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On the Way to Scholarship: From Master's ... education; Scholarship) J Prof Nurse 8:328-334, 7992. ... (DNS), a student is expected to develop and master.
On the Way to Scholarship: to Doctorate

From Master’s

AFAF IBRAHIM MELEIS, FAAN*

Progress in the discipline of nursing is predicated on the development of a community of scholars who have passion for substance. Nurse educators are challenged to develop programs and environments that stimulate and nurture scholarship. However, doctoral education that enhances scholarship encompasses more than coursework. Strategies for the development of scholarly doctoral education are discussed in this article. (Index words: Doctoral education; Scholarship) J Prof Nurse 8:328-334, 7992. Copyrig/rf 0 1992 by W.B. Saunders Company

engaged

in a systematic

velopment. theoretical tinent

orientation,

philosophical

(DNS),

for excellence

HETHER PURSUING a doctorate (PhD) in nursing a student

or a doctorate is expected

competencies

ie, those competencies

of nursing

and a sense of integrity and a program

developing

could

tively

scholars

for preparing

searchers.

about

researchers

of nursing

of scientists

the sci-

that is geared

be used equally

clinical

The discipline

in per-

A scholar has a passion to

as effec-

or basic re-

needs to focus on

who

are also future

to develop

for independent

scholars are needed.

and master research,

that prepare him or her to be a

a scientist

A difference

and becoming

deliberately and systematically ment or testing of knowledge;

exists between

a scholar. A scientist

disciplinary

scholar is a thinker,

one who conceptualizes

tions as well as pursues

be-

pursues the developthe scientist finds an-

swers for significant

research questions.

the answers.

The objectives

of this article are threefold:

science

scientist. To further develop the discipline of nursing, nurses who have the potential of becoming future

A

the ques-

A scholar is able

to see the questions as parts of the whole of the discipline. A scholar has a sense of history, a vision of the whole, a commitment to a discipline, and an understanding of how scientific work is related to the discipline’s mission and to humanity as a whole. A scholar has a lifelong commitment to the development of knowledge in the discipline and therefore is always *Professor, Department of Mental Health, Community, & Administrative Nursing, School of Nursing, University of California, San Francisco. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr Meleis: Department of Mental Health, Community, & Administrative Nursing, School of Nursing, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0608. This manuscript was prepared for presentation at “Diversity in Doctoral Education for the 21st Century,” Doctoral Education Conference, American Association of Colleges of Nursing, Sanibel Island, FL, January 20-22, 1991. Copyright 0 1992 by W.B. Saunders Company 8755-7223/92/0806-0006$03.00/O

328

and seeks and engages debates.

de-

scholars.

the required

coming

for knowledge

has a well-developed

ence. A curriculum

the development

W

program

A scholar is flexible,

Journal of Professional Nursing,

1. discuss strategies for the development of scholarship in students who have completed a master’s

degree

in nursing

rolled in a doctoral

and who are en-

program

in nursing;

2. analyze selected issues that faculty and students encounter as they work toward the development

of scholarship;

and

3. identify some future challenges. Strategies When

for the Development

considering

strategies

of Scholarship

for research

prepara-

tion in doctoral programs, we need to question some commonly held fallacies that may have slowed the development

of scholarship

in doctoral

programs.

One of the fallacies is the equation of doctoral education with research, theory, or statistics courses. This is manifested in the deliberations of faculty groups who are engaged in planning doctoral programs. It is demonstrated as well in the attention in some of the published literature that is given to theory and research methodologies in doctoral programs. Research in nursing has become known more as a technique rather than being based on theoretical bases mediated by knowledge of designs and instruments and complemented by knowledge of a substantive area. It has replaced the need for knowing the state of the art in one’s area of expertise. Although this approach is somewhat useful in insuring the development of research competencies, an emphasis on Vol 8, No 6 (November-December),

1992: pp 328-334

329

ON THE WAY TO SCHOLARSHIP

method

may overshadow

substance

and

content.

courses, and statistics conjunction

of nursing

transitions,

in

the disci-

environment,

primary

field such as pediatric in nursing

search publications

in

of sub-

literature.

in nursing

we have a newfound

passion

related to substantive

In fact, recent re-

for answering

that

questions

debates

and

dialogues,

tended

us for some time.

them

for research we have

with a solid base of education

1. a disciplinary

3. critical inform

perspective;

knowledge

of existing

4. critical knowledge that

are congruent

5. critical

which

with

knowledge

baccalaureate have studied Therefore,

in nursing

7. support

the discipline

commit-

competencies

of strategies

for theory

a

in

development

rations

competencies

as a continuous

Looking

that

the students

at research prepa-

and cumulative

process,

we

then can identify and revise the research competencies required at each graduation point. In other words, revising

research goals for the doctoral

out careful attention

to all educational

program

with-

levels is coun-

terproduct ive . Several assumptions guide this article. The first is that research preparation involves more than statistics or methodology. That is, research competencies in the doctoral program are not necessarily achieved through

and independent

Coursework is the easiest courses are the most tangible

build

mastered.

to

and of

work.

COURSEWORK

through

on the many

develop-

research related

research programs.

work, socialization,

doctoral programs we must remember that students are not starting from point zero. Instead, we should have previously

methodolo-

To prepare students for productive careers of scholarship, we need to consider three components: course-

have already completed

the research

and

development;

and resources for the development

independent

and a master’s program in which they research designs and methodologies.

in planning

epistemologies

of designs,

their area of expertise;

tees often lose track of the simple fact that most of the students

that

gies, and tools that will aid in the research process and data interpretation;

Course work and seminars are on/y one avenue to the deveiopment of scholarship . . .

doctoral

theories

of different

ment based on completed

major fallacy is this: curriculum

knowl-

the discipline;

6. knowledge

Another

that

includes:

the goals for knowledge

areas rather than only a passion

for methodological to preoccupy

de-

These fields

are demonstrating

may not have

edge of research priorities;

health care, cardio-

nursing.

the student

2. an area of research focus and a critical

coping with

or even a developmentally

that

To prepare master’s graduates to provide

the de-

Examples

a shape and pattern even anticipated.

theory

field constrains

health promotion,

vascular rehabilitation, are reflected

within

scholarship.

fields include

lineated

courses,

To speak of research preparation

from the substantive

velopment stantive

Research

on

are only tools to be mastered

with a field of interest

pline of nursing. isolation

a much needed emphasis

committees

to develop.

issue to address, and items for curriculum

Although

course and seminar of informed

knowledge

work is essential

scholarship,

gained for the

we cannot

as-

sume that they are the most centered or significant media for these goals. Course work and seminars are only one avenue to the development of scholarship; no more, no less. It is true, however, that in some international universities doctoral students are not expected to complete

any course work. In these univer-

sities doctoral education is established via one-on-one mentorship and independent work, a process that may be counterproductive for our goals. Having been involved in teaching in a program where there used to

course work in statistics and research methodology alone. The second assumption is that the preparation for a scholarly career is a continuous process that happens in a puzzle-fitting fashion where different pieces of the puzzle, each a different size and color, are acquired over time. The doctoral program then becomes

be minimal seminar opportunities for doctoral students, the author experienced firsthand some of the dissatisfying aspects of such a program. With an increasing volume of scholarly research and theoretical debate in nursing, and with the progress in the development of useful research tools, course work and seminars become the most efficient and effective way

a place where the puzzle pieces begin to fit together

to develop

in

knowledge

related

to these areas.

330

AFAF IBRAHIM

It has also become apparent scholarship seminars

necessitates

that the preparation

a balance

in substantive

areas, theory,

and methodology.

For the purpose

following

of the article

portion

in time

for

between

and philosophy

of discussion, will

the

be focused

on

research. offerings

of California,

have recently

some revisions

tentatively

cludes a core program opportunity

to develop

in one area of emphasis odology (Doctoral includes

comparative

experimental,

been

considered

and in-

students

more advanced

analysis

analytical

of analytical

quasiexperimental,

and methof all exand interdesigns

are

and epidemiologi-

cal (Gortner, 1987). Examples of interpretive designs include feminist, grounded theory, phenomenological, and hermeneutic. The core also includes courses in measurement and methodologies that are congruent with expected

to master.

that the students are interviewing,

are in-

strument computer

development, participant observation, techniques such as statistical packages

and and

each of the designs Examples

ethnographies. The core also includes three quarters of intermediate statistics that encompass repeated measures and probability ses. The students

statistics

analyto

For lack of a better name

they have been called qualitative eas of emphases.

and regression

then are offered the opportunity

select one area of emphasis.

and quantitative

In each one of these parallel

designs

can

be offered throughout the doctoral education, students will be expected to develop some competencies in triangulation designs and methodologies. This approach is designed to insure the development of a world view that is more integrated and less fragmented. Each student is also expected to complete a number of research residencies over the first 2 to 3 years in the doctoral program. Although these residencies are considered part of the coursework, they will be described and discussed in the section on socialization to follow. SOCIALIZATION

A doctoral program to develop a scholarly

As mentioned

than

curriculum

values knowledge

into

norms

one in which

development

than as a means to achieving

as a way of life rather a degree,

is not realized and nur-

1988). Just like any other role

a scholarly

identity

includes

a sense of

to a scholarly group and identification

the knowledge,

norms,

group (Jennings

& Meleis,

values,

with

and language

1988). A scholarly

evolves from role modeling, scholarly community, process of developing

and

a person

is created to promote

ture it (Meleis & Price, belonging

them

identity,

unless a whole culture

it is much

goals into courses and

to incorporate

A scholarly

earlier,

is a of a

of that identity

lived experiences

and support this identity.

received

with a in the

A faculty group committed to scholarly doctoral education can work together to postulate and model that

science

is valued.

Ways

by which

demonstrated are through engaging bates, developing research colloquia, search and theory development, other’s evolving

m

scholarly

m

.

role

this can be

in scholarly deengaging in re-

and supporting

each

behaviors.

modeling,

apprenticeship, and mentorship are critical aspects of a doctoral program.

areas

tion of at least one pilot study. such time when more integrated

identity.

education

the development

ar-

students are expected to develop in-depth and handson expertise in analytical or interpretive designs and methodologies. This expertise includes the compleUntil

seminars

of doctoral

or hinders

and identity,

199 1). The core

and critique

including

and an

competencies

in research designs Council,

re-

The proposal

for all doctoral

Examples

designs.

San Francisco,

proposed.

Program

isting research designs pretive

scholarly

components

that supports

easier to translate values.

At the University search

most important culture

MELEIS

offers students the opportunity identity; therefore, one of the

To develop and identify needs to master

the skills

with such a role, a student related

to producing

and

communicating knowledge. These skills are learned not only didactically but also in dialogues in seminars. Therefore, doctoral programs should offer opportunities for students to clarify the different aspects of the role and to develop role behavior competencies. If there is a need to identify and secure sources for funding for one’s program of research, students should be expected to engage in the funding process as soon as they begin their journey toward a scholarly future. Predoctoral education is not too early to do so. Students can develop the skills needed to write research grants for funding and learn to identify the right time and the appropriate organization for funding via two strategies. One is to participate with a mentor who is seeking such funding, and a second is to seek funding for their own research. These activities demystify the grant writing process and provide a mechanism for role rehearsal for a future of research grant writing.

331

ON THE WAY TO SCHOLARSHIP

The first encounter

with the advisor

in a doctoral

program

is not too soon to begin a dialogue

process,

and is not too early to communicate

visor’s goals

that

the student

volved in this process. articulate

Curiously,

their ideas in writing

of research indirect

and future

benefit

educational

an and

for these Institute

program.

of learning

opportunities

courses and seminars;

therefore,

and mentorship program.

needs to be matched

and rematched the student

role

are criti-

A doctoral

who is able to provide

occur

with

student a mentor

to observe the scholarly role in action and to rehearse each aspect of it during the mentor-mentee associa-

years only therefore,

a mentor

may

in data collection may be unable

spend

a number

or seeking

funds

to model

of and,

faculty

center

skills

members’

that

or presenting

develop

tangible

financial

support

resources.

The Western

instituted

to present

in a poster session. to do that and giving

the poster

an opportu-

early research or

sible for students present

papers,

students

conceptualization for producing

to collab-

helps

Research

students

engagement

opportunities

from other

for Nursing

nity for doctoral

Making

it pos-

them support

and the travel

it are all a part of being

involved

socialized

scholarly role. More opportunities

such as this need to

as part of doctoral

education.

dissertation is the major objective of doctoral education. One of the most rewarding cating

Therefore,

program

responsibility

to

aspects

opportunity

of a doctoral

to participate

and indeed program

most edu-

is to have the

in an established

and to be part of a research

research

team.

This

help the student find other mentorship opportunities geared specifically to any of the significant compo-

usually where students and faculty can discuss debate the many social issues related to science.

nents of the scholarly role. This is where research residencies

though

built into the program

ent purposes.

The purposes

collection, participate poster session. To develop

come in. They are

and are considered

on research practicums. Students residencies with different faculty

to be hands-

brought opment,

may be to assist in data

identity

or work on a

also requires

vation of a model as well as participation

obser-

in all aspects

there should

philosophy,

engage in different members for differ-

in data analyses,

a scholarly

to

into the

The developmentof a scholarly

with all aspects of the scholarly role during the few years that the student is in the doctoral program. the mentor’s

and may

the whole spec-

trum of scholarly behaviors. In other words, it is not always possible for one mentor to provide a mentee

it becomes

resources Resources

and providing

be instituted

with opportunities

provides

providing

a media

their research program

apprenticeship,

tion. Realistically,

having

values related to

these skills.

orate with faculty in publishing these skills,

role cannot

to develop

range from observing

be-

the scholarly

cal aspects of a doctoral

proposal,

which supports

knowledge,

opportunities

in these activities,

their program

students

the careful planning

that go beyond modeling,

about

communicating

invariably

is achieved:

into

in-

when the students

needs early in the doctoral

Socialization

the ad-

the skills

goals in a grant

come more focused about

without

master

about this

A school’s culture,

be opportunities

and research

seminars

about by being involved a discussion

is

and Al-

in the theory, to discuss

in knowledge

issues devel-

of these types of issues is more

meaningful when they stem from a research program and are discussed by a research team. For example, as we face a nation in which minorities are increasing in number

and in power,

equity

subjects

who represent

the vulnerable

chised populations

in the recruitment

and strategies

of

and disenfran-

for recruitment

of

of science and scholarliness. One significant aspect of being a scholar is to communicate knowledge to the scholarly community, and it is imperative also to communicate findings to the clinical community and

such subjects and their retention in a research program are areas that are central to any research program in nursing. As more incidents of fraud are uncovered, the integrity of the scientist in maintaining accuracy

the public. Therefore, we need to make a conscious and a deliberate plan to develop the necessary written, verbal, media, and computer skills related to scientific communication. We have successfully focused on scientific writing. The skills involved in communicating with the public are quite different, and although we are making progress, we still are not able to relate our findings and our theories to the public.

in data collection and interpretation can no longer be left to haphazard treatment (Committee on the Conduct of Science, 1989). The role of a junior research collaborator as well as a senior participant in whistle blowing and the consequences of such should be carefully addressed by faculty and debated by students who are preparing for a scholarly role. A culture that intentionally considers all aspects of

332

AFAF IBRAHIM

the scholarly

role provides

clarification,

role modeling

hearsal, and collaboration

for value role, re-

in the research process. This

is the most significant

aspect of a doctoral

that can either hinder a scholarly

opportunities of the scholarly

or enhance

program

the development

of

INDEPENDENT WORK

The development major

objective

independently (Council

of a scholarly

of doctoral

tion is expected

develop

During

demonstrate implement

dissertation

education.

to demonstrate Schools

to

in their discipline

to (I) defend

and complete

ability

in the United

this phase the student

the ability

is the

The disserta-

the students’

knowledge

of Graduate

1977).

States,

is expected a proposal,

an independent

to (2)

piece of re-

search that makes a substantive contribution to knowledge development in their field, and (3) communicate

and defend the findings

Chater, 1980). Here is yet another with an opportunity findings

situation

(Meleis, to provide

this goal.

Presenting

fending

the project

to a wider

audience

is another

level. Students

to present

the study and/or

students

a proposal

their findings to the clinicians

and

their

in a doctoral

that is needed

in only one of them.

program

It is very easy

to become attached

ory and one methodology

to one the-

at the outset and to become

focused on one world view to the exclusion are equally

significant

and

of others

appropriate.

It is

equally easy to know something

about a great number

of theories

That delicate

balance

and in-depth

knowl-

between

and methodologies.

openness

and flexibility

edge and expertise sider very carefully. giously

defend

may limit

is the issue that we need to conSome faculty

one world

students’

options

We need to consider jeopardizing

who reli-

too early in the process.

several questions

Do we need that balance! without

sponsors

view and one philosophy in the future:

Can we develop

the in-depth

quality

a balance of the doc-

toral program?

It is very easy in a doctoral program to become attached to one theory and one methodology . . .

and a and deand de-

more skeptical

should also be exto the population

of

who may be inter-

ested in the study. The advisor’s role is not complete until the study or some aspect of it has been published. This again represents the type of active mentoring

expertise

&

Several rights of passage

completed dissertation ro one’s committee fending them are the first steps. Presenting

pected

WiIson,

to rehearse communicating

to a wider audience.

help achieve

that we have now and who at the same time possess in-depth

that

role.

MELEIS

in nursing. ISSUES

Many of the issues discussed previously in the literature have not been completely resolved yet and merit some discussion in every faculty group. Two such issues are those related to the differences and similarities between the goals and the expectations in the PhD and DNS programs (Gortner, 1991a; Meleis, 1988; Williams, 1989) and those related to the selection of and working relationship between mentors and sponsors and doctoral students (Meleis, Wilson, & Chater, 1980; May, Meleis, & Winstead-Fry, 1982). Two other issues that have not been previously and adequately addressed follow. The first issue is the balance needed to maintain the preparation of graduates who are well versed in the wide range of alternative theories and methodologies

The second issue is related to ownership areas and data.

As we become

of research

more sophisticated

in

sponsorships and mentoring doctoral, postdoctoral, and junior investigators by inviting them to participate in research programs

and research teams, we need

to develop some guidelines as to primary and secondary ownership of research areas. When junior investigators are ready to strike out on their own, what if they choose to continue their senior collaborators

in the same line of research as or mentors?

With

the lim-

ited funding available for support, this scenario could create a conflict between investigators that may jeopardize the scholarly environment for which we strive. Another aspect of this issue is the long-term ownership of the data sets collected by a team of researchers (Gortner, 1991b). As research residencies and teams become a way of life, other young investigators or doctoral students are often encouraged to work with one of the members to reanalyze or to devise more sophisticated analyses. Do all members of the initial team have a claim on this data? In some situations no problem arises because ownership is well established and/or negotiated and plans are done early enough. For example, in one research study the author and two other investigators collaborated on and published two major manuscripts. The other two inves-

333

ON THE WAY TO SCHOLARSHIP

tigators their

decided

that any other analyses

area of interest

nevertheless

and/or

should

expertise

be done.

were outside but

The author

that

they

has contin-

ued to work with that data set, and other doctoral and postdoctoral of analysis

students

have participated

and collaborated

thor has continued in subsequent participate

to acknowledge

publications,

The au-

the original

team

but they did not actually

in any further

The question

in this phase

in publications.

substance central

if each member

of the

by a passion is a passion

The challenge almost

dene (1990)

participate

in further

the investigators through

it, yet due to some con-

collaboration!

decides

by developing

What protocol

they are not able to Or what if one of

that

he or she will follow

another

research study alone?

do we have to follow in breaking

these

and increasing

that

tion of doctoral cultures,

different

and

used

and natural

by our colleagues

sciences

in the

are not completely

ap-

propriate for human sciences or for a discipline that is trying to establish more egalitarianism and collabora-

sensitized oration

to the meaning

in knowledge

communicate and

for who the the

affect

social

based on these findings. students also should be

of global living

development.

careful attention

specific interpret

populations,

of

to learn

heritages,

should be reflected in scholarly merit

be prepared

perspectives,

to different

to

genera-

subjects

changes and policy changes This generation of doctoral

findings

This

and maintain

cultural

different

more

responses

that are context

orative research teams as well as faculty-student collaborative research efforts. The guidelines that have developed

from

and commit-

will require

diversity.

should

recruit

us with

and the development

that

students

is

and Abur-

of human

situations reflects

how to frame questions represent

This

of the diversity

and illness

different

that is sensi-

visibility

identity.

data

been

are

collaboration

for the 1990s. Naisbitt

to an ethnic

knowledge

scholarship

and global

partnerships? Many questions are unanswered, and many more will arise. We need guidelines for collab-

physical

that

warn us that the 1990s present

living

ment health

to control

diversity

a mandate

should

such as time and money,

questions

for

and to social and humanitar-

to develop

tive to cultural

understanding

continue

to answer

A passion

ian goals of societies.

team decides that the data set is theirs and that they straints,

for substance.

to the discipline

global

publications.

is this: What

but driven

and collab-

How these values

doctoral programs

will

and planning.

tive research.

Conclusion CHALLENGES

Some basic assumptions Several challenges terested

in doctoral

confront education

educators

who are in-

in nursing:

education

for what Du Bois (1983) calls passionate scholarship and education that is sensitive global collaboration. Passionate

scholarship

to cultural

diversity

is scholarship

that

and is not

built on traditional scholarship. Rather, it is one that evolves from nursing history, acknowledges nursing world views,

is built

on norms

science and the human

experiences

and values of human involved

in knowl-

edge development, and nurtures and encourages diversity of methodologies and epistemologies. Passionate scholarship is also a scholarship in which the participants

are not driven

by methods

and techniques

related programs

to the development

of scholarship

have been presented

the literature between

and components

abounds

with

and issues in doctoral

in this article.

Because

work on the differences

PhD and DNS programs,

the author

has fo-

cused on the commonalities rather than the differences. The components, issues, and challenges can be used and applied

equally

well to both the PhD and

DNS programs and the kind of research and clinical practice in which faculty are engaged. In either case, we must remember

that scholarship

is a life-long

en-

deavor; it is about building a program of research. Therefore, postdoctoral education is becoming a very important step in and a link to a scholarly productive career.

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