Factors impacting perceptions of organizational ...

Children and Youth Services Review 44 (2014) 1–8

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Factors impacting perceptions of organizational cultural competence in voluntary child welfare Wendy Zeitlin ⁎ Wurzweiler School of Social Work, Yeshiva University, 2495 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, NY 10033, United States

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 6 March 2014 Received in revised form 11 May 2014 Accepted 15 May 2014 Available online 2 June 2014 Keywords: Organizational cultural competence SEM Respect Readiness for change Innovation Child welfare

a b s t r a c t Introduction: While cultural competence is important for all clients, it is particularly relevant in child welfare as disproportionality and disparities have been a long-standing problem (Barrett & George, 2005; Wulczyn, Fenner, Mattingly, & Snowden, 2012). Efforts to remediate these have been addressed from the standpoint of both policy and practice; however, the problem persists (Davidson, 2008; Drake et al., 2011; Garland, Landsverk, & Lau, 2003; Wulczyn et al., 2012). The current study was organized around the following research question: What individual and agency-specific factors impact child welfare workers' perceptions of organizational cultural competence? Materials and methods: This cross-sectional quantitative study sampled 478 child welfare workers employed in eight voluntary agencies in a large northeastern state. Participants included those working in preventive services as well as in other capacities. The survey instrument was a written packet asking participants demographic questions along with questions about various aspects of job satisfaction, the psychological climate within their agency, and about the organizational cultural competence of the agency. Bivariate analysis was done to identify significant relationships between various factors and the outcome variable, organizational cultural competence. Then, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to identify the best-fitting model for factors impacting workers' perceptions of organizational cultural competence based upon Diffusion of Innovation Theory. Results: Four models were ultimately developed based upon the theoretical framework. The best fitting model indicated that being white or Caribbean, workers' perceptions of respect in the workplace, readiness for change, and innovativeness within the agency were predictive of workers' perceptions of organizational cultural competence (X2 = 45.75, p = 0.09). Other goodness-of-fit statistics indicated that the final model was a strong one (RMSEA = 0.03; 90% CI for RMSEA = 0.00–0.05; CFI = 0.99; TLI = 0.99). Discussion: The current research indicates that agency environment is directly related to workers' perceptions of organizational cultural competence. This finding enables those evaluating services another avenue for assessing cultural competence. Since study results indicated factor loadings that were highest for perceptions of readiness for change (0.27) and respect (0.23), it would be advisable for agency administrators seeking to improve the cultural competence of their agencies to consider giving priority to addressing these areas. Additionally, creating a flexible work environment that encourages workers to be innovative could also bolster feelings of cultural competence. Finally, the current research also supports the need to develop a qualified minority workforce whose skills and abilities would be suitable for building social work leadership in the long-term. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 1.1. Cultural competence in child welfare While the delivery of culturally competent services is important for all clients, it is particularly relevant in child welfare as disproportionality and disparities have been a long-standing problem (Wulczyn, Fenner, Mattingly, & Snowden, 2012). While there have been efforts to remediate these from the standpoint of both policy and practice, the problem persists (Davidson, 2008; Garland, Landsverk, & Lau, 2003).

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.05.006 0190-7409/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The importance of delivering culturally competent child welfare services is widely accepted, and the topic has been written about extensively from a theoretical perspective. Despite this, there are few empirical studies examining cultural competence in child welfare (Ayón & Aisenberg, 2010; Cohen, Deblinger, Mannarino, & de Arellano, 2001; Filbert & Flynn, 2010; Parrish & Hargett, 2010; Rajendran & Chemtob, 2010). In their report on the role of race within the child welfare system, The Annie E. Casey Foundation (2006) specifically named the shortage of culturally competent services as one of the four systemic barriers to equal opportunity for all child welfare involved children and families. The goal of the current research is to examine factors contributing to child welfare worker's perceptions of the cultural competence within

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W. Zeitlin / Children and Youth Services Review 44 (2014) 1–8

their agencies. Knowing what factors impact organizational cultural competence could provide a useful avenue for creating conditions most conducive for delivering culturally competent services to all clients. 1.2. Review of the literature 1.2.1. Racial and ethnic disproportionality and disparities in child welfare Despite on-going efforts to address disproportionality in child welfare, the problem continues. For example, in 2000, the racial/ethnic make-up of the total US child population was 61% white/nonHispanic, 15% black/non-Hispanic, 17% Hispanic, and 7% other (The Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2006). The racial/ethnic make-up of children in foster care in 2000 was 38% white/non-Hispanic, 39% black/nonHispanic, 15% Hispanic, and 8% other (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2011b). Similar racial and ethnic disparities continue to persist. In 2009, for example, the total US child population was 56% white/non-Hispanic, 15% black/non-Hispanic, 23% Hispanic, and 6% other (Child Trends Data Bank, 2011). The racial/ethnic make-up of children in foster care in that same year was 43% white/non-Hispanic, 27% black/nonHispanic, 20% Hispanic, and 10% other (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2011b). A number of efforts have been developed to address disproportionality and disparity in child welfare by increasing the cultural competence of child welfare systems. These include larger systemic changes, such as the development and implementation of differential response programs, and local programming based upon the specific needs of a cultural group or community (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2011a). Cultural competence training for workers and “Undoing Racism” training programs have also been popular avenues for addressing these issues (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2011a). In short, increasing cultural competence in child welfare systems seems to be the overarching goal for addressing disproportionalities and disparities. 1.2.2. Cultural competence as a unique construct Cultural competence as a unique construct was described by Cross, Bazron, Dennis, and Isaacs (1989) and is one of the most commonly cited definitions of cultural competence in the social sciences. In their work, cultural competence was described as “a set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system, agency, or among professionals and enables that system, agency or professionals to work effectively in cross-cultural situations” (Cross et al., 1989, p. iv). Another well-known author in the field of cultural competence, Derald Wing Sue, proposed a multidimensional model of cultural competence with the goal of providing germane intervention for all populations (Sue, 2001). In Sue's model, cultural competence has three basic components: knowledge about specific cultural groups including group values and perspectives, an awareness of attitudes and beliefs similar to those in the understanding of cultural sensitivity, and specific skills aimed at making services available and relevant for clients. This framework for understanding cultural competence assumes that knowledge, attitudes, and skills can occur independently at the organizational and individual levels. That is, organizations can attain a degree of cultural competence apart from the cultural competence of individual practitioners who may be employed by the organization (Sue, 2001). 1.2.3. Studies examining cultural competence in child welfare Examining cultural competence in child welfare settings is in its infancy. Not surprisingly and as a result of this, many studies related to cultural competence in child welfare have been qualitative. In one frequently-cited article, the researchers explored child welfare workers' perceptions of the organizational cultural competence within their agencies as it related to hiring and promotional practices (Nybell & Gray, 2004). Another examined the methodological rigor of studies

focusing on culturally sensitive interventions designed for minority children involved in child welfare (Jackson, 2009). Still another looked at workers' concerns about barriers to accessing culturally competent evidence-based interventions by Latino children and families involved in child welfare (Garcia, Aisenberg, & Harachi, 2012). Many of the existing quantitative studies use child welfare workers as the unit of analysis, and the majority use the workers' individual cultural competency as the measured construct. For example, one recent study examined the relationship between workers' multicultural competence and their perceptions of their own efficacy in practice (Williams, Nichols, & Williams, 2013). Another study examined worker's multicultural awareness and knowledge as it related to cultural competence training (Lawrence, Zuckerman, Smith, & Liu, 2012). There are two main criticisms to the general use of practitioner-level cultural competence instruments. The first is that the majority of practitioner-level measures rely on self reporting and self-reports seem to have a consistent problem with social desirability in respondents' answers to survey questions (Armstrong, 2008; Chao, Wei, Good, & Flores, 2011; Dickson & Jepsen, 2007; Kumas-Tan, Beagan, Loppie, MacLeod, & Frank, 2007; Owen, Leach, Wampold, & Rodolfa, 2010). The second is that what is expressed in a measure does not necessarily translate into actual practice. That is, practitioners may have high scores in domains related to cultural competence, but it is unclear that answers to these instruments are, in fact, related to culturally competent practice (Chao et al., 2011). There have been, however, no studies to date that have assessed factors that impact or are related to cultural competence. That is, with the exception of quasi-experimental studies examining the impact of training on workers' individual levels of cultural competence, there have been no published research in child welfare that have looked at cultural competence as an outcome. The current research seeks to add to the knowledge base by examining factors related to child welfare workers' perceptions of organizational cultural competence. 1.3. Diffusion of Innovation Theory as an appropriate theoretical construct for examining cultural competence in child welfare Because of a lack of existing literature related to factors related to organizational cultural competence in child welfare, it was important to use a theoretical underpinning that would provide a logical understanding for the research. In the current study, the researcher considered the implementation of culturally competent practices as a source of on-going innovation based upon the notion that cultural competence is always a pursuit and can never fully be achieved because of the dynamic nature of cultures (Cross et al., 1989; Sue, 2001); as such, Diffusion of Innovation Theory was thought of as an appropriate theoretical model for understanding organizational cultural competence in child welfare settings. Diffusion of Innovation explains how novel ideas, products, and social practices spread throughout a social system (Rogers, 2003). Diffusion of Innovation is a social science theory that has been heavily utilized in the study, planning and implementation of a wide variety of human services including, but not limited to, medical sociology, health promotion, and psychology (Dearing, 2009; Greenhalgh, Robert, Macfarlane, Bate, & Kyriakidou, 2004; National Institutes of Health, 2005). Additionally, it has flexibility in understanding the adoption of innovations at the individual, organizational, and societal levels (Rogers, 2003). 1.3.1. Components of Diffusion of Innovation Theory According to Rogers (2003), the Diffusion of Innovation Theory is composed of four related factors: an innovation, communication channels, aspects of time, and a social system. An innovation is “an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption.” (Rogers, 2003, p. 12) [emphasis mine]. That is, whatever the innovation being examined, it


needs to be considered novel, regardless of whether, in reality, it is new or not. According to Rogers (2003, p. 5), communication is “a process in which participants create and share information with one another in order to reach a mutual understanding.” Communication channels are the means through which messages regarding an innovation are transmitted (Rogers, 2003). Communication channels can vary widely from simple, spontaneous exchanges (e.g., individuals talking to one another) to complex and planned (e.g., advertising campaigns broadcast using mass media). Communication channels are particularly important in the Diffusion of Innovation Theory as these provide the means for sharing information about an innovation to potential adopters (Rogers, 2003). In the Diffusion of Innovation Theory, time is used to describe the rate of adoption of an innovation. Those who adopt a particular innovation earlier are considered more innovative than those who adopt it later (Rogers, 2003). Rogers (2003) describes five categories of adopters based upon when individuals take up the innovation, which suggests that adoption of innovations occurs along a time continuum: innovators (i.e., those who adopt an innovation first), early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards (i.e., those who adopt an innovation last). Additionally, Rogers' Theory describes assimilation of innovations as occurring in an s-shape over time, with the smallest group of adopters being the innovators and laggards, and the largest group of adopters being early majority adopters and late majority adopters (National Institutes of Health, 2005; Rogers, 2003). The final component described by the Diffusion of Innovation Theory is the social system. A social system is “a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish a common goal” (Rogers, 2003, p. 23). Like other sociological theorists, Rogers (2003) clearly states that a social system can be composed of individuals, but could also be made up of groups or organizations (e.g.,Bertalanffy, 1974; Garbarino, 1992). Rogers (2003) describes innovation as occurring within the confines of social systems; therefore, the structure of social systems can facilitate or hinder the diffusion of specific innovations. Social systems are highly influenced by individuals termed change agents and opinion leaders. Change agents are the individuals who introduce an innovation into a social system while opinion leaders are a key group of early adopters who may help advance or hinder the diffusion of an innovation through the social system due to the influence they have on other members of the system (Greenhalgh et al., 2004; Kripalani, Bussey-Jones, Katz, & Genao, 2006; Rogers, 2003). 1.3.2. Critical concepts in Diffusion of Innovation Theory According to Rogers (2003, p. 5), diffusion is “the process in which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.” To that end, innovation adoption is impacted by social system members' perceptions regarding a number of factors: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. The concept of relative advantage describes the degree to which an innovation is seen as superior in some way from alternatives (Rogers, 2003). Rogers (2003), then, suggests that, all other factors being equal, those innovations that are perceived as better than the alternatives are more likely to be adopted than those viewed as inferior. In fact, Greenhalgh et al. (2004) found that relative advantage is a “deal breaker;” if potential users of an innovation do not perceive a relative advantage, they will not consider adoption. The concept of compatibility describes “the degree to which a particular innovation is consistent with existing values, past experiences, and needs of adopters” (Rogers, 2003, p. 15). With all other factors being equal, those innovations that are perceived as more compatible with the social system are more likely to be adopted than those that are viewed as less compatible (Rogers, 2003). In organizational settings, compatibility refers to the innovation being aligned with organizational norms, values, and existing ways of working (Greenhalgh et al., 2004).

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Complexity is described as the degree to which a particular innovation is difficult to comprehend or used (Rogers, 2003). This concept includes the perception of the ease of implementing the innovation (National Institutes of Health, 2005; Rogers, 2003). With all other factors being equal, those innovations that are perceived as less complex are likely to be adopted, adopted earlier and more easily than those that are viewed as more complex (Greenhalgh et al., 2004; Rogers, 2003). The concept of trialability is “the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis”(Rogers, 2003, p. 16). Trialability appears to be directly related to the aforementioned factors. For example, an innovation that is viewed as trialable could possibly be implemented on a small-scale basis to determine if there is, in fact, the relative advantage to using that innovation that the social system perceived previously. Therefore, with all other factors being equal, innovations that are perceived as more trialable may be more likely to be adopted than those that are viewed as less trialable (Greenhalgh et al., 2004; Rogers, 2003). The final concept discussed by Rogers (2003) in the Diffusion of Innovation Theory is the notion of observability. This is the degree to which an innovation is visible to others and will produce tangible, positive results (Greenhalgh et al., 2004; National Institutes of Health, 2005; Rogers, 2003). According to Rogers (2003), with all other factors being equal, those innovations that are perceived as more observable are likely to be adopted more easily than those that are viewed as less observable. Taken together, these factors and concepts view the adoption of any innovation as a social change (Rogers, 2003). 2. Materials and methods This research was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of Yeshiva University and The University at Albany. 2.1. Sampling Study participants were child welfare workers who were employed in eight voluntary child welfare agencies located throughout a large northeastern state. Workers in these agencies are employed by private agencies that are under contract with the local public child welfare system to provide a host of child welfare services. In this state, child protective services are typically provided by public agencies while other child welfare services are contracted to private “voluntary” agencies. Participants included those working in preventive services as well as in other capacities. All workers at each of the agencies were encouraged, but not required, to participate in the confidential cross-sectional study, which consisted of a written survey instrument. Thus, the sample includes direct care workers, managers, and administrators. The total sample size was 478. 2.1.1. Description of the sample A detailed demographic description of the sample is displayed in Table 1. The total sample was comprised of 478 workers. Two-thirds of the participants (n = 311; 67%) were females. In terms of salary, the largest group (n = 124; 28.9%) made $25,000 or less per year, followed by 21.7% of the sample making between $25,001 and $30,000 annually. Only 59 participants (13.8%) made more than $50,000 per year. It should be noted that the sample was fairly well-educated. Sixtyone percent of the sample (n = 279) had completed at least a four year college degree, and 13.4% had earned a Master's in Social Work (n = 61). Despite this, of the total sample, only 14.1% (n = 64) had any type of social work degree. Workers were asked to identify which race/ethnicity they considered themselves to be. Slightly more than two-thirds of respondents

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Table 1 Characteristics of the sample.

Gender Female Male Current salary $25,000 or less $25,001–$30,000 $30,001–$35,000 $35,001–$45,000 $45,001–$50,000 More than $50,000 Highest level of education High school diploma Some college (no degree) Associate's degree Bachelor's degree (BA/BS) BSW Some graduate work (no degree) MSW Doctorate Other graduate degree Other Race/ethnicity African-American African Caribbean Hispanic/Latino White Asian Native American Other Job category Administrator Direct care worker Clinical worker

n

%

311 153

67.03 32.97

124 93 43 90 20 59

28.90 21.68 10.02 20.98 4.66 13.75

47 90 39 103 3 29 61 14 60 9

10.33 19.78 8.57 22.64 0.66 6.37 13.41 3.08 13.19 1.98

89 4 22 18 298 3 1 9

20.05 0.90 4.95 4.05 67.12 0.68 0.23 2.03

137 150 125

33.25 36.41 30.34

(n = 298, 67.12%) were identified as white. The next largest group (n = 89; 20.05%) were identified as African-American. Five percent of the sample was identified as Caribbean (n = 22), while 18 respondents (4.05%) were identified as Hispanic/Latino. Job categories for the sample were evenly distributed among the three types of workers. One hundred thirty seven participants (33.3%) were employed as administrators, 150 participants (36.4%) were employed as direct care workers, and 125 participants (30.3%) were clinical workers. 2.2. Measurement As there was no previous literature specifically examining factors impacting any types of measures of cultural competence, the researcher used the Diffusion of Innovation Theory to select constructs that may be related to workers' perceptions of organizational cultural competence. Variables related to aspects of the Diffusion of Innovation Theory were operationalized and assessed to determine their impact on organizational cultural competence. The concept of innovation was represented by workers' perceptions of organizational cultural competence and was the major dependent variable studied. This concept was operationalized by using a validated version of the Association of University Centers on Disabilities Multicultural Council's Organizational Cultural Competence Assessment (AUCD) (2004) (Schudrich, 2013). This scale consists of six items and asks the respondent how often specific activities occur. Items for this validated instrument come from the AUCD's administrative and services subscales. Responses range from 1 = almost always to 4 = almost never. Examples of items included in this scale include “Pictures, posters, printed materials and toys reflect the culture and ethnic backgrounds of the children and families served” and “When food is discussed or used in assessment or treatment the cultural and ethnic background of the child and family is considered.”

A number of individual-level factors were operationalized and used to assess both the social system, characteristics of adopters and aspects of time. These included respondents' gender, race/ethnicity, salary, level of education, job title, and job site, all of which were measured as categorical variables. The use of these demographic variables has been supported in a previous research that has examined the uptake of innovations using the Diffusion of Innovation Theory (Greenhalgh et al., 2004; Gurman & Moran, 2008). Several agency-specific factors identified through Diffusion of Innovation were operationalized and used to assess aspects of the relationship with the dependent variable. One such factor included workers' perceptions of the innovativeness of the climate within their agencies. This construct was selected to represent one facet of the social system. To measure this construct, the innovation subscale within the organizational dimension in Parker et al.'s (2003) Organizational Psychological Climate scale was used. Examples of items from this subscale include “I am encouraged to develop my ideas” and “This organization encourages me to improve on my boss's methods.” This instrument has been used widely in other studies in human services and is considered both reliable and valid (Aarons & Sawitzky, 2006; Claiborne, Auerbach, Lawrence, & Zeitlin Schudrich, 2013; Claiborne et al., 2011; Parker, 1999; Parker et al., 2003). This subscale consists of four questions measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. In the present study, perceived respect in the workplace and organizational readiness for change were also used to better understand workers' understanding of their social systems. Respect was operationalized using ten questions from the Job Satisfaction Scale (Spector, 1985). This was measured on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree. While this scale has not been validated, it has been used in previous studies of child welfare and has been found to be related to intention to leave (Augsberger, Schudrich, Auerbach, & McGowan, 2012; Gliem & Gliem, 2003). Examples of items included in this scale include, “I feel I am being paid a fair amount for the work I do.” and “My supervisor is unfair to me.” Coefficient alpha for this scale is 0.78, indicating good internal consistency. Readiness for change was measured with a nine question scale measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Questions for this scale were adapted from items on the Texas Christian University's Organizational Readiness for Change — Treatment Staff Version (TCU ORC-S). Overall, the TCU ORC-S has shown to have acceptable reliability and validity in studies examining its psychometric properties in substance abuse settings (Lehman, Greener, & Simpson, 2002; Simpson & Flynn, 2007). Additionally, this instrument has been utilized to assess organizational readiness for change in agencies seeking to make changes related to innovations (Kimberly & Cook, 2008; Simpson & Dansereau, 2007; Simpson & Flynn, 2007). Finally, workers' satisfaction with communication within their agencies was used to better understand communication channels with regard to organizational cultural competence. The use of this construct has been supported in prior research in human services, and significant positive relationships have been found between internal communication and organizational innovativeness (Greenhalgh, 2009). It was measured using a modified version of the communication subscale from the Job Satisfaction Scale, which was designed to assess job satisfaction among human services workers (Spector, 1985). The only modification made to this validated four question subscale was to change it from a six-point Likert scale to a four-point Likert scale. This was done to make the response set for this scale similar to other scales used in the survey packet. Despite this modification to the scale, reliability has remained strong in prior studies. For instance, Spector (1985) reported a total coefficient alpha of 0.91 for the full scale with subscale coefficient alphas ranging from a low of 0.60 (co-workers) to a high of 0.82 (supervision). The modified version of the Job Satisfaction Scale has produced similar reliability (Auerbach, McGowan, Augsberger, Strolin-Goltzman, & Schudrich, 2010; McGowan, Auerbach, Conroy, Augsberger, &


Schudrich, 2010; W. Schudrich, Auerbach, Liu, Fernandes, & McGowan, 2012). 2.3. Model specification Data were analyzed using Stata 12.0 (StataCorp, 2011). To begin, bivariate relationships were explored between the dependent and independent variables. The independent variables that had significant relationships with the dependent variable were considered for inclusion in the final structural equation model (SEM) to examine what individual and agency-specific factors could be related to perceptions of organizational cultural competence. While SEM can be utilized to confirm an a priori model, test alternate models, or generate models, model generation is the most commonly used application for the use of this statistical method (Joreskog, 1993; Kline, 2011). According to Kline (2011), use of SEM for model discovery has three requirements. The first is that it is theoretically logical; the second is that it is “reasonably parsimonious,” (p. 8) and the third is that it statistically fits the data. In the case of the present study, the author used the model generating form of SEM to determine perceptions of cultural competence based upon individual and agency-specific factors. 3. Results 3.1. Bivariate analysis In order to identify individual factors that may be related to the dependent variable, bivariate analyses were done to examine what relationship, if any, each independent variable had to organizational cultural competence. Race/ethnicity was the only individual factor significantly related to organizational cultural competence when the initial analysis of variance (ANOVA) was completed; however, post hoc testing revealed no significant differences between the racial/ethnic groups. In order to explore the relationship between race/ethnicity and perceived organizational cultural competence further, each race/ethnic category was dummycoded to compare its relationship to the other groups. Student's t-tests were then conducted to determine if there were significant differences between each group and the others. Significant findings were found in two groups: whites were compared to all other groups and Caribbeans were compared to all other groups. In comparing whites to all other groups, white workers (n = 273) had a significantly higher level of perceived cultural competence (mean = 2.68, SD = 0.76) than all other workers (n = 112; mean = 2.52, SD = 0.80). It should be noted that while this difference was significant, it was a small difference of 0.17. In comparing Caribbeans to all other groups, Caribbeans (n = 16) had a significantly lower level of perceived cultural competence (mean = 2.12, SD = 0.64) than all other workers (n = 369; mean = 2.66, SD = 0.77). In terms of the agency-specific factors, each was significantly and positively related to perceptions of organizational cultural competence at the p = 0.00-level. The strength of the relationships between each of the independent variables and the outcome variable was moderate for each of these within a narrow range. The relationship with the weakest relationship to perceived organizational cultural competence was satisfaction with communication (r = 0.31) while the strongest was perceived respect (r = 0.40). In order to ensure that the agency-specific factors were unique constructs and independent of one another (i.e., multicolinearity was not problematic), two factors were examined. First, the correlation between the independent variables was reviewed. While the variables were correlated, no combination was highly correlated. These correlations are displayed in Table 2. Next, the variance inflation factors (VIF) were

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examined for the agency-specific factors. These ranged from a low of 1.40 for readiness for change to a high of 1.92 for respect. Typically, VIF values over four are an indication that multicolinearity could be problematic and should be investigated further (Simon, 2004). Given the calculated correlations and VIF values for the agency-specific factors, it was safe to proceed with the analysis with the understanding that each agency-specific factor was, in fact, independent of the others. 3.2. SEM As previously stated, the model generating form of SEM was used, and four models were identified as possible solutions. Maximum likelihood with missing values (mlmv) was used as the estimator to account for missing data. 3.2.1. Model I This model included all significant independent variables identified in the bivariate analysis. Individual factors included in the model were being white and being Caribbean. Agency-specific factors included in the model were innovativeness, satisfaction with communication, perceived respect, and readiness for change. 3.2.2. Model II This model considered all statistically significant variables identified in Model I. All non-significant variables from Model I were eliminated. Variables included in this model were being Caribbean, perceived respect, and readiness for change. Excluded variables included being white, satisfaction with communication, and innovativeness. 3.2.3. Model III This model considered all the variables included in Model I with the exception of being white as being white was the only non-significant individual factor in Model I. 3.2.4. Model IV This model considered all the variables included in Model I with the exception of satisfaction with communication as this construct had the lowest factor loading for agency-specific factors in Model I. The items included in each SEM model are displayed in Table 3. A summary of the statistical results of the SEM for testing these models is illustrated in Table 4. 3.2.5. Evaluating the models In order to evaluate the fit for each of these models, various statistics were generated for each. In a cursory evaluation of the models, only Model I and Model IV presented with non-significant values for X2, which is desirable in SEM. While this is not a definitive measure of goodness-of-fit given the large sample size, it is indicative that these models may be stronger than the others. The other specified models should also be considered further as each of them presents with a X2/df ratio of less than 2 (Model II: X2/df = 1.67; Model III: X2/df = 1.42) (Tabachnik & Fidell, 2007). The RMSEA for each model is also strong. Model I, Model III, and Model IV all have values of 0.03, while Model II has a value of 0.04. The 90% confidence interval is in an ideal range for Model I, Model III, and Model IV, with lower-bounds of 0.00 and upper-bounds below the 0.10 desired cut-off; however, the confidence interval for Model II is also in an acceptable range. The Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI) were also used to assess the models' goodness-of-fit. Values greater than or equal to 0.95 for these indices are considered to be indicative of a good-fitting model (Bowen & Guo, 2012; Hu & Bentler, 1999). In the case of the current research, all specified models met this threshold. The best-fitting models, statistically, were Model I and Model IV. Both of these initially presented with non-significant values for X2,

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Table 2 Correlations between agency-specific variables and perceptions of organizational cultural competence. Satisfaction with communication Satisfaction with communication Perceived respect Innovativeness Readiness for change Perceived organizational cultural competence

1.00 0.59 p = 0.00 0.45 p = 0.00 0.44 p = 0.00 0.31 p = 0.00

Perceived respect

Innovativeness

Readiness for change

Perceived organizational cultural competence

1.00 0.59 p = 0.00 0.41 p = 0.00 0.40 p = 0.00

and other fit statistics were in nearly ideal ranges despite the large sample size. The only difference between these models is the inclusion of satisfaction with communication in Model I. In order to compare these two models, a likelihood-ratio test was completed. This statistical test can be used to compare the strength of one model compared to another (Tabachnik & Fidell, 2007). The likelihood-ratio test determined that these models were not significantly different from one another (X2 = − 1750.19; df = 8; p = 1.00), indicating that the inclusion of the variable “satisfaction with communication” did not statistically improve Model I compared to Model IV. When considering the parsimony of the two models, one would have to select the simplest model that has the best fit. In this case, it is most appropriate to select Model IV, which excludes satisfaction with communication. While on the face of it, selecting Model IV only excludes one variable, in a pragmatic sense it enables future research to focus on one less construct while still being able to understand workers' perceptions of organizational cultural competence. A graphic depiction of Model IV is shown in Fig. 1.

4. Discussion Four SEM models were generated to try to identify the best-fitting model that was predictive of workers' perceptions of organizational cultural competence, and all of the identified models could be considered reasonable solutions including the ones with significant p values due to the large sample size. This suggests that the theoretical framework for inclusion of any and all of these variables in the SEM was strong. The task at hand, then, became the selection of the best-fitting model which included the final individual and agency-specific predictor variables: being white or Caribbean, perceptions of the innovativeness of the agency, perceived respect, and the agency's readiness for change. Factor loadings indicate that the strongest predictors in the final model were perceived respect (0.23) and the agency's readiness for change (0.27). These findings shed light on the combined influence of individual and agency-specific factors in understanding workers' perceptions of organizational cultural competence. Worker race/ethnicity contributed to perceptions of organizational cultural competence in the final model. This indicates that there is at least one fixed demographic that impacts these perceptions; however, workers' race/ethnicity was less influential than two of the three agency-specific factors identified in the final model. How workers understand their work environment (i.e., perceived respect) and the flexibility of their agencies (i.e., readiness for change) is most predictive of their perceptions of organizational cultural competence. These findings are interesting to consider in the context of the existing literature on cultural competence in child welfare. This is the first study to empirically identify a constellation of factors that influence perceptions of organizational cultural competence; however, another study did examine the relationship between service utilization, a presumed outcome of culturally competent practice, and caseworker factors (Rajendran & Chemtob, 2010). In that study, caseworker factors

1.00 0.48 p = 0.00 0.32 p = 0.00

1.00 0.37 p = 0.00

1.00

associated with service utilization included the amount of cultural competence training workers received, workers' perceptions of bureaucracy within their agencies, and concerns about rules and regulations impeding their work. No demographic data about caseworkers were reported in this study (Rajendran & Chemtob, 2010). Findings from the current study, then, may be supportive of Rajendran and Chemtob (2010) if service utilization could be considered as a proxy for cultural competence. That is, in both studies, caseworkers' perceptions of agency-specific factors that, on the face of it, may seem removed from cultural competence (e.g., agency bureaucracy, perceived respect) were significantly related to the studied measure of cultural competence. The findings of the current research are supportive of Diffusion of Innovation as a mechanism for understanding organizational cultural competence in the studied agencies. First, all identified models were based on the theoretical framework of Diffusion of Innovation, and all of the identified models had acceptable fit statistics, indicating that all of the generated models and the theory supported one another. Diffusion of Innovation considers the relationship between four factors: an innovation, communication, time, and the social system. The current research was able to clearly measure workers' perceptions of organizational cultural competence (i.e., the innovation). Additionally, analyzing the data using SEM yielded strong models that explained the role of communication and the social system as it was defined by the researcher. 4.1. Limitations The current study inherently has several limitations. First, the current research is related to the organizational structure of the child welfare system. Each state's child welfare system is uniquely organized and administered. In the state in which the current research took place, child welfare services are supervised by the State, but managed at the county or city level. Additionally, child protective services throughout the State are typically public services, while other functions (e.g., prevention, foster care) are often contracted out to private, non-profit “voluntary” agencies that provide these services. Other states' child welfare systems are organized and administered differently. Therefore, findings from this study are likely only generalizable to states whose child welfare systems are structured similarly. The characteristics of the sample itself imply a number of limitations. The study sample only included child welfare workers employed in voluntary agencies. There is no way to tell if the findings from this study would be applicable to workers in public agencies, as at least one previous study indicated different characteristics between public and voluntary workers (Auerbach et al., 2010). 5. Conclusion Findings from this study underscores the importance of culture in the NASW Code of Ethics (2008). While social workers are mandated to understand the role of culture as it relates to the provision of services to clients, the current research highlights the need to understand

W. Zeitlin / Children and Youth Services Review 44 (2014) 1–8 Table 3 Items for SEM by model.

ε2 .34

cc7 -.28

Model Independent variable

I

Personal factors White Caribbean Agency-specific Factors Innovativeness Satisfaction with communication Perceived respect Readiness for change

1.4 II

III

white

IV

ε 3 .7 X X X X X X

X

X

X X

X X X X

cc1

X

.55

ε4 .47

cc4

Table 4 Summary of SEM models. Model I

Model II

Model III

Model IV

473 52.2 39 0.08 0.03 0.00–0.04 0.98 0.98

473 40.09 24 0.02 0.04 0.02–0.06 0.98 0.97

473 48.19 34 0.05 0.03 0.00–0.05 0.98 0.98

473 45.75 34 0.09 0.03 0.00–0.05 0.99 0.99

6.5e-02

ε1 .71 .66

cc9 .35

-.15

CC

.23 .27

1 5.5

.12 .75

cc11

6.6

respect

.73

ε6 .47

.23

racecar 1

.73

5.8e-02

X X

contextual factors within agencies that can foster or detract from the ability of agencies to provide culturally competent services. Additionally, the Code of Ethics requires social workers to “monitor and evaluate policies, the implementation of programs, and practice interventions.” (National Association of Social Workers, 2008, Section 5.02) The current research provides greater insight into the environment in which child welfare services are provided, thus enabling those evaluating services another avenue for assessment. Therefore, findings from the current research have implications for agency policy and practice as well as social work education. In terms of agency policy, understanding the factors that contribute to perceptions of organizational cultural competence provide agency administrators an avenue to begin to build an environment that supports culturally competent practice. Most broadly, agencies that set policies that are aimed at providing a respectful and innovative environment that is ready for change can create an atmosphere conducive to organizational cultural competence; however, these categories are broad. Therefore, examining the indicators of each of these (i.e., respect, innovation, and readiness for change), could provide agencies with specific action items that, taken together, could help improve organizational cultural competence. Specifically, agencies seeking to improve organizational cultural competence should consider surveying employees, as was done in the current study. Responses to questions posed by the respect scale based on the Job Satisfaction Scale (Spector, 1985), the innovation subscale from the Psychological Climate Survey (Parker et al., 2003), and the readiness for change scale (Institute of Behavioral Research, 2005) could give agency administrators ideas for where to begin improving on organizational cultural competence. Then, based upon the results, agency administrators could prioritize areas for improvement. Since factor loadings were highest for perceptions of readiness for change (0.27) and respect (0.23), it would be advisable for agency administrators to consider giving priority to addressing these areas. Once agencies address perceptions of readiness for change and respect, it would be useful to consider thinking about the indicators of innovativeness. For example, in order to bolster feelings of respect among workers, agency administrators could examine the indicators of that construct that they believe they could favorably manipulate in order to increase feelings of respect within the agency. This could provide a range of possible activities based upon the survey questions, which would enable agencies to select areas for intervention that are most pragmatic for their individual settings. To expand on the current example, then, an

1

.82 1

X X

ε5 .56

N X2 df p RMSEA 90% CI for RMSEA CFI TLI

7

readychg 1

.15 4.1

innovation ε7 .44

cc12

1

-.26

X2=45.75, df=34, p=0.09; RMSEA=0.03; CFI=0.99; TLI=0.99 Fig. 1. SEM model for factors impacting voluntary workers' perceptions of organizational cultural competence. X2 = 45.75, df = 34, p = 0.09; RMSEA = 0.03; CFI = 0.99; TLI = 0.99.

agency could consider bolstering feelings of respect by providing opportunities for staff recognition or providing training to supervisors to be more empathic to their supervisees. The agency could then consider what policies could be put in place given its specific circumstances. Additionally, agency administrators should pay special attention to the different perceptions of workers by racial/ethnic group. As previously stated, minority workers may have different perceptions than white workers, and those differences should be considered important. The understanding that the Diffusion of Innovation Theory can be used to explain perceptions of organizational cultural competence in this sample provides some interesting areas for agency administrators to consider. The best fitting model consisted solely of predictors that were indicators of the social system. The race/ethnicity of workers, workers' perceptions of respect, innovativeness, and their agency's readiness for change represented the totality of constructs used to assess the social system within the agencies. This emphasizes the importance of multiple aspects of the agency setting when considering cultural competence. While previous research has found that the social system within child welfare agencies has been related to job satisfaction, commitment, quality of service and worker turnover, this research expands this to also include cultural competence of agencies (Glisson & James, 2002). Therefore, child welfare administrators looking to improve the cultural competence of their agencies should consider evaluating the overall context of the agencies and not focus solely on the cultural competence of specific services or programs. References Aarons, G. A., & Sawitzky, A. C. (2006). Organizational culture and climate and mental health provider attitudes toward evidence-based practice. Psychological Services, 3(1), 61. Armstrong, L. R., Jr. (2008). The effectiveness of the instruments used to measure the multicultural competence of school counselors. Rivier Academic Journal, 4(2), 1–4. Association of University Centers on Disabilities Multicultural Council (2004). Assessment of organizational cultural competence. Retrieved from. http://www.aucd.org/docs/ councils/mcc/cultural_competency_assmt2004.pdf Auerbach, C., McGowan, B. G., Augsberger, A., Strolin-Goltzman, J., & Schudrich, W. (2010). Differential factors influencing public and voluntary child welfare workers' intention to leave. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(10), 1396–1402. Augsberger, A., Schudrich, W., Auerbach, C., & McGowan, B. G. (2012). Respect in the workplace: A mixed methods study of retention and turnover in the voluntary child welfare sector. Children and Youth Services Review, 34, 1222–1229.

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