On the Way to Scholarship: From Master's ... education; Scholarship) J Prof Nurse 8:328-334, 7992. ... (DNS), a student is expected to develop and master.
On the Way to Scholarship: to Doctorate
From Master’s
AFAF IBRAHIM MELEIS, FAAN*
Progress in the discipline of nursing is predicated on the development of a community of scholars who have passion for substance. Nurse educators are challenged to develop programs and environments that stimulate and nurture scholarship. However, doctoral education that enhances scholarship encompasses more than coursework. Strategies for the development of scholarly doctoral education are discussed in this article. (Index words: Doctoral education; Scholarship) J Prof Nurse 8:328-334, 7992. Copyrig/rf 0 1992 by W.B. Saunders Company
engaged
in a systematic
velopment. theoretical tinent
orientation,
philosophical
(DNS),
for excellence
HETHER PURSUING a doctorate (PhD) in nursing a student
or a doctorate is expected
competencies
ie, those competencies
of nursing
and a sense of integrity and a program
developing
could
tively
scholars
for preparing
searchers.
about
researchers
of nursing
of scientists
the sci-
that is geared
be used equally
clinical
The discipline
in per-
A scholar has a passion to
as effec-
or basic re-
needs to focus on
who
are also future
to develop
for independent
scholars are needed.
and master research,
that prepare him or her to be a
a scientist
A difference
and becoming
deliberately and systematically ment or testing of knowledge;
exists between
a scholar. A scientist
disciplinary
scholar is a thinker,
one who conceptualizes
tions as well as pursues
be-
pursues the developthe scientist finds an-
swers for significant
research questions.
the answers.
The objectives
of this article are threefold:
science
scientist. To further develop the discipline of nursing, nurses who have the potential of becoming future
A
the ques-
A scholar is able
to see the questions as parts of the whole of the discipline. A scholar has a sense of history, a vision of the whole, a commitment to a discipline, and an understanding of how scientific work is related to the discipline’s mission and to humanity as a whole. A scholar has a lifelong commitment to the development of knowledge in the discipline and therefore is always *Professor, Department of Mental Health, Community, & Administrative Nursing, School of Nursing, University of California, San Francisco. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr Meleis: Department of Mental Health, Community, & Administrative Nursing, School of Nursing, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0608. This manuscript was prepared for presentation at “Diversity in Doctoral Education for the 21st Century,” Doctoral Education Conference, American Association of Colleges of Nursing, Sanibel Island, FL, January 20-22, 1991. Copyright 0 1992 by W.B. Saunders Company 8755-7223/92/0806-0006$03.00/O
328
and seeks and engages debates.
de-
scholars.
the required
coming
for knowledge
has a well-developed
ence. A curriculum
the development
W
program
A scholar is flexible,
Journal of Professional Nursing,
1. discuss strategies for the development of scholarship in students who have completed a master’s
degree
in nursing
rolled in a doctoral
and who are en-
program
in nursing;
2. analyze selected issues that faculty and students encounter as they work toward the development
of scholarship;
and
3. identify some future challenges. Strategies When
for the Development
considering
strategies
of Scholarship
for research
prepara-
tion in doctoral programs, we need to question some commonly held fallacies that may have slowed the development
of scholarship
in doctoral
programs.
One of the fallacies is the equation of doctoral education with research, theory, or statistics courses. This is manifested in the deliberations of faculty groups who are engaged in planning doctoral programs. It is demonstrated as well in the attention in some of the published literature that is given to theory and research methodologies in doctoral programs. Research in nursing has become known more as a technique rather than being based on theoretical bases mediated by knowledge of designs and instruments and complemented by knowledge of a substantive area. It has replaced the need for knowing the state of the art in one’s area of expertise. Although this approach is somewhat useful in insuring the development of research competencies, an emphasis on Vol 8, No 6 (November-December),
1992: pp 328-334
329
ON THE WAY TO SCHOLARSHIP
method
may overshadow
substance
and
content.
courses, and statistics conjunction
of nursing
transitions,
in
the disci-
environment,
primary
field such as pediatric in nursing
search publications
in
of sub-
literature.
in nursing
we have a newfound
passion
related to substantive
In fact, recent re-
for answering
that
questions
debates
and
dialogues,
tended
us for some time.
them
for research we have
with a solid base of education
1. a disciplinary
3. critical inform
perspective;
knowledge
of existing
4. critical knowledge that
are congruent
5. critical
which
with
knowledge
baccalaureate have studied Therefore,
in nursing
7. support
the discipline
commit-
competencies
of strategies
for theory
a
in
development
rations
competencies
as a continuous
Looking
that
the students
at research prepa-
and cumulative
process,
we
then can identify and revise the research competencies required at each graduation point. In other words, revising
research goals for the doctoral
out careful attention
to all educational
program
with-
levels is coun-
terproduct ive . Several assumptions guide this article. The first is that research preparation involves more than statistics or methodology. That is, research competencies in the doctoral program are not necessarily achieved through
and independent
Coursework is the easiest courses are the most tangible
build
mastered.
to
and of
work.
COURSEWORK
through
on the many
develop-
research related
research programs.
work, socialization,
doctoral programs we must remember that students are not starting from point zero. Instead, we should have previously
methodolo-
To prepare students for productive careers of scholarship, we need to consider three components: course-
have already completed
the research
and
development;
and resources for the development
independent
and a master’s program in which they research designs and methodologies.
in planning
epistemologies
of designs,
their area of expertise;
tees often lose track of the simple fact that most of the students
that
gies, and tools that will aid in the research process and data interpretation;
Course work and seminars are on/y one avenue to the deveiopment of scholarship . . .
doctoral
theories
of different
ment based on completed
major fallacy is this: curriculum
knowl-
the discipline;
6. knowledge
Another
that
includes:
the goals for knowledge
areas rather than only a passion
for methodological to preoccupy
de-
These fields
are demonstrating
may not have
edge of research priorities;
health care, cardio-
nursing.
the student
2. an area of research focus and a critical
coping with
or even a developmentally
that
To prepare master’s graduates to provide
the de-
Examples
a shape and pattern even anticipated.
theory
field constrains
health promotion,
vascular rehabilitation, are reflected
within
scholarship.
fields include
lineated
courses,
To speak of research preparation
from the substantive
velopment stantive
Research
on
are only tools to be mastered
with a field of interest
pline of nursing. isolation
a much needed emphasis
committees
to develop.
issue to address, and items for curriculum
Although
course and seminar of informed
knowledge
work is essential
scholarship,
gained for the
we cannot
as-
sume that they are the most centered or significant media for these goals. Course work and seminars are only one avenue to the development of scholarship; no more, no less. It is true, however, that in some international universities doctoral students are not expected to complete
any course work. In these univer-
sities doctoral education is established via one-on-one mentorship and independent work, a process that may be counterproductive for our goals. Having been involved in teaching in a program where there used to
course work in statistics and research methodology alone. The second assumption is that the preparation for a scholarly career is a continuous process that happens in a puzzle-fitting fashion where different pieces of the puzzle, each a different size and color, are acquired over time. The doctoral program then becomes
be minimal seminar opportunities for doctoral students, the author experienced firsthand some of the dissatisfying aspects of such a program. With an increasing volume of scholarly research and theoretical debate in nursing, and with the progress in the development of useful research tools, course work and seminars become the most efficient and effective way
a place where the puzzle pieces begin to fit together
to develop
in
knowledge
related
to these areas.
330
AFAF IBRAHIM
It has also become apparent scholarship seminars
necessitates
that the preparation
a balance
in substantive
areas, theory,
and methodology.
For the purpose
following
of the article
portion
in time
for
between
and philosophy
of discussion, will
the
be focused
on
research. offerings
of California,
have recently
some revisions
tentatively
cludes a core program opportunity
to develop
in one area of emphasis odology (Doctoral includes
comparative
experimental,
been
considered
and in-
students
more advanced
analysis
analytical
of analytical
quasiexperimental,
and methof all exand interdesigns
are
and epidemiologi-
cal (Gortner, 1987). Examples of interpretive designs include feminist, grounded theory, phenomenological, and hermeneutic. The core also includes courses in measurement and methodologies that are congruent with expected
to master.
that the students are interviewing,
are in-
strument computer
development, participant observation, techniques such as statistical packages
and and
each of the designs Examples
ethnographies. The core also includes three quarters of intermediate statistics that encompass repeated measures and probability ses. The students
statistics
analyto
For lack of a better name
they have been called qualitative eas of emphases.
and regression
then are offered the opportunity
select one area of emphasis.
and quantitative
In each one of these parallel
designs
can
be offered throughout the doctoral education, students will be expected to develop some competencies in triangulation designs and methodologies. This approach is designed to insure the development of a world view that is more integrated and less fragmented. Each student is also expected to complete a number of research residencies over the first 2 to 3 years in the doctoral program. Although these residencies are considered part of the coursework, they will be described and discussed in the section on socialization to follow. SOCIALIZATION
A doctoral program to develop a scholarly
As mentioned
than
curriculum
values knowledge
into
norms
one in which
development
than as a means to achieving
as a way of life rather a degree,
is not realized and nur-
1988). Just like any other role
a scholarly
identity
includes
a sense of
to a scholarly group and identification
the knowledge,
norms,
group (Jennings
& Meleis,
values,
with
and language
1988). A scholarly
evolves from role modeling, scholarly community, process of developing
and
a person
is created to promote
ture it (Meleis & Price, belonging
them
identity,
unless a whole culture
it is much
goals into courses and
to incorporate
A scholarly
earlier,
is a of a
of that identity
lived experiences
and support this identity.
received
with a in the
A faculty group committed to scholarly doctoral education can work together to postulate and model that
science
is valued.
Ways
by which
demonstrated are through engaging bates, developing research colloquia, search and theory development, other’s evolving
m
scholarly
m
.
role
this can be
in scholarly deengaging in re-
and supporting
each
behaviors.
modeling,
apprenticeship, and mentorship are critical aspects of a doctoral program.
areas
tion of at least one pilot study. such time when more integrated
identity.
education
the development
ar-
students are expected to develop in-depth and handson expertise in analytical or interpretive designs and methodologies. This expertise includes the compleUntil
seminars
of doctoral
or hinders
and identity,
199 1). The core
and critique
including
and an
competencies
in research designs Council,
re-
The proposal
for all doctoral
Examples
designs.
San Francisco,
proposed.
Program
isting research designs pretive
scholarly
components
that supports
easier to translate values.
At the University search
most important culture
MELEIS
offers students the opportunity identity; therefore, one of the
To develop and identify needs to master
the skills
with such a role, a student related
to producing
and
communicating knowledge. These skills are learned not only didactically but also in dialogues in seminars. Therefore, doctoral programs should offer opportunities for students to clarify the different aspects of the role and to develop role behavior competencies. If there is a need to identify and secure sources for funding for one’s program of research, students should be expected to engage in the funding process as soon as they begin their journey toward a scholarly future. Predoctoral education is not too early to do so. Students can develop the skills needed to write research grants for funding and learn to identify the right time and the appropriate organization for funding via two strategies. One is to participate with a mentor who is seeking such funding, and a second is to seek funding for their own research. These activities demystify the grant writing process and provide a mechanism for role rehearsal for a future of research grant writing.
331
ON THE WAY TO SCHOLARSHIP
The first encounter
with the advisor
in a doctoral
program
is not too soon to begin a dialogue
process,
and is not too early to communicate
visor’s goals
that
the student
volved in this process. articulate
Curiously,
their ideas in writing
of research indirect
and future
benefit
educational
an and
for these Institute
program.
of learning
opportunities
courses and seminars;
therefore,
and mentorship program.
needs to be matched
and rematched the student
role
are criti-
A doctoral
who is able to provide
occur
with
student a mentor
to observe the scholarly role in action and to rehearse each aspect of it during the mentor-mentee associa-
years only therefore,
a mentor
may
in data collection may be unable
spend
a number
or seeking
funds
to model
of and,
faculty
center
skills
members’
that
or presenting
develop
tangible
financial
support
resources.
The Western
instituted
to present
in a poster session. to do that and giving
the poster
an opportu-
early research or
sible for students present
papers,
students
conceptualization for producing
to collab-
helps
Research
students
engagement
opportunities
from other
for Nursing
nity for doctoral
Making
it pos-
them support
and the travel
it are all a part of being
involved
socialized
scholarly role. More opportunities
such as this need to
as part of doctoral
education.
dissertation is the major objective of doctoral education. One of the most rewarding cating
Therefore,
program
responsibility
to
aspects
opportunity
of a doctoral
to participate
and indeed program
most edu-
is to have the
in an established
and to be part of a research
research
team.
This
help the student find other mentorship opportunities geared specifically to any of the significant compo-
usually where students and faculty can discuss debate the many social issues related to science.
nents of the scholarly role. This is where research residencies
though
built into the program
ent purposes.
The purposes
collection, participate poster session. To develop
come in. They are
and are considered
on research practicums. Students residencies with different faculty
to be hands-
brought opment,
may be to assist in data
identity
or work on a
also requires
vation of a model as well as participation
obser-
in all aspects
there should
philosophy,
engage in different members for differ-
in data analyses,
a scholarly
to
into the
The developmentof a scholarly
with all aspects of the scholarly role during the few years that the student is in the doctoral program. the mentor’s
and may
the whole spec-
trum of scholarly behaviors. In other words, it is not always possible for one mentor to provide a mentee
it becomes
resources Resources
and providing
be instituted
with opportunities
provides
providing
a media
their research program
apprenticeship,
tion. Realistically,
having
values related to
these skills.
orate with faculty in publishing these skills,
role cannot
to develop
range from observing
be-
the scholarly
cal aspects of a doctoral
proposal,
which supports
knowledge,
opportunities
in these activities,
their program
students
the careful planning
that go beyond modeling,
about
communicating
invariably
is achieved:
into
in-
when the students
needs early in the doctoral
Socialization
the ad-
the skills
goals in a grant
come more focused about
without
master
about this
A school’s culture,
be opportunities
and research
seminars
about by being involved a discussion
is
and Al-
in the theory, to discuss
in knowledge
issues devel-
of these types of issues is more
meaningful when they stem from a research program and are discussed by a research team. For example, as we face a nation in which minorities are increasing in number
and in power,
equity
subjects
who represent
the vulnerable
chised populations
in the recruitment
and strategies
of
and disenfran-
for recruitment
of
of science and scholarliness. One significant aspect of being a scholar is to communicate knowledge to the scholarly community, and it is imperative also to communicate findings to the clinical community and
such subjects and their retention in a research program are areas that are central to any research program in nursing. As more incidents of fraud are uncovered, the integrity of the scientist in maintaining accuracy
the public. Therefore, we need to make a conscious and a deliberate plan to develop the necessary written, verbal, media, and computer skills related to scientific communication. We have successfully focused on scientific writing. The skills involved in communicating with the public are quite different, and although we are making progress, we still are not able to relate our findings and our theories to the public.
in data collection and interpretation can no longer be left to haphazard treatment (Committee on the Conduct of Science, 1989). The role of a junior research collaborator as well as a senior participant in whistle blowing and the consequences of such should be carefully addressed by faculty and debated by students who are preparing for a scholarly role. A culture that intentionally considers all aspects of
332
AFAF IBRAHIM
the scholarly
role provides
clarification,
role modeling
hearsal, and collaboration
for value role, re-
in the research process. This
is the most significant
aspect of a doctoral
that can either hinder a scholarly
opportunities of the scholarly
or enhance
program
the development
of
INDEPENDENT WORK
The development major
objective
independently (Council
of a scholarly
of doctoral
tion is expected
develop
During
demonstrate implement
dissertation
education.
to demonstrate Schools
to
in their discipline
to (I) defend
and complete
ability
in the United
this phase the student
the ability
is the
The disserta-
the students’
knowledge
of Graduate
1977).
States,
is expected a proposal,
an independent
to (2)
piece of re-
search that makes a substantive contribution to knowledge development in their field, and (3) communicate
and defend the findings
Chater, 1980). Here is yet another with an opportunity findings
situation
(Meleis, to provide
this goal.
Presenting
fending
the project
to a wider
audience
is another
level. Students
to present
the study and/or
students
a proposal
their findings to the clinicians
and
their
in a doctoral
that is needed
in only one of them.
program
It is very easy
to become attached
ory and one methodology
to one the-
at the outset and to become
focused on one world view to the exclusion are equally
significant
and
of others
appropriate.
It is
equally easy to know something
about a great number
of theories
That delicate
balance
and in-depth
knowl-
between
and methodologies.
openness
and flexibility
edge and expertise sider very carefully. giously
defend
may limit
is the issue that we need to conSome faculty
one world
students’
options
We need to consider jeopardizing
who reli-
too early in the process.
several questions
Do we need that balance! without
sponsors
view and one philosophy in the future:
Can we develop
the in-depth
quality
a balance of the doc-
toral program?
It is very easy in a doctoral program to become attached to one theory and one methodology . . .
and a and deand de-
more skeptical
should also be exto the population
of
who may be inter-
ested in the study. The advisor’s role is not complete until the study or some aspect of it has been published. This again represents the type of active mentoring
expertise
&
Several rights of passage
completed dissertation ro one’s committee fending them are the first steps. Presenting
pected
WiIson,
to rehearse communicating
to a wider audience.
help achieve
that we have now and who at the same time possess in-depth
that
role.
MELEIS
in nursing. ISSUES
Many of the issues discussed previously in the literature have not been completely resolved yet and merit some discussion in every faculty group. Two such issues are those related to the differences and similarities between the goals and the expectations in the PhD and DNS programs (Gortner, 1991a; Meleis, 1988; Williams, 1989) and those related to the selection of and working relationship between mentors and sponsors and doctoral students (Meleis, Wilson, & Chater, 1980; May, Meleis, & Winstead-Fry, 1982). Two other issues that have not been previously and adequately addressed follow. The first issue is the balance needed to maintain the preparation of graduates who are well versed in the wide range of alternative theories and methodologies
The second issue is related to ownership areas and data.
As we become
of research
more sophisticated
in
sponsorships and mentoring doctoral, postdoctoral, and junior investigators by inviting them to participate in research programs
and research teams, we need
to develop some guidelines as to primary and secondary ownership of research areas. When junior investigators are ready to strike out on their own, what if they choose to continue their senior collaborators
in the same line of research as or mentors?
With
the lim-
ited funding available for support, this scenario could create a conflict between investigators that may jeopardize the scholarly environment for which we strive. Another aspect of this issue is the long-term ownership of the data sets collected by a team of researchers (Gortner, 1991b). As research residencies and teams become a way of life, other young investigators or doctoral students are often encouraged to work with one of the members to reanalyze or to devise more sophisticated analyses. Do all members of the initial team have a claim on this data? In some situations no problem arises because ownership is well established and/or negotiated and plans are done early enough. For example, in one research study the author and two other investigators collaborated on and published two major manuscripts. The other two inves-
333
ON THE WAY TO SCHOLARSHIP
tigators their
decided
that any other analyses
area of interest
nevertheless
and/or
should
expertise
be done.
were outside but
The author
that
they
has contin-
ued to work with that data set, and other doctoral and postdoctoral of analysis
students
have participated
and collaborated
thor has continued in subsequent participate
to acknowledge
publications,
The au-
the original
team
but they did not actually
in any further
The question
in this phase
in publications.
substance central
if each member
of the
by a passion is a passion
The challenge almost
dene (1990)
participate
in further
the investigators through
it, yet due to some con-
collaboration!
decides
by developing
What protocol
they are not able to Or what if one of
that
he or she will follow
another
research study alone?
do we have to follow in breaking
these
and increasing
that
tion of doctoral cultures,
different
and
used
and natural
by our colleagues
sciences
in the
are not completely
ap-
propriate for human sciences or for a discipline that is trying to establish more egalitarianism and collabora-
sensitized oration
to the meaning
in knowledge
communicate and
for who the the
affect
social
based on these findings. students also should be
of global living
development.
careful attention
specific interpret
populations,
of
to learn
heritages,
should be reflected in scholarly merit
be prepared
perspectives,
to different
to
genera-
subjects
changes and policy changes This generation of doctoral
findings
This
and maintain
cultural
different
more
responses
that are context
orative research teams as well as faculty-student collaborative research efforts. The guidelines that have developed
from
and commit-
will require
diversity.
should
recruit
us with
and the development
that
students
is
and Abur-
of human
situations reflects
how to frame questions represent
This
of the diversity
and illness
different
that is sensi-
visibility
identity.
data
been
are
collaboration
for the 1990s. Naisbitt
to an ethnic
knowledge
scholarship
and global
partnerships? Many questions are unanswered, and many more will arise. We need guidelines for collab-
physical
that
warn us that the 1990s present
living
ment health
to control
diversity
a mandate
should
such as time and money,
questions
for
and to social and humanitar-
to develop
tive to cultural
understanding
continue
to answer
A passion
ian goals of societies.
team decides that the data set is theirs and that they straints,
for substance.
to the discipline
global
publications.
is this: What
but driven
and collab-
How these values
doctoral programs
will
and planning.
tive research.
Conclusion CHALLENGES
Some basic assumptions Several challenges terested
in doctoral
confront education
educators
who are in-
in nursing:
education
for what Du Bois (1983) calls passionate scholarship and education that is sensitive global collaboration. Passionate
scholarship
to cultural
diversity
is scholarship
that
and is not
built on traditional scholarship. Rather, it is one that evolves from nursing history, acknowledges nursing world views,
is built
on norms
science and the human
experiences
and values of human involved
in knowl-
edge development, and nurtures and encourages diversity of methodologies and epistemologies. Passionate scholarship is also a scholarship in which the participants
are not driven
by methods
and techniques
related programs
to the development
of scholarship
have been presented
the literature between
and components
abounds
with
and issues in doctoral
in this article.
Because
work on the differences
PhD and DNS programs,
the author
has fo-
cused on the commonalities rather than the differences. The components, issues, and challenges can be used and applied
equally
well to both the PhD and
DNS programs and the kind of research and clinical practice in which faculty are engaged. In either case, we must remember
that scholarship
is a life-long
en-
deavor; it is about building a program of research. Therefore, postdoctoral education is becoming a very important step in and a link to a scholarly productive career.
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University
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