Construction Engineering at the University of Technology. The course has ... Geology for civil engineers, rather than geology, which is adequate for the needs of.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY First Edition With 773 Review Questions and Problems; 63 Illustrative Worked Examples; and 295 Figures
Prof. Dr. HUSSEIN HAMEED KARIM Professor of Engineering Geophysics Building and Construction Engineering Department University of Technology Baghdad- Iraq
2016
Printed by the University of Technology Printing Press Department
This book is dedicated to the memory of my parents
ii
Preface The motivation to write this textbook stemmed from a course of engineering geology given by the author to undergraduate students in the Department of the Building and Construction Engineering at the University of Technology. The course has changed, and I hope improved, during the fifteen years since I was first involved with it. It was essentially a scaled-down version of an introductory course to science undergraduates. In my opinion, I dissatisfy with the introductory texts in engineering geology that have been available about the last decade, the period in which I have teaching this subject at the University of Technology. My main thought was to meet the special interests and professional needs of civil engineers. The book deals with both descriptive and quantitative aspects of the subject. My specific complaint was the minor amount of computational material contained in most textbooks in engineering geology, thus we try serious attempts to apply science and mathematics to highlight specific problems in this subject. My experience in teaching indicates that the relevance of subject matter to the desire of those taught usually increases their interest. For example, civil engineers must have an insight into how geologists reach conclusions in making a geological map, in order to evaluate the finished map. Similarly, they should appreciate how and why geologists differentiate between different rocks, not because these differences are important for most engineering purposes but so that they can read a geological report sensibly and with the ability to examine the relevant from the irrelevant information. This book is essentially an introductory text in the fundamentals of Engineering Geology for civil engineers, rather than geology, which is adequate for the needs of their later careers, and on which further courses of engineering geology, soil mechanics or rock mechanics can be based. I have, however, extended the scope of the book beyond what is geology in the strict sense to include engineering applications of geology. This is partly to demonstrate the relevance of geology to engineering, and partly in the expectation that the book will also serve as a useful handbook of facts and methods for qualified engineers and other professionals who use geology, and that I was not the only teacher of geology who felt the need for a textbook tailored to them. Obviously, students of geology will have done much more reading on geology than the basic geological material covered in this book. They presumably will have done or will do some reading on soil mechanics and rock mechanics. On the other hand, those with an engineering background will have read some soil and rock mechanics, but need some basic geology, hopefully, this book will meet their needs. Moreover, any book will reflect the background of its author and his or her view of the subject. No single textbook can cover all the needs of the variety of readers who may use it. However, the author has attempted to give a balanced overview of the subject; we hope that you will find it useful and readable. This textbook is written for undergraduate and post-graduate students of engineering geology. It is hoped that this will also be of value to those involved in the profession, especially at the earlier stages of their careers. However, it is aimed at not just engineering geologists but also at those in civil engineering, building and construction engineering, petroleum and mining engineering, water engineering, quarrying and, to a lesser extent, architecture,
iii
planning, and surveying. In other words, those who deal with the ground should know something about it. The topics covered in 16 chapters are: an introduction to geology and Civil Engineering; earth structure; minerals; rocks; weathering, erosion and soil formation; structural geology; topographic and geologic maps; physical and engineering properties of rocks; surface water and rivers geologic work; subsurface (ground) water; site investigation and geophysical techniques; geology of tunnels, highways, railways and bridges; geology of dams sites and reservoirs; geological materials used in construction; geologic resources and energy resources; and finally natural geological hazards related to Civil Engineering. There are 773 review questions and problems: in which 354 as general review questions; 147 true or false and 188 MCQs; 84 mathematical problems with 42 answers. Also some chapters contain several worked-out examples with total of 63 in all. These have been selected to be neither so simple as to be virtually valueless, nor so hard as to discourage the reader. The topics covered as those that most undergraduate books on engineering geology cover in at least a semi-quantitative fashion, even if no problems sets are included. The author is greatly indebted to express his special thanks and gratitude to the President of the University of Technology (UOT) Prof. Dr. Amin D. Thamir, UOT Vice President for Administrative Scientific Affairs Assist. Prof. Dr. Alaa A. Atiyah and UOT Vice President for Administrative Affairs Assist. Prof. Dr. Sami A. Ajeel, for adopting this text as a formal textbook in Civil Engineering and the necessary action for printing the book. Deep gratitude and sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. Namir K.S. AlSaoudi and Prof. Dr. Riyadh H. Al-Anbari, respectively the former and current Head of the Building and Construction Engineering Department at the University of Technology, for their real supports and facilities given to me in completing this book. My thanks to Prof. Dr. Abdul Razzak T. Ziboon, the Deputy Head of Department for Higher studies & Scientific Research, for his support. The author gratefully acknowledges Prof. Dr. Mazin Y. Tamar-Agha and Prof. Dr. Moutaz A.S. M. AlDabbas of the University of Baghdad for their review of the text and the many constructive suggestions that have led to major changes of content and arrangement. My appreciation to all colleagues and friends in the Highway & Bridges Engineering Branch and in the Department for their many opinions that have kindly given to me. I would also like to thank the UOT Printing Press Department, especially Mr. Abbas M. Al-Anbari, the Director, and all the staff for their assistance in bringing out the book in its present form. The author also acknowledges all those who have given permission to publish materials from other sources. It is my pleasure to introduce this textbook and I hope that you will find it useful and readable. At the end, I would like to thank all my family members, especially my dear wife Dr. Nada Hussein Mohammad Ali Al-Khafaji of the College of Science/ University of Baghdad and my dear son Zaidoon and my dear daughters Rand and Dina for their patience and continuous encouragement. It is a pleasure to be indebted to my family, so for all of them I dedicate this textbook. Hussein Hameed Karim Baghdad, Iraq February, 2016 iv
CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: Geology and Civil Engineering 1.1 The Science of Geology 1.2 Branches of Earth Sciences 1.3 Development of Engineering Geology 1.4 Aims of Engineering Geology 1.5 Attaining the Aims 1.6 Materials and Mass Fabric 1.7 Professional Development in Engineering Geology 1.8 Relevance of Geology to Civil Engineering Review Questions
Page 2 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 13
CHAPTER 2: Earth Structure 2.1 Earth Envelopes 2.2 Solid Earth Envelopes 2.2.1 Earth Crust 2.2.2 Earth Mantle 2.2.3 Earth Core 2.3 Variations of Physical Conditions with Depth 2.4 The Rock Cycle (or Geologic cycle) Review Questions
14 14 14 16 18 19 19 21 24
CHAPTER 3: Minerals 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Formation of Minerals 3.3 Classification of Minerals 3.4 Crystal Forms of Minerals 3.5 Identification of Minerals Review Questions
27 27 27 28 32 36 45
CHAPTER 4: Rocks 4.1 The Nature of Rocks 4.2 Igneous Rocks 4.2.1 Formation of Igneous Rocks 4.2.2 Igneous Structures 4.2.3 Classification of Igneous Rocks 4.3 Sedimentary Rocks 4.3.1 Introduction 4.3.2 Major Processes for Sedimentary Rocks Formation 4.3.3 Description of Sediments 4.3.4 General Properties of Sedimentary Rocks 4.3.5 Factors Affecting Variety of Sedimentary Rocks
47 47 48 49 51 54 57 57 58 59 61 61
v
4.3.6 Textures and Kinds of Deposition of Sedimentary Rocks 4.3.7 Sedimentary Rock Structures 4.3.8 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 4.3.9 Sedimentary Rocks and Environment 4.4 Metamorphic Rocks 4.4.1 Introduction 4.4.2 Agents of Metamorphism 4.4.3 Types of Metamorphism 4.4.4 The Bases of Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 4.4.5 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 4.4.6 Locations of Metamorphic Rocks 4.5 Comparisons among Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks Review Questions
62 64 68 70 70 70 71 72 73 75 77 77 78
CHAPTER 5: Weathering, Erosion and Soil Formation 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Weathering 5.2.1 Types of Weathering 5.2.2 Rate of Weathering 5.2.3 Depth of Weathering 5.3 Soil and Soil Formation 5.3.1 Types of Soils 5.3.1.1 Residual Soils 5.3.1.2 Transported Soils 5.4 Mineral Composition of Soils 5.4.1 Clay Minerals and their Groups 5.5 Classification of Soils with respect to Salts 5.6 Some Engineering Difficulties Problems Associated with Soils 5.7 Soil Improvement 5.8 Soil of Iraq Review Questions
86 86 87 87 91 91 92 93 93 94 95 95 99 99 106 106 108
CHAPTER 6: Structural Geology 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Rock Deformation 6.3 Structural Configuration (Geometric Pattern) of Strata 6.3.1 Stratum (Bed) and Bedding Planes 6.3.2 Outcrop of the Bed (Layer) 6.3.3 Strike of the Bed (Layer) 6.3.4 Dip of the Bed 6.4 Folds and Faults 6.5 Folds 6.5.1 Process of Folding
111 111 112 112 113 114 115 115 116 117 117
vi
6.5.2 Components of Folds 6.5.3 Classification of Folds 6.5.4 Types of Folds 6.6 Faults 6.6.1 Process of Faulting 6.6.2 Components of Faults 6.6.3 Types of Faults 6.6.4 Importance of Faults 6.6.5 Field Criteria for the Recognition of Faults 6.7 Joints 6.7.1 Definitions 6.7.2 Formation of Joints 6.7.3 Classification of Joints 6.7.4 Effects of Joints on Rocks strength 6.7.5 Economic Advantages of Joints 6.8 Importance of Structural Geology in Civil Engineering Review Questions
119 121 123 125 126 128 129 136 137 139 139 140 140 141 142 142 143
CHAPTER 7: Topographic and Geologic Maps 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Topographic (Contour) Maps 7.2.1 Importance of Topographic Maps 7.2.2 Components of Topographic Maps 7.2.3 Contour Lines and their Characteristics 7.2.4 Determining Elevations 7.2.5 Topographic Profile 7.2.6 Gradients 7.3 Geological Maps 7.3.1 Importance of Geologic Maps in Civil Engineering 7.3.2 Engineering Geological Maps 7.3.3 Components of the Geologic Maps 7.4 Stratigraphy’s Principles 7.4.1 Geologic Principles for Relative Dating 7.4.2 Types of Strata 7.4.3 Types of Unconformity 7.5 Determination of Strike and Dip of a Layer 7.5.1 A Procedure for Determination Strike and Dip of any Layer 7.5.2 Procedures for Dip Calculation of any Layer and Drawing Geological Section 7.5.2.1 Mathematical Method for Dip Calculation 7.5.2.2 Graphical Method for Dip Calculation 7.5.2.3 Finding True and Apparent Thickness of a Layer Review Questions and Problems
146 146 146 146 147 148 149 149 130 153 155 156 156 160 161 165 166 168 168 171
vii
171 173 174 177
CHAPTER 8: Physical and Engineering Properties of Rocks 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Physical Properties 8.2.1 Phase Relationships 8.2.2 Bulk Density 8.2.3 Unit Weight 8.2.4 Particle Specific Gravity 8.2.5 Porosity 8.2.6 Void Ratio 8.2.7 Dry and Saturated Unit Weights 8.2.8 Multimineral Rocks 8.2.9 Water Content 8.2.10 Degree of Saturation 8.2.11 Other Relations among Different Physical Properties 8.2.12 Rock Physical Relations 8.2.13 Typical Physical Properties of Rocks 8.3 Rock Deformation and Mechanical Properties 8.3.1 Rock Deformation 8.3.1.1 Hooke’s Law 8.3.1.2 Volumetric Strain 8.3.1.3 Elastic Moduli 8.3.2 Mechanical Properties of Rocks 8.3.3 Earth Stresses 8.4 Engineering Aspects of Rocks 8.4.1 Engineering Aspects of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 8.4.2 Engineering Behavior of Sedimentary Rocks Review Questions and Problems
185 185 185 185 186 186 186 187 188 189 191 192 192 193 198 201 201 202 203 204 205 207 211 214 214 216 224
CHAPTER 9: Surface Water and Rivers Geologic Work 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Water Movement in Rivers 9.3 Factors Affecting River Erosion and Deposition 9.3.1 Velocity 9.3.2 Gradient 9.3.3 Channel Shape and Roughness 9.3.4 Discharge 9.4 Relation between River Discharge and other Hydraulic Parameters 9.5 Determination of River Discharge 9.6 Mechanism of Rivers Geologic Work 9.7 River Deposits 9.8 Stages of River Development 9.9 Drainage Patterns Review Questions and Problems
227 227 227 229 229 230 231 232 233 234 238 242 246 248 249
viii
CHAPTER 10: Subsurface (Ground) Water 10.1 Sources of Groundwater 10.2 Occurrence of Groundwater 10.3 Vertical Classification of Groundwater 10.4 Water Table 10.4.1 Characteristics of Water Table 10.5 Classification of Rocks with Respect to Groundwater Studies 10.6 Aquifers, Aquicludes, Aquitards and Aquifuges 10.7 Types of Aquifers 10.7.1 Unconfined Aquifers 10.7.2 Confined (Artesian) Aquifers 10.7.3 Geological Structures Causing Artesian Conditions 10.8 Porosity, Hydraulic Conductivity and Permeability of Rocks 10.8.1 Porosity 10.8.1.1 Factors Affecting Porosity of Rocks 10.8.1.2 Aquifer and Porosity (Specific Retention and Specific Yield) 10.8.1.3 Specific Retention and Specific Yield 10.8.2 Permeability and Hydraulic Conductivity 10.8.2.1 Factors Affecting Permeability of Rocks 10.9 Darcy’s Law 10.9.1 Unconfined Aquifer Case 10.10 Effect of Type and Nature of Rocks on Groundwater 10.11 Types of Groundwater Movements 10.12 Effect of Geological Structures on Groundwater 10.13 Springs 10.14 Quality of Groundwater 10.15 Problems Associated with Groundwater Usage 10.16 Features Associated with Groundwater 10.17 Hydrogeological Subdivisions of Iraq 10.18 Investigation of Groundwater 10.19 Groundwater and Engineering 10.19.1 Groundwater Inventory Review Questions and Problems
252 252 253 253 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 273 276 277 277 279 282 283 283 283 286 286 286 288
Chapter 11: Site Investigations and Geophysical Techniques 11.1 Site Investigations 11.1.1 Introduction 11.1.2 Stages of Site Investigations 11.2 Applied Geophysical Techniques 11.2.1 Introduction 11.2.2 Electrical Methods 11.2.2.1 Basic Theory 11.2.2.2 Types of Arrangements (Configurations)
291 291 291 292 293 293 297 297 299
ix
11.2.2.3 Applications of Resistivity Methods 11.2.3 Seismic Methods 11.2.3.1 Introduction 11.2.3.2 Types of Waves 11.2.3.3 Moduli from Wave Velocities 11.2.3.4 Seismic Techniques 11.2.3.5 Applications of Seismic Refraction Technique in 11.2.4 Ground Probing (Penetrating) Radar (GPR) 11.2.4.1 Basic Theory 11.2.4.2 Ground Penetrating Data and Soil Surveys 11.2.4.3 Applications of GPR in Civil Engineering and Limitations 11.2.4.4 Other Examples of Jobs Performed 11.2.5 Electromagnetic Methods 11.2.5.1 Basic Theory 11.2.5.2 Applications of EM Methods in Civil Engineering 11.2.6 Gravity Method 11.2.6.1 Basic Theory 11.2.6.2 Applications of Gravity Method 11.2.6.3 Application of Microgravity in Civil Engineering 11.2.7 Magnetic Method 11.2.7.1 Basic Theory 11.2.7.2 Applications of Magnetic Method Review Questions and Problems
302 304 304 304 307 310 310 317 317 321 322 323 326 326 326 327 327 331 331 331 331 334 335
CHAPTER 12: Geology of Tunnels, Highways, Railways and Bridges 12.1 Tunnels and Tunneling 12.1.1 Introduction 12.1.2 Geological Considerations in Tunnel Construction 12.1.3 Geological Studies Required in Tunnel Construction 12.1.4 Effect of Geological Structures to Tunnel Excavation 12.1.5 Water in Tunnels 12.1.6 Gases in Tunnels 12.1.7 Temperatures in Tunnels 12.1.8 Design Process and Evaluate the Stability of a Tunnel 12.1.8.1 Single Opening in Massive Rocks 12.1.8.2 Openings in Massive Rocks: Two-Dimensional Case 12.1.9 Stress Measurements around an Underground Excavation (Tunnels) 12.1.9.1 In Situ Stress Field 12.1.9.2 Man Induced Stresses 12.1.9.3 Stress around a Circular Opening 12.1.9.4 Stress Analysis for a Circular Opening in a Linear, Elastic, Homogeneous and Isotropic Medium
338 338 338 340 340 341 350 350 351 352 352 352 354
x
354 355 355 357
12.1.10 Analysis of Tunnel Support 12.2 Highways 12.2.1 Highways Factors Affecting the Location of Highway 12.2.2 Soil Stabilization and Road Construction 12.3 Railroads 12.3.1 Factors Affecting Railroad Construction 12.4 Bridges Review Questions
360 363 364 367 368 369 370 373
CHAPTER 13: Geology of Dams Sites and Reservoirs 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Dams and Dam Sites 13.2.1 Introduction 13.2.2 Types of Dams 13.2.3 Forces Affecting Dams 13.2.4 Analysis of Forces on Dams 13.2.5 Factors of Safety against Sliding 13.2.6 Preliminary Geological Studies on Dam Site 13.2.7 Detailed Studies for Dam Site 13.2.8 Geological Characteristics of the Material Foundations and Pillars Side 13.2.9 Determining the Depths of the Rocks 13.2.10 Geology of the Earth Fill Dam Site 13.2.11Geology and Dam Sites 13.2.12 Construction Materials for Earth Dams 13.3 Reservoirs 13.3.1 Introduction 13.3.2 Factors Affecting the Feasibility of Reservoir Site 13.3.3 Investigation of Reservoir Sites 13.3.4 Geological Considerations and the Stability of the Sides of Reservoirs 13.3.5 Water Persistence in Reservoir 13.3.6 Sedimentation (or Silt Deposition or Siltation) Problem in Reservoirs 13.3.7 Leakage from Reservoirs Review Questions and Problems
375 375 376 376 376 381 385 387 389 390 391
CHAPTER 14: Geological Materials Used in Construction 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Rocks Excavation 14.3 Types of Stone Quarrying 14.3.1 Open Pit or Shelf Quarrying 14.3.2 Underground Mining
409 409 409 410 411 411
xi
392 393 394 397 397 397 398 399 400 401 401 403 407
14.4 Rocks as Aggregates 14.4.1 Types of Aggregates 14.5 Factors Affecting Building Rocks 14.6 Damages in Rocks 14.7 Methods of Quarrying Building Rocks 14.8 The Main Building Rocks 14.9 Uses of Rocks 14.9.1 Roofing and Facing Materials 14.9.2 Armourstone 14.9.3 Crushed Rock: Concrete Aggregate 14.9.4 Road Aggregate 14.9.4.1 Aggregate Tests 14.9.4.2 Aggregate Properties 14.9.4.3 Aggregate Impurities 14.9.5 Gravels and Sands 14.9.5.1 Gravel 14.9.5.2 Sand 14.9.6 Lime, Cement and Plaster 14.9.7 Clays and Clay Products 14.9.7.1 Evaluation of Mudrocks for Brick Making 14.10 Iraqi Geological Materials Review Questions
412 412 413 415 417 417 418 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 424 424 425 425 426 426 427 432
CHAPTER 15: Geologic Resources and Energy Resources 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Resources and Reserves 15.3 Energy Sources 15.3.1 Nonrenewable Energy Resources 15.3.2 Renewable Energy Resources 15.4 Petroleum and Natural Gas 15.4.1 Oil Reservoirs Conditions 15.4.2 Hydrocarbon Traps 15.4.3 Oil Extraction 15.4.4 Unconventional Oil Reservoirs (Oil Sands and Oil Shale Reserves) 15.5 Metallic Resources 15.6 Mining 15.7 Nonmetallic Resources Review Questions
435 435 436 437 438 439 439 442 443 447 438
CHAPTER 16: Natural Geological Hazards Related to Civil Engineering 16.1 Introduction
455
xii
449 451 452 453
455
16.2 Earth Movements 16.2.1 Types of Earth Movements (Down-slope Movements) 16.2.2 Forces Causing Landslides 16.2.3 Classification of Landslides 16.2.4 Types of Failure of Natural Rock Slopes 16.2.5 Engineering Aspects of Landslides 16.2.6 Prediction and Prevention of Landslides 16.2.7 Principal Geological Factors Affecting Engineering Projects (Stability of Slopes and Cuttings) 16.3 Erosion and Deposition 16.3.1 River Channel Engineering 16.3.2 Erosion and Deposition by Wind 16.3.3 Erosion and Deposition by Ice 16.4 Groundwater 16.5 Effect of Geological Structures on Engineering Projects 16.5.1 Effect of Joints on Engineering Projects 16.5.2 Effect of Faults on Engineering Projects 16.5.3 Effect of Folds on Engineering Projects 16.6 Volcanoes 16.6.1 Introduction 16.6.2 Prediction Volcanic Activity 16.6.3 Reduction of Hazards Related to Volcanoes 16.7 Earthquakes 16.7.1 Causes of Earthquakes 16.7.2 Global Distribution of Earthquakes 16.7.3 Locating and Measuring Earthquakes 16.7.4 Locating the Epicenter 16.7.5 What Mechanism Does Produce a Destructive Earthquake? 16.7.6 Measuring the Size of an Earthquake 16.7.6.1 Intensity of an Earthquake 16.7.6.2 Magnitude of an Earthquake 16.7.7 Tsunami (Seismic Sea waves) 16.7.8 Behavior of Soils and Rocks during Earthquakes (Liquefaction) 16.7.9 Structures Destruction Caused by Seismic Vibration 16.7.10 Prediction of Earthquakes 16.7.11Seismological Engineering 16.7.11.1 Seismic Risk and Problems for the Engineer 16.7.11.2 Earthquake Engineering and Earthquake Zoning 16.7.11.3 Seismological Studies and Building Designs Review Questions and Problems References Appendices Index xiii
455 456 461 463 464 466 468 468 469 469 475 477 480 484 484 486 488 493 493 495 496 497 497 498 499 502 504 506 506 506 510 510 512 513 515 515 517 518 521 527 535 546
