I told her th,rt I bed her. I dl\pla\ed grrarer Aecttan ..... Thee rewlts wgge\t that ,rt le,~\t 1n thrx. \,miple\ txtlcs of mdte rrtentlon tithe not c\clu~bel\. 01 r\rn. primniiI\.
From Vigilance to Violence Tactics of Mate Retention Undergraduates
in American
David M. Buss Department
of Psychology,
Unlverslr? of Mlchlgan
Although the attraction and selectton of mates are central to human reproductton, the retentton of acqmred mates IS often necessary to actualixe the promise of reproductive effort. Three emptrrcal studies used act frequency methods to Identify, assess the reported performance frequencies of, and evaluate the perceived effectiveness of 19 tacttcs and 104 acts of human mate guarding and retenhon. In Study 1 (N = 105), a hoerareh~uf fuxonomy of tactics was developed from a pool of nonunated acts. We then assessed the reported petformance frequencres of 19 retentton tacttcs and 104 acts and tested three hypotheses derived from evolutionary models III an undergraduate sample (N = 102). Study 2 (N = 46) provided an Independent test of these hypotheses by assessing the perceived ejfechveness of each tactic. Discussron draws implicattons for sexual poachmg, susceptibdity to pau-bond defection, and the power of act frequency methods for preserving the proximate speciflctty and systemic complexity mherent m human matmg processes. KEY
Mate retention, Mate guarding, Sex differences
WORDS
INTRODUCTION
S
electlon
by consequences
IS a powerful
at many levels of analysis
prmclple
that can be reahzed
It forms the basis of Darwin’s
theory of
natural selectlon, which mvolves three essential components rsarratlon (e g , due to mutation), selectlon (dlfferentlal rephcatlon of variants), and retention (genetic preservation of selected variants) Operant learning
IS
slmllarly
the selection
structured
mechanism
(Skinner
1981)
reinforcement,
IS
The vanants
and reinforced
tamed through changes m brain states, or “engrams.” Mating
behavior,
broadly
logic The pool of potential Received
October
3
1986
conceived,
IS
October
28
are re-
as yet undiscovered
also structured
mates composes the variants
revised
are behaviors,
behaviors
by selectlon
SelectIon
processes
1987
Address repnn! requests 10 David Buss, Ph D Department Mlchlgan 580 Union Dnve Ann Arbor MI 48109-1346 Ethology and Socroblology 9 291-317 (1988) Cs Elsevler Science Pubhshmg Co , Inc , 1988 52 Vanderbilt Ave , New York, New York 10017
of Psychology
The Umverslty
of
Ol62-3095/88/%03
50
292
D hl Buss
operate
to one
to reduce this larger pool to ‘1 fen
are used to guard or retain asqulred resenrch
ha5 been conducted
and Guttmdn
on m&e
1986
Slmons
1979)
little
humans use to retain mates once the\ What tactics and strategies Wilson.
hlate guarding Itself
subwmlng
diverse
semination (Thornhill Trl\ers
and Alcock 1972
Sexual Jealous)
about
,igalnst
jealousy
et al
and mate guarding
mate guarding
of d human
Tactics
197-l.
ho\ie\er
to be
ma) be con\ldered
competitors.
luring one’s mate \ilth
one’s mate less attractl\e
The
nature.
uncharted
of
range.
mate guarding.”
and Incidence
Its effectiveness
b\
that can be dra\fn
Three
Inary taxonomles
seyrwsterttrp
research
to female by lnhlbltlng
and malntalmng
The most ob\~ou\
choice
hoikever. tactics
remain
the nature an organ-
are performed
These
turning
ba\lc
to the\e
goal>
srudle,.
ot mate guarding and specific theor)
Ghlselm
IS not large
on human\
hake pro\ lded at least prehmChIselIn
selectlon males.
( 19741 considers
that prowde\
considers
access of other
ttzrrlc~
an alternatIve
maJor forms
I) se-
and 21 sequestering
b\ at-
trio
the favor of females ~‘a)
drlbe off rl\al
This categor)
Before
on mate guardmg
of mate guarding
mechanism
tactics
OF MATE GUARDING
Incestlgators.
questering
control
bubsumed
21 to dsielop
mate\
from e\olutlonar\
to be a form of sexual
brute force-to
rendering
and 11 to gduge for each
retaining
brletlv prior taxonomles
The corpus of previous
retention
?I IO assess H hlch tactics
the tocub of this series ot studies
it IS mlnlscule
or e\en
IS I I to ldentlf)
rndle) and female,
EXISTING TAXONOMIES
tracting
of human therefore
at succes\full!
it IS usetul to examine predictions
potential
These tactics nppeLir
but are accurateI)
tactics among humans
of these tnctlcs.
more and less frequentlv formed
to competitors
research agenda.
and range of mate retention
tactic
more than \lgllance
Inducements
pos~t~\e
at
onI1 the most obv1ou4
mate retention
A crucial
ized taxonomy
In humans
ma) be subtle, Including dlssuadlng
or evocutl\e
lo fall outside the categor)
represent
m&e often requires
restraint
of
loung
1982. Flrnn In pre:s\. Parker
and Jealous\
and phwcal
bv the categor)
alien In-
unrelated
19751
The retention
tactw
str,ltegb ,
prekent
m genetlcallb
Dal)
~3 one t,ictlc ot
to ensure paternlt!
In\e:,trng
Dal\
that
been acqulled
[HO tdctlc3 N IthIn d larger CL\> of tactics of INIIL’ tric’tlrrotr least, direct
Kenn-
the txtlcs
has been proposed as a wperordlnate
1983
Wilson
1985. Epstein
do humans use to retain their mdtes
tactics thnt e\ol\e
and defend
And tnctx\
(e g . Bu,s In pres\
I\ hnoiin
ha\e
Bus\
(e g
t 1982~ propose male ,euual
and Weghor\t
guarding
selection
1985) and some on mate attraction
rich and Trost
or to none
Flmn In press) While much
m&es IS g
to mhlblt
the access of other
males and herd females
of sequestenng
also Includes
males IS to use
to keep them under more wbtle
forms of
Tacks
mnuence
such as preventing
of certam
crabs
and Insects
and malntalmng
the tabor
dlsplab . protection Wllwn tlnct
the fern&
from
be considered
form5
to the female ing
Jtsr
Perhaps
troltl
plugs
u lthout
contact
\tlth
sIgnal\
ph! s~cal hold-
of ri\,lI
subwmes
d
,wound
female\
fence
m ThornhIll
from
No compxable
t,iwnomle~ form
research
hds been
dttentlon
Important
.md Alcoch
female\.
5 tawnom)
guide
and retain
the tormatlon
tactic\
that \IIII
SPECIFIC TACTICS Mate
effort
ot \peclfis
retain
expended
to date
Repulsion mdles
for humrl?\
~t‘~dou~\
Indeed
IDAI
rl
~1
I9821
and range ot txtlcs theor\
md\
female
rftort
de\oted
to someone
mJe\
not onI\ rl\h In\e\tlng
but rl\h
losmg
entuA~
rewurcrs
the\
drboted
to acquiring
ductlie
pen,lltle\
( 1982) propose humans should 1979,
to
follow
prevent
be closeI\
from
male wxual
falling
the mdtr
to retain
the time Irutlall\
an xqulred
~e~~lous~ ‘ib one mechanism
cuckoldr\ tied to pote:ntlA
and
the)
female
h\pothwze sexual
InfidelIt\
to
lo\> ot mating
19821 Cucholded
ha\e
hut for
11sh5 ot talllng
‘u-e c41en Insemlnatlon
and 1041 palrntal
IN
males and femks
the prim,~r\
\ child.
et al
retrntlon
,md female\
tar both
FOI m&x
‘in
be used to
m another
(Dali
Thu\
th,lt hum,ms
resources
offspring
serIc)uh
JX~UI the sorts ot m&e
hum&in male\
It ap-
that hais rrcel\ed
E\olutlonar\
In hum,ms
of
bulldIng
ABOlTT SEX DIFFERENCES
reawn\
an xqulred
consists
males d\\ a\
e\l\t
h\pothe\ss h\
1s Important
other
the n&urt: mate
dl\pln\
the mat< and repulsing
male5
2)
‘Ittached
of mate guarding
lng the female
of court\hlp
mntor categori
Interfering
ma\
and repellents
ot ~/IVY/~ U//U~I en~rcw ot rul\tw~ cts h\ ~u/rt~rrrrtrlc~\ This Include\ clots
d~s-
right
ot I\ hlch file
the ~~clnlt\
tawnom\
the attractant
the conspIcuou4ness
The second
enumer,ltlng
rnJe>
the female
pair from
ph) s~call~ rsmw
counteractmg
plumage
I I9831 In the conte\t of I/UCYI m‘ltlng \~,tern\ (or~pc~~ltrotl represent\ the first c&egor\ ol
and Alcoch
Thlb Includes
comprtltor\ reducing
I) mating
II gunrdlng
plugs
tar dttractlng
rncludlng
phase In I\ hlch the male remaln4
of the mating
Cant c~trlnrr~rrr ot rrwtr’v
Tactics
lx
retention
the most comprrhenv\e
that ol Thornhlll txtlc\
ot sort\ ,tmong
copulation.
and 51 departure
The sperm
pro\ ision
comprtltlon
?I a pa\\lve
agaln
dl\erse
and parental
a talcmom\
of mate
copuldtlon
are equAl\
predators
(197.51 pro\ldes
mating
LIVID e\‘unples
prowdt:
ot fern&s
t) pe> of postcopulator~
prolonged
tram
293
of htate Retention
elw
valuable
energ\ Severe
mate
DA\
,md
IS~IOet al
that hds s~olvrd that
\
In
m,dt: Jealous\
ISLY ,~lw Sb man\
294
D hl Buss
In contrast adequate
male lnfidellti
retention
tactic,
source3 galnered
through
from marauding
males
her children
According
to Dal)
Male\ lost lx
and her kin
et al Il982).
reproductive resources
thu\
differ
dt mate retention
value
4 female
Therefore Failure
Hypothesis Males.
resources
Hypothesis
resources that &ire
A mole rlhhs losing access to his mate s and material
e tactics for rt~ra~rr~ry cl mate should
se\-lrnhcd
reproductIveI\
u ho IS more \%llllng or Ale
HIII
relevant
re-
to do \o
retam
their mates bl
that are Inherent
In female
prokldtng
economtc
mate selection
cnterla
1979)
more than males, II e
criteria
~‘111retain their mates bk prolldmg
sexual) opportunttles
included
tempts
b! the female
ImplIes
alteration 1987
and should
and material
2
the reproductive
(Buss
should be less Intense than
rlshs losing her mate s economic
competttor
1987. Slmons
selection
a\idy
competitors
these resources ~111 result In the 10,s ot the m,lte
more than females.
Females
mtrase\ual
1
and material (Buss
and protection
In the nature of the resources
the mo,t effectI\
to protide
to dn Intrasexunl
>tatus
centered on sexual InfidelIt)
be those that pro~rcie~ the mate \ilth sources
and tobiard
female leAouhv
Without
risks losing the re-
of these resource\
on pie\ entlng loss of economic
and fern&s
fallures
female
rlbk the redirection
. should be less clearl)
be hea\ 11) centered
Cl human
her mate such AS mane)
Females
from her
maleJealous~
01 rfrelt pose\ I~ttle risk to pi temale
hoi\e\er.
to appear
mavlmall)
of appearance
SFmons
that are Inherent
In these hypothesized
retention
reproductively
to be attractive.
them with
In male mate tactics
are at-
caluable.
mhlch
youthful.
and healthful
1979)
HJ pothesis 3 hlales.
~111 engage III higher trequsnclel
In gsner,il
because ot the greater guarding DdMhlnh
(Dal\
fidelrt)
and Wilson
1976
hipotheslzed
reproductlte
WIlllam\ \e\
198.3 Tn\er\
I975
dltference.
bb d male pro\ldes
Cihl\elln hoL\e\er.
of her mate 3 resource\
this cue
ferndIe txtlcs
on pre\entlng rnd) center different
proximate
The prelent ~lthln
.md ma\
ulth
Bara$h
failures
1977
be sompromlsed
predlctl\e
Thu\.
1979.
I9791
of re-
pro\lde\
and should center
m‘tle dnd female act\ of retention
be performed
\\lth
equal
Thl\
If >exuCd In-
cue to the temale
dlso should evolve
act\
at mate
Slmons
Van Den Berghe
To the extent that male InfidelIt)
of retention
sexual InfidelIt on \e\
I972 197-l ma\
a poiiertul
direction
ot mdte guarding
costs a\soclated
frequency
both
but for
reason\
\tudles
were designed to eiamtnc
the context ot d larger conceptual
trarne\forh
tact!c\
cf ma!:: re:cnt;on
tHu>\
1986) Thl\
fr‘ime-
Tacks
work starts with reproducttvely Superordmate tactics
relevant
methods
for achtevmg
a strategy).
sumed by each tactic are used to accomplrsh taming
desirable
acquired
accomphshment tualtzatton
IS also consldered
of which
Inducements.
spedic
each goal
and threatening
prior
mating
effort
the strategy of Direct
Mate Concealment.
Re-
goal. the
and facthtates
Several
ac-
broad strategies
provtdtng
posttt\e
Inducements
strategy In turn IS composed
Guardmg.
of goals
offspring
to be an evoluttonary
fruits of that effort negative
acts suh-
Examples
toward this goal. such as direct guarding.
Each superordmate tlance.
protects
of the reproductive
may be directed
a goal). mtddle-level
and
mates. selectmg mates. and producmg
mates
295
goals or tasks at the htghest level
strategies (general methods for achieving
(specific
are attracting
of Mate Retention
for Instance.
of specific tactics
For
one can deploy tactics of Vtg-
or Monopohzatton
of mate’s time
’ He did not let her talk to other males at the party”
and
Acts such as ‘She called
to
make sure he was where he said he Mould be” compose the most subordinate level
and provide
the medium
through
evolve (Buss 1986. but see Symons goals or functions
of mate retention
Acts are expected Some may compel falter at this task
whtch
1987)
psychologtcal
mechanisms
It IS through specific acts that the
are realized
to differ m how c~ffi)clr~c thev are at retaining
one’s mate to adhere Throughout
to the mating bond. i%htle others
evoluttonary
history.
mdtvtdual
learning his-
tortes. or both. selection pressures should have favored effective less effective
tactics
Hypothesis
4
These constderattons
Acts assessed to be highly effective performed
more frequently
generate
at successfully
In the context
mates
tactics over
a fourth hypothesis
retannng
mates ~111 be
of mating relattonshtps
than HIII
acts assessed to be less effective As described tively relevant and females per]orm are
earlier.
human males and females
resources garnered and potenttally are predicted
to differ.
certain mate retention
therefore.
tactics.
differ In the reproduc-
lost through a mate
Males
not only m how often they
but also m IZON’~ffecf~~~~ such tactics
This leads to the final hypotheses
Hypothesis Tactics sources
5
of mate retention will
be
more
that Involve effective
for
provtdmg male
economtc
performers
and material than
for
re-
female
performers
Hypothesis Tactics
6
of mate retention
hancement
that Involve
of reproductive
ers than for male performers
sexual Inducements
value WIII be more effective
and apparent
en-
for female perform-
296
D hl
Buss
STUDY 1: A TAXONOhIY OF HUkIAN hl ATE RETENTION TACTICS AND ASSESSMENTS OF REPORTED FREQUENC5’ Rationale
Method for Obtaining
4cts of hlate Retention
297
Tactics of hlate Retention
Act Selection and Construction ot thl5 nomlndlon
Th2 goal
act5 ot m&r folm
prossdurs
prellmmar)
and-error ment5
taxonomy
Hould
redundant11
(2 g IO-1 reasonably
of hct~cs
be honorIficall)
considered acts
and could
IteratlLe
First.
) These
on her all
of \ihlch
ot
but trial-
tendenc)
of
state-
an observable
act
procedures
left
reduction
Here
ot
the large numbers
a5 \sere general
too Lague to constitute
to heep an ele dtstmct
rdngt:
studw
Ths construction
called
descrlptlon
acts were ehmlnated.
and 5tatements
a dl\erbs
~OI \ub\equrnt
td\onom\
ma)
be a more accurate
nominated
He like5
\+a‘, to Idrntlt\
that could be 11d
wt2ntlon
the ba5l5 for a prellmlnar\
this
of Tavonom)
retained
for
subsequent
>tudle\ Second
these
act clwers could
IO-1 dcts \\ele
Scrutln\
b2 partitioned
Into IL\ o broad
tt~trtrtprr/ltrrotrJ (acts Itclsc’\lltil
catsgotrzed
rationall\
of the I9 homogeneous duwted
c‘ltegol
toirard
tact>
tllcrrllplrl~ltlotl\
xt
Into I9 homogeneou,
clu5ter5
les-[ho52
one’5
mdtej
dlrectsd
suggested Invol\
and
tho52
to\iard
that the!
Ing ~rrferse~~rrtr/ Ing ttz-
In\ol\
wme-\e\
potential
compstitors) Third
tactic3
clasvfied
ulthln
Intersexual
(Vlgllance
exh
of these
mampulatlons
Conc2nlment
of hlate
Nt~gtrlr~ e /tzhc-twattrs Infidellt~
EmotIonA
rogation
of Competitor\)
(InfidelIt\
and SubmIssIon
and Debasement
listed
under
be not2d
such as Concrlalm2nt manlpulatlons
112re furthel
I and
Intra\e\ual
of Mate’s of hlate hiampuldtlon.
Se~rral
fat rNampl2
5lncr: theb
belong
to
and De-
Dl5plab.
Lo\2
Appearance
Time).
s Threat
Se\-
dnd Caring
function
Slmllarl\ rn tactics
Into Pttblrc-
partItIoned
Ph\ 5lcal Signals
‘5rpturl.s
of Po\5e55lon
and \‘lolrnceI
The \peclfic
of act5
In Tab12 I
that this prehmlnar\
comprtltor5 xts
further
Gtrtrttfrtlq
\~~trfr~ t’ Itufrrc-t~tttc’trt\ I Dsr ogatlon
Threats
dr2 shoiin
of hlate
as \rell
some specific
\\ers
mto Drtar
1
I\ somsi\ hat arbltrar\
of beha\lor
b)
Pumshment
Commmltment
Intrawxual
edch categor!
It should
hlonopollzatlon
SIgnal> of Po55esslon
Ornament,ttlon
to Competitors
and
of Phkwal
manlpulatlon\
of Pot $1’) TtotI (Verbal Mate
categor125
and P~srrr~ t’ Intftrt cttlet1f~ tResourc2
Enhancement
and Posses\l\e
broad
partltlonsd
Thrrat
I%mpulatlon
ual Inducements Intrase\ual
t\\o
Liere
taxonom). could
manlpulatlons.
b2 regardrd
to pre\cnt
argument5 other
l1h2 all tavonomles
of the Intrrse\ual
could
than those
a5 lntrasevual
acce55 to one s mat2 be marshaled
Into trhlch
the)
th‘it Her2
classified
The primark
value
pro\ Ides the most detailed pro\ldes vestigation research
a 5tartlng
pomt
and emplrlcal on performance
of thl5
prellmlndr\
tawnom) that
tawnom)
of m&2 retention
cdn be elaborated
evluatlon trequencle5
hotiever tactic\
and r2fined
and pro\ Ides d h2ut I\tic and tactic
effectl\eness
let
15 that
II
proposed
b) turther
In-
for conducting
Table
I
Taxonom!
of Tactics and Acts of hlate Retention
Inter5e\ual mampularmn~ Dlrrst guardmg \ &ince He called her ;I[ unexpected [Imel to see \rho she \\a~ \rlth He called her to mabc sure she \\as uhere >he said she uould he He had his fnends chccb up on her He vwoped through her personA bslongmgJ He qur~twned her about u ha1 \he dud \S hen the! *err: apart He dropped b\ unekpestedlb 10 we irhar she \\ds domg He read her personal mall He sra\ed SIOS 10 her H hlle the\ \terc dt rhe pars\ ~1 [he pan\ he did not lel her WI at hl\ s&r Conse~lmenr ot maw He did not rake her 10 the part\ \\hcrr: orhcr rnJe\ uould he pre>e:nr He rsfu\ed to In[rodu hlonopolize mdle ) [Ime He ,pent 41 hl> tree [Ime \rlth her SO thar ,hc could not meet anhone cl>e Hc Inv>lcd rh~r >hc SU\ A home \rlth him rather rhan gomg WI He monopollzcd her tlme d[ rhe xwal gdrhcnng He Insl~tcd thal shs ,pend Al her tree lime ulth him He \rould 1131 ICI her go out \rrthoul him Negdrl\e Inducemzn[> Thrcawn mtidellt\ Hc flirted nlth another \roman III tronr at her He >hourd Intcrcqr in other tiomcn to mahe her dngr\ He mcnt out u Ilh other \\omcn IO mdhe her ~caIous He ralhcd IO nnorhcr uoman al rhe part\ LO maks her ~c~4our Punish mdte 5 threar IO Infidcllr\ He became angrb u hen she flirted KU much He Ignored his mate u hen she ~rxted lllrtlng M irh others He threatentd 10 break up It she c\sr chcawd on him Hc telled ~1 her dtrer she shwed an Interest In orhcr men He >ald that he irould nc\rr tall, to her @aIn If he e\er ~a\$ her \rlrh wmeone else He hlr her u hen he z,iught her fl~flmg \rlrh wmeanc cl\e He becamc lealous \rhen rhe H~II~ out \iirhout him Emorwnal mampulnhon He cried u hen she wd rhe ml&r ga OUI \tlth >omc’one else Hs made her tee1 gtulr\ &out ralhlnp IO other men He told her he uould dw 11 >he exer lctr He rhrc~tencd IQ harm himbelt It yhe e\er let1 He pleaded thdr he could nor II\e ~\~rhout her Hc sncd In order to hcep her \rlrh him He rold her rhar >hc \~AS depsndem on her He prctcndcd IO he mad w th31 >hr \iauld tecl gu~lr\ Commitmcnl manlpul~illon He ashed her IO marr\ turn He gor her pregwnr SJ \he would SKIM \rnh him He told her [he\ needed pi LolaI comnulmenl 10 sach other She rold him >he ~\a. pregnant llwm appl~cAc to ferndIe onI\ I Drrogiuon ot compenlor\ Hc SUI doun the appsardncc ol other male\ He ~iartcd d bad rumor abw~ another m& Hc GUI do\\ n the orhcr gu\ 5 \lrength He pointed out 10 her the other gu\ , tla\i\ He told her th;lr [he other gu\ she \~a\ Interested In had slept !pcm ,I lot ol monc! gitt He bought her an expcnsl\e He houghr her a bauquer ot nouzrs Ht: rook her WI to a nlc‘t: re~ldurdm or: g ring nrshlassl Ht: bought her somrJe\!clr\ He bought her d >mall gitr
298
Table
I
(Confumed)
Intersexual mampulatlons Posltl\e mducements Sexual Inducements He ga\e m to her sexual requests He acted sexy to take her mmd off other guvs He pertormed sexual favors to keep her around He had a ph)slcal relatlonshtp uith her to deepen their bond He gave m to sexual pressure to keep her Enhancing phvwal appearance He made up his face look nice He dressed mcelv to maintain her interest He more the latest fashions to enhance his appearance He made sure that he looked nice for her He made hlmself extra attractive’ tar her Emphasize lobe and canng He told her that he loLed her He \\ent out of his ba) to be hnd nice and canng He complrmented her on her appearance He BS~S helpful Nhen rhe reallv needed it He dlsplabed greater afTectlon for her Submw,lon and debasement He told her that he would change in order to please her He became a sla\e to her He ga\e in to her e\er) alsh He went along with everything she sold He acted against his UIII to let her habe her Ma) Intrasexual mampulallons Public signals of possession Verbal signals of pos5esslon He Introduced her as his girl fnend (woman spouse etc ) He told his male tnends how much the\ uere in love He bragged about her to other guy5 He mentioned to other males that she was taken He told others the lntlmate things the) had done together Phb wal vgnals of possession He held her hand when other gubs were around He klrsed her u hen the other gubs mere around He held her closer nhcn another male \\alked mto the room He put his arm around her In front of others He sat next to her \rhen others were around Possessi\ e omamentation He asked her to uear hi5 Jacker He asked her to wear his nng He gate herleuelr! to slgnlfb that she \\as taken He wore her clothe5 In front of others He hung up a picture of her 30 other5 uould know she mas laben Negdtl\e rnducements Derogation of mate to competitor5 He told other gu)5 temble things about her 50 that the) uouldn I like her He told other gu) 5 that she \%as not a nice person He told other gu\s that she ear, 5tupld He told other gu\, she might ha\e a social disease He told other5 5he \\a5 a pain Intrasexual threats He I elled at the other gun 5 u ho looked at her He stared cold11 at the other gu\ who ua5 loobmg at her He threatened to hit the gu) uho Has making moves on her He ga\e the other gun a dirt) look uhen he loohed at her He told the other gu\ to stab aua\ from her He confronted the gu) 1%ho had made a pass at her Violence He hit the gu\ Hho made a pass at her He picked a fight ulth the gu\ \\ho \tas mtere5ted In her He got his friends to beat up the gu\ uho ua5 Interested In her He 1 andahzed the propert\ of the gu) who had made d pas5 at her He slapped the gub M ho made a pass at her
299
300
D Nl Bugs
Method for Obtaining One hundted
SubJects males
partvzlpated
nomlnatlon
Assessments ,ind t\\o
undergr~~du~~ts subtrcts
stage
that
latlon,hlp
The me&n dgs ~a\
~hrther
OI not the\
lvlthln
the p‘i\t
\ectt
tiiu
\ea14
ph\>lc,jl and \\lth
IX 9-I tSD
Subject\
I\ ho Indlcnted
\e\
\SSIIZ retained
tar thl\
h,id not been
rom,~ntlcc~ll\
~n\ol\rJ
the\
Iorwntlc
&out
In\ol\sd
\\t:~e y\sn
the pa>t
the p,lst t\ro \ex\
ln\oI\rmrnt
sight wtyect\
ktud\
I+
rcbtlon-
trlthln
h,ld been ~n\ol\ed
to the qus\twn
‘I qire~tlon-
In ‘I lomantlc
h,ld the\ dated ~lthln
\\ h,lt ftsqurnc\
past iear
fit Ft completed
rnmdll g.111 on her I spent ,i IOI 01 mww held her h,mJ \\ hen other gu\ \ \\ere ,tround I I I I
got her pregnant w \hz \roulJ 51d\ I\ lth mc gor m\ lrtends to be,u up the gut u ho ~33 Interc*tsd in her told the other gu\\ that >he might hake J. wc~~tl dwdse
htt her \rhsn I caght her fllrtlng \tlth wwieone elsz Appcd the gu\ who made a pa\\ nt her ~,rndnlrrrd the propert) al the gut uho made d pa\\ ;II her fold other gui, tcrrlhlc thtngr ahou~ her w the\ ~ouldn I Ilhr: her htt the gu) \rho made J PDF dt her retuwd to Introduce her IO m\ amwe\ hxends rtartrd J. bad rumor about awther male threatened to hxm m\wlf tf *he s\sr lett me fold her that the other gub \hc ~a5 Intetafed In has slept ulth nsarl\
Table 3
NO
hlosl and Least Frequent11
hlecm
hlo51 lrequentl~
;
1 18 J-t-4
0 70 0 70
133 3 29 1 29 3 IO
0:‘) 0 78 0 NJ 0 76
x
7 0-l
0 99
9 IO II
3 02 -’ 9x 2 96 289
0 I 0 0
6 7
I?
Led51 trequrntl\ I 00 I 3 I 00 ; I 00 -l I 00 i I 00 6 I MI 7 I 00 8 I 02 0 I 02 IO II I2
I o-l I o-1 I o-l
hlale Retention
Acts-Female
Sample
performed I ~a) 0 64
? 5-l
4 i
Reported
Ail
SD
I
3
r~erbune
90 00 79 86
performed 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 I) 00 0 00 0 00 0 1.t 0 I-1 I) I9 0 I9 0 I9
hslptul \\hrn he realI\ nwdrd II I made up m\ face to loob nice I compllmented him on hi5 ,ippcrrranLe I made wre that I looked n~cc for him I rn~ next to htm uhen other\ \\erc around I uent WI ol m\ ~a\ to he hand nice and caring I made m\wll extra attractt\e lor him I held his hand N hen other girls were around I bought him d small gltt I dre55cd nvxl\ IO malntdln hi% lntere5t I \iore the Inted la>hlon\ to enhance m\ appedrdncz I put rnb drm around htm I” tront 01 the others
I hit the girl M ho m,tde r~ pa,, at htm I pched a fight \\lth the girl \\ho \!d\ tntcroted In him I got pregnant SO that he \\ould >td~ ulth me I told other girls that he mtght hake J. WCIJI Jt>eaw I \andaltzed the propert\ ot the girl u ho had made ,I pas, dt him I threatened IO h‘trm m\selt It he c\er left me I \lapprd the girl \kho mddc a pnsr rlt him I got m\ trtcnd\ to beat up the gtrl N ho \~a\ Intere\ted in him Intererted in htm 4cpt \\ith nearl\ I told him th,tt the girl \rho ~a e\er\onz I \ellrrd ‘II the other girl \\ ho loohed at him I told the other girl\ th,it he ~a\ 4up1d I told the other grl\ to \I
use the tactic
the sex difference
that \\ere
along
tar the number
of the four specific
thdn ternale\
deed
of se\ differences
IeLel
purposes
Three more
in IJse of Tactics
dt the tactic
of each
Toral
reported
dnd \t\llshl\
Se\ Differences
that
reported
dnd nffectlonate
tactics
than ferndIe\.
Retentron
Tacks
\\ere
found
report
wing
Tactlcs
Table S
Sex DdTerences m Reported
Performance
Male5 t-test
No More
frequent
I
SD
male performance 2 IX
0 M
Mean
2 II
0 ‘6
3
I 91
0 98
4
2 I2
0 99
5
I 73
I 01
6
2 h9
0 x2
7
I 73
0 87
8
I 49
0 71
9
I 2.l
0 56
IO
I 45
0 77
II
I 12
0 39
I?
I 33
0 69
I 08
I3
I 27
0 61
I Oh
I4
I 3s
0 66
I I3
I 0-t
3 48
I 27
0 67
2 06
2
-4
3
_ 2 94--
2 4s
0 9h
2 96
.l
_ 2 88”
2 67
0 72
3 IO
i,
-2
I 8-i
0 85
2 31
6
_ 2 33***
I 92
0 98
2 38
7
_ 2 13””
I 00
0 00
I 12
8
_ 2 01***
I 41
0 51
I
‘phe sod I acted agaln>t m\ HIII to let her hd!e her \\a\ I bought her some teuelr\ te B ring nechlacel I bought her a bouquet ot Ilo\\ ers I asked her to \irar ml Jacket I tooh her out to a n,Le restaurant I pcrtormed \e\uaI fator\ to keep her around I pa\ e her Jebelr\ to \lgnlt\ that ,hs Ha\ taben I told the other guts to he spend all ot her tree time \\lth me
I made up ml face to look nice I uore hts clothes m front 01 other% I uore the latest tashlons to enhance ml appearance extra I made ml self attracttke for him I flirted with another male III front of him I told ml temale friends hou much ue uere In lo\ e I hit htm H hen I caught htm tllrttng ~tth someone el>e I told others he aa\ a pain
Se1 differences \peclfic
ln
detail
Those
greater
male reports
such
Greater
,rgnlfisant of xts Ang
male
\rlth
e\er\
threats
to hit the other
are
gu\
frequenci
and debasement
thing
and
\lolence
are
plchmg
5
are strongI!
that she said and acting dlspla!
and nice dinners and
rn greater
,
in Intrasexual
threatening
differences
reporting
for each ot the 10-l
rn performance
of submis\lon
as purchastngJei%elrb
difference>
\iet-e conducted
se\ dlfference4
shwing
In acts such a\ going his IVIII
t-te\t>
acts
specljic
acts to e\amlne
The seen
against
15 Seen m act)
tor the female seen
a fight
In acts
~lth
Se\
such
as
the potentA
poacher Greater act\
fem,lle-
of nppe‘~rance
fa\hwns tllrtlng Lo elicll
lhan mk-reported
.md m,thrng mirth other ‘1 JScdOUS
pertoi
C~lterCltwn such ,I\ rn,Aing hei\elf
men
In front
rZ‘ICtlOl1
e\trrl
,lttrCtcll\e
ot her pxlner
m‘tnce
I\ wxn
up the f,rcs tar >eem\
promlnentll
111
weCI, -LX [he late>1 p,trtwr
The ~1 ot
speclfic,tll\
desIgned
hsr
Tactm
Relahonshlp senousness and mate relet&on factlcs rntenslty
and serwusnes4
of the romanttc
mate guarding and retcntlon ablht)
of Being
correlated females
for
tactics
of the
results
sekes
Mantpulatlon
Resource
D~spl,t\
pears to be consIstentI) are not srgruficantl~
Sew4
correlated
C’erbJ
dnd Ph\blc,ll tnctlc
11tth relatlonshlp
roSlg-
th,it dp-
serlou~ness
Appearance
lelatlon5hlp
the
Commitment
The onI\
and
\\lth
e~psc14l)
of \ lgllancc
correlated
\tlth
\+ere
thrlt apprx
and Gale.
Inducement
correlated
Prob-
h
dre posltl\el\
Orndmentatlon
negatIveI)
of hlate
IS Derogation
In Table
the tactics
Lo\e
and Posxss~~e
In\ ol\ed Closenesy
of the I9 tactics fat males and
The correlations \\lth
the
are ,_~issoc~ated i\lth
ot hlonth\
Rrl,itlon5hlp
of exh
of mate retention
are those
nals of Possession.
,md
are sho\in
of the relatIonshIp
both
I’ear
reports
These
rrL~tlonshrp
305
u hethel
To e\amrne
the \at table\
m One
performance
separate11
Many bust
Together
wth
seriousness
tactics.
of hlate Retention
Enh,mccmrnt
5erlou>nes>
DISCUSSION The result5 uates
of Study
I lend support
use the tactic
undergraduates pearance
to the hlpothesls
D~splai
also support
Enhancement
Inducement males
The\
do
In contrast.
mates
of Resource
Threat
to use thl5 tactic
Perhaps
the most strlkmg
slgmficantlq finding
to emerge
males and females
are m the acts and tactic> The correlation
females
for mean performance
slgmficant
sex difference,.
able slmrlarity thl5 stud)
score tactics
relationships erall)
se\ difference of all
correlation\
\vlth
offsprmg
more
Stud)
report
do
I 1s how 5lmllx
usmg to retain
IO3 xts
betliren that In
In this sample their
In mate retention
often
relatIonshIp
male5
5p1ts
and and
of se\erdl
\how
remarh-
mates
Indeed.
tactics
using d
serIousne54
come Into pIa\
potential
It uas not predicted
In this sample
IO-1 dctb betireen
long-term
Indeed
using to retain
suggest that such txtxs
produce
although
the1 report
female UQ Ap-
male5 do to letdIn
than females
from
the\
the
than
use the tactic of Se\uA
IS + 0 91 Thl5 suggests
no overall conslstlng
The significant retention
across
male5 and females
m the tactic5
found
summarl
than
irould more
more
th‘tt temale5
b\ the5e dat,h
guard
then- mates
more
that females
more than males 15 talslfied
appear
that male undelgrndmates
the hcpotheses
and InfidelIt\
the hypothesis
to retam
Since than
In advance
prlmarll!
long-term
rslatlonshlp5
5hott-term 15 congruent
and mate In berIou5
,lffalr5 \ilth
thl5
genfinding
dn r\olut~~na~q
account Obtammg provides performed ferences seriousness
report5
an important more
of performance first
and less frequently.
and the manner
In i\hlch
of the relatIonshIp
ance frequency
does
frequencies
step In Identlf)lng
not \leld
which
direct
tactic5
reported
Holteever
of xt\ which
she\\
performance
assessment
Information
about
ot mex dlfto the
perform-
effectl\e
each
306
Burr
D nl
STUDY 2: JUDGIIIENTS
OF TACTIC EFFECTIF ENESS
Goals and Rationale The
purpwz\
of Stud\
conwkred pro\ de
mwt
2 ~\e~ts
dnd ledbt
an Indeprndent
d~\plav dppenrdnce
te\t of the w\
more
trequrntl\
u hlch
‘tc‘t\ Ietdlnlng
d~ttslsntlatrd
h\ pothew\
thar act, ~udgsd th,m .cct\ ~udgsd
mates
to be Ir\\
21 to
ot te\ource
,mci Infldrllt!
to be hIghI\
‘II~‘
,rnd txtlcs
‘it *Iucces~tull\ W\LIJI Inducement
snh,lncrment
and ?J to test the h\pothwh performed
I) IO dentIt\
sttecti\r
thre,lt
cffect~\t:
~111 be
ettsctl\r
Method Subtect\
.kbJecls
and 3J mdes I9
22
Design
(SD
for Stud\
= 3 651 Sutgect\
The design
he\ ofsutyect
2 belt:
none ot N horn hd
(male
of Stud\ femaleI
46 undergrdudtr
pnrtlclpCltrd
~eit:
leGed
~ttkisnt~
In Slucl\
In group\
26 temdls~
I The rnr‘ln
ianging
from
2 ~\a> a 2 x 2 In Lshlch the first and the Second \\as se\ ofactor
,tgs
\\:I\
h to IO tnstor
(male.
\\‘I\
ternale)
Tactrcs of hldte Retention
307
Results Rebabd@ bath
of act effectrvenesspdgments
1951) Mere computed
These
rellabllltles
are 0 90 and 0 89 for male judge5
female
actors
female
judges are 0 96 ;Ind 0 89
abllltv
can be obtained
retaining
Alpha rellablht\
respectIveI)
The
correspondmg
regarding
ActsJudged affectionate
to be hIghI)
effective
those of violence
telling others she
wch
actors.
IS
ActsJudged
Include
herself
making
acting sex)
Least
effective
female
I I I I I I
-1-l 39 25 2-1 I8 6?
I I I I I I I I I I I I
0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 I 0 I 0
29 47 56 66 72 Y? I2 95 I5 7x 23 93
I I I I I I I I I I I I
I 01 0 8X I 8X
caring.
for males
Ineffective
and lovmg are also Judged to be Other
attractl\e acts parallel
Male
of mate to others
hlghlk effectwe
female
* dressing nicely to maintain least-effectl\e
acts his
and making
up her
male xts
In the
4cts of hlate Retentlon Act
SD
0 5-l 0 81 0 71
kind
derogation
to be relativeI\
to take hrs mind off other women.
Most and Least Effectme Mean
Slmllarlv.
one’s mate
extra
to be least effectl\e
and temale actors
and compllmentar)
For femdle
face
coefficients
\\ hlch act\ are more and IesS effectl\e
through personal mall and belongIng\
Interest.
ratings of male and
rellAllt\
mates
to be most and least effective
(e g
(Cron-
These results suggest that composite
A ctsJudged to be most and least effech ve
Include
coefficients
tor each ot the four cells In the 2 x 2 matrix
~rls helptul Hhen bhe realI\ needed II \rent out ol m\ \rab to be kind nlcr and carmg told her th,rt I bed her dl\pla\ed grrarer Aecttan lor her compllmrnted her on her appearance ashed her to mdrrb me Introduced her a3 rn) gllltrlend i\\omnn qxxtse ctc told m\ male trwnds hou mush me uere 111 lme bought her a bouquet of flwers dressed nIceI\ to maintain her mterest made sure that I looked nice tar her told her that I trould change m order to please her
hit her N hen I caught her nu-trng uith someone elvz read her personal mail snooped through her pelwnal helongmg~ LandJtzed the propert) of the gun \I ho h,+d made J pass at her did not let her talb to other male\ uent out II tth other women to mnhe her _tealour told the other guts that the \\a> \tupld told others she \%a\ d pain told others the mtlmate thing\ we had done together \rould not let her go out ~rtthout me shoued an Interest In other women to mabe her angrb slapped the man \\ ho mdde a pas3 al her
1
308
D nl
Bus\
I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Tactw
Table 9
Dfferences
m Percened
Effectl\eness
for Male and Female
hlals ALlOr hlsnn
Se1 dlfferetu-es
dct ettecti\rnesh
dstnll
\\ere
t-te\tS
\ignlticc~nt
The greater se\ernl of tactics t~\e
for
conducted
drftetrncr~
Interesting
These
femalepattrt
Speclficall~ ternales
than
tar
tar exh xe
dnd trmdltl
ns that dd males
SD
F
the w\
J~ffe~ence~
pertotmer~
In prrdtsr
ot the 1111ac‘t~ T\\ent\-sl\
\ho\\
n in Tdder
than male-percel\ed making
for
male
Aclar
hlean
To r\,tmlnt:
m pert e~ved act effet II wIess
in p~2tcei\ecl
Actors
Female
SD
309
of hlate Retentm
up one 4 face
from
rehults
the broader
IS ~udgrd
mates
shwsd
II
act effectl\enes\
not emerge
In ret,wmg
IO ,lnd
to
Attempts
be
shw
analis
more
sffec-
to mahe
the
310
Table
D
IO
Rl
Buss
\e\
Differences
In -\CI Effectl\eness-Aits
Belleted
IO be hlore Effectlre
for hlales
Tactm
Table II
Sex Dtfferences
m 4ct Effectt\eness--Acts
Belleled
of Mate Retention
to be More
Effective
311
for
Females
performance results
and acts judged
strongly
performed
support
more
frequentI\.
few high frequent\-low
hrgh effectiveness that
same-sex
actor
correlation
correlations
13 +0 81
mate retention
of umt)
suggests
J\S nell a\ a te\\
also computed
than ~lth
male
IS +0 67 ncros\
N hlch xts
act\
frequencies
effectl\ene\s
prediction
effectlbenel,
the lath
\iere
performance
betbeen
\peclfic
although
effectl\enes\
+0 82. the corresponding effectiveness
for females
that effective
These xts
are
room
lo\\
for d
frequenci-
act\
The cross-sex hypotheslh
to be effectlie
the h) pothe\ls
These
Flnall\v
female
g~\s onl!
the correlation
the 10-l mean\
are considered
and
actor
hIghI
~11th
par&d
1s
and male actor
support
to the more
male and female
IS +O 84. suggesting
The
effectiveness
frequencb
hetireen
to be effectlie
more
actor effectl\eness
tot- female
result\
to test the more \peclfic
correlate
opposlte+e\
frequencre, correlation
\\III
actor
high congruence
In
tor m,des and female3
Discussion Stud)
7
ua5
are more about
de\gned and
which
effective effective
to obtdin
an a\\essment
less effectr\e.
tdctlcs
are more effectlie
acts ~111 be performed sexes
in Judged
be\
dlfterentldted
predIctIon\
and to test the h) pothe\ts
more frequentI)
Result5 suggest that LoLeCnre
est for both
of w hich acts of m&e retention
to test specific
effectiveness
that hIghI)
than dctsJudged
and Resource in rebining
to be less
D~spla\ are the highA mate
In contrast
312
D hl
GENERAL
Buss
DISCUSSION
313
Tachcs of hlate Retentmn
while
male txt~cs
I9721
In addltton.
of m&e
retention
undergraduate
frequencies
of Intr,i5e\uA
the ;Inal\\ts
of m&e guarding
et aI
1982 Fllnn In pre>s) Several
predlctl\e
In the context
Future resexch
1 account
a finding contradictor! nation 14 that \e\eral the act
1 ga\e
b\ ,ome
wbJect5
to the e\olutlonar\
Ho\re\er.
Another
to admit
gltlmate
of Mates
latlonshlp
These
The methods cwcumvented deslrabthty
doe5 not accord i+lth
thew
result5 represent In reporting
bet\\een
ot temporary
Lo\e
Ornnmentatlon
effectiveness
~lth
that tactics
romantlc
research
female5
InfidelIty
First.
and not ha\e
by females
Verbal and Phq wal
of mate retention
cor-
Onl)
the seriousness
several llmltattons
smce self-report>
De-
of the recome
to pro\lde
mto less
full or conwous
that could be
were used Second.
5oclal
subJects
accers to the acts of
use Future studies could protitabl)
and to pro\lde
use multlple
methods te g . direct
I\we5
an Independent
test of the evolutlon-
an Index of the effectl\eness
of each act
Judges agreed well Hlth each other on the relative
tactic \i hen pet-formed Threat
of the
partner5
I contain
of dcts of mate retention
a more effective
usmg
ot lasting pair bond5 and conslderably
used In Stud\
Independent
of
or le-
were all posltlLel\
for both male5 and females
correlated
to address the5e methodological
and tactic
artifacts
mhlbtttons
the seriousness
data sources (e g . b) friends or spou5esl and different
based hypotheses
Inhtbl-
and Care
results wggest
2 \\\a> de5lgned
be more
account must annit repltcatlon
could habe biased reports of act performance
observation)
ma\
ii htle 5uch reportorial
data sources
serlousne\s
they actually
sexual
Display
~as negatl\el\
could be felt-deceived
Stud)
I performed
act
14 thdt female5
dtfference,
and Possessive
In tuture
mate retention
been Interpreted
manv tactics of mate guarding
pla) most strongly m the context 50 In the context
eupla-
For example
of performmg
Resource
Signals
\%lth relatIonshIp
rogation
Whether \e\
and multiple
Tactics of Vyylance related
used
and the frequenci
Possession
failure
shoii 5 greater male than female
1 also found 5trong correlations
Stud,
5am-
wggest
predlctl\e
ma!, ha\e
Inducements.
for th14 e\olutlonar)
methods
relatlonshlp
hoiie\sr
One powble
thl> interpret&Ion
explanation
sewal
for male5
methods
problems
alternatl\e
request5
\i hlch A50
powble
wng
(Ion5 do not occur the particular
composed
more than dud female\.
h\ pothesls
land le55 dmblguous)
favors to keep her [hlrn] around reluctant
tDnl\
a\ g~\mg m to the female \ request to abstain rather than
for the 5peclfic
pertormance
\rlth
~ealou5\
dct\ ma! ha\e been irorded cimbrguou5lv
her request to conwmate the finding
rewlts
mo5t Important
Inducements
In to her [hi>] sewal
higher
congruent
dlffetence5
The
~\‘as that males repel ted using \e\ual
finding
using dlfferentl)
of thete \e\
iTn\ers
tepolted
of male 5ewal
tallures and unantlclp‘lted
to this e\olutlonat
pro\ Iwn
more than females
threat5 dnd \ lolencs-_,i
pie\ could te5t the genelallti Ilmlt5
center on resource
male\
Resource
Dlspla)
Mas Judged to be
b) male5 than when performed
was Judged to be more effectl\e
Both result5 support the evolutwnarv
bb
Hhen performed
predlctlons
314
iI
hl
Stud\
Buss
2 also produced
to1 the percel\ed 1LiCtlc ‘I rewlt xldltlon mdde
up ml
lutionarb
nice ” Thew
se\ dlffercnce
mdn [\iomen]
Interest
In othr1
all ludged
th,ln
result\
from
\trongI)
Stud\
quench
eftectlte I \\1th
I
In
more
cf-
problem\
for thl\
I
e\o-
Indt\ tdual learning appe.ir
attracting
197-l)
nhlch
(Bu\\
yhw
dnce frequence\ No stgnlficmt
perfwm~nse
wgge\t
that
not c\clu~bel\ slmrlantle~ In thrs \t‘ln. tnctlc
rnJe\
for xt
lx
th,in
dnd et‘13
or derogating
the!
\\ere
using
to rst,un
con~drred
In the txt1c4
for rrportrld
to be
psrform-
the cotrsl.itlon
15 +O S-1
het\\txn male\ ,Ind female>
tound
or totA
\,miple\ d m&
undtxgradudtrs
report
act effectr\rne\s
txtlcs xti\it\
of mdte The
w\,tl\
Thee
rrtentlon \ho\i
tithe man\
dlfferencrs lx
w\e\
that \\t:ie
noted
that
end \!a\
Lo\r alro
not antic1pAzd
and care pro\ 1de the mwt reproductiveI\
tewurces
and ternale
frequencre\
primniiI\
It rn,i) both
e\rmilne
t‘i\h\ wch
relc\,lnt
etfectr\sneb\
,rt le,~\t 1n thrx
01 r\rn
ot thaw
tru1tfull\
m&2 ;incl tern&z ,+nd ,tcts
\1mrlarlt\
OI t*t(rl/ drfferrncer
total
tactic-findtng~
grr‘lt
bet\\wn
14 +0 c)I
ad‘~ptedne\\
19X6,1
In the IKIIC~
alw
fre-
.I m‘itr
m,mprr/~lrr\ to poacher5
th*lt a profitable
llmltatwn
4merlcan
wntatl\ct
5uggrst
of coupled
that com-
on the ple5ent
tlveness i leld a calculus of L alues b! N hlch wsceptlblllt) prrdlcted.
as ivere and mon-
should be those u hose mate5 fall to
txt~c\.
retention
iilth
And. bawd
of
meth-
The same
poaching
should use material
poach
\,~lus
reseach direction w5ceptlbls
for sexual
hlale poxher
female\
Act frequency
tu tactics ot poaching
be ,ldvanced
ncce5~ to rsproductl\e
tdctlc usage
The occurrence
ImplIes the presence of poacher5
for mate-guarding
munlcdte
betirern
315
couple\
od5 ccm be dpplled u Ith equal Inclswene5s se\
RelentIon
here
dlrcct beha~loral
mate
FInall)
an
te g . report5 bv spouse
retention
and
observation) their
relatl\e
effectiveness Mate guarding
IS a complev
process
Dal)
and Wilson
(19831 note that
316
D hl
Bus
REFERENCES
-
And Cld~h IW-1x3
Cronbdch hl
H
The act Irequens\
19x3
L J Coetklenl 33-l
Dal\
h
dlpha dnd Ihe
IYII
anll \\ ilbon
hl
St,\
E~ol~rrorr
Tactws of hlate Retentton
317