FLORA OF TROPICAL EAST AFRICA

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constituees de moins de 100 especcs mais s pt comprennent plus de 500 p 'ces ..... Ft . 9. Numb r of nd ·mic g nera p r family. 30. Q). C. 25 u 20 .E Q). 15. "O. C.
Ghazanfar, S.A., Beentje, H.J. & Moat, J. (2006). Flora of tropical East Africa: quantitative analysis of the flora and its conservation. In: S.A. Ghazanfar & H.J. Beentje (eds), Taxonomy and ecology of African plants, their conservation and sustainable use, pp. 591-607. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

FLORA OF TROPICAL EAST AFRICA: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE FLORA AND ITS CONSERVATION SHAHINA A. GHAZANFAR 1 , HENK]. BEENTJE 2 &Ju TIN MOAT 3 1•2• 3 RoyaJ

Botanic Garden , Kew, Richmond, Surr y, TW9 3AB, UK ntj @k w.org; [email protected]

1 [email protected]; 2 h.b

Abstract Quantitative analy i of the flora of tropi al Ea t Africa (taken h re to includ, Uganda, K nya and Tanzania) shows about 12,154 sp ci of vascular plants in 254 families and 2110 genera. The majority of th families hav £ w r than 100 speci s, but there are 7 with more than 500 sp cies, and L gumin sa , if treated as a single family With mor than 1000 species. Th mo t species-rich ar a Ii in the astern and south rn parts of the region. There are 51 gen ra (in 20 families), and over 1200 pecie endemic to tropical East Africa with two subdivision in Tanzania, Tanga and Ea t rn, containing th highe t numb r of ndemic g n ra. Th s ar follow d by th Coastal subdivi ion of K nya, the Southern Highland and outh rn and North rn subdivisions of Tanzania. There is a ne d for Nature R rves in at l ast two ar as that are regard d as cent rs of specie -ri hness and endemism, and for trict Nature Res rves to be designated for conservation and monitoring vegetation dynamics due to nvironmen tal chang s.

llesume

'Flora of 'Iropical East Africa': analyse quantitative de la flore et conservation. L'analys e quantitativ de la flor d'Afriqu oriental (consid �re 1 1 omm 0 mpr nant l'Ouganda, 1 Kenya et la Tanzani ) revcle nviron 12.154 esp' e de Plant s vasculair s dans 254 famill s et 2110 genres. La majorite de familles ont constituees de moins de 100 especcs mais s pt comprennent plus de 500 p 'ces et les Leguminosae, si elles etai nt traitees comme une s ule famill , omprcndrai nt plus de 1000 especes. Les zones a richess specifique la plu elevee s situ nt dan I s parti · 0rie n tale et austral d la region. Cinquante-et-un g nre (dans 20 families) et nviron 1 200 cspe ces sont end�miques d'Afriqu d I' st. En Tanzanie, 1 s deux subdivi sion' 'fauga et Eastern, contiennent le plus grand nombre de genre nd'miques. lls ont �Uivis par la subdivision 'Coastal' du Kenya, le· 'Southern Highlands' et les subdivisions Southern' et 'Northern' de Tanzani . Une necessit' de r�servcs naturelles e fait sentir, au moins dans deux regions consid�rees comme c ntr s de rich se specifique d e n l ' demisme, ainsi que de reserves naturelles strictes qui devraient etre et;1blie Pour la conservation et pour suivre la dynamique de la v, gctation provoqu'e par Jes ch angements environnementaux.

l{ey words: East Africa, quantitative analysis, sp cies richness, endemism, conservation

591

Taxonomy and ecology of African plant.s, their conservation and sustainable use

1 Introduction The flora of tropical East Africa spreads over a highly diverse landscape and is extremely rich in species. The region of the flora taken here is that of Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania, and the flora as described in the taxonomic treatment of the publication (by families) of Flora of Tropical East Africa (Flora of Tropical East Africa 1952-, hereafter referred to as FTEA). In an area of approximately 1,766,500 km 2 that is tropical East Africa, over 12,000 species (>13,000 ta.xa) of vascular plants are present, with the East rn Arc Mountains th tenth most species-rich area in the world both in overall natural and remaining natural vegetation (Brummitt & Lughadha, 2003) In this paper we summaris th results of a quantitative analysis of th flora, analys in detail th distribution of th species, and determine areas of high pecies diversity and endemism in tropical East Africa, and in th light of our results evaluat the significance of the existing national parks and conservation ar as in this r gion. Geomorphology Although most of the geomorphological featur s of eastern Africa have develop d over the last 200 million year the geological b ginnings of this region lie in the Archaean systems (3800-2500 Mya) forming the central Nyanza Shield. This includes the exposed granite in central Tanzania, and the gneiss complex in north rn Ugand a. Major geological events that includ sedimentation and folding of metamorphic rocks during late pr -Cambrian, erosion, incursion of sea into Gondwana (the pres nt Indian Ocean), uplifting·and downfaulting during th mid-Tertiary (30 million years Mya) which form d the central African plat au (including th K nya highlands) and th East rn and Western Rift Vall ys and th Lak Victoria basin, the vulcanicity in th e eastern rift which formed Mt Elgon, Mt Kenya, the Aberdar range, Mt Meru and Mt Kilimanjaro, and fluctuating sea levels up to 0.6 million years ago hav resulted in the pres nt land morphology of east rn Africa (Morgan, 1973). Eastern tropical Africa is haracterised by coastal plains that slop gently upwards away from the sea and are interrupted by a serie of low hills. A chain of high mountains ris from the central and southern part of the plains and form some of the highest mountains of the African continent (Kilimanjaro at 5895 m, Mt Kenya at 5169 rn)· The plains rise steeply at the western end to eventually reach th Central African Plateau which stretches from southern Kenya to Zimbabwe between 1000 m and 1500 rn and Ii s between the two rift valleys. Lake Victoria lies in the northern part of th is region. In the north-east of the Central Plateau, the lowlands of Lake Rudolf connect the Ea tern Rift Valley in central Kenya with that of Ethiopia. In the floor of the Rif t Valley sev ral soda lakes are pres nt as a result of inland draining. In th south and east of the Central Plateau lie the Southern Highlands and in the west the Ufipa plateau, the Usambara, Pare, Kilimanjaro, and Uluguru mountains are located. Uplift alon g th e western margin of the entral Plateau reaches to form the Kigezi-Karagwe Highlands which in the south-west of Uganda includes a small portion of volcanic range associated with the western rift. Several large lakes lie west and south of the Western Rift Vall�)' including Lake Albert, Lake Edward and Lake Tanganyika (the last being the world s second deepest lake with a maximum depth of 1426 m), as well as high mountains such

as the Ruwenzori (5120 m) and Muhavura (Virunga Volcanoes).

592

Flora of tropical Ea t Africa: quantitative analysis of the flora

2 Material and methods Distribution data (by subdivisions ba ed on colonial administrative units and a used in FTEA, referred to a subdivi ions in thi paper) were obtained from publish d literature (Flora of Tropical Ea t Africa (FTEA), 1952-present), Families & G nera of Flowering Plants Database (Brummitt & Brummitt, in prep.); some data w re also f modified from the distribution databa LEAP (List of Ea t A rican Plants), develop d by th East African Herbarium, National Museums of Kenya. Data wer analysed variously including th us of Geographical Information y tern and the database of co1lection localities in East Africa. Land area was calculat d by ubtracting the water area (lak s) from total area; corr lation for coll cting localiti s wa calculat d as lo aliti s/1000 km2• For calculating p ci s richn ss w hav xclud d data for the two islan d , Zanzibar and P mba, as island follow a dif£ rent distribution patt rn from th mainland. W did not think it was appropriat to orr et our data for correlation of speci s richness and ar a, a without the two islands w did not s e a linear r lation hip for our data (R2 = 0.033) ( Fig. 10) (for larg non-i olat d sample ar a th power function S=cN is often u d, with z=0.12-0.14 for c rr ction of a sp ci s-ar a relationship; Ros nzweig, 1995).

3 Results 3,1 Floristics and species richness A near total of 12,154 peci s (13,537 tax.a) of va ular plants ar re ord d for lropi al E ast Africa (Tabl 1, Fig. 3) with th Dow ring plants omprising approx imately 48% of the total flow ring plant taxa of tropi al Afri a (L brun & tork, 1991-7). (The figures are by no m ans final veral plant families with v r 200 sp ie are e t Y to be treated for FTEA, which will invariably chang th final numb r of known sp i s there). p cie re ord d o far are distribut d in 254 famili (Leguminosa taken as ingl family; Asclepiadac ae in luded in Apo yna eae) and 2110 g n ra (Ta bl 2). Th r ar 22 famili s with mor than 100 p i , 9 with more than 300 specie and 7 with mor than 500 sp ci (1abl s 3, 4). L guminosa , if treated a, a single fam ily is the only on with mor th n 1000 sp cies. Th majority of th famili s have fewer than I 00 sp cie and 75 famili s hav 20 or mor than 20 sp cies. Th r are 128 families with 10 or fewer than 10 sp i , and 43 famili s with only a single p ci s (se also Figs. 1, 2, 3). In analyzing our data we have s en a low orrclation betwe n th number of 0 llection lo alities ( xcluding Zanzibar and P mba) and th numb r of sp i p r Flora sub divisions (R 2=0.4298) (Fig. 4). Th Tanga subdivi ion (T 3) of Tanzania ha the most collection localities; for the oth r subdivi ion the num r of ollection localiti es xc pt for the C ntral (T 5) ubdivision in are more or less the sam l'a nzania and th Northern Frontier (K 1) in Kenya wh re the coll cling lo alitie ar fewer (Fig. 5). No significant corr lation was seen betw en cl vation and th numb r of species per subdivision (R2=0.1046) (Fig. 6). . In terms of political boundaries, our data hows that Tanzania is the most species­ _ rich with about 82% of the total species found there (Table 1; Figs. 7, 8). As our data 0n sp ecies richness is by subdivisions, w can separat four group (Tabl 4; Figs. 7, 8). T he most species-rich areas in tropical East Africa li in th ast �n and ou�er part of � _ the region, whilst the northern and north western areas are r lauvely low r m d1 v rs1ty.

593

Taxonomy and ecology of African plants, their conservation and sustainable use TABLE 1. Approximate number of species in each country in tropical East Africa (from Beentje et al., 1994). Country

Estimated species

Uganda K: nya Tanzania

% total species

5400 6500 >10,000

44.4 53.5 >82.3

TABLE 2. Compo ition of th va cular flora of tropical Ea t Africa (see also Fig. 1). (The numbers of sp ci of£ rns and th flowering plants ar approximate until th entire flora is describ d and updated).

Fern & £ rn alli s Gymnosperms Dicotyl d ns Monocotyledons

Families

Genera

Species

% total species

31 3 179 39

110 4 1597 408

595 13 9071 2475

4.9 0.1 74.6 20.4

Total species 12,154 Total taxa 13,537

TABLE 3. Families with the highest number of species (>500 spp.) in tropical east Africa. T (*938, F EA Composita I, II, III, 2000-2005) Families

No. of species

Leguminosae Compositae Gramineae Rubiaceae Orchidaceae Euphorbiaceae Acanthaceae

1227 ± 886* 864 756 628 527 >500

594

% total spp in tropical East Africa

10.1 7.3 7.1 6.2 5.2 4.3 c. 4.3

% total spp in respective famil ies in tropical Africa

46.2 52.9 58.2 43.2 54.3 43.0 not known

Flora of tropical East Africa: quantitative analysis of the flora

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3.3 Conservation National Parks and protect d ar as 2 Apart from the rec ntly gazett d Kitulo Nati nal Park in Tanzania (413 Iun stablish d 2004), as far as we ar aware, there ar no national parks for th prot tion of plant speci s per se in tropi al East Afri a. Howev r, th mo t spe i s-ri h ar as fall within gaz tt d national parks or for st reserv . Ther ar six at gories of manag ment of protected ar as defined in th 1997 UN list of National Parks and Protected Ar as (IU N 1998). S Table 8 for d finition of th s at gorie an d the numb r of prot cted areas in each country. In addition th UNES O programm on Man and Biosph r (MAB) for the d velopm nt of sustainabl us and onservation of biological diversity, hav id ntifie� nin biospher r serves in East Africa spanning across th major ecosyst ms in tb 15 r gion (Tabl 9; Fig. l 1).

602

Flora of tropical East Africa: quantitative analysis of the flora TABLE 8. Protected areas in tropical East Africa and their management categorie (IUCN 1997). Category la: Strict Nature Reserve: protect d area managed mainly for cience lb: Wilderness Area: protected area manag d mainly for wilderness protection Category II: National Park: protected area managed mainly for cosyst m protection and recreation Cat gory III: Natural Monument: protected ar a managed mainly for conservation of specific natural£ atur s at gory IV: Habitat/Species Management Area: prot ctcd area managed mainly for cons rvation through management int rvention Cat gory V: Protected Landscape/ ea cap : pr tected area managed mainly for landscape/ s a cap con ervati n and r er ation ategory VI: Manag d R s urc Protect d Ar a: protc t d area manag d mainly for the su tainabl us of natural e osyst ms

Uganda Kenya Tanzania

la or lb

II

III

IV

V

VI

0 0 0

7

0 0 0

23

2 0 0

16 18 48

33

12

4 18

Prot et d ar a % of total ar ·a 9.2% 15.5% 6.1%

There arc no tri t Nature R serv s (Category l a or l b) in Ea t A rica, but s vcral in Categori II, IV and VI. We hav tak n Category 11, whi h is a National Park ologi al integrity of on or more designat d mainly for the protection of "... 'cosy t ms for present and future gen ration " "... xclud xploitation" "... provid a foundation for spiritual, ientific, ducational, r creational, and visitor opportuniti · ..." (IUCN 1998) as representativ of an area whi h would off r the mo t protection to a habitat, and prot ction and cons rvati n of plant species within. It is cl ar from Tables 8 and 9 and Fig. 10, that protected ar as of this nature ar wanting in at 1 ast two areas that are centres of species richne s and end mi m: the southern subdivi ion of Tanzania (T 8) and the coastal r gions in Kenya and Tanzania (T 3, K 7). Th r are everal Forest Nature Reserves (Category IV) that ar managed natur res rve' of Which th Amani Fore t Nature R erve tablish d by the Tanzanian Government in 1997 for the prot ction of the flora anc:i fauna of east U ambara, and th himba I Iills National Reserve established in 1968, fall in the T 3 and K 7 r gion respectiv ly. Clarke (1998) found high endemism in th vascular flora of the Zanzibar­ lnhambane regional mo aic of White (White, 1983), and ugg ted that the northern Part of th Zanzibar-Inbambane r gional mo aic b r -classified a a n w Regional Centre of Endemism, the Swahilian Regional Centr of Endemism. His proposed phytochorion contains an estimated 1200 end mic and 287 n ar end mi sp des, and 25 endemic and 8 near ndemic gen ra. With an estimated 4500 sp i s and high end mism it ranks one of the most species-rich areas in tropical East Africa (s � also Clarke et al., 2000). Somewhat similar results were obtain d by Brenan (1978) and Linder (1998) who al o suggested that the centr of endemism ranges along the coa t from southern Kenya to northern Mozambique and emphasised the richness of f

Taxonomy and ecology of African plants, their conservation and sustainable use TABLE 9. Biosphere Reserves established by the UNESCO programme on Man and Biosphere (MAB). Country

Biosphere Reserve

&tablished

Ecosystem(s)

Uganda Kenya

Ruwenzori National Park Mount Kulal Mount Kenya Amboseli Kiunga Malindi-Watamu S rengcli-Ngorongoro Lake Manyara

1979 1978 1978 1980 1980 1979 1981 1981

E Usambara

2000

Tropical montane Semi-de ert and desert; lake Montane and highland Tropical grassland Coastal Coastal Tropical grassland Tropi al dry or deciduous ground water forest and soda lake Tropical montanc rainforc t

Tanzania

biological diversity in this region. Robertson & Luke (1993) in their r port on the coastal forests of Kenya had arrived at similar conclusions and recommended several Natur Res rv s to be established in this region. Clarke et al. (2000 and r fer nc s therein) examined published a ounts of the flora of Tanzania and identifi d the Lindi area as a loca1 centre of ndcmism in Tanzania, with Rondo, Noto, Litipo, and Chitoa forest areas especially rich in plant species and end mism (Clarke, 2001). The main threats to the biological diversity of tropical astern Africa ar population growth and the requirement for housing and farming which is compen ated through forest cl aring. Increased clearings have led to soil degradation and invasion of exotic species. In Ki nya, Robertson & Luke (1993) urv y d about 68 mall coastal for st sites (th Mijikenda Kayas) that wer of religious signifi ance and protected through local customs, but saw an increased encroachm nt of th sites; in Tanzania sev ral earli er protect cl sites were cl gazett d to building and planting pressure for an expanding population, for xampl the larger foresL-, of Matumbi Hills, Rondo Plateau and Makond Plateau hav been cleared for farming and logging. In addition to the increasing population pres ·ure and shift from traditional farming practices in eastern Africa, global warming has resulted in environmental changes which will consequently have a marked effect on vegetation and biological diversity. There is eviden e of receding glaciers and shrinking ice-cap on Mt Kenya, Kilimanjaro and Ruwenzori, with 92% of Mt Kenya's Lewis glacier melting in the last 100 years, and about 75% of the glacier area on Ruwenzori decreasing since th 1990s. On Kilimanjaro, it is projected that i e will disappear by 2020 (82% of Kilimanjaro's ice bas disappeared since 1912, with about one-third melting in just the last twelve or so years) (Hasternath, 1991; Kaser, 1999; IPCC, 2001; Hardy, 2002). It is hypothesis d that l ess snow on the mountains during the rainy season will decrea ·e the surface reflectiveness and will lead to higher rates of heat absorption. This will result in an increase in local temperatures, an increased melting of ice and changes in microclimate. As a consequence of warming, the range of the natural vegetation will shift, together with a shift of its biota, (Epstein et al., 1998), and where the vegetation is already degraded, this will result in an incr ased invasion and establishment by non-native species and a consequent loss in the native biological diversity. Despite the fact that there arc two Biosphere Reserves on coastal Kenya, there 15 still an urgent need for designated Nature Parks to protect and conserve the rich coastal habitats. And even though there are forest r serves recently set up by the

604

Flora of tropical East Africa:quantitative analysis of the flora Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania (WCST), supported by the UNDP Global Environmental Facility (GEF) to manage the forest areas in the coa tal hinterland, National Parks are still needed to protect the diversity of plants, mammals, birds, reptiles,amphibians and invertebrates that ar endemic and forest-dependent in this region (Burgess & Clark , 2000). In addition, Strict Nature Reserves n ed to be designated in this and other habitats to reduce the degradation of natural vegetation and incursion of non-native species; Strict Nature Res rves are also nee sary to monitor changes in vegetation resulting from environmental changes r lat d to global warming.

Acknowledgements SAG & HB are grateful to th B ntham-Moxon Tru t for funding their att ndanc to th 17th AETFAT ongr in Addi Ababa,Ethiopia.

References Be ntj , IIJ., Davis, .D. & Hamilton, A. . (1994). Ea t Afri a. In: S.D. Davis, V.H. H ywood & A. . Hamilton ( ds), ntr of plant div r ity. A uid and trat gy for th ir cons rvation,pp. 101-264. JU N & WWF, land and ambridg . Be ntje, HJ. & Smith, . (2001). FTEA and After. In:E. Robbr ht,J. D gr "'f & 1. Frii ( ds), Plant sy t metics and phytogeography for th und rstanding of African biodiv rsity. Proce ding of the XVIth AETFAT ongress in Syst matic and G ography of Plants,pp. 265-275. National Botani ard n,B lgium. Br nan,J.P.M. (1978). ome asp ts of th phytog graphy of tropi al Afri . Annal of th Mis ouri Botani al Gard ns 65. Brummitt, N. & Lughadha, E.N. (2003). Biodiversity: wh r ' hot and wher •'s not. Biological Cons rvation 17(5):1442-1448. Burgess,N.D. &Clarke, .P. (2000). oa tal for st in Ea tern Afri a. IUCN,Gland and ambridge. Clark ,G.P. (1998). A n w r gional c ntr of end mism in Africa. In: .R. Jluxl y,J.M. Lock & D.F Cuti r (ed ·),Chorology,taxonomy and ology of th floras of Afri a and Madagas ar.,pp. 53-65. Royal Botani ard n , K w. Clark e, G.P. (2001). Th Lindi lo al centr of end mi m in E Tanzania. yst. ogr. Pl. 7: 1063-1072. II dberg, 0. (1951). Veg tation belts of the ast African mountain . v nsk B tani k Tidskrift. 45: 141-202,pl. 1-6. lUCN. (1998). 1997 Unit d Nation h t of Protect d A.r>a . P repar d by WCMC and WCPA. IUCN,Gland,Switz rland and ambridgc,UK. L brun,J.-P.&Stork,A. (1991-7).Enumeration d s plante-afleurs d'Afriqu tropicale. Conservatoir tjardin Botaniques, Gen va. Lind r, H.P. (1998). Numerical analyses of african plant distribution . In: .R. Iluxl y, JM. Lock & D.F Cutler (eds), Taxonomy and ecology of the floras of Afo a and Madagascar,pp. 67-85. Royal Botani Gard ns,Kew. Lovett,J.C. (1993). East rn Arc moist for st flora. In:J.C. Lovett & .K. Wa er ( ds), Bi ogeography and ecology of the rain fore ts of eastern Africa. Cambridg University Press, Cambridge.

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Taxonomy and ecology of African plants, their conservation and sustainable use Lusigi, WJ., Nkurunziza, E.R., Awere-Gyekye, K & Masheti, S. (1986). Range resource assessment and management strategies for south-western Marsabit, Northern Kenya. UNESCO-FRG-MAB Integrated Project in Arid Lands, Nairobi. Morgan, W.T.W. (1973). East Africa. Longman Group Ltd. Robertson, S.A. & Luke, W.R.Q. (1993). Kenya coastal forests. Report of the NMK/WWF coast forest survey: WWF project 3256: Kenya, coast forest status, conservation and management. Malindi, National Museums of Kenya, World Wide Fund for Nature. Rosenzweig, M.L. (1995). Species diversity in space and time. Cambridge University Pres , Cambridge, UK. White, F. (1983). The veg tation of Africa. A descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/ AETFAT /UNSO vegetation map of Africa. UNESCO, Paris.

606

Flora of tropical East Africa: quantitative analysis of the flora APPENDIX

1. Flora and Districts subdivisions of tropical East Africa.

UGANDA Abbr. Flora subdivisions Ul Northern U2 Western U3 Eastern U4 Buganda KENYA Abbr. Flora subdivisions Kl North rn Fronti r Turkana K2 K3 Rift Valley K4

Central

K5

Nyanza Masai Coast

K6 K.7

TANZANIA Abbr. Flora subdivisions TI Lake T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

North rn Tanga W stern C ntral Eastern Southern Highlands Southern

z p

Zanzibar Island Pemba Island

Flora Districts W Nile, Acholi, Lango, Karamoja Bunyoro, Toro, Ankole, Kigezi Teso, Busoga, Mbale Masaka, M ngo, Mubende

Flora Districts Isiolo, Samburu, Marsabit, Mandera, Wajir, Garissa Turkana, W Pokot Tran -Nzoia, Uasin Gishu, Nandi, Elg yo, Baringo, Laikipia, Nakuru, Naiva ha N Nyeri, S Ny ri, Muranga, Kiambu, Nairobi, Meru, Embu, Machako , Kitui Busia, Kakamega, Siaya, Kisumu, Kisii, .Nyanza Kajiado, Narok Taita, Kwale, Mombasa, Kilifi, Malindi, Tana Riv r, Lamu

Flora Districts Bukoba, Biharamulo, Ngara, Mwanza, Kwimba, Shinyanga, Maswa, Mu oma, N Mara Ma ai, Mbulu, Arusha, Mo hi Par , Lushoto, I land ni, Tanga, Pangani Buha, Kahama, Nzega, Kigoma, Tabora, Mpanda, Ufipa Singida, Kondoa, Dodoma, Mpwapwa Kilosa, Morogoro, Bagamoyo, Uzaramo, Rufiji, Ulanga Chunya, Mbcya, Iringa, Rungw , Njomb ong a, Kilwa, Tunduru, Masai, Lindi, Newala, Mikindani Zanzibar Pemba

,

07