From Vigilance to Violence - Deep Blue

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I told her th,rt I bed her. I dl\pla\ed grrarer Aecttan ..... Thee rewlts wgge\t that ,rt le,~\t 1n thrx. \,miple\ txtlcs of mdte rrtentlon tithe not c\clu~bel\. 01 r\rn. primniiI\.
From Vigilance to Violence Tactics of Mate Retention Undergraduates

in American

David M. Buss Department

of Psychology,

Unlverslr? of Mlchlgan

Although the attraction and selectton of mates are central to human reproductton, the retentton of acqmred mates IS often necessary to actualixe the promise of reproductive effort. Three emptrrcal studies used act frequency methods to Identify, assess the reported performance frequencies of, and evaluate the perceived effectiveness of 19 tacttcs and 104 acts of human mate guarding and retenhon. In Study 1 (N = 105), a hoerareh~uf fuxonomy of tactics was developed from a pool of nonunated acts. We then assessed the reported petformance frequencres of 19 retentton tacttcs and 104 acts and tested three hypotheses derived from evolutionary models III an undergraduate sample (N = 102). Study 2 (N = 46) provided an Independent test of these hypotheses by assessing the perceived ejfechveness of each tactic. Discussron draws implicattons for sexual poachmg, susceptibdity to pau-bond defection, and the power of act frequency methods for preserving the proximate speciflctty and systemic complexity mherent m human matmg processes. KEY

Mate retention, Mate guarding, Sex differences

WORDS

INTRODUCTION

S

electlon

by consequences

IS a powerful

at many levels of analysis

prmclple

that can be reahzed

It forms the basis of Darwin’s

theory of

natural selectlon, which mvolves three essential components rsarratlon (e g , due to mutation), selectlon (dlfferentlal rephcatlon of variants), and retention (genetic preservation of selected variants) Operant learning

IS

slmllarly

the selection

structured

mechanism

(Skinner

1981)

reinforcement,

IS

The vanants

and reinforced

tamed through changes m brain states, or “engrams.” Mating

behavior,

broadly

logic The pool of potential Received

October

3

1986

conceived,

IS

October

28

are re-

as yet undiscovered

also structured

mates composes the variants

revised

are behaviors,

behaviors

by selectlon

SelectIon

processes

1987

Address repnn! requests 10 David Buss, Ph D Department Mlchlgan 580 Union Dnve Ann Arbor MI 48109-1346 Ethology and Socroblology 9 291-317 (1988) Cs Elsevler Science Pubhshmg Co , Inc , 1988 52 Vanderbilt Ave , New York, New York 10017

of Psychology

The Umverslty

of

Ol62-3095/88/%03

50

292

D hl Buss

operate

to one

to reduce this larger pool to ‘1 fen

are used to guard or retain asqulred resenrch

ha5 been conducted

and Guttmdn

on m&e

1986

Slmons

1979)

little

humans use to retain mates once the\ What tactics and strategies Wilson.

hlate guarding Itself

subwmlng

diverse

semination (Thornhill Trl\ers

and Alcock 1972

Sexual Jealous)

about

,igalnst

jealousy

et al

and mate guarding

mate guarding

of d human

Tactics

197-l.

ho\ie\er

to be

ma) be con\ldered

competitors.

luring one’s mate \ilth

one’s mate less attractl\e

The

nature.

uncharted

of

range.

mate guarding.”

and Incidence

Its effectiveness

b\

that can be dra\fn

Three

Inary taxonomles

seyrwsterttrp

research

to female by lnhlbltlng

and malntalmng

The most ob\~ou\

choice

hoikever. tactics

remain

the nature an organ-

are performed

These

turning

ba\lc

to the\e

goal>

srudle,.

ot mate guarding and specific theor)

Ghlselm

IS not large

on human\

hake pro\ lded at least prehmChIselIn

selectlon males.

( 19741 considers

that prowde\

considers

access of other

ttzrrlc~

an alternatIve

maJor forms

I) se-

and 21 sequestering

b\ at-

trio

the favor of females ~‘a)

drlbe off rl\al

This categor)

Before

on mate guardmg

of mate guarding

mechanism

tactics

OF MATE GUARDING

Incestlgators.

questering

control

bubsumed

21 to dsielop

mate\

from e\olutlonar\

to be a form of sexual

brute force-to

rendering

and 11 to gduge for each

retaining

brletlv prior taxonomles

The corpus of previous

retention

?I IO assess H hlch tactics

the tocub of this series ot studies

it IS mlnlscule

or e\en

IS I I to ldentlf)

rndle) and female,

EXISTING TAXONOMIES

tracting

of human therefore

at succes\full!

it IS usetul to examine predictions

potential

These tactics nppeLir

but are accurateI)

tactics among humans

of these tnctlcs.

more and less frequentlv formed

to competitors

research agenda.

and range of mate retention

tactic

more than \lgllance

Inducements

pos~t~\e

at

onI1 the most obv1ou4

mate retention

A crucial

ized taxonomy

In humans

ma) be subtle, Including dlssuadlng

or evocutl\e

lo fall outside the categor)

represent

m&e often requires

restraint

of

loung

1982. Flrnn In pre:s\. Parker

and Jealous\

and phwcal

bv the categor)

alien In-

unrelated

19751

The retention

tactw

str,ltegb ,

prekent

m genetlcallb

Dal)

~3 one t,ictlc ot

to ensure paternlt!

In\e:,trng

Dal\

that

been acqulled

[HO tdctlc3 N IthIn d larger CL\> of tactics of INIIL’ tric’tlrrotr least, direct

Kenn-

the txtlcs

has been proposed as a wperordlnate

1983

Wilson

1985. Epstein

do humans use to retain their mdtes

tactics thnt e\ol\e

and defend

And tnctx\

(e g . Bu,s In pres\

I\ hnoiin

ha\e

Bus\

(e g

t 1982~ propose male ,euual

and Weghor\t

guarding

selection

1985) and some on mate attraction

rich and Trost

or to none

Flmn In press) While much

m&es IS g

to mhlblt

the access of other

males and herd females

of sequestenng

also Includes

males IS to use

to keep them under more wbtle

forms of

Tacks

mnuence

such as preventing

of certam

crabs

and Insects

and malntalmng

the tabor

dlsplab . protection Wllwn tlnct

the fern&

from

be considered

form5

to the female ing

Jtsr

Perhaps

troltl

plugs

u lthout

contact

\tlth

sIgnal\

ph! s~cal hold-

of ri\,lI

subwmes

d

,wound

female\

fence

m ThornhIll

from

No compxable

t,iwnomle~ form

research

hds been

dttentlon

Important

.md Alcoch

female\.

5 tawnom)

guide

and retain

the tormatlon

tactic\

that \IIII

SPECIFIC TACTICS Mate

effort

ot \peclfis

retain

expended

to date

Repulsion mdles

for humrl?\

~t‘~dou~\

Indeed

IDAI

rl

~1

I9821

and range ot txtlcs theor\

md\

female

rftort

de\oted

to someone

mJe\

not onI\ rl\h In\e\tlng

but rl\h

losmg

entuA~

rewurcrs

the\

drboted

to acquiring

ductlie

pen,lltle\

( 1982) propose humans should 1979,

to

follow

prevent

be closeI\

from

male wxual

falling

the mdtr

to retain

the time Irutlall\

an xqulred

~e~~lous~ ‘ib one mechanism

cuckoldr\ tied to pote:ntlA

and

the)

female

h\pothwze sexual

InfidelIt\

to

lo\> ot mating

19821 Cucholded

ha\e

hut for

11sh5 ot talllng

‘u-e c41en Insemlnatlon

and 1041 palrntal

IN

males and femks

the prim,~r\

\ child.

et al

retrntlon

,md female\

tar both

FOI m&x

‘in

be used to

m another

(Dali

Thu\

th,lt hum,ms

resources

offspring

serIc)uh

JX~UI the sorts ot m&e

hum&in male\

It ap-

that hais rrcel\ed

E\olutlonar\

In hum,ms

of

bulldIng

ABOlTT SEX DIFFERENCES

reawn\

an xqulred

consists

males d\\ a\

e\l\t

h\pothe\ss h\

1s Important

other

the n&urt: mate


dl\pln\

the mat< and repulsing

male5

2)

‘Ittached

of mate guarding

lng the female

of court\hlp

mntor categori

Interfering

ma\

and repellents

ot ~/IVY/~ U//U~I en~rcw ot rul\tw~ cts h\ ~u/rt~rrrrtrlc~\ This Include\ clots

d~s-

right

ot I\ hlch file

the ~~clnlt\

tawnom\

the attractant

the conspIcuou4ness

The second

enumer,ltlng

rnJe>

the female

pair from

ph) s~call~ rsmw

counteractmg

plumage

I I9831 In the conte\t of I/UCYI m‘ltlng \~,tern\ (or~pc~~ltrotl represent\ the first c&egor\ ol

and Alcoch

Thlb Includes

comprtltor\ reducing

I) mating

II gunrdlng

plugs

tar dttractlng

rncludlng

phase In I\ hlch the male remaln4

of the mating

Cant c~trlnrr~rrr ot rrwtr’v

Tactics

lx

retention

the most comprrhenv\e

that ol Thornhlll txtlc\

ot sort\ ,tmong

copulation.

and 51 departure

The sperm

pro\ ision

comprtltlon

?I a pa\\lve

agaln

dl\erse

and parental

a talcmom\

of mate

copuldtlon

are equAl\

predators

(197.51 pro\ldes

mating

LIVID e\‘unples

prowdt:

ot fern&s

t) pe> of postcopulator~

prolonged

tram

293

of htate Retention

elw

valuable

energ\ Severe

mate

DA\

,md

IS~IOet al

that hds s~olvrd that

\

In

m,dt: Jealous\

ISLY ,~lw Sb man\

294

D hl Buss

In contrast adequate

male lnfidellti

retention

tactic,

source3 galnered

through

from marauding

males

her children

According

to Dal)

Male\ lost lx

and her kin

et al Il982).

reproductive resources

thu\

differ

dt mate retention

value

4 female

Therefore Failure

Hypothesis Males.

resources

Hypothesis

resources that &ire

A mole rlhhs losing access to his mate s and material

e tactics for rt~ra~rr~ry cl mate should

se\-lrnhcd

reproductIveI\

u ho IS more \%llllng or Ale

HIII

relevant

re-

to do \o

retam

their mates bl

that are Inherent

In female

prokldtng

economtc

mate selection

cnterla

1979)

more than males, II e

criteria

~‘111retain their mates bk prolldmg

sexual) opportunttles

included

tempts

b! the female

ImplIes

alteration 1987

and should

and material

2

the reproductive

(Buss

should be less Intense than

rlshs losing her mate s economic

competttor

1987. Slmons

selection

a\idy

competitors

these resources ~111 result In the 10,s ot the m,lte

more than females.

Females

mtrase\ual

1

and material (Buss

and protection

In the nature of the resources

the mo,t effectI\

to protide

to dn Intrasexunl

>tatus

centered on sexual InfidelIt)

be those that pro~rcie~ the mate \ilth sources

and tobiard

female leAouhv

Without

risks losing the re-

of these resource\

on pie\ entlng loss of economic

and fern&s

fallures

female

rlbk the redirection

. should be less clearl)

be hea\ 11) centered

Cl human

her mate such AS mane)

Females

from her

maleJealous~

01 rfrelt pose\ I~ttle risk to pi temale

hoi\e\er.

to appear

mavlmall)

of appearance

SFmons

that are Inherent

In these hypothesized

retention

reproductively

to be attractive.

them with

In male mate tactics

are at-

caluable.

mhlch

youthful.

and healthful

1979)

HJ pothesis 3 hlales.

~111 engage III higher trequsnclel

In gsner,il

because ot the greater guarding DdMhlnh

(Dal\

fidelrt)

and Wilson

1976

hipotheslzed

reproductlte

WIlllam\ \e\

198.3 Tn\er\

I975

dltference.

bb d male pro\ldes

Cihl\elln hoL\e\er.

of her mate 3 resource\

this cue

ferndIe txtlcs

on pre\entlng rnd) center different

proximate

The prelent ~lthln

.md ma\

ulth

Bara$h

failures

1977

be sompromlsed

predlctl\e

Thu\.

1979.

I9791

of re-

pro\lde\

and should center

m‘tle dnd female act\ of retention

be performed

\\lth

equal

Thl\

If >exuCd In-

cue to the temale

dlso should evolve

act\

at mate

Slmons

Van Den Berghe

To the extent that male InfidelIt)

of retention

sexual InfidelIt on \e\

I972 197-l ma\

a poiiertul

direction

ot mdte guarding

costs a\soclated

frequency

both

but for

reason\

\tudles

were designed to eiamtnc

the context ot d larger conceptual

trarne\forh

tact!c\

cf ma!:: re:cnt;on

tHu>\

1986) Thl\

fr‘ime-

Tacks

work starts with reproducttvely Superordmate tactics

relevant

methods

for achtevmg

a strategy).

sumed by each tactic are used to accomplrsh taming

desirable

acquired

accomphshment tualtzatton

IS also consldered

of which

Inducements.

spedic

each goal

and threatening

prior

mating

effort

the strategy of Direct

Mate Concealment.

Re-

goal. the

and facthtates

Several

ac-

broad strategies

provtdtng

posttt\e

Inducements

strategy In turn IS composed

Guardmg.

of goals

offspring

to be an evoluttonary

fruits of that effort negative

acts suh-

Examples

toward this goal. such as direct guarding.

Each superordmate tlance.

protects

of the reproductive

may be directed

a goal). mtddle-level

and

mates. selectmg mates. and producmg

mates

295

goals or tasks at the htghest level

strategies (general methods for achieving

(specific

are attracting

of Mate Retention

for Instance.

of specific tactics

For

one can deploy tactics of Vtg-

or Monopohzatton

of mate’s time

’ He did not let her talk to other males at the party”

and

Acts such as ‘She called

to

make sure he was where he said he Mould be” compose the most subordinate level

and provide

the medium

through

evolve (Buss 1986. but see Symons goals or functions

of mate retention

Acts are expected Some may compel falter at this task

whtch

1987)

psychologtcal

mechanisms

It IS through specific acts that the

are realized

to differ m how c~ffi)clr~c thev are at retaining

one’s mate to adhere Throughout

to the mating bond. i%htle others

evoluttonary

history.

mdtvtdual

learning his-

tortes. or both. selection pressures should have favored effective less effective

tactics

Hypothesis

4

These constderattons

Acts assessed to be highly effective performed

more frequently

generate

at successfully

In the context

mates

tactics over

a fourth hypothesis

retannng

mates ~111 be

of mating relattonshtps

than HIII

acts assessed to be less effective As described tively relevant and females per]orm are

earlier.

human males and females

resources garnered and potenttally are predicted

to differ.

certain mate retention

therefore.

tactics.

differ In the reproduc-

lost through a mate

Males

not only m how often they

but also m IZON’~ffecf~~~~ such tactics

This leads to the final hypotheses

Hypothesis Tactics sources

5

of mate retention will

be

more

that Involve effective

for

provtdmg male

economtc

performers

and material than

for

re-

female

performers

Hypothesis Tactics

6

of mate retention

hancement

that Involve

of reproductive

ers than for male performers

sexual Inducements

value WIII be more effective

and apparent

en-

for female perform-

296

D hl

Buss

STUDY 1: A TAXONOhIY OF HUkIAN hl ATE RETENTION TACTICS AND ASSESSMENTS OF REPORTED FREQUENC5’ Rationale

Method for Obtaining

4cts of hlate Retention

297

Tactics of hlate Retention

Act Selection and Construction ot thl5 nomlndlon

Th2 goal

act5 ot m&r folm

prossdurs

prellmmar)

and-error ment5

taxonomy

Hould

redundant11

(2 g IO-1 reasonably

of hct~cs

be honorIficall)

considered acts

and could

IteratlLe

First.

) These

on her all

of \ihlch

ot

but trial-

tendenc)

of

state-

an observable

act

procedures

left

reduction

Here

ot

the large numbers

a5 \sere general

too Lague to constitute

to heep an ele dtstmct

rdngt:

studw

Ths construction

called

descrlptlon

acts were ehmlnated.

and 5tatements

a dl\erbs

~OI \ub\equrnt

td\onom\

ma)

be a more accurate

nominated

He like5

\+a‘, to Idrntlt\

that could be 11d

wt2ntlon

the ba5l5 for a prellmlnar\

this

of Tavonom)

retained

for

subsequent

>tudle\ Second

these

act clwers could

IO-1 dcts \\ele

Scrutln\

b2 partitioned

Into IL\ o broad

tt~trtrtprr/ltrrotrJ (acts Itclsc’\lltil

catsgotrzed

rationall\

of the I9 homogeneous duwted

c‘ltegol

toirard

tact>

tllcrrllplrl~ltlotl\

xt

Into I9 homogeneou,

clu5ter5

les-[ho52

one’5

mdtej

dlrectsd

suggested Invol\

and

tho52

to\iard

that the!

Ing ~rrferse~~rrtr/ Ing ttz-

In\ol\

wme-\e\

potential

compstitors) Third

tactic3

clasvfied

ulthln

Intersexual

(Vlgllance

exh

of these

mampulatlons

Conc2nlment

of hlate

Nt~gtrlr~ e /tzhc-twattrs Infidellt~

EmotIonA

rogation

of Competitor\)

(InfidelIt\

and SubmIssIon

and Debasement

listed

under

be not2d

such as Concrlalm2nt manlpulatlons

112re furthel

I and

Intra\e\ual

of Mate’s of hlate hiampuldtlon.

Se~rral

fat rNampl2

5lncr: theb

belong

to

and De-

Dl5plab.

Lo\2

Appearance

Time).

s Threat

Se\-

dnd Caring

function

Slmllarl\ rn tactics

Into Pttblrc-

partItIoned

Ph\ 5lcal Signals

‘5rpturl.s

of Po\5e55lon

and \‘lolrnceI

The \peclfic

of act5

In Tab12 I

that this prehmlnar\

comprtltor5 xts

further

Gtrtrttfrtlq

\~~trfr~ t’ Itufrrc-t~tttc’trt\ I Dsr ogatlon

Threats

dr2 shoiin

of hlate

as \rell

some specific

\\ers

mto Drtar

1

I\ somsi\ hat arbltrar\

of beha\lor

b)

Pumshment

Commmltment

Intrawxual

edch categor!

It should

hlonopollzatlon

SIgnal> of Po55esslon

Ornament,ttlon

to Competitors

and

of Phkwal

manlpulatlon\

of Pot $1’) TtotI (Verbal Mate

categor125

and P~srrr~ t’ Intftrt cttlet1f~ tResourc2

Enhancement

and Posses\l\e

broad

partltlonsd

Thrrat

I%mpulatlon

ual Inducements Intrase\ual

t\\o

Liere

taxonom). could

manlpulatlons.

b2 regardrd

to pre\cnt

argument5 other

l1h2 all tavonomles

of the Intrrse\ual

could

than those

a5 lntrasevual

acce55 to one s mat2 be marshaled

Into trhlch

the)

th‘it Her2

classified

The primark

value

pro\ Ides the most detailed pro\ldes vestigation research

a 5tartlng

pomt

and emplrlcal on performance

of thl5

prellmlndr\

tawnom) that

tawnom)

of m&2 retention

cdn be elaborated

evluatlon trequencle5

hotiever tactic\

and r2fined

and pro\ Ides d h2ut I\tic and tactic

effectl\eness

let

15 that

II

proposed

b) turther

In-

for conducting

Table

I

Taxonom!

of Tactics and Acts of hlate Retention

Inter5e\ual mampularmn~ Dlrrst guardmg \ &ince He called her ;I[ unexpected [Imel to see \rho she \\a~ \rlth He called her to mabc sure she \\as uhere >he said she uould he He had his fnends chccb up on her He vwoped through her personA bslongmgJ He qur~twned her about u ha1 \he dud \S hen the! *err: apart He dropped b\ unekpestedlb 10 we irhar she \\ds domg He read her personal mall He sra\ed SIOS 10 her H hlle the\ \terc dt rhe pars\ ~1 [he pan\ he did not lel her WI at hl\ s&r Conse~lmenr ot maw He did not rake her 10 the part\ \\hcrr: orhcr rnJe\ uould he pre>e:nr He rsfu\ed to In[rodu hlonopolize mdle ) [Ime He ,pent 41 hl> tree [Ime \rlth her SO thar ,hc could not meet anhone cl>e Hc Inv>lcd rh~r >hc SU\ A home \rlth him rather rhan gomg WI He monopollzcd her tlme d[ rhe xwal gdrhcnng He Insl~tcd thal shs ,pend Al her tree lime ulth him He \rould 1131 ICI her go out \rrthoul him Negdrl\e Inducemzn[> Thrcawn mtidellt\ Hc flirted nlth another \roman III tronr at her He >hourd Intcrcqr in other tiomcn to mahe her dngr\ He mcnt out u Ilh other \\omcn IO mdhe her ~caIous He ralhcd IO nnorhcr uoman al rhe part\ LO maks her ~c~4our Punish mdte 5 threar IO Infidcllr\ He became angrb u hen she flirted KU much He Ignored his mate u hen she ~rxted lllrtlng M irh others He threatentd 10 break up It she c\sr chcawd on him Hc telled ~1 her dtrer she shwed an Interest In orhcr men He >ald that he irould nc\rr tall, to her @aIn If he e\er ~a\$ her \rlrh wmeone else He hlr her u hen he z,iught her fl~flmg \rlrh wmeanc cl\e He becamc lealous \rhen rhe H~II~ out \iirhout him Emorwnal mampulnhon He cried u hen she wd rhe ml&r ga OUI \tlth >omc’one else Hs made her tee1 gtulr\ &out ralhlnp IO other men He told her he uould dw 11 >he exer lctr He rhrc~tencd IQ harm himbelt It yhe e\er let1 He pleaded thdr he could nor II\e ~\~rhout her Hc sncd In order to hcep her \rlrh him He rold her rhar >hc \~AS depsndem on her He prctcndcd IO he mad w th31 >hr \iauld tecl gu~lr\ Commitmcnl manlpul~illon He ashed her IO marr\ turn He gor her pregwnr SJ \he would SKIM \rnh him He told her [he\ needed pi LolaI comnulmenl 10 sach other She rold him >he ~\a. pregnant llwm appl~cAc to ferndIe onI\ I Drrogiuon ot compenlor\ Hc SUI doun the appsardncc ol other male\ He ~iartcd d bad rumor abw~ another m& Hc GUI do\\ n the orhcr gu\ 5 \lrength He pointed out 10 her the other gu\ , tla\i\ He told her th;lr [he other gu\ she \~a\ Interested In had slept !pcm ,I lot ol monc! gitt He bought her an expcnsl\e He houghr her a bauquer ot nouzrs Ht: rook her WI to a nlc‘t: re~ldurdm or: g ring nrshlassl Ht: bought her somrJe\!clr\ He bought her d >mall gitr

298

Table

I

(Confumed)

Intersexual mampulatlons Posltl\e mducements Sexual Inducements He ga\e m to her sexual requests He acted sexy to take her mmd off other guvs He pertormed sexual favors to keep her around He had a ph)slcal relatlonshtp uith her to deepen their bond He gave m to sexual pressure to keep her Enhancing phvwal appearance He made up his face look nice He dressed mcelv to maintain her interest He more the latest fashions to enhance his appearance He made sure that he looked nice for her He made hlmself extra attractive’ tar her Emphasize lobe and canng He told her that he loLed her He \\ent out of his ba) to be hnd nice and canng He complrmented her on her appearance He BS~S helpful Nhen rhe reallv needed it He dlsplabed greater afTectlon for her Submw,lon and debasement He told her that he would change in order to please her He became a sla\e to her He ga\e in to her e\er) alsh He went along with everything she sold He acted against his UIII to let her habe her Ma) Intrasexual mampulallons Public signals of possession Verbal signals of pos5esslon He Introduced her as his girl fnend (woman spouse etc ) He told his male tnends how much the\ uere in love He bragged about her to other guy5 He mentioned to other males that she was taken He told others the lntlmate things the) had done together Phb wal vgnals of possession He held her hand when other gubs were around He klrsed her u hen the other gubs mere around He held her closer nhcn another male \\alked mto the room He put his arm around her In front of others He sat next to her \rhen others were around Possessi\ e omamentation He asked her to uear hi5 Jacker He asked her to wear his nng He gate herleuelr! to slgnlfb that she \\as taken He wore her clothe5 In front of others He hung up a picture of her 30 other5 uould know she mas laben Negdtl\e rnducements Derogation of mate to competitor5 He told other gu)5 temble things about her 50 that the) uouldn I like her He told other gu) 5 that she \%as not a nice person He told other gu\s that she ear, 5tupld He told other gu\, she might ha\e a social disease He told other5 5he \\a5 a pain Intrasexual threats He I elled at the other gun 5 u ho looked at her He stared cold11 at the other gu\ who ua5 loobmg at her He threatened to hit the gu) uho Has making moves on her He ga\e the other gun a dirt) look uhen he loohed at her He told the other gu\ to stab aua\ from her He confronted the gu) 1%ho had made a pass at her Violence He hit the gu\ Hho made a pass at her He picked a fight ulth the gu\ \\ho \tas mtere5ted In her He got his friends to beat up the gu\ uho ua5 Interested In her He 1 andahzed the propert\ of the gu) who had made d pas5 at her He slapped the gub M ho made a pass at her

299

300

D Nl Bugs

Method for Obtaining One hundted

SubJects males

partvzlpated

nomlnatlon

Assessments ,ind t\\o

undergr~~du~~ts subtrcts

stage

that

latlon,hlp

The me&n dgs ~a\

~hrther

OI not the\

lvlthln

the p‘i\t

\ectt

tiiu

\ea14

ph\>lc,jl and \\lth

IX 9-I tSD

Subject\

I\ ho Indlcnted

\e\

\SSIIZ retained

tar thl\

h,id not been

rom,~ntlcc~ll\

~n\ol\rJ

the\

Iorwntlc

&out

In\ol\sd

\\t:~e y\sn

the pa>t

the p,lst t\ro \ex\

ln\oI\rmrnt

sight wtyect\

ktud\

I+

rcbtlon-

trlthln

h,ld been ~n\ol\ed

to the qus\twn

‘I qire~tlon-

In ‘I lomantlc

h,ld the\ dated ~lthln

\\ h,lt ftsqurnc\

past iear

fit Ft completed

rnmdll g.111 on her I spent ,i IOI 01 mww held her h,mJ \\ hen other gu\ \ \\ere ,tround I I I I

got her pregnant w \hz \roulJ 51d\ I\ lth mc gor m\ lrtends to be,u up the gut u ho ~33 Interc*tsd in her told the other gu\\ that >he might hake J. wc~~tl dwdse

htt her \rhsn I caght her fllrtlng \tlth wwieone elsz Appcd the gu\ who made a pa\\ nt her ~,rndnlrrrd the propert) al the gut uho made d pa\\ ;II her fold other gui, tcrrlhlc thtngr ahou~ her w the\ ~ouldn I Ilhr: her htt the gu) \rho made J PDF dt her retuwd to Introduce her IO m\ amwe\ hxends rtartrd J. bad rumor about awther male threatened to hxm m\wlf tf *he s\sr lett me fold her that the other gub \hc ~a5 Intetafed In has slept ulth nsarl\

Table 3

NO

hlosl and Least Frequent11

hlecm

hlo51 lrequentl~

;

1 18 J-t-4

0 70 0 70

133 3 29 1 29 3 IO

0:‘) 0 78 0 NJ 0 76

x

7 0-l

0 99

9 IO II

3 02 -’ 9x 2 96 289

0 I 0 0

6 7

I?

Led51 trequrntl\ I 00 I 3 I 00 ; I 00 -l I 00 i I 00 6 I MI 7 I 00 8 I 02 0 I 02 IO II I2

I o-l I o-1 I o-l

hlale Retention

Acts-Female

Sample

performed I ~a) 0 64

? 5-l

4 i

Reported

Ail

SD

I

3

r~erbune

90 00 79 86

performed 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 I) 00 0 00 0 00 0 1.t 0 I-1 I) I9 0 I9 0 I9

hslptul \\hrn he realI\ nwdrd II I made up m\ face to loob nice I compllmented him on hi5 ,ippcrrranLe I made wre that I looked n~cc for him I rn~ next to htm uhen other\ \\erc around I uent WI ol m\ ~a\ to he hand nice and caring I made m\wll extra attractt\e lor him I held his hand N hen other girls were around I bought him d small gltt I dre55cd nvxl\ IO malntdln hi% lntere5t I \iore the Inted la>hlon\ to enhance m\ appedrdncz I put rnb drm around htm I” tront 01 the others

I hit the girl M ho m,tde r~ pa,, at htm I pched a fight \\lth the girl \\ho \!d\ tntcroted In him I got pregnant SO that he \\ould >td~ ulth me I told other girls that he mtght hake J. WCIJI Jt>eaw I \andaltzed the propert\ ot the girl u ho had made ,I pas, dt him I threatened IO h‘trm m\selt It he c\er left me I \lapprd the girl \kho mddc a pnsr rlt him I got m\ trtcnd\ to beat up the gtrl N ho \~a\ Intere\ted in him Intererted in htm 4cpt \\ith nearl\ I told him th,tt the girl \rho ~a e\er\onz I \ellrrd ‘II the other girl \\ ho loohed at him I told the other girl\ th,it he ~a\ 4up1d I told the other grl\ to \I

use the tactic

the sex difference

that \\ere

along

tar the number

of the four specific

thdn ternale\

deed

of se\ differences

IeLel

purposes

Three more

in IJse of Tactics

dt the tactic

of each

Toral

reported

dnd \t\llshl\

Se\ Differences

that

reported

dnd nffectlonate

tactics

than ferndIe\.

Retentron

Tacks

\\ere

found

report

wing

Tactlcs

Table S

Sex DdTerences m Reported

Performance

Male5 t-test

No More

frequent

I

SD

male performance 2 IX

0 M

Mean

2 II

0 ‘6

3

I 91

0 98

4

2 I2

0 99

5

I 73

I 01

6

2 h9

0 x2

7

I 73

0 87

8

I 49

0 71

9

I 2.l

0 56

IO

I 45

0 77

II

I 12

0 39

I?

I 33

0 69

I 08

I3

I 27

0 61

I Oh

I4

I 3s

0 66

I I3

I 0-t

3 48

I 27

0 67

2 06

2

-4

3

_ 2 94--

2 4s

0 9h

2 96

.l

_ 2 88”

2 67

0 72

3 IO

i,

-2

I 8-i

0 85

2 31

6

_ 2 33***

I 92

0 98

2 38

7

_ 2 13””

I 00

0 00

I 12

8

_ 2 01***

I 41

0 51

I

‘phe sod I acted agaln>t m\ HIII to let her hd!e her \\a\ I bought her some teuelr\ te B ring nechlacel I bought her a bouquet ot Ilo\\ ers I asked her to \irar ml Jacket I tooh her out to a n,Le restaurant I pcrtormed \e\uaI fator\ to keep her around I pa\ e her Jebelr\ to \lgnlt\ that ,hs Ha\ taben I told the other guts to he spend all ot her tree time \\lth me

I made up ml face to look nice I uore hts clothes m front 01 other% I uore the latest tashlons to enhance ml appearance extra I made ml self attracttke for him I flirted with another male III front of him I told ml temale friends hou much ue uere In lo\ e I hit htm H hen I caught htm tllrttng ~tth someone el>e I told others he aa\ a pain

Se1 differences \peclfic

ln

detail

Those

greater

male reports

such

Greater

,rgnlfisant of xts Ang

male

\rlth

e\er\

threats

to hit the other

are

gu\

frequenci

and debasement

thing

and

\lolence

are

plchmg

5

are strongI!

that she said and acting dlspla!

and nice dinners and

rn greater

,

in Intrasexual

threatening

differences

reporting

for each ot the 10-l

rn performance

of submis\lon

as purchastngJei%elrb

difference>

\iet-e conducted

se\ dlfference4

shwing

In acts such a\ going his IVIII

t-te\t>

acts

specljic

acts to e\amlne

The seen

against

15 Seen m act)

tor the female seen

a fight

In acts

~lth

Se\

such

as

the potentA

poacher Greater act\

fem,lle-

of nppe‘~rance

fa\hwns tllrtlng Lo elicll

lhan mk-reported

.md m,thrng mirth other ‘1 JScdOUS

pertoi

C~lterCltwn such ,I\ rn,Aing hei\elf

men

In front

rZ‘ICtlOl1

e\trrl

,lttrCtcll\e

ot her pxlner

m‘tnce

I\ wxn

up the f,rcs tar >eem\

promlnentll

111

weCI, -LX [he late>1 p,trtwr

The ~1 ot

speclfic,tll\

desIgned

hsr

Tactm

Relahonshlp senousness and mate relet&on factlcs rntenslty

and serwusnes4

of the romanttc

mate guarding and retcntlon ablht)

of Being

correlated females

for

tactics

of the

results

sekes

Mantpulatlon

Resource

D~spl,t\

pears to be consIstentI) are not srgruficantl~

Sew4

correlated

C’erbJ

dnd Ph\blc,ll tnctlc

11tth relatlonshlp

roSlg-

th,it dp-

serlou~ness

Appearance

lelatlon5hlp

the

Commitment

The onI\

and

\\lth

e~psc14l)

of \ lgllancc

correlated

\tlth

\+ere

thrlt apprx

and Gale.

Inducement

correlated

Prob-

h

dre posltl\el\

Orndmentatlon

negatIveI)

of hlate

IS Derogation

In Table

the tactics

Lo\e

and Posxss~~e

In\ ol\ed Closenesy

of the I9 tactics fat males and

The correlations \\lth

the

are ,_~issoc~ated i\lth

ot hlonth\

Rrl,itlon5hlp

of exh

of mate retention

are those

nals of Possession.

,md

are sho\in

of the relatIonshIp

both

I’ear

reports

These

rrL~tlonshrp

305

u hethel

To e\amrne

the \at table\

m One

performance

separate11

Many bust

Together

wth

seriousness

tactics.

of hlate Retention

Enh,mccmrnt

5erlou>nes>

DISCUSSION The result5 uates

of Study

I lend support

use the tactic

undergraduates pearance

to the hlpothesls

D~splai

also support

Enhancement

Inducement males

The\

do

In contrast.

mates

of Resource

Threat

to use thl5 tactic

Perhaps

the most strlkmg

slgmficantlq finding

to emerge

males and females

are m the acts and tactic> The correlation

females

for mean performance

slgmficant

sex difference,.

able slmrlarity thl5 stud)

score tactics

relationships erall)

se\ difference of all

correlation\

\vlth

offsprmg

more

Stud)

report

do

I 1s how 5lmllx

usmg to retain

IO3 xts

betliren that In

In this sample their

In mate retention

often

relatIonshIp

male5

5p1ts

and and

of se\erdl

\how

remarh-

mates

Indeed.

tactics

using d

serIousne54

come Into pIa\

potential

It uas not predicted

In this sample

IO-1 dctb betireen

long-term

Indeed

using to retain

suggest that such txtxs

produce

although

the1 report

female UQ Ap-

male5 do to letdIn

than females

from

the\

the

than

use the tactic of Se\uA

IS + 0 91 Thl5 suggests

no overall conslstlng

The significant retention

across

male5 and females

m the tactic5

found

summarl

than

irould more

more

th‘tt temale5

b\ the5e dat,h

guard

then- mates

more

that females

more than males 15 talslfied

appear

that male undelgrndmates

the hcpotheses

and InfidelIt\

the hypothesis

to retam

Since than

In advance

prlmarll!

long-term

rslatlonshlp5

5hott-term 15 congruent

and mate In berIou5

,lffalr5 \ilth

thl5

genfinding

dn r\olut~~na~q

account Obtammg provides performed ferences seriousness

report5

an important more

of performance first

and less frequently.

and the manner

In i\hlch

of the relatIonshIp

ance frequency

does

frequencies

step In Identlf)lng

not \leld

which

direct

tactic5

reported

Holteever

of xt\ which

she\\

performance

assessment

Information

about

ot mex dlfto the

perform-

effectl\e

each

306

Burr

D nl

STUDY 2: JUDGIIIENTS

OF TACTIC EFFECTIF ENESS

Goals and Rationale The

purpwz\

of Stud\

conwkred pro\ de

mwt

2 ~\e~ts

dnd ledbt

an Indeprndent

d~\plav dppenrdnce

te\t of the w\

more

trequrntl\

u hlch

‘tc‘t\ Ietdlnlng

d~ttslsntlatrd

h\ pothew\

thar act, ~udgsd th,m .cct\ ~udgsd

mates

to be Ir\\

21 to

ot te\ource

,mci Infldrllt!

to be hIghI\

‘II~‘

,rnd txtlcs

‘it *Iucces~tull\ W\LIJI Inducement

snh,lncrment

and ?J to test the h\pothwh performed

I) IO dentIt\

sttecti\r

thre,lt

cffect~\t:

~111 be

ettsctl\r

Method Subtect\

.kbJecls

and 3J mdes I9

22

Design

(SD

for Stud\

= 3 651 Sutgect\

The design

he\ ofsutyect

2 belt:

none ot N horn hd

(male

of Stud\ femaleI

46 undergrdudtr

pnrtlclpCltrd

~eit:

leGed

~ttkisnt~

In Slucl\

In group\

26 temdls~

I The rnr‘ln

ianging

from

2 ~\a> a 2 x 2 In Lshlch the first and the Second \\as se\ ofactor

,tgs

\\:I\

h to IO tnstor

(male.

\\‘I\

ternale)

Tactrcs of hldte Retention

307

Results Rebabd@ bath

of act effectrvenesspdgments

1951) Mere computed

These

rellabllltles

are 0 90 and 0 89 for male judge5

female

actors

female

judges are 0 96 ;Ind 0 89

abllltv

can be obtained

retaining

Alpha rellablht\

respectIveI)

The

correspondmg

regarding

ActsJudged affectionate

to be hIghI)

effective

those of violence

telling others she

wch

actors.

IS

ActsJudged

Include

herself

making

acting sex)

Least

effective

female

I I I I I I

-1-l 39 25 2-1 I8 6?

I I I I I I I I I I I I

0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 I 0 I 0

29 47 56 66 72 Y? I2 95 I5 7x 23 93

I I I I I I I I I I I I

I 01 0 8X I 8X

caring.

for males

Ineffective

and lovmg are also Judged to be Other

attractl\e acts parallel

Male

of mate to others

hlghlk effectwe

female

* dressing nicely to maintain least-effectl\e

acts his

and making

up her

male xts

In the

4cts of hlate Retentlon Act

SD

0 5-l 0 81 0 71

kind

derogation

to be relativeI\

to take hrs mind off other women.

Most and Least Effectme Mean

Slmllarlv.

one’s mate

extra

to be least effectl\e

and temale actors

and compllmentar)

For femdle

face

coefficients

\\ hlch act\ are more and IesS effectl\e

through personal mall and belongIng\

Interest.

ratings of male and

rellAllt\

mates

to be most and least effective

(e g

(Cron-

These results suggest that composite

A ctsJudged to be most and least effech ve

Include

coefficients

tor each ot the four cells In the 2 x 2 matrix

~rls helptul Hhen bhe realI\ needed II \rent out ol m\ \rab to be kind nlcr and carmg told her th,rt I bed her dl\pla\ed grrarer Aecttan lor her compllmrnted her on her appearance ashed her to mdrrb me Introduced her a3 rn) gllltrlend i\\omnn qxxtse ctc told m\ male trwnds hou mush me uere 111 lme bought her a bouquet of flwers dressed nIceI\ to maintain her mterest made sure that I looked nice tar her told her that I trould change m order to please her

hit her N hen I caught her nu-trng uith someone elvz read her personal mail snooped through her pelwnal helongmg~ LandJtzed the propert) of the gun \I ho h,+d made J pass at her did not let her talb to other male\ uent out II tth other women to mnhe her _tealour told the other guts that the \\a> \tupld told others she \%a\ d pain told others the mtlmate thing\ we had done together \rould not let her go out ~rtthout me shoued an Interest In other women to mabe her angrb slapped the man \\ ho mdde a pas3 al her

1

308

D nl

Bus\

I

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Tactw

Table 9

Dfferences

m Percened

Effectl\eness

for Male and Female

hlals ALlOr hlsnn

Se1 dlfferetu-es

dct ettecti\rnesh

dstnll

\\ere

t-te\tS

\ignlticc~nt

The greater se\ernl of tactics t~\e

for

conducted

drftetrncr~

Interesting

These

femalepattrt

Speclficall~ ternales

than

tar

tar exh xe

dnd trmdltl

ns that dd males

SD

F

the w\

J~ffe~ence~

pertotmer~

In prrdtsr

ot the 1111ac‘t~ T\\ent\-sl\

\ho\\

n in Tdder

than male-percel\ed making

for

male

Aclar

hlean

To r\,tmlnt:

m pert e~ved act effet II wIess

in p~2tcei\ecl

Actors

Female

SD

309

of hlate Retentm

up one 4 face

from

rehults

the broader

IS ~udgrd

mates

shwsd

II

act effectl\enes\

not emerge

In ret,wmg

IO ,lnd

to

Attempts

be

shw

analis

more

sffec-

to mahe

the

310

Table

D

IO

Rl

Buss

\e\

Differences

In -\CI Effectl\eness-Aits

Belleted

IO be hlore Effectlre

for hlales

Tactm

Table II

Sex Dtfferences

m 4ct Effectt\eness--Acts

Belleled

of Mate Retention

to be More

Effective

311

for

Females

performance results

and acts judged

strongly

performed

support

more

frequentI\.

few high frequent\-low

hrgh effectiveness that

same-sex

actor

correlation

correlations

13 +0 81

mate retention

of umt)

suggests

J\S nell a\ a te\\

also computed

than ~lth

male

IS +0 67 ncros\

N hlch xts

act\

frequencies

effectl\ene\s

prediction

effectlbenel,

the lath

\iere

performance

betbeen

\peclfic

although

effectl\enes\

+0 82. the corresponding effectiveness

for females

that effective

These xts

are

room

lo\\

for d

frequenci-

act\

The cross-sex hypotheslh

to be effectlie

the h) pothe\ls

These

Flnall\v

female

g~\s onl!

the correlation

the 10-l mean\

are considered

and

actor

hIghI

~11th

par&d

1s

and male actor

support

to the more

male and female

IS +O 84. suggesting

The

effectiveness

frequencb

hetireen

to be effectlie

more

actor effectl\eness

tot- female

result\

to test the more \peclfic

correlate

opposlte+e\

frequencre, correlation

\\III

actor

high congruence

In

tor m,des and female3

Discussion Stud)

7

ua5

are more about

de\gned and

which

effective effective

to obtdin

an a\\essment

less effectr\e.

tdctlcs

are more effectlie

acts ~111 be performed sexes

in Judged

be\

dlfterentldted

predIctIon\

and to test the h) pothe\ts

more frequentI)

Result5 suggest that LoLeCnre

est for both

of w hich acts of m&e retention

to test specific

effectiveness

that hIghI)

than dctsJudged

and Resource in rebining

to be less

D~spla\ are the highA mate

In contrast

312

D hl

GENERAL

Buss

DISCUSSION

313

Tachcs of hlate Retentmn

while

male txt~cs

I9721

In addltton.

of m&e

retention

undergraduate

frequencies

of Intr,i5e\uA

the ;Inal\\ts

of m&e guarding

et aI

1982 Fllnn In pre>s) Several

predlctl\e

In the context

Future resexch

1 account

a finding contradictor! nation 14 that \e\eral the act

1 ga\e

b\ ,ome

wbJect5

to the e\olutlonar\

Ho\re\er.

Another

to admit

gltlmate

of Mates

latlonshlp

These

The methods cwcumvented deslrabthty

doe5 not accord i+lth

thew

result5 represent In reporting

bet\\een

ot temporary

Lo\e

Ornnmentatlon

effectiveness

~lth

that tactics

romantlc

research

female5

InfidelIty

First.

and not ha\e

by females

Verbal and Phq wal

of mate retention

cor-

Onl)

the seriousness

several llmltattons

smce self-report>

De-

of the recome

to pro\lde

mto less

full or conwous

that could be

were used Second.

5oclal

subJects

accers to the acts of

use Future studies could protitabl)

and to pro\lde

use multlple

methods te g . direct

I\we5

an Independent

test of the evolutlon-

an Index of the effectl\eness

of each act

Judges agreed well Hlth each other on the relative

tactic \i hen pet-formed Threat

of the

partner5

I contain

of dcts of mate retention

a more effective

usmg

ot lasting pair bond5 and conslderably

used In Stud\

Independent

of

or le-

were all posltlLel\

for both male5 and females

correlated

to address the5e methodological

and tactic

artifacts

mhlbtttons

the seriousness

data sources (e g . b) friends or spou5esl and different

based hypotheses

Inhtbl-

and Care

results wggest

2 \\\a> de5lgned

be more

account must annit repltcatlon

could habe biased reports of act performance

observation)

ma\

ii htle 5uch reportorial

data sources

serlousne\s

they actually

sexual

Display

~as negatl\el\

could be felt-deceived

Stud)

I performed

act

14 thdt female5

dtfference,

and Possessive

In tuture

mate retention

been Interpreted

manv tactics of mate guarding

pla) most strongly m the context 50 In the context

eupla-

For example

of performmg

Resource

Signals

\%lth relatIonshIp

rogation

Whether \e\

and multiple

Tactics of Vyylance related

used

and the frequenci

Possession

failure

shoii 5 greater male than female

1 also found 5trong correlations

Stud,

5am-

wggest

predlctl\e

ma!, ha\e

Inducements.

for th14 e\olutlonar)

methods

relatlonshlp

hoiie\sr

One powble

thl> interpret&Ion

explanation

sewal

for male5

methods

problems

alternatl\e

request5

\i hlch A50

powble

wng

(Ion5 do not occur the particular

composed

more than dud female\.

h\ pothesls

land le55 dmblguous)

favors to keep her [hlrn] around reluctant

tDnl\

a\ g~\mg m to the female \ request to abstain rather than

for the 5peclfic

pertormance

\rlth

~ealou5\

dct\ ma! ha\e been irorded cimbrguou5lv

her request to conwmate the finding

rewlts

mo5t Important

Inducements

In to her [hi>] sewal

higher

congruent

dlffetence5

The

~\‘as that males repel ted using \e\ual

finding

using dlfferentl)

of thete \e\

iTn\ers

tepolted

of male 5ewal

tallures and unantlclp‘lted

to this e\olutlonat

pro\ Iwn

more than females

threat5 dnd \ lolencs-_,i

pie\ could te5t the genelallti Ilmlt5

center on resource

male\

Resource

Dlspla)

Mas Judged to be

b) male5 than when performed

was Judged to be more effectl\e

Both result5 support the evolutwnarv

bb

Hhen performed

predlctlons

314

iI

hl

Stud\

Buss

2 also produced

to1 the percel\ed 1LiCtlc ‘I rewlt xldltlon mdde

up ml

lutionarb

nice ” Thew

se\ dlffercnce

mdn [\iomen]

Interest

In othr1

all ludged

th,ln

result\

from

\trongI)

Stud\

quench

eftectlte I \\1th

I

In

more

cf-

problem\

for thl\

I

e\o-

Indt\ tdual learning appe.ir

attracting

197-l)

nhlch

(Bu\\

yhw

dnce frequence\ No stgnlficmt

perfwm~nse

wgge\t

that

not c\clu~bel\ slmrlantle~ In thrs \t‘ln. tnctlc

rnJe\

for xt

lx

th,in

dnd et‘13

or derogating

the!

\\ere

using

to rst,un

con~drred

In the txt1c4

for rrportrld

to be

psrform-

the cotrsl.itlon

15 +O S-1

het\\txn male\ ,Ind female>

tound

or totA

\,miple\ d m&

undtxgradudtrs

report

act effectr\rne\s

txtlcs xti\it\

of mdte The

w\,tl\

Thee

rrtentlon \ho\i

tithe man\

dlfferencrs lx

w\e\

that \\t:ie

noted

that

end \!a\

Lo\r alro

not antic1pAzd

and care pro\ 1de the mwt reproductiveI\

tewurces

and ternale

frequencre\

primniiI\

It rn,i) both

e\rmilne

t‘i\h\ wch

relc\,lnt

etfectr\sneb\

,rt le,~\t 1n thrx

01 r\rn

ot thaw

tru1tfull\

m&2 ;incl tern&z ,+nd ,tcts

\1mrlarlt\

OI t*t(rl/ drfferrncer

total

tactic-findtng~

grr‘lt

bet\\wn

14 +0 c)I

ad‘~ptedne\\

19X6,1

In the IKIIC~

alw

fre-

.I m‘itr

m,mprr/~lrr\ to poacher5

th*lt a profitable

llmltatwn

4merlcan

wntatl\ct

5uggrst

of coupled

that com-

on the ple5ent

tlveness i leld a calculus of L alues b! N hlch wsceptlblllt) prrdlcted.

as ivere and mon-

should be those u hose mate5 fall to

txt~c\.

retention

iilth

And. bawd

of

meth-

The same

poaching

should use material

poach

\,~lus

reseach direction w5ceptlbls

for sexual

hlale poxher

female\

Act frequency

tu tactics ot poaching

be ,ldvanced

ncce5~ to rsproductl\e

tdctlc usage

The occurrence

ImplIes the presence of poacher5

for mate-guarding

munlcdte

betirern

315

couple\

od5 ccm be dpplled u Ith equal Inclswene5s se\

RelentIon

here

dlrcct beha~loral

mate

FInall)

an

te g . report5 bv spouse

retention

and

observation) their

relatl\e

effectiveness Mate guarding

IS a complev

process

Dal)

and Wilson

(19831 note that

316

D hl

Bus

REFERENCES

-

And Cld~h IW-1x3

Cronbdch hl

H

The act Irequens\

19x3

L J Coetklenl 33-l

Dal\

h

dlpha dnd Ihe

IYII

anll \\ ilbon

hl

St,\

E~ol~rrorr

Tactws of hlate Retentton

317