Gender differences in perceptions and ... - Premier Publishers

Global Journal of Management and Business Vol. 1(2), pp. 036-044, September, 2014. © www.premierpublishers.org, ISSN: 5045-1540x

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Research Article

Gender differences in perceptions and experiences of sexual harassment in the workplace Fapohunda Tinuke Moradeke Department of Industrial Relations and Personnel Management, Lagos State University, Ojo, Nigeria E mail: [email protected] This paper examined gender differences in the perceptions and experiences of sexual harassment in the workplace. Sexual harassment has negative effects and is an obstacle to proper integration of women into the labour market. Gender was found to significantly correlate with experiences of sexual harassment, delineation of sexual harassment and the reactions and options adopted in handling it. There were disparities on the possible consequences of sexual harassment. Sexual harassment in the workplace results in an uncomfortable, hostile, offensive or intimidating work environment, which affects employee work morale and work performance. It also reduces job satisfaction and productivity but increases turnover, absenteeism and health challenges. Sexual harassment may never be totally removed in the workplace but all stakeholders stand to benefit from its reduced occurrences and the solutions to the challenge are not simple. However, employers can curb sexual harassment by establishing on boarding training as part of their initial orientation especially as it pertains to women in the work force, to affirm that sexual harassment is unacceptable. They can also issue tough policies opposed to it, educate employees on the subject; institute formal complaint procedures to address allegations of sexual harassments; and build cultures that disallow sexual harassment. Key words: Gender, differences, perceptions, experiences, sexual, harassment, workplace.

INTRODUCTION Sexual harassment has always been an aspect of life at work. Akanmu (2009) observes that sexual harassment contaminates the work environment and has negative consequences on those concerned thus bringing about a decline in output. The National Council for Women Affairs (2007) affirms that sexual harassment at the workplace mostly affects women and constitutes an obstruction to their apt assimilation into the organization and the labour market. Data from the Federal Office of Statistics (FOS) indicates that while the percentage of women who have experienced sexual harassment at work ranged from 40% to 68%, only between 9% and 13% of male workers had the same experience within a five year period. The National Council for Women Affairs (2007) observes further that women are six times more prone than men to resign from their jobs, four times more apt to transfer, and three times more liable to lose their jobs arising from harassment.

The subject has been studied by various scholars like De Coster et al. (1999), Schultz (2003) Dobbin and Kelly (2007) using different perspectives. Sexual harassment constitutes a variety of gender discrimination which creates concerns in human resource management, pressurizes organization security and detracts from the organization efforts to present a favourable work setting. Ilesanmi (2012) asserts that sexual harassment weakens the dignity of both the injured party and the person behind it and also acts as a menace to the occupational experience and welfare of employees especially women in the workplace. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999) proscribes discrimination on the ground of gender. The section on Fundamental Human Rights indicates that “a citizen of Nigeria, a particular community, ethnic group, place of origin, circumstances

Gender differences in perceptions and experiences of sexual harassment in the workplace

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of birth, sex, religion or political opinion shall not by reason only that he or she is such a person , be discriminated against”. Oluade (2001) affirms that a sector of the Nigerian economy with a high prevalence of sexual harassment is the banking sector because bank management often give extremely high targets and direct staff members to draw or generate definite sums of deposits to their banks or lose their jobs. The high targets and the anxiety these demands place on the bank employees, especially women, often requires them sleeping with men who are potential depositors. These women are expected to do whatever it takes to get men to make deposits and investments in the banks. The World Bank Reports (2013) observes that one of every five adults in Nigeria is unemployed, and only one of every ten university graduates gets a job. The unemployment situation in Nigeria poses serious inhibitions to the significant and sustainable economic growth and development of its human resources, as well as national development. Bearing in mind the very high level of unemployment (23.9% in 2013) in the country added to the even greater difficulty of obtaining well paid jobs, the pressure to do virtually anything to obtain and maintain jobs in the banking industry where the pay seems superior to what obtains in many of the other sectors is quite enormous. The banking profession also has higher risks of sexual harassment and sexual discrimination because majority of the marketers and client service officers are females. However, as Oluade (2001) admits, this it is not to say that issues of sexual harassment are limited to the banking industry because there are similar stories in almost all sectors of the economy ranging from education, to communication, oil and gas, entertainment etc. While sexual harassment can be of women by men, many laws around the world which prohibit sexual harassment recognize that both men and women may be harassers or victims of sexual harassment. However, most claims of sexual harassment are made by women. Mitchell (2001) notes that patriarchy as an ideological mode delineates the arrangement of male supremacy and female suppression in any society. McFadden (2001) affirms that feminists have used the concept of patriarchy to explain how sexual harassment has become reified and „invincible‟ such that it is an instrument men use to maintain continuous control over women. McFadden (2001) suggests that it distinguishes men as leaders and superior to women and this can be observed in the way males behave. Sexual harassment is consequently positioned within the structure of sexism-supremacist philosophy which subsists in all patriarchal relationships. Male privilege over female is derived from the culture instituted by the society, which assumes that men are superior to women; and, passed from one generation to another through socialization. It appropriates power to men and puts them in vantage spots in all spheres of life allowing men to sexually harass women. Patriarchy connotes both overt and

covert power. Akinbulumo (2003) notes that patriarchy grants overt power on men and when utilized, the result are usually obvious. The overt nature of such power creates fear and trauma in the victim as well as awareness in the society. However, the covert perception of patriarchy identifies the reality of power with modest significance which lessens the consciousness of covert power because power that originates from such source is believed to be positioned among women. Notwithstanding that sexual harassment is very rife, it is largely untold and several reasons have been adduced for this. Mackinnon (2006) observes that victims often believe that the situation of harassment may end where it is disregarded. There is also the fear of not being believed added to the sense of coercion, humiliation, ignominy and powerlessness. Next is ignorance of organization policies and grievance-resolution procedures pertaining to sexual harassment. Furthermore, Olowookere (2010) contends that there are often concerns over reprisal from the perpetrators, colleagues and the supposition that the executor will go unpunished even where the accusations are found to be correct. In developing economies like Nigeria owing to customs and traditions, women are often scared of speaking out. They are also embarrassed and apprehensive of losing their jobs where accusations of sexual harassment are levied. Sexual harassment is a great test to effective human resource management. The banking profession constitutes a high risk group for sexual harassment. It is therefore imperative to explore the perception and experiences of employees in this sector. This study intends to explore the perceptions, experiences, effects and coping strategies of sexual harassment amongst employees in the banking sector. LITERATURE Concept of Sexual Harassment Sexual harassment includes a variety of actions from mild contraventions to sexual abuse or sexual assault. Despite national and international attempts in eradicating sexual harassment, there is no single universal definition of the concept. Generally, international mechanisms describe sexual harassment roughly as having to do with violence against women and discriminatory treatment, while national laws focus more closely on the illegal conduct. All definitions, however, agree that the prohibited behaviour is unwanted and causes harm to the victim. At the International level, the United Nations General Recommendation 19 to the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women defines sexual harassment to include: "such unwelcome sexually determined behaviour as physical contact and advances, sexually coloured remarks, showing pornography and sexual demands, whether by words or actions. Such conduct can be humiliating and


Global J. Manag. Bus.

may constitute a health and safety problem; it is discriminatory when the victims have reasonable ground to believe that objection would disadvantage them in connection with their employment, including recruitment or promotion, or when it creates a hostile working environment." The International Labour Organization (ILO) addresses sexual harassment as a prohibited form of sex discrimination under the Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention (No. C111). The ILO makes it clear that sexual harassment transcends a dilemma of safety and health, and intolerable working conditions, but also entails a type of violence (primarily against women). The European Union (EU) and the Council of Europe (COE) address sexual harassment as illegal behaviour. The European Commission also differentiates three types of harassment: physical, verbal, and nonverbal sexual harassment and states that there is a range of objectionable behaviours. Menon et al. (2011) asserts that sexual harassment is portrayed as superfluous sexual moves, demands for sexual favours, and other verbal or physical demeanours of a sexual nature, when assent to or refusal, overtly or unreservedly impinges on a person's employment or education, unduly impedes a person's job or educational performance, or produces an intimidating, antagonistic or unpleasant working environment. Menon et al (2011) adds that it is recurring and undesirable sexual remarks, looks, or physical contact at workplaces or other places, and is related to not only sexuality but sexual harassment which has been reported in work places. Actions considered sexual harassment must meet these criteria: (i) The action is related to sex or sexual conduct. Conduct is deemed sexual harassment if (a) it is unwanted, inappropriate or offensive; (b) the victims‟ refusal or acceptance of the behaviour controls decisions regarding their employment or (c) the conduct generates an intimidating, unfriendly or debasing work environment for the victim. Persons in positions of power within the workplace, such as supervisors and employers, must ensure that any social contact between employees is consensual and welcome. (ii) The action is undesirable, unreciprocated, not shared. Unwelcome actions viewed as sexual harassment, can be verbal, non-verbal, physical, or visual. Often employees do not feel adequately protected or sufficiently powerful to express their protests. Often employees in comparatively fragile and susceptible positions may seem to consent however this does not imply that the behaviour was consensual or negate the incidence of sexual harassment. (iii) The behaviour shapes the terms or conditions of employment, sometimes even the work setting. The executor exploits his position to extort or gain unlawful sexual association from the prey. Sexual harassment can therefore be apparent or indirect, physical or verbal, recurring or one-off and executed by males and females against people of the same or opposite sex. Again it can transpire between

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any co-workers, such as: between peers; subordinate against supervisor; male bosses and female subordinates; female bosses and male subordinates; men by women; same sex harassment. Power and Sexual Harassment There is often the misconception that sexual harassment is rooted in straightforward sexual appeal. Consequently it is habitually viewed not only as simple display of male interest but also as a type of sweettalking sexual attention for women. In which case, it is seen often as crude but basically nontoxic romantic pastime, very much usual, suitable conduct between men and women. However sexual harassment is a characteristic of gender discrimination which exploits the inequality in power arrangement in a professional relationship. A 1992 study conducted by the International Labour Organization (ILO) found that sexual harassment has inextricable connections to power and that it occurs more in cultures that treat women as sex objects and second-class citizens. The use of power distinguishes invitation from intimidation and harassment. The aim of harassment is not to appeal to or attract the victim rather is it to coerce them. The relationship transcends the sphere of invitation and courtship to that of coercion and aggression once the victims either have no choice or have grounds to be apprehensive of consequences where they refuse. Typically, the architects of sexual harassment tend to be in positions of power or influence over their preys. The power, authority or influence may be as a result of age, social, political, educational or employment disparities. MacKinnon (2006) affirms that sexual harassment involves a volatile mixture of undesirable sexual actions and the misuse of power. Sexual harassment may not compulsorily incorporate overt sexual actions but it constantly entails some type of misuse of power. Dzeich et al. (2010) identifies two major groups of harassers. First are public harassers who tend to be brazen in their seductive or chauvinist manners towards other employees whether they are contemporaries or subordinates. The second are the private harassers who are cautious in promoting a reserved and reputable picture superficially, but whose behaviours transform when they are alone with the prey. Also, Langelan (2011) isolates three groups of harassers. The first and most common are the dominance harassers who harass to further their egos. Next are the predatory harassers who get sexual excitements from debasing others, are often entangled in sex by threat, and could harass simply to see the reaction of the targets. Also there are the strategic or territorial harassers whose aim is sustaining concession in positions or physical locations. Women and Sexual Harassment Women irrespective of age, background, race, and


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experience or work environment encounter sexual harassment. Traditionally, in Nigeria, the position of women in the social order was restricted to domestic duties as wives and mothers whose major responsibilities involved home keeping and caring for the children and the aged, a situation which may have averted traditional societies from facing severe predicaments of sexual harassment. Economically, the depression which set into the Nigerian economy in the early1980s forced more women to join paid employment to supplement family income since singular incomes were no longer sufficient. Oluade (2001) observes that the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) initiated in the country in 1988, created such a severe inflation that most Nigerian families could no longer break even. The result was that many women joined their husbands in wage earning economic activities. Culturally, access to western cultural values of individualism and liberalism also implied that traditional African family values of communism and women sub-service are being consigned to the background. Increasing acceptance of single parenthood also meant that single mothers have to work in order to cater for the family. . Ironically though, in the workplace, women are often regarded as items of sexual fulfilment in addition to being attacked for supposed deficiencies in intelligence, understanding and capability essential for organization management; they are similarly not considered as equal associates and serious workers. While sexual harassment is not gender specific, women are clearly more affected than men. Sexual harassment is more commonly directed at women, but there are problems of sexual harassment against men too. The World Health Organisation (2002) affirms that cultural norms, such as male sexual entitlement, masculinity and male honour tend to encourage the approval of sexual harassment by society. Traditional African gender roles that permit extramarital sex for men tends to strengthen approval for sexual harassment. Moreover Gowen (2001) opines that for the most part, women are trained by society to be submissive, inferior, non-assertive, and sexually attractive and to shun conflict with men, while men are trained to act in the reverse way. Onakoya (2009) suggests that men seem to have transferred their traditional male-dominance conducts, from patriarchal society to the work place. However, sexual harassment cannot be rationalized on any grounds.

harassment, and the social support or lack of it for the victim, sexual harassment could bring about stress, social withdrawal, sleep and eating difficulties, depression, overall health impairment etc. Oyewo (2008) asserts that severe chronic sexual harassment can indicate identical psychological outcomes as rape or sexual assault and those who refuse to succumb may also face diverse types of retaliation like segregation and maltreatment. Olowookere (2010) affirms that the common effects on targets include reduced performance, stagnation, invasion of privacy, firing, resignation, defamation of character and reputation. Others are deprivation from active social and economic participation, loss of educational and professional opportunities. Also, sexual harassment could result in lifetime stigmatization of the victim as well as fear and guilt. Victims of sexual harassment often face negative acts such as poor assessments or low scores, sabotage, work deprivation or withdrawal of opportunities, reduced work hours and unemployment arising from the harassment. Popoola (2009) observes that where the harasser is a man, a number of women could be persuaded to respond with similar hostility or lack of sympathy towards the victims just like several male coworkers. Other varieties of retaliation include bureaucratic stonewalling. Organization management are sometimes in cahoots with the perpetrators of sexual harassment not really to defend the perpetrators but the organization reputation and to achieve some damage control. For the organization, the effects are also negative. The workplace can become antagonistic, unpleasant or threatening consequently resulting in powerlessness to execute allocated tasks and poor communication skills. The effects could also include increased absenteeism, employee turnover, time and capital expended on training and development of new employees, reduced output and enhanced team conflict, reduced job satisfaction; enlarged health care costs , weakened ethical benchmarks and control added to poor organization image. Severe cases that lead to firing or resignation may result in lawsuits which could cost an organization quite a lot in quality talent, settlements, public image, legal costs, elevated injury awards, legal fees and litigation costs.

Effects of Sexual Harassment

A major predicament in addressing sexual harassment is the complexity involved in establishing a definite case. Without eyewitnesses, accusations of harassment are often tough to confirm and since the perpetrators as a rule ensure to do it one-to-one it becomes one person‟s word against another‟s. Sexual harassment can be effectively checkmated through stress management and therapy, cognitivebehavioural therapy, friends and family support, and court action. Nevertheless, Yount (2001) found three principal approaches women employ to manage sexual

The adverse effects of sexual harassment can be viewed from a tripartite standpoint namely effects on the employees, the organization and the society. The victims of sexual harassment are the direct victims but beyond that, the effects they experience extend through a flow-on procedure to others. For the victims the effects are numerous. Sexual harassment injures the personal dignity of the victim. Depending on the personality of the victim, the brutality and length of the

Dealing with Sexual Harassment



harassment in the workplace namely the “flirt”, the “tomboy” and the “lady”. The "flirts" consisted mainly of young single women whose reaction was to act as if they were privileged as objects of sexual remarks as a result of which they were professed as the personification of the female typecast. They were deficient in prospects and got the least chances to build up employment proficiencies and to create shared and self-distinctiveness. The "tomboys" comprises mainly of single women, who are older than the "flirts." This group endeavoured to detach themselves from the female typecast and centre on their positions and strove to grow a "thick skin" consequently reacting to harassment either by countering it or with their own wittiness, comebacks, sexual talk of their own. This group frequently faced strengthened and amplified harassment by certain men because they were considered sluts, sexually promiscuous and women that contravened the sexual double standard. The “ladies” have a propensity to accentuate that they are ladies through their looks and comportments thereby being the targets of the smallest quantity of come-ons, teasing and sexual harassment. These are older women employees who are inclined to separate from the men, maintain their space, shun the use of vulgarity or take on conducts that could be construed as indicative. They take the least impressive and leastremunerated positions. Yount concludes that it is possible that personal approaches for dealing with sexual harassment may be unsuccessful and boast astonishing harmful results for the workplace and possibly enhance sexual harassment. Attempting to contend with sexual harassment individually, irrespective of the method, tends to result in a no-win condition. The Role of Organizational Policies and Procedures An organization can be liable for acts of sexual harassment by its workers when it was aware or should have been aware of it, except it can demonstrate that instant and suitable remedial processes were undertaken. Organizations can offer on-boarding training for new entrants through their initial induction to checkmate sexual harassment particularly relating to female employees. The intention should include formulating hard-hitting regulations against sexual harassment, training workers on the issue, establishing authorized grievance procedures to tackle allegations and guaranteeing workers‟ consciousness of the ladder in possible situations of sexual harassment, thereby putting up organization customs that do not permit it. Organizations are obliged to set up investigations when allegations of sexual harassment are made with the aim of achieving a judicious and complete assemblage of information; proceeding rightfully and sympathetically, stepping up communication to the supplicant at the conclusion of the investigation and taking completely appropriate action.

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Methodology The study adopted the survey research design using a total sample of three hundred respondents made up of 150 males and 150 females, randomly selected from five commercial banks in Lagos, Nigeria. A semistructured questionnaire administered in a field survey spanning three months between February and April 2014 was used for data collection. The questionnaire had three (3) sections and included both open-ended and close-ended questions. The first section of the questionnaire considered the demographic features of the respondents, while the other two sections evaluated the perceptions and experiences of sexual harassment as well as the consequences. It had questions on knowledge and incidences of, varieties, the executors, results of sexual harassment added to survival strategies employed and their efficacy. The response rate was 288 (96%) of which 142 (49.3%) were males and 146 (50.6%) were females. 12 (4%) of the questionnaires were excluded because they were not returned in usable conditions. The scale had a Cronbach Alpha reliability of 0.73 which implies that the items in the scale are measuring the construct of experiences of sexual harassment. Results and Discussion The results in Table 1 indicate gender differences in respondents view and delineation of sexual harassment with predominantly more of the females identifying with the each of the features of sexual harassment listed. Ironically though, more of the males than the females 95.8 percent of the male respondents as opposed to 54.1percent of the females conceptualized sexual harassment in terms of offensive, inappropriate and indecent sexual dressing implying some sort of gender differences in interpretation of what constitutes sexual harassment. The study also found gender disparities in respondents‟ experience of sexual harassment as indicated in Table 2. The characteristics of sexual harassment as expressed by the respondents were grouped into five, comprising of physical harassment, verbal harassment, enticement, intimidation and physical assault. More of the females suggested that they had incidents of sexual harassment in each of the five groups. This confirms the submission of Oni (2010) that about 80 per cent of women have either been or will be subjected to some type of sexual harassment in their working lives. Again, Olubayo (2012) asserts that cultural factors in addition to economic, social and political factors make women more susceptible to sexual harassment than men. Women are more sexually harassed than the majority or dominant group (males), because of position ranking and employment offers. As shown in Table 3, all the respondents signified negative reactions and disturbance at being victims of any of the forms of sexual harassment. While both genders specify disturbance as their reactions to


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Table 1. Definition of Sexual Harassment by Gender

Features

Male142 (100 %)

Female 146(100 %)

Total 288 (100 %)

Unwanted Physical and Sexual Advances. Constant Unsolicited Demands Sexual advances that result in prerequisites for organization benefits like promotion and advancement. Offensive and Inappropriate Dressing. Frequent and Superfluous Oral Sexual Moves Rape, Attempted Rape, Sexual Assault.

78(54.9%) 89(62.7%) 107(54.9%)

135(92.5) 122(83.6%) 125 (.9%)

213 (73.9%) 211(73.3%) 232(100 %)

136(95.8%) 112(78.9%) 140(98.6%)

79(54.1%) 143(97.9%) 144(98.6%)

215(74.7 %) 255(88.5 %) 284(98.6 %)

Table 2. Experience of Sexual Harassment by Gender

Physical harassment Verbal harassment Enticement Intimidation Physical Assault

Male142 (100 %) 11 (7.7 %) 25 (17.6 %) 9 (6.3 %) 15 (10.6%) 0 (0 %)

Female 146(100 %) 123 (84.2 %) 102 (69.9 %) 89 (60.9 %) 108 (73.9 %) 17(11.6 %)

Total 288 (100 %) 134(46.5 %) 127(44.1 %) 97(33.7 %) 123(42.7 %) 17(5.9 %)

Table 3. Reaction to Sexual Harassment

No Response Lodge Official Complaint Complain to Colleagues Shun the Perpetrators Quit the Job

Male142 (100 %) 59 (41.5%) 7 (4.9%) 16 (11.3%) 37 (26.1%) 14 (9.9%)

Female 146(100 %) 41 (28.9%) 12 (8.2%) 23 (15.8%) 56 (38.3%) 10 (6.8%)

Total 288 (100 %) 100 (34.7%) 19 (6.6 %) 39(17.1 %) 93 (32.3 %) 24(8.3 %)

Take Legal Action

9 (6.3%)

4 (2.7%)

3 (4.5 %)

the five groupings of sexual harassment there were gender disparities in the reactions and options adopted in handling the situation. More of the male respondents (41.5%) as opposed to (28.9%) of the female respondents would rather ignore the situation and choose not to respond while more of the female respondents (38.3%) as opposed to (26.1%) of the male respondents would choose to shun the perpetrators. Only a few of the respondents both male and female (4.9% and 8.2% respectively) suggested that they would lodge official complaints if they were victims of sexual harassment. Employees often shy away from making official complaints because sexual harassment can be very nasty and it is a very complicated feature of employee relationship to control. It is often difficult to prove and employees may be averse to complain. Again it may involve having the complainant‟s personal life offered up for public analysis; being objectified and humiliated by scrutiny and gossip; relationship issues between colleagues involved and vice versa; becoming publicly sexualized added to defamation of character and reputation. Victims who speak out are often branded scallywags seeking attention; and they turn into the indicted, whose looks, personalities, and temperaments are subjected to invasive examination and assault. This study notes that while the number of formal complaints has increased in the last few years, most of

the complaints have been by women. Results from studies like Sinclair (2009), Oni (2010) and Olubayo (2012) indicate that the proportion of women who report experiences of sexual harassment at work has ranged between from 23% to 48% while in contrast the proportion of men with such reports at work is significantly lower. The Human Rights Watch (2011) observes that only a mere 2.87% of males have reported such experiences since 2008. Again only a few of the respondents both male and female designate that they would take legal action (6.3% and 2.7% respectively). Most would rather have a practical solution that would stop the harassment and prevent future contact with the harasser rather than turning to the police. In the event of a lawsuit, it could cost quite a lot both in settlements and legal expenses. As indicated in Table 4, 68.1% of the total respondents (consisting of 61.3% males and 74.7 % females) affirm that sexual harassment results in a hostile and uncomfortable working environment. Over forty six percent of the total respondents (consisting of 34.5% males and 58.9 % females) suggest that sexual harassment results in stigmatization while 32.6 % (consisting of 24.7% males and 40.4 % females) chose fear and guilt as possible consequences of sexual harassment. This confirms the findings of Akanmu (2009) that a hostile, offensive or intimidating work environment results from sexual harassment victims



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Table 4. Effects of Sexual Harassment

Hostile and Uncomfortable Working Environment Stigmatization Fear and Guilt Increased Absenteeism Job Loss Health Issues

Male 142 (100 %)

Female 146(100 %)

Total 288 (100 %)

87(61.3%) 49 (34.5%) 35 (24.7%) 47 (33.1%) 59 (41.6%) 34 (24%)

109 (74.7%) 86 (58.9%) 59 (40.4%) 83 (56.9%) 49 (33.6%) 92 (63%)

288 (68.1 %) 288 (46.9 %) 288 (32.6 %) 288(45.1 %) 288(37.5. %) 288 (43.8 %)

Table 5. Organization Efforts at Addressing Sexual Harassment

Clear Organizational policy prohibiting sexual harassment Clearer grievance procedures on sexual harassment Provision of On boarding training Creating cultures that reject sexual harassment

and impacts their capability to perform assigned duties, possession of good communication skills. Both genders agreed to all the possible consequences of sexual harassment in varying degrees. For each of the possible effects the frequencies for the female respondents were consistently higher compared to the male respondents except for the job loss option where there were 41.6% of the males as opposed to 37.5% of the female respondents. This finding negates the position of the National Council for Research on Women that women in the United States are nine times more likely than men to quit their jobs, five times more likely to transfer, and three times more likely to lose jobs because of harassment. The finding however align with Taiwo (2011) who found that sexual harassment can leave a lifetime stigma on the victims especially women and this can impact the work life of these victims, health-wise. Common health issues such include stress, hypertension, anxiety, depression, and thoughts or attempts of suicide. Ilesanmi (2012) also found issues ranging from fear and guilt, loss of trust as consequences of sexual harassment. Sexual harassment has negative effects on the women. It is basically an obstacle to their proper integration into the labour market. Because men and employers stereotype women as the weaker sex and as less powerful little space is left for their integration into the labour market. Where the labour market is defined based on power and dominance, women are in the low ratio as compared to men. The economic consequences of sexual harassment can be brutal and may include: loss of wages because of taking sick leave or leave without pay from work or as a result of the termination or transfer of employment. While sexual harassment may never be totally removed in the workplace, all stakeholders stand to benefit from its reduced occurrences. Again there are no easy solutions to the challenge. As indicated in Table 5, 66.3 % of the total respondents (consisting of 61.3% of the males and 66.3 % of the females) identified with the option of organizations

Male 142 (100 %) 87 (61.3 %) 74 (52.1 %) 81(57 %) 98(69 %)

Female146 (100 %) 104(71.2 %) 116(79.5 %) 89(61 %) 122(83.6 %)

Total 288 (100 %) 288(66. 3 %) 288(66%) 288(59 %) (76.4 %)

presenting clear organizational policies prohibiting sexual harassment as a way of preventing sexual harassment. Sixty six percent of the total respondents (consisting of 52.1% of the males and 66 % of the females) choose the option of clearer grievance procedures on sexual harassment. Again 59 % of the total respondents (consisting of 57% of the males and 61% of the females) opted for the provision of on boarding training. Over seventy six percent of the total respondents (consisting of 69% of the males and 83.6 % of the females) would rather have organizations creating cultures that reject sexual harassment. Employers can curb sexual harassment in the workplace by putting in place on boarding training for new employees as part of their initial orientation, especially as it pertains to women in the work force, so they know up front that sexual harassment is unacceptable. In addition, they can issue tough policies opposed to it; educate employees on the subject and institute formal complaint procedures to address allegations of sexual harassments thereby building cultures that disallow sexual harassment. Summated scales of construct items were computed for both females and males to measure their assessment of perceptions and experiences of sexual harassment at work using Pearson Bivariate Correlation. The results are presented in Table 6 for the dependent variable (sexual harassment) and the independent variables for female and male respondents. Results indicate significant positive correlations (α