludwig V. (1969), General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications, New York: G. Braziller.
295 Bhattacharya, C. B., Rao Hayagreeva, and Mary Ann Glynn (1995), "Understanding the Bond of Identification: An Investigation of Its Correlates Among Art Museum Members," Journal of Marketing, 59 (October), 46-57. Biehal, Gabriel and Dipankar Chakravarti (1986), “Consumers‟ Use of Memory and External Information in Choice: Macro and Mirco Perspectives,” Journal of Consumer Research, 12 (March), 382-405.
Bond, Edward J. (1983), Reason and Value, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bradley, Ben S. (2005), Psychology and Experience, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Braithwaite, Charles A. (1997), "'Were YOU There?' A Ritual of Legitimacy Among Vietnam Veterans," Western Journal of Communication, 61 (4), 423-447.
Brown, Stephen (1995), Postmodern Marketing, London: Routledge. Brown, Stephen (1999), “Devaluing Value: The Apophatic Ethic and the Spirit of Postmodern Consumption” in Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research, ed. Morris B. Holbrook, New York: Routledge, 159-182. Bruner, Edward M. (1994), “Abraham Lincoln as Authentic Reproduction: A Critique of Postmodernism,” American Anthropologist, 96 (2), 397-415.
Bruner, Jerome (1990), Acts of Meaning, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bryman, Alan (2004), The Disneyization of Society, London: Sage.
Burawoy, Michael (1998), "The Extended Case Method," Sociological Theory, 16 (1), 433.
296
Burke, Kenneth (1945), A Grammar of Motives, New York: Prentice-Hall.
Campbell, Colin (1987), The Romantic Ethic and the Spirit of Modern Consumerism, Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Carbone, Lewis P. (2004), Clued In: How to Keep Customers Coming Back Again and Again, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Financial Times Prentice Hall.
Carù, Antonella and Bernard Cova (2003), "Revisiting Consumption Experience: A More Humble but Complete View of the Concept," Marketing Theory, 3 (2), 267-286. Carù, Antonella and Bernard Cova (2007a), “Consuming Experiences: An Introduction,” in Consuming Experience, ed. Antonella Carù and Bernard Cova, New York: Routledge, 3-16. Carù, Antonella and Bernard Cova (2007b), “Consumer Immersion in an Experiential Context,” in Consuming Experience, ed. Antonella Carù and Bernard Cova, New York: Routledge, 34-47.
Celsi, Richard L., Randall L. Rose, and Thomas W. Leigh (1993), "An Exploration of High-Risk Leisure Consumption through Skydiving," Journal of Consumer Research, 20 (June), 1-23.
Chandler, Daniel (2002), Semiotics: The Basics, London: Routledge.
Charmaz, Kathy (2006), Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide through Qualitative Analysis, London: Sage.
Cherington, Paul T. (1920), The Elements of Marketing, New York: Macmillan.
297 Chronis, Athinodoros (2005), "Our Byzantine Heritage: Consumption of the Past and its Experiential Benefits," Journal of Consumer Marketing, 22 (4), 213-22.
Clifford, James (1990), "Notes of (Field)notes," in Fieldnotes: The Making of Anthropology, ed. Roger Sanjek, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 47-70.
Constantin, James A. and Robert F. Lusch (1994), Understanding Resource Management, Oxford, OH: The Planning Forum.
Converse, Paul D. (1921), Marketing Methods and Politics, New York: Prentice Hall.
Coon, Carleton S. (1958), Caravan: The Story of the Middle East, New York: Holt. Cova, Bernard (1997), “Community and Consumption: Towards a Definition of the Linking Value of Product or Services,” European Journal of Marketing, 31 (Fall/Winter), 297-316. Cova, Véronique and Eric Rémy (2007), “Consuming Experiences: An Introduction,” in Consuming Experience, ed. Antonella Carù and Bernard Cova, New York: Routledge, 51-64.
Cowan, Alan (1964), Quality Control for the Manager, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Creswell, John W. (1998), Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly (1991), Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, New York: Harper Perennial.
298 Dalli, Daniele and Simona Romani (2007), Consumption Experiences and Product Meanings: Pasta for Young Italian Consumers,” in Consuming Experience, ed. Antonella Carù and Bernard Cova, New York: Routledge, 65-78.
Deci, Edward L. (1975), Intrinsic Motivation, New York: Plenum.
Deighton, John (1992), "The Consumption of Performance," Journal of Consumer Research, 19 (December), 362-372.
Deighton, John and Kent Grayson (1995), "Marketing and Seduction: Building Exchange Relationships by Managing Social Consensus," Journal of Consumer Research, 21 (March), 660-676.
Deighton, John, Daniel Romer, and Josh McQueen (1989), "Using Drama to Persuade," Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (December), 335-343.
Denzin, Norman K. (1989), Interpretive Interactionism, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Dimond, Stuart J. (1972), The Double Brain, New York: Halstead.
Durgee, Jeffrey F., Morris B. Holbrook, and John F. Sherry Jr. (1991), "The Delivery of Vacation Performances," in Highways and Buyways: Naturalistic Research from the Consumer Behavior Odyssey, ed. Russell W. Belk, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research.
Dwyer, F. Robert, Paul H. Schurr, and Sejo Oh (1987), "Developing Buyer-Seller Relationships," Journal of Marketing, 51 (April), 11-27.
Eco, Umberto (1976), A Theory of Semiotics, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
299 Emerson, Robert M, Rachel I. Fretz, and Linda L. Shaw (1995), Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Escalas, Jennifer E. (1998), "Advertising Narratives," in Representing Consumers: Voices, Views, and Visions, ed. Barbara Stern, New York: Routledge, 267-289.
Escalas, Jennifer E. (2004), "Narrative Processing: Building Consumer Connections to Brands," Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14 (1&2), 168-180. Evans-Pritchard, Diedre (1999), “The Portal Case: Authenticity, Tourism, Traditions, and the Law,” Journal of American Folklore, 100 (397), 287-296.
Ewert, Alan W. (1989), Outdoor Adventure Pursuits: Foundations, Models and Theories, Colombus, OH: Publishing Horizons. Filser, Marc (2002), “Le Marketing de la Production d‟Experience: Statut Theorique et Implications Manageriales,” Decisions Marketing, 28 (October), 13-22.
Firat, A. Fuat and Nikhilesh Dholakia (1998), Consuming People: From Political Economy to Theaters of Consumption, New York: Routledge.
Flickinger, Roy C. (1960), The Greek Theater and its Drama, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Francaviglia, Richard V. (1981), "Main Street U.S.A.: A Comparison/Contrast of Streetscapes in Disneyland and Walt Disney World," Journal of Popular Culture, 15 (1), 141-156. Frenzen, Jonathan K. and Harry L. Davis (1990), “Purchasing Behavior in Embedded Markets,” Journal of Consumer Research, 17 (June), 1-12.
300 Garvin, David A. (1983), "Quality on the Line," Harvard Business Review, 61 (September-October), 65-73.
Genette, Gerard (1980), Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, trans. Jane E. Lewin, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Gertz, Clifford (1973), The Interpretation of Cultures, New York: Basic Books.
Gilmore, James H. and B. Joseph Pine (2007), Authenticity: What Consumers Really Want, Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Glaser, Barney G. and Anselm L. Strauss (1967), The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research, Chicago: Aldine.
Goffman, Erving (1963), Behavior in Public Places: Notes o the Social Organization of Gatherings, New York: Free Press.
Gottdiener, Mark (1997), The Theming of America: Dreams, Visions, and Commercial Spaces, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Gottdiener, Mark (1998), "The Semiotics of Consumer Spaces: The Growing Importance of Themed Environments," in Servicescapes: The Concept of Place in Contemporary Markets, ed. John F. Sherry, Jr., Chicago: NTC, 29-54. Goulding, Christina (2001), “Grounded Theory: A Magical Formula or a Potential Nightmare,” The Marketing Review, 2 (1), 21-34. Goulding, Christina, Avi Shankar, and Richard Elliott, and (2002), “Working Weeks, Rave Weekends: Identity Fragmentation and the Emergence of New Communities, Consumption, Markets, Culture, 5 (4), 261-284.
301 Grayson, Kent (1999), "The Dangers and Opportunities of Playful Consumption," in Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research, ed. Morris B. Holbrook, London: Routledge, 105-126. Grayson, Kent and Radan Martinec (2004), “Consumer Perceptions of Iconicity and Indexicality and Their Influence on Assessments of Authentic Market Offerings, Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (2), 296-312. Grove, Stephen J. and Raymond P. Fisk (1992), “The Service Experience as Theater,” Association for Consumer Research, 19 (1), 455-461. Harris, Richard, Kim Harris, and Steve Baron (2003), “Theatrical Service Experiences: Dramatic Script Development with Employees,” International Journal of Service Industry Management, 14 (2), 184-199.
Haythornthwaite, Caroline (2005), "Social Networks and Internet Connectivity Effects," Information, Communication & Society, 8 (2), 125-147. Heilbrunn, Benoît (2007), “The Blandness and Delights of a Daily Object,” in Consuming Experience, ed. Antonella Carù and Bernard Cova, New York: Routledge, 79-91.
Herman, David, Manfred Jahn, and Marie-Laure Ryan (ed.) (2005), Routledge Encyclopedia of Narrative Theory, London: Routledge. Heylighen, Francis and Cliff Joslyn (1995), “Systems Theory,” in The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, ed. Robert Audi, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 898-899.
Hirchheim, Rudy and Dennis Adams (1991), "Organizational Connectivity," Journal of General Management, 17 (2), 65-76.
302 Hirschman, Elizabeth C. and Morris B. Holbrook (1982), "Hedonic Consumption: Emerging Concepts, Methods and Propositions," Journal of Marketing, 46 (3), 92-101. Hoch, Stephen J. (2002), “Product Experience is Seductive,” Journal of Consumer Research, 29 (December), 448-454. Holbrook, Morris B. (1987), "O Consumer, How You‟ve Changed: Some Radical Reflections on the Roots of Consumption," in Philosophical and Radical Thought in Marketing, ed. A Fuat Firat, Nikhilesh Dholakia, and Richard Bagozzi, Lexington, MA: Lexington, 137-177. Holbrook, Morris B. (1994), “The Nature of Customer Value: An Axiology of Services in the Consumption Experience,” in Service Quality: New Directions in Theory and Practice, ed. Roland T. Rust and Richard L. Oliver, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 21-71.
Holbrook, Morris B. (1995), Consumer Research: Introspective Essays on the Study of Consumption, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Holbrook, Morris B. (1997), “Romanticism, Introspection, and the Roots of Experiential Consumption: Morris the Epicurean,” Consumption, Markets, and Culture, 1 (2): 97-196. Holbrook, Morris B. (1999), “Introduction to Consumer Value,” in Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research, ed. Morris B. Holbrook, London: Routledge, 1-28.
303 Holbrook, Morris B. and Kim P. Corfman (1985), "Quality and Value in the Consumption Experience: Phaedrus Rides Again," in Perceived Quality: How Consumers View Stores and Merchandise, ed. Jacob Jacoby and Jerry C. Olson, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 32-57.
Holbrook, Morris B. and Elizabeth C. Hirschman (1982), "The Experiential Aspects of Consumption: Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun," Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (September), 132-140.
Holbrook, Morris B., Robert W. Chestnut, Terence A. Oliva, and Eric A. Greenleaf (1984), "Play as a Consumption Experience: The Roles of Emotions, Performance, and Personality in the Enjoyment of Games," Journal of Consumer Research, 11 (September), 728-739.
Holt, Douglas B. (1995), "How Consumers Consume: A Typology of Consumption Practices," Journal of Consumer Research, 22 (June), 1-16.
Holt, Douglas B. (2004), How Brands Become Icons: The Principles of Cultural Branding, Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Hopkinson, Gillian C. and Sandra Hogarth-Scott (2001), “„What Happened Was . . .‟ Broadening the Agenda for Storied Research,” Journal of Marketing Management, 17 (February), 27-47.
Houston, Michael J. and Michael L. Rothschild (1978), "Conceptual and Methodological Perspectives on Involvement," in 1978 Educators' Proceedings, ed. S.C. Jain, Chicago: American Marketing Association, 184-187.
Howard, John A. and Jadish N. Sheth (1969), The Theory of Buying Behavior, New York: John Wiley.
304 Hudson, Laurel Anderson and Julie L. Ozanne (1988), “Alternative Ways of Seeking Knowledge in Consumer Research,” Journal of Consumer Research, 14 (March), 508-521.
Humphrey, John H. (1986), Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing, London: B.T. Batsford.
Hunt, Shelby D. (2000), A General Theory of Competition: Resources, Competencies, Productivity, Economic Growth, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication.
Huss, Roy and Norman Silverstein (1968), The Film Experience, New York: Dell.
Husserl, Edmund (1962), Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology, trans. W.R. Boyce Gibson, New York: Collier.
Huizinga, Johan (1950), Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture, Boston: The Beacon Press.
Hymes, Dell H. (1974), Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Imagineers (1996), Walt Disney Imagineering: A Behind the Dreams Look at Making the Magic Real, New York: Hyperion.
Izard, Carroll E. (1977) Human Emotion, New York: Plenum.
Jackel, M., C. Rovekamp, and A.M. Wurfel (2006), "Beyond Digital Connectivity: The Value of Communication and the Communication of Values," Production Planning & Control, 17 (March), 214-223.
305 Janiszewski, Chris (1993), “Preattentive Mere Exposure Effects,” Journal of Consumer Research, 20 (December), 376-392.
Johnson, David M. (1981), "Disney World as Structure and Symbol: Re-creation of the American Experience," Journal of Popular Culture, 15 (1), 157-165.
Johnson, Lesley, Karl J. Mayer, and Elena Champaner (2004), "Casio Atmospherics from a Customer's Perspective: A Re-Examination," UNLV Gaming Research & Review Journal, 8 (2), 1-10.
Joy, Annamma and John F. Sherry (2003), "Speaking of Art as Embodied Imagination: A Multisensory Approach to Understanding Aesthetic Experience," Journal of Consumer Research, 30 (September), 259-282.
Jung, Carl F. (1973), Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle, trans. R. F. C. Hull, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Kozinets, Robert V. (1999), “E-Tribalized Marketing? The Strategic Implications of Virtual Communities of Consumption,” European Management Journal, 17 (June), 252-264.
Kozinets, Robert V. (2001), "Utopian Enterprise: Articulating the Meanings of Star Trek's Culture of Consumption," Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (June), 6788.
Kozinets, Robert V. (2002), "Can Consumers Escape the Market? Emancipatory Illuminations from Burning Man," Journal of Consumer Research, 29 (June), 2038.
306 Kozinets, Robert V., John F. Sherry Jr., and Stefania Borghini (2007), “Agents in Paradise: Experiential Co-creation through Emplacement, Ritualization, and Community,” in Consuming Experience, ed. Antonella Carù and Bernard Cova, New York: Routledge, 17-33.
Kozinets, Robert V., John F. Sherry, Benet DeBerry-Spence, Adam Duhachek, Krittinee Nuttavuthisit, and Diana Storm (2002), "Themed Flagship Brand Stores in the New Millennium: Theory, Practice, Prospects," Journal of Retailing, 78 (1), 1729.
Kozinets, Robert V., John F. Sherry Jr., Diana Storm, Adam Duhachek, Krittinee Nuttavuthisit, and Benet Deberry-Spence (2004), "Ludic Agency and Retail Spectacle," Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (December), 658-672.
Krugman, Herbert E. (1967), "The Measurement of Advertising Involvement," Public Opinion Quarterly, 30 (Winter), 583-596. Ladwein, Richard (2007), “Consumption Experience, Self-Narrative, and Self-Identity: The Example of Trekking,” in Consuming Experience, ed. Antonella Carù and Bernard Cova, New York: Routledge, 95-108. Lanier, Clinton D. Jr. (2007), “The Role of Fantasy in Experiential Marketing: Negotiating and Co-creating the Renaissance Festival Experience” in AMA Winter Marketing Educators’ Conference Proceedings, ed. Andrea L. Dixon and Karen A. Machleit, Vol. 18. Lanier, Clinton D. Jr. and Hope Jensen Schau (2007), “Culture and Co-Creation: Exploring Consumers‟ Inspirations and Aspirations for Writing and Posting OnLine Fan Fiction,” in Research in Consumer Behavior: Consumer Culture Theory, Vol. 11, ed. Russell W. Belk and John F. Sherry, Jr., Oxford: Elsevier, 321-342.
307 LaSalle, Diana and Terry A. Britton (2003), Priceless: Turning Ordinary Products into Extraordinary Experiences, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Laszlo, Ervin (2003), The Connectivity Hypothesis: Foundations of an Integral Science of Quantum, Cosmos, Life, and Consciousness, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Lazarsfeld, Paul F. (1972), Qualitative Analysis: Historical and Critical Essays, Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Levy, Sidney J. (1959), "Symbols for Sale," Harvard Business Review, 37 (July-August), 117-124.
Levy, Sidney J. (1963), "Symbolism and Life Style," in Proceedings, ed. Stephen A. Greyser, Chicago: American Marketing Association, 140-150.
Levy, Sidney J. (1981), "Interpreting Consumer Mythology: A Structural Approach to Consumer Behavior,” Journal of Marketing, 45 (Summer), 49-61.
Lincoln, Yvonna S. and Egon G. Guba (1985), Naturalistic Inquiry, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Lynch, Pip, Paul Johson, and Mark Dibben (2007), “Exploring Relationships of Trust in „Adventure‟ Recreation,” Leisure Studies, 26 (1), 47-64. Lyng, Stephen G. (1990), “Edgework: A Social Psychological Analysis of Voluntary Risk Taking,” American Journal of Sociology, 95 (January), 851-886.
Lyons, Joseph (1973), Experience: An Introduction to a Personal Psychology, New York: Harper & Row.
308 Lyotard, Jean-Francois (1984), The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi, Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press. MacInnnis, Deborah J. and Gustavo E. de Mello (2005), “The Concept of Hope and Its Relevance to Product Evaluation and Choice,” Journal of Marketing, 69 (January), 1-14. MacInnnis, Deborah J. and Linda L. Price (1987), “The Role of Imagery in Information Processing: Review and Extensions,” Journal of Consumer Behavior, 13 (March), 473-491.
Macneil, Ian R. (1980), The New Social Contract: An Inquiry into Modern Contractual Relations, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Maffesoli, Michel (1996), The Time of the Tribes: The Decline of Individualism in Mass Society, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mah, Daniel C.H. (2005), "Explaining Internet Connectivity," The Information Society, 21 (5), 353-366.
Mandler, Jean M. (1984), Stories, Scripts, and Scenes: Aspects of Schema Theory, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Marconi, Joe (2005), Creating the Marketing Experience: New Strategies for Building Relationships with Your Target Market, Mason, OH: Thomson. Martin, Brett A. (2004), “Using the Imagination: Consumer Evoking and Thematizing of the Fantastic Imaginary,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (June), 136-149.
309 Mathwick, Charla, Naresh K. Malhotra, and Edward Rigdon (2002), "The Effect of Dynamic Retail Experiences on Experiential Perceptions of Value: An Internet and Catalog Comparison," Journal of Retailing, 78 (1), 51-60. McAlexander, James H. and John W. Schouten (1998), “Brandfests: Servicescapes fo the Cultivation of Brand Equity,” in Servicescapes: The Concept of Place in Contemporary Markets, ed. John F. Sherry, Jr., Chicago: NTC Business, 377-401. McAlister, Leigh (1982), “A Dynamic Attribute Satiation Model of Variety-Seeking Behavior,” Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (September), 141-150.
McCarthy, E. Jerome (1960), Basic Marketing: A Managerial Approach, Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.
McCracken, Grant (1988), The Long Interview, Newbury Park: Sage.
Meinig, D.W. (1979), "Symbolic Landscapes: Some Idealizations of American Communities," in The Interpretation of Ordinary Landscapes, ed. D.W. Meinig, New York: Oxford University Press, 164-192. Mick, David Glen (1986), “Consumer Research and Semiotics: Exploring the Morphology of Signs, Symbols, and Significance,” Journal of Consumer Research, 13 (September), 196-213.
Miles, Mathew B. and A. Michael Huberman (1994), Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook of New Methods, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Muñiz, Albert M. Jr. and Thomas C. O‟Guinn (2001), "Brand Community," Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (September), 412-432.
310 Muñiz, Albert M. Jr. and Hope Jensen Schau (2005), "Religiosity in the Abandoned Apple Newton Brand Community," Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (March), 737-747.
Slater, Stanley F. and John C. Narver (1992), Superior Customer Value and Business Performance: The Strong Evidence for a Market-Driven Culture, Cambridge, MA: Marketing Science Institute. Nisbett, Richard E., Kaiping Peng, Incheol Choi, and Ara Norenzayan (2001), “Culture and Systems of Thought: Holistic versus Analytic Cognition,” Psychological Review, 108 (April), 291-310.
O'Guinn, Thomas C. and Russell W. Belk (1989), "Heaven on Earth: Consumption at Heritage Village, USA," Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (September), 227238.
O'Sullivan, Ellen L. and Kathy J. Spangler (1998), Experience Marketing: Strategies for the New Millennium, Philadelphia: Venture Publishing.
Peirce, Charles S. (1991), Peirce on Signs: Writings on Semiotics, ed. James Hoopes, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
Penaloza, Lisa (2001), "Consuming the American West: Animating Cultural Meaning and Memory at a Stock Show and Rodeo," Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (December), 369-398.
Pepper, Stephen C. (1958), The Sources of Value, Berkeley: University of California Press.
Philipsen, Gerry (1977), "Linearity of Research Design in Ethnographic Studies of Speaking," Communication Quarterly, 25 (3), 42-50.
311
Pine, B. Joseph and James H. Gilmore (1999), The Experience Economy, Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Podestà, Stefano and Michela Addis (2007), “Converging Industries Through Experience: Lessons from Edutainment,” in Consuming Experience, ed. Antonella Carù and Bernard Cova, New York: Routledge, 139-153.
Prahalad, C. K. and Venkat Ramaswamy (2004), The Future of Competition: CoCreating Unique Value with Customers, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Price, Linda L., Eric J. Arnould, and Patrick Tierney (1995), "Going to Extremes: Managing Service Encounters and Assessing Provider Performance," Journal of Marketing, 59 (April), 83-97.
Prince, Gerald (1982), Narratology, The Hague: Mouton.
Prince, Gerald (1987), A Dictionary of Narratology, Lincoln: University of Lincoln Press.
Prince, Gerald (1992), Narrative as Theme: Studies in French Fiction, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Project on Disney (1995), Inside the Mouse, Work and Play at Disney World, Durham: Duke University Press. Ratner, Rebecca K., Barbara E. Kahn, and Daniel Kahneman (1999), “Choosing LessPreferred Experiences for the Sake of Variety,” Journal of Consumer Research, 26 (June), 1-15.
312 Reed, Edward S. (1996), The Necessity of Experience, New Haven: Yale University Press. Rindfleisch, Aric and Jan B. Heide (1997), “Transaction Cost Analysis: Past, Present, and Future,” Journal of Marketing, 61 (October): 30-54.
Ritzer, George (1999), Enchanting a Disenchanted World, Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
Ritzer, George (2002), McDonaldization: The Reader, Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
Russon, John (2003), Human Experience: Philosophy, Neurosis, and the Elements of Everyday Life, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Santoro, Chiara and Gabriele Troilo (2007), “The Drivers of Hedonic Consumption Experience: A Semiotic Analysis of Rock Concerts,” in Consuming Experience, ed. Antonella Carù and Bernard Cova, New York: Routledge, 109-125.
Sartre, Jean Paul (1949) Nausea, trans. Lloyd Alexander, Norfolk, CT: New Directions.
Saussure, Ferdinand de (1916), Course in General Linguistics, trans. Wade Baskin, London: Fontana/Collins.
Sayre, Shay (2001), Qualitative Methods for Marketplace Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Schechner, Richard (1988), Performance Theory, New York: Routledge.
Schmitt, Bernd H. (1999), Experiential Marketing: How to Get Customers to SENSE, FEEL, THINK, ACT, RELATE, New York: The Free Press.
313
Schmitt, Bernd H. and Alex Simonson (1997), Marketing Aesthetics: The Strategic Management of Brands, Identity, and Image, New York: Free Press. Schouten, John W. (1991), “Symbolic Consumption in Personal Rites of Passage and Identity Reconstruction,” Journal of Consumer Research, 17 (March), 412-425.
Shankar, Avi, Richard Elliott, and Christina Goulding (2001), Understanding Consumption: Contributions from a Narrative Perspective, Journal of Marketing Management, 17 (April), 429-453.
Shaw, A.W. (1912), "Some Problems in Market Distribution," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 12 (August), 703-765.
Shaw, Colin and John Ivens (2002), Building Great Customer Experiences, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Sherry, John F., Jr. (1990), "A Sociocultural Analysis of a Midwestern American Flea Market," Journal of Consumer Research, 17 (June), 13-30.
Sherry, John F. Jr., Robert V. Kozinets, Diana Storm, Adam Duhachek, Krittinee Nuttavuthisit, and Benet DeBerry-Spence (2001), "Being in the Zone: Staging Retail Theater at ESPN Zone Chicago," Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 30 (4), 465-510. Siehl, Caren, David E. Bown, and Christina M. Pearson (1993), “Service Encounters and Rites of Integration: An Information Processing Model,” Organization Science, 3 (November), 537-555. Simmel, Georg (1997 [1958]), “The Adventure” in Simmel on Culture, ed. David Frisby and Mike Featherstone, London: Sage, 221-232.
314
Skees, Theron (2004), America’s Thrillmakers: Walt Disney World, Discovery HD: DIRECTV.
Smith, Shaun and Joe Wheeler (2002), Managing the Customer Experience: Turning Customers into Advocates, London: Prentice Hall.
Spradley, James P. (1979), The Ethnographic Interview, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Spiggle, Susan (1994), "Analysis and Interpretation of Qualitative Data in Consumer Research," Journal of Consumer Research, 21 (December), 491-503.
Stewart, Alex (1998), The Ethnographer's Method, Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Strauss, Anselm L. and Juliet Corbin (1990), Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Telotte, J.P. (1991), The Cult Film Experience: Beyond All Reason, Austin: University of Texas Press.
Thompson, Craig J. (2004), "Marketplace Mythology and Discourses of Power," Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (June), 162-180. Thompson, Craig J. and Diana L. Haytko (1997), "Speaking of Fashion: Consumers‟ Uses of Fashion Discourses and the Appropriation of Countervailing Cultural Meanings," Journal of Consumer Research, 24 (June), 15-42.
Thompson, Craig J., William B. Locander, and Howard R. Pollio (1990), "The Lived Meaning of Free Choice: An Existential-Phenomenological Description of Everyday Consumer Experiences of Contemporary Married Women," Journal of Consumer Research, 17 (December), 346-361.
315
Thompson, Craig J. and Siok Kuan Tambyah (1999), "Trying to be Cosmopolitan," Journal of Consumer Research, 26 (December), 214-241.
Turner, Victor W. (1969), The Ritual Process, Chicago: Aldine.
Turner, Victor W. (1974), Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Turner, Victor W. (1982), From Ritual to Theatre: The Human Seriousness of Play, New York: Performing Arts Journal Publications.
Turner, Victor W. (1986), "Dewey, Dilthey, and Drama: An Essay in the Anthropology of Experience," in The Anthropology of Experience, ed. Victor W. Turner and Edward M. Bruner, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 33-44
Unger, Lynette S. and Jerome B. Kernan (1983), "On the Meaning of Leisure: An Investigation of Some Determinants of the Subjective Experience," Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (March), 381-392.
Van Gennep, Arnold (1960 [1908]), The Rites of Passage, trans. Monka Vizedom and Gabrielle Caffee, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Vargo, Stephen L. and Robert F. Lusch (2004), "Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing," Journal of Marketing, 68 (1), 1-17.
Vargo, Stephen L. and Robert F. Lusch (2006), "Service-Dominant Logic: What It Is, What It Is Not, What It Might Be,” in The Service-Dominant Logic: Dialog, Debate, and Directions, ed. Robert F. Lusch and Stephen L. Vargo, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 43-56.
316 Venkatesh, Alladi, Lisa Peñaloza, A. Fuat Firat (2006), “The Market as a Sign System and The Logic of Marketing,” in The Service-Dominant Logic: Dialog, Debate, and Directions, ed. Robert F. Lusch and Stephen L. Vargo, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 251-265. Vester, Heinz-Günter (1987), “Adventure as a Form of Leisure,” Leisure Studies, 6 (3), 237-249.
Wallendorf, Melanie and Russell W. Belk (1989), "Assessing Trustworthiness in Naturalistic Consumer Research," in Interpretive Consumer Research, ed. Elizabeth C. Hirschman, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 69-84.
Weinberg, Gerald M. (1975), An Introduction to General Systems Thinking, New York: Wiley.
Weld, Louis D.H. (1917), "Marketing Functions and Mercantile Organizations," American Economic Review, 7 (June), 306-318. Westbrook, Robert A. (1987), “Product/Consumption-Based Affective Responses and Postpurchase Processes,” Journal of Marketing Research, 24 (August), 258-270. Westbrook, Robert A. and Richard L. Oliver (1991), “The Dimensionality of Consumption Emotion Patterns and Consumer Satisfaction, Journal of Consumer Research, 18 (June), 84-91.
Williams, Jacqueline A. and Helen H. Anderson (2005), "Engaging Customers in Service Creation: A Theater Perspective," Journal of Services Marketing, 19 (1), 13-23.
Wolcott, Harry F. (1994), Transforming Qualitative Data: Description, Analysis, and Interpretation, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
317 Woodbury, Mark (2002), Top Ten Coasters 2002, Discovery HD: DIRECTV. Woodside, Arch G., Suresh Sood, and Keenth E. Miller (2008), “When Consumers and Brands Talk: Storytelling Theory and Research in Psychology and Marketing,” Psychology and Marketing, 25 (2), 97-145.
Zaichkowsky, Judith Lynne (1985), "Measuring the Involvement Construct," Journal of Consumer Research, 12 (December), 341-352. Zhao, Fei, S.D.G. Stephens, S.W. Sim, and R. Meredith (1997), “The Use of Qualitative Questionnaires in Patients Having and Being Considered for Coclear Implants,” Clinical Otolaryngology, 22 (3), 254-259.
