The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0034-6659.htm
NFS 41,5
Functional foods An empirical study on perceived health benefits in relation to pre-purchase intentions
308
Joanne Labrecque HEC, Montre´al, Canada, and
Sylvain Charlebois University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada Abstract Purpose – Functional foods, also known controversially as “phoods,” are perceived by many as the food industry’s response to consumers’ increasing desire to make healthier eating choices. The objective of the present study is to determine the influence of the production technology used to make functional foods on the perceived health value of functional foods. Design /methodology/approach – To meet the objectives of the study, the paper employs an exploratory study with six conditions. The two factors addressed were the added nutrient (lycopene and beta-carotene) and the degree of production technology (low, medium, and high). Lycopene and beta-carotene were both added to two functional foods with different health features, which in this study were orange juice and apple pie. The use of this latter factor supposed that the level “low” implied a product which was improved by adding a food that naturally contained a nutrient, the level “medium” implied that the nutrient was added in the laboratory, and the level “high” refers to an ingredient whose genetic code had been modified in order to introduce the gene producing the nutrient. In order to reduce the effect of the order of presentation of the technology levels, the sequence of levels was randomized. Findings – The results show that perceived health benefits and intention to purchase are not so much influenced by what we pose as graduated stages of production technologies as by a perceived dichotomy between natural and artificial foods. The results also show the extensive mediating effect of perceived risks and benefits on the relationship between experimental conditions, perceived health benefits, and intent to purchase. The results also reveal that pre-purchase intentions of functional foods are more noteworthy for orange juice, which has a usefulness valence, than for apple pie, which has a less healthy epicurean valence. Originality/value – This study has various strengths, including a novel intervention that addressed a timely topic for which few data are currently available. The sale of functional foods is a complex practice. This exploratory study took a few steps toward understanding how health benefits of functional foods are perceived and how these perceptions can be better understood by food manufacturers and consumers in today’s society. Keywords Functional foods, Consumer behaviour, Risk perception, Purchasing intentions, Food industry Paper type Research paper
Nutrition & Food Science Vol. 41 No. 5, 2011 pp. 308-318 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0034-6659 DOI 10.1108/00346651111170905
Introduction Recent food crises triggered by diseases such as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy, better known as mad cow disease, and the avian influenza pandemic have impacted consumer confidence towards food safety (Berg, 2004). This uncertainty has had a significant impact on consumers’ food selection criteria. At the same time, the emergence of new varieties of foods stemming from new technological methods of production,
particularly genetically modified (GM) foods, raises questions about the long-term effects of these foods on consumer health. This change and uncertainty is driven by consumer concern about food variety, safety, and nutritive content, concerns which reflect consumers’ new demands of food producers. Consumers are preoccupied not only by the safety valence of food products, but also by their health valence. It is argued that the balance of risks and benefits linked to the food sector has been substantially modified over the last few years, and that the perceived quality of “healthiness” in a food product has now become the consumer’s main motivation in their food choice (Bech-Larsen and Grunert, 2003). Other factors also contribute to increased health awareness in consumers. Over the past decade, we have witnessed a nutritionalisation of the food supply. In the last decade, Consumers seem to be more concerned about nutrition. Pressures created by demographics have also significantly impacted the way consumers perceive food health benefits. The growing costs of public health systems and the increasing numbers of elderly people in society underline the importance of dieting and healthy lifestyles (van Arnum, 2004). This segment of the population has specific dietary needs because they want to enjoy a better quality of life for a longer duration. (Saunier and Dore´, 2002). The purchasing power of the baby boom generation is also changing how consumers perceive food health benefits (Casadesus et al., 2002; Elsner, 2002). Moreover, people are becoming more aware of the growing obesity problem in North America and its roots in consumers’ diets. In 2001, 67 percent of Americans were either overweight or suffering from obesity. In the last few years, so-called “functional” food products, also known as “phoods” to acknowledge the role of pharmaceutical companies, have become more readily available in the Western hemisphere (Dixon et al., 2006). Functional foods are the result of supplementing foodstuffs with nutraceuticals or a bioactive ingredient to deliver health benefits. As such, they represent one of the food industry’s answers to new consumer concerns in food-related matters. Functional foods offer the perception that the food industry is removing less desirable elements in foods (fats, sugars, sodium, etc.) and adding more sought-after ingredients (Mulry, 2002). Heasman and Mellentin (2001) argue that consumers are being enticed to consider food in a different light, that is, to believe that disease can be ameliorated or prevented by way of judicious food choices. In other words, these foods come attached with generous promises: they can allegedly heal the body and prevent disease. However, some scholars suggest that these health promises have lead to scepticism and mistrust in consumers (Kartens and Belz, 2006). Before 1995, the food industry focused its research primarily towards extracting less healthy ingredients to create more nutritious products for consumers. With functional foods, the focus now lies on adding beneficial ingredients to achieve the same results. Dixon et al. (2006) argue that “phoods” will never replace conventional food products because consumers are increasingly asked to make more complex decisions about a rising amount of food choices. Some research shows that in order to market functional foods efficiently, food marketers must gauge cross-cultural variance of functional food acceptance (Labrecque et al., 2006). The literature on functional foods is sparse and currently there is no established definition of functional foods. For the purposes of our research, we use the nuanced, economical definition of Doyon and Labrecque (2005) as a benchmark:
Functional foods
309
NFS 41,5
310
A functional food is, or appears similar to, a conventional food. It is part of a standard diet and is consumed on a regular basis, in normal quantities. It has proven health benefits that reduce the risk of specific chronic diseases or ill states in addition to its basic nutritional functions.
As mentioned by Saher et al. (2004), the majority of studies on functional foods focus on demonstrating their effects on health rather than on the relationship between functional foods and consumers. Health is at the heart of consumers’ dietary concerns and functional foods represent a manifested technological virtue (Bech-Larsen and Grunert, 2003). Bech-Larsen and Grunert (2003) maintain that the health value that consumers attribute to a food item depends upon, in part, the type of transformation to which the food item was subjected. The perception of a food item’s health value is influenced by its nutritional enrichment through technological processes. The technological connotations inherent to functional foods are addressed in the literature, which provides a methodological foundation for our study. We have utilised these connotations to set clear objectives for our study. The present research therefore takes an interest in the following questions, as suggested by some prevalent themes: . What is the impact of the production technology used to make functional foods on the health value perceived by and buying intentions of consumers? . What is the mediating role of the risks and benefits perceived in the relationship existing between the production technology and the perceived health value and buying intentions of consumers? . Is the observed relationship influenced by the belief that the functional food is healthy or not healthy? Methodology Design and data gathering To meet the objectives of the study, we opted for an exploratory study with six conditions. The two factors addressed were the added nutrient (lycopene and beta-carotene) and the degree of production technology (low, medium, and high). Lycopene and beta-carotene were both added to two functional foods with different health features, which are, in this study, orange juice and apple pie. The use of this latter factor supposed that the level “low” implied a product which was improved by adding a food that naturally contained a nutrient, the level “medium” implied that the nutrient was added in the laboratory, and the level “high” refers to an ingredient whose genetic code had been modified in order to introduce the gene producing the nutrient. In order to reduce the effect of the order of presentation of the technology levels, the sequence of levels was randomized. The data collection took place in a supermarket located in the Canadian city of Montreal in 2005. In order to be eligible, participants had to be at least 18 years old and be partly or totally responsible for food purchases in their respective household. Individuals were randomly approached when they entered the supermarket and a total of 187 questionnaires were completed. Measurement scales Dependent variables The health value perceived or attributed to the product was measured by means of a likert scale from 1 to 7 (low to high; not at all healthy to healthy). Finally, the buying intentions towards the foods presented were measured by three items.
Perceived risks and benefits We used several scales because very few studies have measured the evaluation of benefits perceived by the consumer towards functional foods. The first scale was used by Verbeke (2005). The scale was intended for a general evaluation of functional foods, and required adaptation in order to evaluate our products. We also used the four-item scale used by Verbeke (2005), which also measures the perception of consumers on the positive impact that functional foods can have on their health. Finally, we added one of seven factors, namely “Functional Foods as part of a healthy diet.” from the scale of attitudes towards functional foods developed by Urala and Lahteenmaki (2004). The perceived benefits towards functional foods are measured in our questionnaire by 15 items using three different scales. To address the perceived risks, we used another of the scale factors developed by Urala and Lahteenmaki (2004): “Absence of nutritional risk in functional foods.” This factor contains three items and measures the nutritional risk attached to the consumption of functional foods. We also used the item of “process-related risks” created by Bredahl (2001) to measure the perceived risks relating to the technology used to manufacture the food in question. Finally, we added a last item with an economical element. Because we did not want to indicate the price of our products in our questionnaire, we could not ask the consumer if he or she considered these items to be expensive. We bypassed this problem via the following wording: “This orange juice/apple pie is expensive to produce.”
Functional foods
311
Results Manipulation check The two items in the manipulation check are found in the fourth question of the first section of the questionnaire. We completed an exploratory factorial analysis in order to determine the number of factors (Table I). The factor extracted from this latter analysis is clear, and involves the level of technology necessary to produce a particular product. The variance explained by this factor is 87.6 percent. In order to complete the manipulation check (Table II), we must calculate an average of these two items for the factor to carry out the analysis of the variances. Notice that the ANOVA is significant. Table III then depicts the comparison by pairs. The results presented above show that ANOVA is significant. The study of the comparisons by pairs also illustrates that all combinations of technologies are significant. We therefore consider that the results of the manipulation checks are conclusive and that they validate our experimental design. The results also confirm the hoped-for scale in the factor related to the production technology. Manipulation check factor (Correlation of 0,88) Wording 1 ¼ requires little technology, 7 ¼ requires advanced technology 1 ¼ requires simple technology, 7 ¼ requires complex technology
Loadings 0.936 0.936
Note: The variance explained by the factor is 87.6 percent according to the extraction method “principal components” and the rotation method “direct oblimin”
Table I. Result of factorial analysis applied to questions in the manipulation check
NFS 41,5
312
Lastly, we measured the perceived importance of the tested products in a daily well-balanced diet on a scale from 1 to 7. The orange juice obtained an average score of 4.64 (standard deviation of 1.51) while the apple pie was perceived as less healthy with an average score of 2.86 (standard deviation of 1.78). The difference observed between these two averages is very significant ( p , 0.001) and the result thus confirms the orange juice as a healthy choice and the apple pie as a less healthy choice, as perceived by the respondents. Discussion Impact of production technology of functional foods on perceived health value and buying intentions. As stipulated by the research hypotheses, production technology has a significant impact on this study’s dependent variables (Tables IV and V). It is important to underline the minimal discriminatory power of the added nutrient to the values taken by these same dependent variables. Thus, production technology is a dominant factor in the determination of attitudes towards the product, perceived health value, and buying intentions of consumers. These results agree with those of Bech-Larsen and Grunert (2003) who claim that, in addition to the health benefits attributed to functional foods, the evaluation of these foods by the consumer is dependent upon the industrial processing methods used.
Table II. ANOVA results, manipulation check
Table III. Results of comparisons by pairs, technology level of manipulation check
Table IV. Validation of hypotheses – perceived health value – Juice and Pie
Sum of squares
Degree of freedom
Between the groups Inside the groups Total
48.41 722.76 771.17
2 366 368
(I) Type of production technology used
(J) Type of production technology used
Low
Medium High Low High Low Medium
Medium High
Average square F-value 24.21 1.98
Average difference (I-J)
12.26
Standard deviation
2 0.36 2 0.89 0.36 2 0.52 0.89 0.52
0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18
Experimental threshold 0.000
p-value 0.043 0.000 0.043 0.004 0.000 0.004
Hypotheses
Orange juice
Apple pie
Impact of production technology (H.1.1.2) Mediating effect of perceived risks Mediating effect of perceived nutritional benefits Mediating effect of perceived restorative benefits
Confirmed * Confirmed * Confirmed * Confirmed *
Non-confirmed Non-confirmed Confirmed * Non-confirmed
Note: Significant at: a ¼ *0.05 and * *0.10
The clear prevalence of the impact of production technology on the added nutrient in our study demonstrates that the consumer ascribes some importance to the technology, regardless of the health benefits promised by the added nutrient. We believe that the results also corroborate Bech-Larsen and Grunert (2003) when they maintain that the recognized health benefits of functional foods can be supplanted by their non-natural quality as perceived by the consumer. The functional extension of a product can therefore be beneficial, but our results lead us to believe that this type of effect is more largely due to the degree of production technology. We note, however, that Canadian legislation, despite increasing pressure, does not yet force food retailers to indicate the presence of GM foods or the type of production technology. It is also important to notice in the analysis of our dependent variable averages that the low degree of technology used stands out to a larger extent from the medium and high degrees, while the gap is much less apparent between the medium and high degrees. Furthermore, the methodological choice of the experimentation allowed us to recognize that each respondent would evaluate only one technological degree. We can therefore conclude that the consumers did not perceive three distinctive degrees of technology (low-medium-high) but rather a dissimilarity between natural (low) and non-natural (medium-high). This dichotomy also explains the smaller gap between the medium and high technologies. The degree of technology bears a health connotation because the technology has an impact on the perceived health value. Moreover, newer technologies are considered more unnatural, and the perceived health value of these is lower. Distinctions among technologies, as we originally imagined, does not seem to go beyond the duality of natural/non-natural products. The heterogeneity dictum of functional foods in terms of product technologies is consequently corroborated by these results. Overall, our results are in accordance with the arguments put forth by several authors (Cardello, 2003; Bech-Larsen and Grunert, 2003; Brunsø et al., 2002; Bredahl, 2001). Based on the results of this study, production technology is central to product evaluation. This allowed us to measure the health valence of a food. As for attitudes towards the added nutrient, we noticed that the results are consistent with our hypotheses. Beta-carotene is a nutrient well-recognized by the population and lycopene has recently garnered the interest of researchers in nutrition. These two antioxidants were the subject of a relatively similar and favourable description in our questionnaire. Their respective health benefits were clearly identified. Therefore, it is not surprising that the added nutrient did not have a significant impact on the evaluation of products. Moderating effect of perceived risks and benefits on the relationship between production technology, buying intentions, and perceived health value. As demonstrated in
Hypotheses
Orange juice
Apple pie
Impact of production technology (H.1.1.3) Mediating effect of perceived risks Mediating effect of perceived nutritional benefits Mediating effect of perceived restorative benefits
Confirmed * Confirmed * Confirmed * Confirmed *
Non-confirmed Non-confirmed Non-confirmed Non-confirmed
Note: Significant at: a ¼ *0.05 and * *0.10
Functional foods
313
Table V. Validation of hypotheses – buying intentions – juice and pie
NFS 41,5
314
pre-purchase intentions, perceived risks and benefits often have a mediating role between the technology factor and the dependent variables, particularly in the case of the orange juice. Furthermore, we highlight the strong mediating effect of the benefits, both nutritional and restorative, and the perceived risks in the correlation between product technology and dependent variables. This signifies that these same dependent variables are connected to the perceived risks and benefits, but also indicates that the effect of the technology level on the dependent variables becomes null or very low when they are controlled. These variables intervene in the relation and acquire an explanatory power. Our results therefore prove that the perceived risks and benefits are not only linked to the manipulated factors and the dependant variables, but also play a formal mediating role in the relationship between these factors and variables. Our results also corroborate those obtained by Bredahl (2001) in his work on the determination of attitudes towards products containing GM organisms. While the author had not in fact tested the mediating effects of risks and benefits, he nevertheless demonstrated the correlation between perceived risks and benefits with independent as well as dependent variables. This perception of risks and benefits is recognized as a major factor in the evaluation and development of preferences and consumer behaviour towards a particular product (Dowling, 1999; Campbell and Goodstein, 2001). Our results concur with this position. Poulsen (1999) recalls that the benefits of functional foods are perceived in a positive manner only if the functional breakthrough is not known to the consumer. Such a false perception suggests a dissonance between consumer beliefs and the actual nature of many food products. Our results also establish that the content of the perceived benefits largely depends on the degree of production technology used to produce the functional food. The more this technology is considered natural, the higher the perceived benefits. Health aspect of the suggested functional food. As previously demonstrated, the survey received more favourable answers to the questions pertaining to the healthy food (orange juice) than those pertaining to the less healthy food (apple pie). These results show that the consumer associates functional foods with health foods, and that pre-purchase intentions depend to a greater extent on the appearance of increased nutrition in functional foods than on their epicurean value. As a result, the hypothesis shows a greater success rate when analyzing attitudes towards the orange juice than to the apple pie. This outcome was expected given that the orange juice corresponds to a greater extent with the general profile of functional foods, which are more focused on health. The argument we proposed is less appropriate in relation to the apple pie which, when considered prior to purchase intentions, enjoys a more evident epicurean valence than the orange juice. The current study did not account for this perception, which explains why the study is less well-suited to examining attitudes towards the apple pie than to the orange juice. Macromarketing-related thoughts Since the costs of developing and licensing new food products are substantial, many firms have heavily invested into a variety of markets. On the contrary, some public policies or even private initiatives can be regarded as reflecting technological precaution, not progress. Many underlying reasons exist as to why some consumers are unenthusiastic about functional foods. Lack of policy clarity related to functional
food labelling and regulation is certainly an overpowering argument. Lobbying has forever had an influence on the development agricultural public policies. The media also has a role to play. The media also influences regulatory agencies in their role as new technology catalyst in the food industry, but the marketplace remains confused at best. With food safety concerns, the perception of risk is a key indicator of whether a product will achieve marketing success. Trust will influence how consumers will perceive risks, including those relating to functional foods. Nevertheless, some research has demonstrated their nutritional values. Some research has empirically revealed that consumers need functional foods for health and sustainable reasons. However, unlike many studies indicating that poor countries would benefit from functional foods, some state that industrialized countries alone would get most of the benefits of these new features in food. Because costs and distribution inefficiencies, the arrival of functional foods on the market may benefit some consumers more than others thus creating some market inequalities. Lastly, marketing managers need to adapt their conventional standardization entry mode strategy in order to accommodate a multi-mode entry strategy capable of distinguishing functional foods from conventional products through an effective identity traceability system. Still, such a system comes at a significant cost. The evolutionary and cyclical model of technological change shows that practitioners should also consider the market’s perception of the technology itself and its relationship with influential actors that would influence the adoption process. Increasingly, policy makers will be exposed to a mounting critical worldview that claims that functional foods are unnatural, which in return will exhort pressure on any emerging dominant design in the food industry. Therefore, a marketing strategy related to functional foods in the food industry should primarily consider the evolutionary and cyclical model of technological change within the constriction of time. Based on the results presented in this study, the market understands that the food industry offers benefits for many consumers in many regions. As a result, no ideological conflict erupted since many consumers felt that society as a whole would gain from a value-driven emergence. In contrast, a policy void could favour a precautionary approach by consumers since these benefits may no longer be clearly understood and/or agreed to. The food industry should regard this situation as crucial. Networks to support the marketing of functional foods need to be built when the technology emerges. A network effect at this stage is important as more consumers accept the product. This is achieved through building distribution channels that efficiently carries and support the essence of the technology throughout the supply chain. Ultimately, the food industry may consolidate their marketing position by safeguarding perceived values of functional foods. Policy makers also have a role in the emergence of functional foods. Specific to the food industry is the component of public health that is intrinsically linked to policies. In the era of fermentation, these policies can either destroy the trust of new technological change, or become leverage for growth. The appearance of functional foods compels policy makers to monitor the health qualities and marketing practices employed by industry. The scientific communities and research centers are the designers and promoters of unambiguous beliefs, such as functional foods. Unique to the food industry, as consumers increasingly recognize functional foods as the future benchmark in the
Functional foods
315
NFS 41,5
316
industry, the research focus transcends from a research agenda motivated by public health concerns to an agenda driven by public policy. The research nucleus goes from societal survival to long-term sustainability; thus, with a longitudinal approach the coexistence between society and functional foods can be appraised. Finally, functional foods came to market in recent years, and many are still unsure about their nutritional virtues. In order to propagate them, and results in this study suggest, it will be necessary to give more beneficial information to consumers. All have the onus of reaching their objectives and at the same time protect consumers. Many believe consumers should be better informed about the possible benefits of certain scientific or technological advances. Marketing strategies from the food industry are vital, but the level of congruity between the industry, policy makers and scientific community can determine whether or not consumers will be well served by the arrival of functional foods. Limitations of the study Several limitations of the study must be acknowledged when interpreting the results. Of primary concern is the generalizability of the results. The findings presented in this article should be interpreted in light of the population studied and the measures used. The population included customers primarily from one supermarket in an affluent urban district. These characteristics are not reflective of the general population of other social groups in Canada. As such, this study should be replicated with a diverse sample to verify the findings. The measures and measurement scales used in this study should also be considered when interpreting the results. Since the present study deals with highly topical issues and because past research was scarce, the administration procedures were highly specialized and may not provide the same results under different conditions. Conclusions and future areas of research This paper synthesized the results of empirical research related to functional foods and perceived health benefits prior to purchase. The results add to the comparatively limited knowledge about Canadian consumers’ perceptions of health benefits related to functional foods and to the literature on the relationship between perceived food attributes and food production technology prior to purchase. Such information is particularly pertinent to the producers, processors, and retailers of functional foods, and to those involved with food and agricultural policy. The findings reveal the importance of perceived health benefits, and of consumer bias related to attributes of functional foods. The results also show that consumers will ignore vast health benefits if the production technology seems frightening. The “phood stigma,” with the unnatural, even alien, misspelling of a usually reassuring word, appears to be very consequential after all. Significantly, the results of this study suggest that some food producers may benefit more by adding ingredients to create functional foods instead of employing more synthetic techniques such as genetic modification. The comparison between orange juice and apple pie is also important for food producers and policy makers because the comparison shows that the respondents felt less incentive to consume apple pie with added healthy ingredients than they did for orange juice with added
nutrient content. Food companies would gain from considering these findings for future marketing strategies. This study had various strengths, including a novel intervention that addressed a timely topic for which few data are currently available. The sale of functional foods is a complex practice. This exploratory study took a few steps toward understanding how health benefits of functional foods are perceived and how can these perceptions be better understood by food manufacturers and consumers in today’s society. Future research work could focus on other types of food products, different social groups, and alternative responses and emotions related to functional foods. Since measuring perceptions is a complex and challenging task, there are many opportunities available for both qualitative and quantitative perspectives. References Bech-Larsen, T.K. and Grunert, G. (2003), “The perceived healthiness of functional foods: a conjoint study of Danish. Finnish and American consumers’ perception of functional foods”, Appetite, Vol. 40, pp. 9-14. Berg, L. (2004), “Trust in food in the age of mad cow disease: a comparative study of consumers’ evaluation of food safety in Belgium, Britain and Norway”, Appetite, Vol. 42 No. 1, pp. 21-32. Bredahl, L. (2001), “Determinants of consumer attitudes and purchase intentions with regard to genetically modified foods – results of a cross-national survey”, Journal of Consumer Policy, Vol. 24, pp. 23-61. Brunsø, K., Fjord, T.A. and Grunert, K.G. (2002), “Consumers’ food choice and quality perception”, working paper, The Aarhus School of Business, Aarhus, p. 60. Campbell, M.C. and Goodstein, R.C. (2001), “The moderating effect of perceived risk on consumers’ evaluations of product incongruity: preference for the norm”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 28 No. 3, pp. 439-49. Cardello, A.V. (2003), “Consumer concerns and expectations about novel food processing technologies: effects on product liking”, Appetite, Vol. 40, pp. 217-33. Casadesus, G., Shukitt-Hale, B. and Joseph, J.A. (2002), “Qualitative versus quantitative caloric intake: are they equivalent paths to successful aging?”, Neurobiology of Aging, Vol. 23, pp. 747-69. Dixon, J.M., Sarah, J.H. and Banwell, C.L. (2006), “Obesity, convenience and ‘phood’”, British Food Journal, Vol. 108 No. 8, pp. 634-45. Dowling, G.R. (1999), “Perceived risk”, in Earl, P.E. and Kemp, S. (Eds), The Elgar Companion to Consumer Research and Economic Psychology, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp. 419-24. Doyon, M. and Labrecque, J. (2005), Functional Foods: A Conceptual Definition, Direction de la Recherche, Montre´al. Elsner, R.J.F. (2002), “Changes in eating behavior during the aging process”, Eating Behaviors, Vol. 3, pp. 15-43. Heasman, M. and Mellentin, J. (2001), The Functional Food Revolution, Healthy People, Healthy Profits, Earthcan, London. Kartens, B. and Belz, F.-M. (2006), “Information asymmetries, labels and trust in the German food market: a critical analysis based on the economics of information”, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 25 No. 2, pp. 189-207. Labrecque, J., Doyon, M., Bellavance, F. and Kolodinsky, J. (2006), “Acceptance of functional foods: a comparison of French, American, and French Canadian consumers”, Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 54, pp. 647-61.
Functional foods
317
NFS 41,5
318
Mulry, M.C. (2002), “Functional foods – past, present and future”, Natural Foods Merchandiser, Vol. 23 No. 3, p. 82. Poulsen, J.B. (1999), “Danish consumers’ attitudes towards functional foods”, MAPP working paper, MAPP, Aarhus, p. 62. Saher, M., Arvola, A., Lindeman, M. and Lahteenmaki, L. (2004), “Impressions of functional food consumers”, Appetite, Vol. 42, pp. 79-89. Saunier, K. and Dore´, J. (2002), “Gastrointestinal tract and the elderly: functional foods, gut microflora and healthy ageing”, Digestive and Liver Disease, Vol. 34, Suppl. 21, pp. S19-S24. Urala, N. and Lahteenmaki, L. (2004), “Attitudes behind consumers’ willingness to use functional foods”, Food Quality and Preference, Vol. 15, pp. 793-803. van Arnum, P. (2004), “Food innovation targets health & wellness”, Chemical Market Reporter, Vol. 266 No. 1, p. FR3. Verbeke, W. (2005), “Consumer acceptance of functional foods: socio-demographic, cognitive and attitudinal determinants”, Food Quality and Preference, Vol. 16, pp. 45-57. Further reading Bredahl, L., Grunert, K.G. and Frewer, L.J. (1998), “Consumer attitudes and decision-making with regard to genetically engineered food products – a review of the literature and a presentation of models for future research”, Journal of Consumer Policy, Vol. 21 No. 3, pp. 251-7. Cardello, A.V. (1994), “Consumer expectations and their role in food acceptance”, in MacFie, H.J.H. and Thomson, D.M.H. (Eds), Measurement of Food Preferences, Blackie Academic and Professional, Glasgow, pp. 253-97. Cerisola, A.-S. and Mistral, J. (2004), “L’obe´site´ aux Etats-Unis: Enjeux e´conomiques et de´fis politiques”, working paper, French Embassy in the USA, Washington, DC, p. 27. Dowling, G.R. and Staelin, R. (1994), “A model of perceived risk and intended risk-handling activity”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 119-34. Oakes, M.E. and Slotterback, C.S. (2002), “The good, the bad, and the ugly: characteristics used by young, middle-aged, and older men and women, dieters and non-dieters to judge healthfulness of foods”, Appetite, Vol. 38 No. 2, pp. 91-7. Rashad, I. and Grossman, M. (2004), “The economics of obesity: research report”, Public Interest, Vol. 156, Summer, pp. 104-12. Ritchey, P.N., Frank, R.A., Hursti, U. and Tuorila, H. (2003), “Validation and cross-national comparison of the food neophobia scale (FNS) using confirmatory factor analysis”, Appetite, Vol. 40, pp. 163-73. Roberfroid, M. (2002), “Functional food concept and its application to prebiotics”, Digestive and Liver Disease, Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. S105-10. Steptoe, A., Pollard, T. and Wardle, J. (1995), “Development of a measure of the motives underlying the selection of food: the food choice questionnaire”, Appetite, Vol. 25, pp. 267-84. Corresponding author Sylvain Charlebois can be contacted at:
[email protected] To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail:
[email protected] Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
