5th Edition. John A. Kershaw, Mark J. Ducey, Thomas W. Beers, and Bertram Husch. Wiley/Blackwell. Winter 2016 Release. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PREFACE.
FOREST MENSURATION 5th Edition John A. Kershaw, Mark J. Ducey, Thomas W. Beers, and Bertram Husch Wiley/Blackwell Winter 2016 Release TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1. ROLE OF FOREST MENSURATION IN FOREST MANAGEMENT 1.2. FOREST MENSURATION AS A TOOL FOR MONITORING FORESTS 1.3. RELEVANCE OF FOREST MENSURATION FOR ECOLOGY AND NON-TIMBER RESOURCES 1.4. DESIGN AND PLANNING OF INVENTORIES 1.4.1. Timber Estimation 1.4.2. Non–Timber Estimation 1.4.3. Inventory Planning 1.4.4. Forest Inventory Design 1.4.5. Inventory Field Work CHAPTER 2: PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT 2.1. SCALES OF MEASUREMENT 2.2. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
2.3. SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT 2.3.1. International System of Units (Metric System) 2.3.2. Imperial System 2.3.3. Conversions between Systems 2.4. VARIABLES 2.5. PRECISION, ACCURACY AND BIAS 2.6. SIGNIFICANT DIGITS AND ROUNDING OFF 2.6.1. Significant Digits in Measurements 2.6.2. Rounding Off 2.6.3. Significant Digits in Arithmetic Operations 2.7. DATA SUMMARY AND PRESENTATION 2.7.1. Tables 2.7.2. Graphic Presentation 2.7.3. Class Limits 2.8. FUNDAMENTAL MEASUREMENTS 2.8.1. Linear Measurements 2.8.2. Time Measurements 2.8.3. Weight Measurements 2.8.4. Area Measurements 2.8.5. Volume Measurements CHAPTER 3: BASIC STATISTICAL CONCEPTS
3.1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 3.1.1. Population 3.1.2. Sample 3.1.3. Statistics 3.2. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS 3.3. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY 3.3.1 Arithmetic Mean 3.3.2. Quadratic Mean 3.3.3. Harmonic and Geometric Means 3.3.4. Median and Mode 3.4. MEASURES OF DISPERSION 3.4.1. Variance and Standard Deviation 3.4.2. Coefficient of Variation 3.5. SAMPLING ERROR 3.5.1. Standard Error of the Mean 3.5.2. Confidence Interval 3.6. SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION 3.7. INFLUENCE OF SCALAR TRANSFORMATIONS AND THE ESTIMATION OF TOTALS 3.8. CORRELATION AND REGRESSION ESTIMATION 3.8.1 Covariance and Correlation 3.8.2 Simple Linear Regression
3.8.3 Goodness-of-fit and Regression Diagnostics 3.8.4 Multiple Regression and Transformations 3.8.5 Advanced Topics in Regression Analysis 3.9. USE OF COVARIATES TO IMPROVE ESTIMATION 3.9.1 Ratio Estimation 3.9.2 Regression Estimation
CHAPTER 4: LAND AREA DETERMINATION IN FOREST MENSURATION 4.1. LAND DISTANCE AND AREA UNITS 4.2. MEASURING DISTANCES 4.2.1 Pacing 4.2.2. Distances with Chains and Polytapes 4.2.3. Optical Rangefinders 4.2.4. Electronic Distance Measurement Devices 4.2.5. Maps and Photos 4.3. MEASURING AREA IN THE FIELD 4.4. MEASURING AREA USING MAPS AND PHOTOS 4.4.1. Area by Coordinates 4.4.2. Area by Dot Grids and Line Transects 4.4.3. Area by Planimeters 4.5. DETERMINATION OF PHOTO SCALE
4.6. DETERMINATION OF DIRECTION USING A COMPASS 4.6.1. Magnetic Declination 4.7. THE U.S. PUBLIC LAND SURVEYS 4.8. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS 4.8.1. Components of GPS 4.8.2. How GPS Works 4.8.3 Accuracy of GPS 4.8.4. GPS Receivers 4.8.5. Using GPS Data in Forest Mensuration 4.9 GEOGRAPHIC IINFORMATION SYSTEMS 4.9.1. Applications of GIS to Forest Mensuration CHAPTER 5: INDIVIDUAL TREE PARAMETERS 5.1. AGE 5.2 TREE DIAMETERS AND AREAS 5.2.1. Instruments for Measuring Diameter 5.2.2. Measurement of Upper Stem Diameters 5.2.3. Cross-sectional Area 5.2.4. Surface Areas 5.2.5. Applications to Understory Plants 5.3. HEIGHT 5.3.1. Hypsometers Based on Similar Triangles 5.3.2. Hypsometers Based on Trigonometry
5.3.3. Special Considerations in Measuring Tree Heights 5.3.4 Use of LiDAR 5.4. FORM 5.4.1. Form Factors 5.4.2. Form Quotients 5.4.3. Taper Tables, Curves, and Formulas 5.4.4. Slenderness 5.5. CROWN PARAMETERS 5.5.1. Crown Length 5.5.2. Crown Diameter and Area 5.5.3. Crown Surface Area and Volume 5.5.4. Foliage Area and Biomass 5.5.5. Other Crown Characteristics 5.6. REGRESSION AND ALLOMETRIC APPROACHES 5.6.1. Allometry of Standing Trees 5.6.2. Applications to Seedlings, Saplings, and Understory Plants CHAPTER 6: DETERMINATION OF TREE VOLUME, WEIGHT, AND BIOMASS 6.1. MEASUREMENT OF INDIVIDUAL TREES 6.1.1. Stem Dissection 6.1.2. Volume Determination by Displacement 6.1.3. Volume Determination by Formulas
6.1.4. Determination of Cubic Volume by Graphical Methods and Integration 6.1.5. Determination of Crown and Root Volumes 6.1.6. Determination of Bark Volume 6.1.7. Weight Determination 6.1.8. Biomass Determination 6.1.9. Carbon and Nutrient Content Determination 6.2. ALLOMETRIC EQUATIONS FOR VOLUME, WEIGHT, AND BIOMASS 6.2.1. Standard and Form Class Functions 6.2.2. Local Functions 6.2.3. Volume Functions to Upper-Stem Diameter Limits 6.3 TABULAR ESTIMATION 6.3.1. Descriptive Information to Accompany Tables 6.3.2. Checking Applicability of Tables 6.3.3. Conversion of Volume Tables to Weight, Biomass or Carbon and Nutrient Tables 6.4. VOLUME AND BIOMASS DISTRIBUTION IN TREES 6.4.1. Methods for Estimating Stem Volume Distribution 6.4.2. Distribution of Weight and Biomass in Trees 6.5. OTHER METHODS OF ESTIMATING TREE CONTENT 6.5.1. Determination of Volume by Height Accumulation 6.5.2. Importance Sampling and Centroid Methods 6.6. APPLICATIONS TO SEEDLINGS AND UNDERSTORY VEGETATION
6.7. APPLICATIONS TO SNAGS AND DOWN WOODY MATERIAL 6.7.1. Standing Dead Trees 6.7.2. Downed Woody Material CHAPTER 7: MEASUREMENT OF PRIMARY FOREST PRODUCTS 7.1. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT OF FOREST PRODUCTS 7.1.1. Board Foot 7.1.2. Volume Units for Stacked Wood 7.2. LOG RULES 7.3. BOARD-FOOT LOG RULES 7.3.1. Mill-Study Log Rules 7.3.2. Diagram Log Rules 7.3.3. Mathematical Log Rules 7.3.4. Combination Log Rules 7.3.5. Comparison of Log Rules 7.3.6. Tabular Presentation of Log Rules 7.4. LOG SCALING 7.4.1. Board-Foot Scaling 7.4.2. Cubic Volume Scaling 7.4.3. Unmerchantable Logs 7.4.4. Sample scaling 7.5. SCALING STACKED VOLUME
7.6. VOLUME UNIT CONVERSION 7.6.1. Determination of Solid Cubic Contents of Stacked Wood 7.7. SCALING BY WEIGHT 7.7.1. Weight Measurement of Pulpwood 7.7.2. Weight Measurement of Sawlogs 7.7.3. Weight Measurement of Pulp 7.7.4. Weight Measurement of Other Forest Products
CHAPTER 8: STAND PARAMETERS 8.1. AGE 8.1.1. Even-Aged and Single Cohort Stands 8.1.2. Uneven-Aged and Multicohort Stands 8.2. SPECIES COMPOSITION 8.2.1. Describing Species Composition 8.2.2. Number and Diversity of Species 8.2.3. Assigning Stand Types 8.3. DIAMETER 8.3.1. Expressions of Mean Diameter 8.3.2. Basal Area 8.3.3. Diameter Distributions 8.4. HEIGHT
8.4.1. Expressions of Mean Height 8.4.2. Height-Diameter Curves 8.4.3. Height-Diameter Ratio 8.5. VOLUME, WEIGHT, AND BIOMASS 8.5.1. Volume 8.5.2. Weight, Biomass, and Carbon Content 8.5.3. Volume, Weight, and Biomass of Dead Wood 8.6. CROWN AND CANOPY MEASUREMENTS 8.6.1. Crown Closure and Canopy Cover 8.6.2. Leaf Area Index 8.7. UNDERSTORY AND REGENERATION 8.7.1. Density and Frequency 8.7.2. Cover and Competition 8.7.3. Biomass and Forage 8.7.4. Regeneration Surveys 8.8. SITE QUALITY 8.8.1. Geocentric Approaches 8.8.2. Phytocentric Approaches Using Vegetation Composition 8.8.3. Dendrocentric Approaches 8.8.4. Preparation of Site Index Curves 8.9. DENSITY AND STOCKING
8.9.1. Relative Density Based On Volume 8.9.2. Stand Density Index 8.9.3. Tree-Area Ratio 8.9.4. Crown Competition Factor 8.9.5. Relative Spacing 8.9.6. Density of Mixed-Species and Complex-Structure Stands 8.9.7. Point Density and Competition Indices 8.9.8. Forest Stocking and Density Management Diagrams
CHAPTER 9: SAMPLING UNITS FOR ESTIMATING PARAMETERS 9.1 THE FACTOR CONCEPT 9.2. FIXED-AREA PLOTS 9.2.1. Circular plots 9.2.2. Square and Rectangular Plots 9.2.3. Subplots 9.2.4. Selection of Plots and Trees 9.2.5. Stand and Stock Tables 9.2.6. Boundary Slopover 9.3. SAMPLING TREES WITH VARIABLE PROBABILITY 9.3.1. Horizontal Point Samples 9.3.2. Stand and Stock Tables
9.3.3. Boundary Slopover Bias 9.3.4. Other Forms of Sampling Proportional to Size 9.4 OTHER EXAMPLES OF VARIABLE PROBABILITY SAMPLING 9.4.1. Point Intercept Sampling 9.4.2. Line Intercept Sampling 9.5. DISTANCE–BASED SAMPLING UNITS 9.5.1. Nearest Neighbor Methods 9.5.2. Distance Sampling 9.6. SELECTING APPROPRIATE SAMPLING UNITS CHAPTER 10: SAMPLING DESIGNS IN FOREST INVENTORIES 10.1. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS 10.1.1. Errors in Forest Inventories 10.1.2. Confidence Limits 10.1.3. Precision Level and Intensity 10.2. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING 10.2.1. Influence of plot size on simple random sample designs 10.3. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING 10.3.1. Systematic Plot Sampling 10.3.2. Sampling Error for a Systematic Sampling Inventory 10.3.3. Systematic Strip Sampling 10.4. SELECTIVE OR OPPORTUNISTIC SAMPLING
10.5. STRATIFIED SAMPLING 10.5.1. Estimation of Number of Sampling Units 10.5.2. Sample Efficiency 10.6. CLUSTER SAMPLING 10.7. MULTISTAGE SAMPLING 10.8. SAMPLING WITH COVARIATES 10.8.1. Regression Sampling 10.8.2. Double Sampling 10.9. LIST SAMPLING 10.10. THREE P SAMPLING
CHAPTER 11: INVENTORY OF STANDING TREES USING SAMPLING WITH VARYING PROBABILITY 11.1. HORIZONTAL POINT SAMPLING 11.1.1. Angle Gauges for Horizontal Point Sampling 11.1.2 Photographic Methods 11.1.3. Sample Size 11.1.4. Choosing a Suitable Gauge Constant 11.1.5. Proper Use of Gauges 11.1.6. Checking Questionable Trees 11.1.7. Slope Correction 11.1.8. Leaning and Hidden Trees 11.1.9. Volume Estimation 11.1.10. Special-Purpose Modifications of Horizontal Point Sampling 11.2. SUBSAMPLING IN HORIZONTAL POINT SAMPLING 11.2.1. Big BAF Sampling 11.2.2. Point 3P Sampling 11.3. OTHER VARIABLE PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 11.3.1 Horizontal Line Sampling 11.3.2. Vertical Point and Line Sampling 11.3.3. Critical Height Sampling CHAPTER 12: INVENTORY OF DOWNED DEAD MATERIAL USING SAMPLING WITH VARYING PROBABILITY 12.1. FIXED AREA PLOTS 12.2. LINE INTERSECT SAMPLING 12.2.1. Assumptions of Line Intersect Sampling 12.2.2. Estimating Downed Wood Parameters
12.2.3. Choosing a Line Length and Design 12.2.4. Adaptation for Fine Fuels 12.3. ANGLE GAUGE METHODS 12.3.1. Transect Relascope Sampling 12.3.2. Point Relascope Sampling 12.3.3. Gauge Construction and Choice of Angle 12.3.4. Estimating Downed Wood Parameters 12.3.5. Practical Aspects 12.4. PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE SAMPLING 12.4.1. Perpendicular Distance Sampling for Volume 12.4.2. Distance-Limited PDS 12.4.3. PDS for Other Attributes 12.4.4. Estimating Multiple Downed Wood Parameters 12.4.5. Choosing a Design and Factor 12.5. OTHER METHODS 12.5.1. Diameter Relascope Sampling 12.5.2. Critical Length Sampling 12.5.3. Line Intersect Distance Sampling 12.6. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND SELECTION OF METHODS CHAPTER 13: INTEGRATING REMOTE SENSING IN FOREST INVENTORY 13.1. TYPES OF REMOTELY SENSED DATA
13.1.1. Aerial Analog Photography 13.1.2. Moderate Resolution Optical Data 13.1.3. High Resolution Optical Data 13.1.4. LiDAR 13.1.5. Synthetic Aperture Radar 13.1.6. Hyperspectral Data 13.2. REMOTE SENSING FOR STRATIFICATION 13.2.1. Photo Interpretation and Stand Mapping 13.2.2. Pixel-Based Classification 13.2.3. Object-Oriented Classification 13.2.4. Effects of Misclassification on Estimation 13.3. INDIVIDUAL TREE MEASUREMENTS 13.3.1. Crown Widths 13.3.2. Tree Heights 13.3.3. Estimating Stand Characteristics 13.4. REMOTE SENSING FOR COVARIATES 13.4.1. Tree and Stand Attributes and Sampling Covariates 13.4.2. Applications to Ratio and Regression Sampling 13.4.3. Imputation and Mapping 13.4.4. Areal Importance Sampling CHAPTER 14: MEASUREMENT OF TREE AND STAND GROWTH
14.1. INDIVIDUAL TREE GROWTH 14.1.1. Tree Growth Curves 14.1.2. Growth Percent 14.2. DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF TREE GROWTH 14.2.1. Diameter Growth Measurement 14.2.2. Height Growth Measurement 14.2.3. Crown Growth Measurements 14.2.4. Below-ground Growth Measurements 14.3. RECONSTRUCTING TREE GROWTH 14.3.1. Stem Analysis 14.3.2. Estimating Diameter Growth from Increment Cores 14.3.3. Allometric Relationships 14.4. STAND AND FOREST GROWTH 14.4.1. Components of Stand Growth 14.4.2.. Types of Stand Growth 14.5. MEASUREMENT OF STAND AND FOREST GROWTH AND YIELD 14.5.1. Stand Reconstruction 14.5.2. Estimation of Stand Growth and Yield from Temporary Sample Plots 14.5.3. Estimation of Stand Growth and Yield from Fixed-Area Permanent Sample Plots 14.5.4. Estimation of Stand Growth and Yield from Permanent Variable Probability Sample Points
14.6. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PERMANENT SAMPLE PLOT SYSTEMS 14.6.1. Sampling Unit Type 14.6.2. Sampling Unit Size and Shape 14.6.3. Sampling Unit Layout 14.6.4. Measurement Protocols 14.7. GROWTH AND YIELD MODELS 14.7.1. Stand Table Projection 14.7.2. Yield Tables and Equations 14.7.3. Diameter Distribution Models 14.7.4. Individual Tree Growth and Yield Models 14.7.5. Other Types of Models 14.7.6. Feedbacks Between Growth and Yield Models and Forest Mensuration Appendix A–1. Some Conversion Factors for Common Units of Measure Appendix A–2. Areas of Some Plane Figures Appendix A–3. Volume and surface areas of some solids Appendix A–4. Critical values of Student’s t-distribution Appendix A‒5. Plot radius and tree factor for horizontal point sampling Appendix A‒6. Equations for obtaining common factors and constants for various forms of PPS sampling Appendix A‒7. Plot summary data for the 100 m2 circular plot simple random sample Appendix A‒8. Plot summary data for the 100 m2 circular plot systematic sample
Appendix A‒9. Plot summary data for the 100 m2 circular plot stratified random sample Appendix A‒10. Plot summary data for the 100 m2 circular plot systematic sample with multiple starts Appendix A‒11. Plot-level summaries for the 100 m2 circular plot two-stage sample of Noonan Research Forest Appendix A‒12. Measured Tree data for Point-3P sample Bibliography Index
