Forest m a n a g e m e n t and beavers in Latvia Background
Forest m a n a g e m e n t and conservation in Latvia by ER Wilson School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences University of Sheffield, Beech Hill Road, Sheffield SI0 2RX
[email protected] Formerly: National School of Forestry, Newton Rigg, Penrith, Cumbria CA11 OAH
Summary This paper provides an overview of forestry and forest conservation in the Republic of Latvia. The information was gathered during a training exchange, supported by the European Union, in May 2006, and includes technical details and reflections on some of the management issues currently being addressed, and of some relevance to forestry in Scotland. The most notable features of the forest scene in Latvia are the high level of production, the contribution of forestry to economic development, and the extensive conservation and habitat restoration work currently ongoing. Among the wildlife of most interest is the European beaver. Issues surrounding habitat management and population control may have special relevance in Scotland, where reintroductions of beaver and other mammals are currently being considered.
Latvia, along with its neighbouring Baltic states of Lithuania and Estonia, gained independence in 1991. after centuries of German, Polish, Swedish and finally Russian occupation. It is a small country of around 64 000 km2 (i.e., 80 % the size of Scotland) with a population of 2.3 million people. Despite much political turbulence, especially through the war years of the 20th century, Latvia has maintained its unique language, culture and identity. Situated on the south-east shore of the Baltic Sea (Figure I), the country is essentially a trading and seafaring nation. Trading activity can be traced back to Viking times, when the sea and rivers were the most effective means of communication over large distances. The major river, the Daugava, was an important transport artery for centuries, until hydro-dams and bridges effectively blocked shipping in recent times. At its mouth, the port of Riga has flourished. In the Middle Ages it was a member of the Hanseatic League, Europe's first 'common market' of city states and trade centres, and the city's wealth was derived from manufactory and export of natural resources brought downriver from inland. Now Riga, the capital of Latvia and largest city in the region, reflects the changes sweeping across eastern Europe in the post-Communist era; rapid development and economic growth, a new cultural flowering, but at a pace that is leaving many citizens behind. A large Russian community adds to the complexity of Latvian society. Central to the history and culture of Latvia are its natural resources. A low-lying country (the highest point is 312 m, little taller than Arthur's Seat in Edinburgh), the landscape is dominated by forests (45 %), fanns (38 %) and, to a lesser degree, by water and wetlands (7.5 %) (SFS 2005, FAO 2006). Mineral resources, however, are not as important as in neighbouring states. The scenery of Latvia is pastoral and gentle, and there is a continental climate with four distinct seasons. Apart from their importance for biodiversity, forests are essential to the national economy. Overall, the forest sector accounts for 7.5 % of GDP, 5-6 % of the workforce and 41 % of the total goods exported (SFS 2006a). It is the only sector in the economy that currently has a positive trade balance. In addition, the wood-working industry makes up 25 % of the manufacturing sector and 46 % of inland carriage (SFS 2006a).
Forest Administration Introduction A recent training exchange supported by the European Union (EU) provided the opportunity to visit Latvia. At a similar latitude range to Scotland, the objective of the visit was to study forest management and conservation strategies that may have application in our own woodlands. Of particular interest were silvicultural systems, habitat conservation and wildlife management. Several species being considered for reintroduction to Scotland, such as wolf (Canis lupus) and European beaver (Castor fiber), are still native to the Latvian forest. For this reason, management of these species in Latvia is of particular relevance to Scotland. This report presents an overview of forestry and forest conservation issues in Latvia and reflects some of the main impressions from the exchange.
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The forest resources of Latvia are administered by the Ministry of Agriculture. After re-organisation in 2000 the forestry section was split between two separate departments: the forest resources department (responsible for resource management and economic matters) and the forest policy department (responsible for legislation, policy and strategy) (SFS 2006b). The State Forest Service (SFS) stands as a separate agency under the Ministry of Agriculture, with responsibility for managing state forest lands, and for enacting national legislation and regulations. The SFS also fulfils advisory functions in private land forestry and maintains a role in forestry education. The SFS has 118 forest districts organised within 23 regions. Each district and region has its own team of foresters and support staff, reporting to a regional Head Forester. This arrangement is under review, with likely rationalisation of the structure in the near fiiture as part of a drive for greater efficiency and cost savings. At the present
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farmland, a good example of the process of "old-field succession" (Kimmins 2003). The 1 / 1 human backdrop to this development is \\ ' Russia chilling. The Russians shipped many Estonia V\ •se thousands of farmers to Siberia during the post-war years, believing land-owning 1 people to be the source of resistance to Stalin's collectivist ideas. A day in infamy is y» .,.-1 j> 25 March 1949 when 50,000 Latvian /' ' V citizens, mainly farmers, were rounded up se*N(Ceruzis 2001)[1]. Herded into cattle trucks, these unfortunate people were shipped ) Latvia H thousands of miles by train to Amur, in Siberia. Many never returned to their \ 1 •M homeland. Their land was then taken into state control for collective farming and military purposes, but much of the area was abandoned and rapidly reverted to forest. 1 J \ The continuing movement of people to \ Lithuania L^ 9B*Nurban areas for employment has increased the rate of rural depopulation and land B O » Q K 90 100 150 •J Belarus abandonment. The unintentional response i-4—_:a—' M ^ ^—1 (but by no means any consolation for the ^^^^=^-1 -^^ 28*E 24*E 20*E 20-E 22'E human tragedy) has been an expansion in the Figure 1. Map of Latvia.Tlie map shows Latvia's location in relation to the other Baltic statesrange of habitats generally beneficial for wildlife. and Russia. Situated on the souti)-east coast of the Baltic Sea, Latvia is well placed as a transport V
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time the SFS has approximately 1900 permanent staff, with an additional 830 part-time employees for seasonal fire protection duties. Forest research in Latvia has a long and distinguished heritage that has survived many of the political upheavals in government. There is a forest research institute that works nationally through a network of outstations and research forests (seven forests with a total 28 000 ha), and which is also responsible for seed procurement and testing. Long term studies and expertise have been sustained in all aspects of natural resources management, including growth and yield, silviculture, ecosystem sciences and wildlife management. Nearly all professional foresters and researchers are trained at either the Faculty of Forestry, based at the Latvian University of Agriculture (foresters), or at the University of Latvia (biologists, lawyers and financial experts). Forestry education is generally long and rigorous, very much in the central European tradition. A major challenge, at the present time, is the need to restore an active management culture in woodlands that were nationalised during the communist era. Structural funding has been secured from the EU to support the development of a forest extension service for private land forestry. The organisation and operation of the service will likely be modelled on successftil programmes in Sweden and Finland.
Forest Types and Species Composition In terms of biogeography, Latvia is located in the transition zone between the temperate forest to the south and the boreal forest to the north. The major species are associated with boreal conditions, but many temperate species are also
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Forest Development The forest cover of Latvia has increased steadily, from 24 % of the land area in 1930 to 45 % in 2005 (Figure 2) (SFS 2005). Some of the change is due to rural depopulation and subsequent natural regeneration of the forest on abandoned
Figure 2. Change in forest land ownership and area in Latvia from 1935 to 2005 (SFS 2005).This data reflects the turbulent history of Latvia. Large-scale land abandonment during the communist era (I940s-I990) led to an increase in the forest cover. Farm forests, part of the collective farm system, reverted to the original owners follov^ing independence in 1991.
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Forest management and beavers in Latvia abundant (Table 1, Figure 3). This makes for a surprisingly rich assemblage of forest types and habitats. Bogs and wetlands are less prevalent than in Finland, although these remain important forest areas in terms of biodiversity conservation. The high proportion of alder wood is especially noteworthy. There is considerable variation in species composition between state and private forests (Figure 4).
In overall character, the forest scene (but not the species) is reminiscent of eastern Canada, where the large continental land mass north and south provides a canvas for forest communities to "sort themselves out" according to the various gradients in soil conditions, climate, temperature and rainfall. Although exploited for centuries, there has been a general continuity of forest cover in both space and time that has enabled natural forest dynamics to prevail. Given the extent of the forest resource, the patchwork of natural forest communities can be appreciated in a way that is rarely possible in Scotland. One is immediately aware of the subtle transitions from one forest type or community to another. Farm fields often appear to be no more than gaps in the forest, in contrast to Scotland where native woodlands often sit uncomfortably as isolated fragments in open land or boxed in by exotic plantations. It is immediately apparent that our woodlands lack the connectivity necessary for migration of many woodland species. Latvia has its own forest ecosystem classification. There are twenty recognised forest types and a larger number of subclasses that distinguish fine-scale differences in vegetation and soil conditions. Forest soils range from sands to deep peats, and wetlands. The dominant species are Scots pine {Pinus sylvestris)^ Norway spruce {Picea ahies) and silver birch {Betula pendula) (Figure 3). In 2002. special management provisions were finalised in a programme called Woodland Key Habitats (WKH). This was aimed at identifying and conserving biological values within each of the forest types and in woodlands under active management (SFS 2005). This work was funded jointly by the SFS, the state forestry company and by the government of Sweden. Consideration in harvesting plans must be given to old growth forest stands, veteran and ancient trees, standing and down woody debris. Regulations for buffer zone creation around key habitat features and control of invasive species have also been introduced. Long-term before- and after-management monitoring is required so that the full range of species and habitats is sustained at the national level. By 2005, the area of WKHs was nearly 45,000 ha, with potential WKHs accounting for another 14.000 ha (SFS 2005). The main forest types and some key habitat management features are as follows:
Tabid. The major tree species found in the forests of Latvia, with Latvian and scientific names Common name Scots pine Norway spruce European larch birch common alder aspen grey aider oak ash willow lime
Latvian name Scientific name Pinus sylvestris Priede Egle Picea abies lapegle (introduced species) Larix deciduas \ Berzs Betula spp. Melnalksnis AInus glutlnosa • Apse Populus tremula Baltalksnis AInus incana Ozols Quercus robur \ Osis Fraxinus excelsior Vitols Salix spp. Tilia spp. Liepa
Consideration in harvesting plans must be given to old growth forest stands, veteran and ancient trees, standing and down woody debris. Regulations for buffer zone creation Figure 3. Current total forest area by species in Latvia (SFS 2005). Scots around key habitat features and control of invasive species pine, birch arid Norway spruce are the dominarit species. The temperate have also been introduced. Long-temi before- and afterhardwoods, oali, ash and lime, occupy a very small proportion of the management monitoring is required so that the full range of overall area. State Forests
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Figure 4. The importance of individual species in state and private forests (SFS 2005). Scots pine is most important in state forests, while birch is more important on private land. The large proportion of grey alder on private land is a result of natural regeneration of trees on abandoned agricultural fields.
Forest m a n a g e m e n t and beavers in Latvia species and habitats is sustained at the national level. By 2005, the area of WKHs was nearly 45,000ha. with potential WKHs accounting for another I4,000ha (SFS 2005). The main forest types and some key habitat management features areas follows:
Pine forest type on dry sites These are characterised by Scots pine woodland (Figures 5) with an associated mix of light demanding and pioneer broadleaves. Old pine trees tend to develop a thick bark as an adaptation to natural forest fires. With control of natural fires, many pine sites are being invaded by shade tolerant species, such as Norway spruce. This is changing the pattern of natural regeneration. Active management focuses on limiting the composition of shade tolerant species and promoting natural regeneration of Scots pine. Figure 5. A typical pine woodland in central Latvia. The forest floor here is dominated by A small number of Norway spruce saplings can be seen growing in Norway spruce is removed and in some cases lichens (Cladonia f h spp.). • large stems are left to increase the deadwood ^ " ' habitat. Logging debris on clear-fell sites is raked into heaps and burned to expose mineral soil. In some cases, understorey prescribed burning is being developed as a silvicultural technique to promote advanced regeneration of Scots pine. Site preparation includes continuous and patch scarification. Wood ants (Formica spp.) are among the most important insects found in the pinewood forest type (Figure 6).
Common alder wetland forest type This forest type develops on sites subject to seasonal flooding. Trees regenerate and develop on hummocks. The diversity of the soils and moisture availability promotes a rich variety of plants making this an ecologically-important forest type. The forest tends to develop an irregular structure due to natural gap creation and natural regeneration. These forests are managed with a high degree of sensitivity. Common alder (Alnus glutinosa) is not clear-felled, only occasional trees are removed, and wide buffer zones are put in place when operations are taking place in neighbouring stands. Large areas of this forest type were drained in the past to encourage conversion of sites to Norway spruce forest. A programme of restoration involves blocking drains (to raise the water table) and retention of veteran Norway spruce trees for cavitynesting species.
Broadleaved forest type Common hazel (Corylus avellana) is an important element in this forest type, which also features oak (Quercus robur), lime (Tilia spp.), maples (Acer spp.), beech (Fagus sylvatica) and other broadleaves. The canopy of forest stands tends to be multi-layered and the stmcture becomes increasingly irregular with age. Gap formation by natural or harvesting activity is important for beetles, mosses and lichens. Areas with a high diversity and percent cover of mosses are indicative of oldgrowth forests. In such areas, special management restrictions arc enforced, including the use of buffer zones around individual trees. Wherever possible, ancient or veteran trees are protected on their south-facing side by the retention of guard trees. This is done to reduce the risk of sunscald in summer or frost cracking in the winter.
-Igure t. I he wood ant (Formica spp.) is relatively common in Scots pinedominated woodlands throughout Latvia. Large ant nests build up, especially in forest gaps where ^ey can take advantage of direct sunlight
Aspen forest type This forest type is dominated by aspen (Populus tremula) and is characterised by many old and hollow trees. Many individual trees eventually succumb to wind-throw, creating excellent habitat for mosses. The natural dynamic is relatively self-sustaining so no specific conservation measures are generally required in this forest type. Due to the high proportion of mature timber, current rates of removal are higher than the current annual increment.
Other forest types Other forest types of importance at the local level include spruce wetland forests, ravine forests and biologicallysignificant wetlands.
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Forest management and beavers in Latvia group selection systems are favoured, maintenance of a continuous cover forest.
Silviculture Production and growth The volume of harvest increased rapidly in the years immediately after independence from Russia. This was largely driven by inward investment from Scandinavia and western Europe. Since 1999 the overall rate of removal has stabilised at approximately 11 million m3 per year, with the majority of harvest now drawn from private lands. On the national scale, the felling intensity for Scots pine, Norway spruce, birch, oak. ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and common alder is well below the current annual increment (CAI) (Figure 7). Only in aspen forests does the rate of removal exceed the CAI. This is in line with official policy to reduce the overall proportion of mature and senescent stands of this species (SFS 2005). However, one adverse impact of this policy has been the loss of the flying squirrel (Pteromys volans), a species that was at the limits of its range in Latvia but dependent on woods with a considerable admixture of old aspen trees. Silvicultural systems A wide range of silvicultural systems are employed in Latvia. The systems commonly used are driven by the natural disturbance dynamics and regeneration potential of the forest. Most of the silviculture conforms to the principles of "closeto-nature" forestry and there is a close commonality to
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Forest renewal Since 2002 there has been a significant increase in the area of existing woodland that is actively re-stocked (Figure 10). In 2004, the total area re-stocked was over 37 000 ha, with Scots pine and Norway spruce accounting for 44 %, and birch another 37 % of the area (SFS 2005). A great deal of effort is currently being invested in management of natural regeneration on private lands, partly to make up for inadequate re-stocking in earlier years. This requires close coordination and integration of both harvesting and regeneration operations. Natural regeneration and planting rates have increased only slowly in state forests, over the same period of time. Establishment of new woodlands is also increasing at a rapid rate, again mainly on private land. In 2004, the majority of the 2000 ha planted (over and above the total area of restocking) was on former agricultural fields (SFS 2005). Most planting stock is produced in SFS tree nurseries. Over 40 million plants are produced each year. The SFS approves and certifies all Forest Reproductive Material (FRM) and supervises the harvest, production and sale of seed in accordance with FRM regulations.
12 Felling intonsity Current annual increment
Tending and i n t e r m e d i a t e t r e a t m e n t s Tending of young stands (defined as having a height
