Gesenius Hebrew Grammar - Forgotten Books

Mw

G E S E N I US

e

’

H E BR E W GR A

MMAR

A S E D ITE D A N D E N LA RG E D B Y T H E LATE

E P

RO E O R F SS

OF

.

K A U TZ S CH

T E O LO G H

Y

IN

THE

I E SI T

UN V

R

Y

OF

H

ALLE

S E CO ND E N G LI S H E D IT IO N

R EVIS ED

IN

A

CC O RD A N C E

WI T H

E DIT IO N A

W IT H

A

FA

C SIMIL E A

TA

OF

BL E

.

E

TW

( 1 909)

BY

E NT Y E IG H T H -

GE

R MA N

CO W L E Y

M I N S C RIPTI O N B Y J E UT I N G A LPH A B E TS B Y M LI D ZB A R S K I

TH E OF

.

TH E

S IL O A

.

.

O XF O R D AT T H E CLA R E ND ON PR E SS

,

AND

n GLASGOW

Oxford U ive rsity P ress A men H ouse , L ond on E C 4 B

’

.

,

NE W Y

ORK TORO TO MELB OURNE WE LI GTO N

OM A AL TTA MA RAS ARA I A E TOW B

Y C

D

CU

CH

K

L

N

N IB

C P

AA

.

N

D N

Geoffrey Oumb erlege , P u b lish e r t o th e Un ive rsity

S E O N E N GLI S E ITI O N Q R E RI N T E LI T OG R I LL IN G R E T RIT I ERSI T R E SS O X O R 9 46 9 4 9 9 5 R O M O RRE T E S EE T S S E O N E ITI O N C

P

AT T H E

F

H

D

UN V C

H

D

A PH CA

Y P

C

D

,

H

F

D

IO

I

Y

D

1

,

OF THE

C

,

AI N

B

A

1

,

D

1

D

2, 1

956

TR A N S L A T O R S PR E F A CE ’

TH E t ranslat ion t h is

g

ra

mma r

orig inally

,

German

t h e t w ent y -six th

of

p

red a p

re

b y t h e R ev G .

da t e

W

of

Co llins

.

S i nc e t h at b y me , w as p ub li sh ed in 1 8 9 8 t w ent y-sev ent h German e di tion h as a pp eare d ; and

rev ise d

a nd

.

edit ion

a

.

Pro f K a ut z sc h w as .

a lrea d

y

t w ent y -eigh th in

enga g ed on a

9 0 8 w h en t h e Eng l ish t ranslat ion w a s b ec oming e xh a ust e d He sent me t h e sh eet s a s t h ey w ere p rint ed o ff, and I b eg a n 1

.

t h e former t ransl a t ion in

rev ising

soon

ossib le

as

a fte r

the

t o p ro duc e it

o rder

mp let ion

of

t h e Germa n

as

Th e

p w h ole of t h e E nglish h as b een c a re ful ly c omp are d w it h t h e ne w e dit ion, a nd, it is h op ed, imp ro v e d in many p o int s w h il e Pro f K a ut z sch s o w n c orrect ions a nd a ddit ions h a v e o f c o urse co

.

,

’

.

A s b efore, t h e p lan a nd arrange ment o f b e e n st ric t ly follow ed, so t h at t h e re feren ces

b ee n inc orp o rat ed

.

h av e

th e

o rig ina l

for

sec t ions a nd

a nd

E ng lish

up t im e ,

.

h a s ma de

due t h e

e xp ansio ns

a ddit ions

c orresp o n d

Dr D riv er h as

.

in t h e midst

sh eet s, a nd c h iefly

ra ra h s a g p p

m st n i o e ro usl v en e g g g y eng ag ement s t o reading t h e ,

numero us sug gest ions

T o h im

.

ment

n ew

t o t h e index

Of

index

in Germa n

a in

a

o f o t h er

e nlar e g

in t h e

ex a ct ly

me

o f sub ect s,

so

H eb rew w ords, and

so

t h e index

of

a lso a re

j

me

p assag es, w h ereb y w e h op e t o h a v e serv ic ea b le t o st uden t s I h a v e al so t o Of

ma de t h e b o ok more t h ank my young friend

MG

.

R D riv er, of Winc h est er y Colleg e , for so me w el c ome h elp in c orrec t ing p ro o fs o f t h e H eb re w index a nd t h e index o f p a ssag e s J N nDW‘ nan ,

My an

r

.

o dfre

.

.

c orrec t ion s

h a v e b e en

sen t

fo rmer E ng lish e dit ion, B l omfie ld, t h e R ev S H ol mes,

used t h e

D a v ies,

MG r.

.

.

.

H S kip w it h , .

t o me b y

sc h o la rs

esp e c ia l ly

MP r.

a nd a n

.

w h o h av e

t h e R ev

Wilso n

,

Pro f

.

.

W E W it t on .

.

unkno w n c o rre sp ondent

T r a nsla t or s P r e a ce f

iv

West

at

a ll

h av e a lso

Croydon b een

Th ese,

.

as

c onsidere d, a nd

w ell

as su gestions g

in

rev iew s,

w h ere p ossib le, ut iliz ed

I

.

much indeb t ed t o t h e Pre ss-readers for t h e great

w h ic h t h ey h av e b e st ow ed

on

t h e w ork

a

m

c a re

.

F inally , I must p a y a n a ffec t ionat e t rib ut e t o t h e memo ry o f Pro f K a ut z sc h , wh o die d in t h e S p ring o f t his y ea r, sh or tl y .

sh e et s of

finish ing t h e l a st

a ft er

t h e t w ent y-eigh t h

e dit ion

.

F or more t h an t h irt y years h e w a s indefat ig ab le in imp rov ing Th e German t rans t h e succ essiv e edit io ns o f t h e G rammar .

la t ion

of

t h e Ol d Test ament first p ub lish ed b y h im in

w it h t h e

c o -op era t ion of ot h er sc h ola rs,

H eilige S elir ifi des A Ts

an d no w

,

much

enla rg e d

w ide ly

edit ion,

a p p re c iat e d :

des A Ts,

is

a

1

9

00, 9

is

8 94 ,

under t h e t it le

D ie

10

)

in t h e t h ird

a nd

w ork w h ich h as b een

v al uab le

t h e Ap ocr yp h en

b y h im in

edit e d

(

1

1

P seu dep ig rap hen

a nd

anot h er

imp ort ant w ork

b esides w h ich h e p ub lish ed h is Gr a mma t ik des B i blisch A r a mciiscken in 1 8 8 4 , t w o useful b roc h ures B i belw issensehaft '

9 0 0 , and Die blei ben de B edeut ung o u l l res o n D ie P oesie un d die a r ec t u p p

w a d R eligion su nt er r ieht in f

des A Ts in

0

1

six

9 3 B a cker ,

1

ales A Ts in 1 9 0 2, h is art icl e R el ig ion p oetisch en ’ I sra el in H ast ing s D i ctio na ry of t he B ible, v

of

’

.

pp 6 1 .

is

a

to re

2— 7

n ot to , 4 3

serio us

ma ny

learning

M

.

l oss t o B iblic a l

o t h ers

m ark a b le

ment io n minor p ub lic at ions

a lik e

it

is t h e

fo r h is

OLLE G E

C

S ep t

.

1

91 0

.

,

OXF

O RD

l oss

of

mp le p iet y

si

.

A GD A I EN

sc h ola rship ,

,

a

Hi s deat h

w h ile t o

me

a nd

most kindly friend

and

,

h is

m for

ent h usia s

MT H E

FRO

GE R

MA N

P R EF A CE

TH E p resent (t w ent y igh t h ) edit ion of t h is G ra mmar, like t h e former o n es t a kes a c co unt a s far as p ossib le o f a l l imp o r 1

-e

,

t an t new p ub lic a t ions

the

on

J B a rt h

e sp e c ially

sub e c t ,

j

.

’

s

Sp r a chw i ssen schaftlich e Un tersu chun g en z u m S emitisch e n, l m f r n i m r n r k f B r k e a n h i L z 1 0 e t a w o s oc o o t t o C t , 9 7 p ( p p .

.

.

t h e t it l es

finish ed in na ch

1

90

on

p

MS

v ol

1

i

.

t h e Gr und r iss w a s

of

P K ah l e s D er m a sor etisch e Text des A Ts

8)

.

if

1 5

.

of ’

Uberlieferu ng

d er

i i v (g ng

t h e h ea ding

se e

.

an

der ba byloniseken J uden , Lp z 1 9 0 2 out line o f H e b re w a c c idenc e fro m a .

K it t el s B iblia H ebr a i ca Lp z 1 0 5 f , 2 v ols (disc rimina ting b e t w een c ert a in , p r ob a b l e , a nd 9 Th N O l d ro ose d e menda t io ns ; se e end) ek e s B eit r a ge , 9 3 p p B a b ylonia n

B erlin)

at

.

R

’

.

.

,

.

.

’

’

.

mi t Sp r a ch w issensch aft S t ra ssb urg

eu r se

Mt

,

.

S tu dien (for t h e t it l es

e r isch e

Th e imp ort ant w ork

of

of

t h ese

W

J

.

1

,

.

9

; Ed

04

’

.

S iev ers

st rikin

rk s w o g

see

R ot h st ein, Gru ndz u g e

des h ebr R h ythm/ us, 81 0 (see al so 2 r ) un fort una t ely ap p eared Th e t w o larg e comment a ries e dit e d b y t o o la t e t o b e use d .

.

,

.

N owa ck

a nd

P H aup t .

S t a de F or

ar

h a v e b een

Polyc h rom e B ib le

s

rec ent l

c om

l d e t e ; p

y

(S B OT)

,

p

a nd

in

K i n s g ) by (

ix

ar t

S ch w a ll y w a s p ublish ed in 1 9 0 4 full rev iew s o f t h e t w ent y -sev ent h edit ion, w hich

and

course

.

h a v e b een

t o t h ank 1

’

M ti

c onsi dered a s c a reful ly as

M Mg ax

Th e fi rst

ar

e d it io n

ol is

i b r n e a i ca H , (

a p p ea re d a t

H a l l e in

1

.

2 0 9 ,

p

.

1

f f 9 5 )

,

I h av e

My a

er

t w el ve pp smal l 8 vo) h im se l f, t h e fourt ee nt h t o t h e

813

mo re e d it io n s w e re p ub lish e d b y W G e se n iu s

1

i oss b l e , p

of

( 20 2

.

-1 r , t h e t w e n t y -se c o n d t o t h e t w e n t E R o d i e 8 2 b 8 g y ( 45 7 ) y e ig h t h ( 1 8 7 8 —1 1 0 T h e fi rst a b r idg e d e d it io n ap p e a re d in 9 ) b y E K aut zsc h 1 8 9 6, t h e se c o nd a t t h e same t i me a s t h e p re se n t ( t w e n t y e ig h t h ) l a rg e

t w e n t y fi rst

1

.

.

.

e d it io n .

K aut zsc h

Th e fi rst ’

s

e dit io n

of

th e

‘

U b u ng sb uc h

H e b re w G ra mma r ap p eare d in

1

’

88 1 , th e

( E xe rc ise s) Si

xth

in

1

t o G e se n ius

90 8

.

Fr om

vi

L a mb ert sch r

ift

t ions

E R J (

1

.

G erma n

the

0 9 2,

p

rt T h fi l a nd H O o e o d t , 7 t 3 ) ( F o r p art ic ula r remarks a nd c orrec

0

.

.

.

in B uc h b erg , S c h a fi h a usen, B

(

c ont rib ut io ns .

of

of

Leip z ig ,

K irsch ner,

.

of

a ssa

s e g

S

:

an d

Preisw erk

.

j

from t h ree

of

.

.

of

B a l timore, Prof K nudt z on,

of

old

.

of

B erlin, .

and enla rg e

.

in

of

B el le, D r

oi

d d i n i e (

Giessen

the

.

h e lp

ab un da nt .

K rist ia nia ,

c onnex ion

.

Pro f H

a nd

.

.

w it h t h e p resent

.

ment o f t h e index es

t o my

a ll a

dea r

i n i r el a s n e c g

y Pro f

c olleag ue

rt unit of o p y p And I a m n o less gra t eful

I t a ke t his

.

t h a nking t h em al so

and a lso ,

of

of

Prof H Hyv erna t , of t h e Univ ersit y o f Wa sh ing t on, h a s rendered great serv ice e sp ecially in t h e c orrec t ion

edit io n,

who

Pa st or K Oh ler,

,

t his b ook, Pro f P H aup t ,

friends

S tra c k,

.

unior,

Pro f B S t a de,

S p ecial mention must b e ma de rec eiv ed

D r Ga sser , past or O f Ch a rlott enb ur , g

.

S t ra ssb urg , Pa st or

S ch wa rz ,

,

p ) of K uc z kow , Posen, Prof Th N Oldek e ,

t o t h e inde x

A ngst , D r Lieb ma nn,

(B erlin)

.

.

.

.

9 0 2 , p 3 7 3 ff ) I must t h ank Pro f J B a rt h 1

,

P r efa ce

.

C

.

O

for

S t euernag el

.

t he

h e h as h elp ed me from b eg inning roo f-sh ee t s p

unw earying c ar e w it h w h ic h end in c orrec t ing

to

A mong mat erial

the

.

c h ang es

int roduc ed int o t h is

b e m ent ioned t h e a b ol it ion of t h e I n t his I h a v e

a do

edit ion

e m t er S w d mediu m

may

10

d)

.

v ie w s of

h d n i h u esit a t ion, t h e t t e o t w t o , p

I find it , h ow e v er, quit e imp ossib l e t o follow h im in rej ec t in I t is no g all dist inc t ions OT q uant it y in t h e vo w el s doub t p ossib le t h at such mat t ers may in t h e sp oken lang uag e

S iev ers

.

.

h a t in if f rent a ranc e a nd es ec ia ll t d e ea p y y pp er io d o f nearl r w h ic h t h e O ld h d v e rs a t o u sa n ea o , p y y

h a v e w o rn th e

a v er

T est a ment w rit ing s t a k en

l e a c p

O ur

.

,

v a ria t ions

e xt end, v er

y g rea t

dut y ,

h o w ev er,

is

to

lang uag e in t h e fo rm in w h ich it h as b een t o us b y t h e

M

a so re t es

; a n d t h a t t h is

m it s in my

O p inio n

ea rlier st a e o f g

dev el o p m ent b elong s

o f no

doub t

p resent t h e h anded dow n

re

form inv ol v es

t inc t ion b e t w e en unc h a ng ea b l e , t one-lo ng , ad

may h av e

a n d sh ort

Th e disc ussion

.

t o H e b rew

not

a

v o w els,

o f a ny

m ar m g ra

mp ara t iv e S emit ic p h ilology T h e same a nsw er may b e made t o B eer s desire ( TItLZ

b ut t o

co

dis

.

’

.

1

90 4 ,

Fr o m the G er ma n

P r efa ce

h ist orica l H eb rew grammar desc ri b ing t h e a c t ua l ro w t h o f t h e la n ua e o n a b asis o f c o m a rat iv e g g p g

c ol

.

f f r o 4 ) 3 1

.

h i l l o og y , p of

as

an

it may

t h e O ld Te st ame nt

st ill

b e t rac ed w it h in t h e

S uc h ma t erial

as

is

na rro w

a v a ila b le

limit s

fo r t h e

p urp ose oug h t indeed t o b e h onest ly set fo rth in t h e new e di t ions of G esenius ; b ut B eer see ms t o me to a p p raise such

ma t erial much t oo h igh ly w h en h e re fers t o it a s necessi ‘ t at ing an h ist orical gra mmar In my o p inion t h ese h is ’

.

t or ic al differe nc es h av e for t h e

b y t h e h armonizing

ac t iv it y o f

most p a rt b een th e

M

ob l it erat e d

a soret es

.

E

.

K AU TZS CH

.

A DD ITION S A N D COR R E CTIO N S Pag e 4 2 , l ine 1 3 from b elow , for not e 1 r ea d not e 3 ee also Wic kes, P rose A c centua t ion, 1 3 0 f , 8 7 n S Pag e 6 3 , 1 5 19 [ h w o , h ow ev er, reg ards t h e sup erl ine ar, B ab ylonia n syst em as t h e ( .

.

.

)

e arlier

In Ginsb urg , I ntroduc tion to t he H ebr ew B ible, 7 6 , 7 8 H ebrew B ible, ed 2 p p 1 0 8 f , 2 6 7 f , t h e t wo

a nd

;

G in sb urg

’

s

.

ms of div ision

a nd

of

v

in

p sup erlinear

V

.

]

in

5

Of

a nd

ms

of

1 b ot h syllab le s (a s 3 95 5) in G n et h eg on t h e first syllab le and an acc ent ? 3 “ 2 = in 2 20 I s 3 8 , Jon , 4 , l/’

K

J

Pag e 7 9 , 12 a dd er 3 9

[S O

22

15

2

[1

8

6 Ginsb urg h as ”fis t— S R D a nd

;

.

.

s m s

an

before

3, 5

1 1

“

c f h is not e (

B aer

th e

1 1

reg a rds

the

ac c en

for

Ez 9 o n Jud

6

in sert r ea d

20

43

e

.

.

d

t

an

i

sec ond syllab le

t he

on

I

t h at in (I;

c onsist ing o f

Ex

M x

,

.

a cc ent on

e c ep t

te t s

b ut in t h e 7 oc c urrenc es O f NJN , Ginsb urg , and K it t el ag ree in h aving a n

B aer,

,

x )

ordinary

syllab le :

t h e first

t he 6

i (n

c onsist ing

syst e

Pag e 6 5 , no te 1 , for teas r ea d 18 18 (as 1 0 5 a ) i i E d t ons o ft en v a ry in individual a ssag es, as p [ t uat ion

mns— t h e

c o lu

m,

P alest inia n ( )

sub l inear

—S R D

-1 6 17

m

syst e

numb ered

(

.

in p a rallel

extenso,

as

th e

.

B a b ylonia n ( )

.

1 2 v erses of

t he

rint ed

a re

the

Of

v erses

E x odus)

.

.

syst e 1 0

.

25 3 5 ,

Dn 9

(

as

Ne

4 ,

]

x c ep t ions

to b

are

After

.

E zr al so

;

on

and

Jer

se ve ra l

ot h er

p assag es in quest ion) : b ut Ginsb urg o nly in 1 0 of t h e ac ob b en Ha e x c ep t ions t o b, and yyim a nd K it tel o nly in 5 , v iz 21 5 —S R D Pr 1 1 , er it 5 2 , E z r ) of

J

J

.

.

.

Pag e

1 1 1

Pag e

1 2

Am 4 P ag e “

,

§

3,

1 1 1

l ine

75

45

Page

1

67

,

a dd :

e,

cf

.

a lso

S ee B H alp er,

.

.

In

ZA W

regula r v erb

7 7,

mm"rea d Nina

.

ag ent) foll ow ed .

by

me ,

Is

1

3

.

at

ac c ident-ally o

R em

f

or

5 d)

Ge minat e Verb s w it h t h e

1 2,

.

the

.

)

1

91 0,

Th e Part ic ip ial format ions o f t h e

p p 4 2 if , 9 9 {f , .

.

20 1

ff

.

(

al so

dealing

.

end of

6 7 g t h e follow ing p arag rap h h a s b een

mit t ed

A ccording t o t h e p rev ailing view, t his st rength ening of t h e first radical is merely int ended t o g ive t h e b i-lit eral st em at least .

A dditions a

t

a nd

( Possib ly

ri-l it eral a p p eara nc e.

Cor rections

a ided

b y t he

gy of v erb s Ys , B ut c f K aut z sch , ’

a nalo

P H aup t h as sugg est ed t o me in conv ersat ion ) ’ im Heb r in Orien ta l D ie sog a ramaisierenden F ormen der Verb a

as

.

.

.

m 7 0 Gebur tst a g Th N oldelces,

S t udien sh ow n

i

s ze a

0 35?

fi

zu

( ) 1

.

.

t ha t t h e

sh arp e ning o f

and

5 2 2

12,

nev er

radical oft en a p p ears

of

the

m

st e

,

&c

,

( 2)

)

Db }

a nd

doub t t o dissimilat e t h e

no

wh en it is

sh a rp e ning

t ha t t h e

oc c a sio ned

to be

e sp ec ia lly

.

.

.

tn;

.

a nd else w h ere "

th e

9 0 6 , p 7 7 1 if I t is t h ere 1 st ra dic al o ft en serv e s t o em h a p 1

” W 5 ut cf b (

art ic ula r me a ning p

a‘

b y t he

W h et h er

a sib ilant .

M

5 02

a nd

,

v ow els of

na t ure of t h e

p ronunciat io n is b ased on an early t radit ion, or t h e t rarily a dop t ed ara maiz ing forms t o at t ain t h e ab o ve

left

.

.

.

the

(a s 1 st

first l et t er

masoret ic

the

’

h as

asora

j

o b ec t s,

arb i

must b e

undec ide d

Pag e

.

let t ers d Pag e Pag e Pa g e Pag e

9 3 , the

1

and e res e c t iv ely p

73,

a dd 11 “ l

2

72

2,

line

2, a

“

2

18

a dd

4

l

,

,

9 3 qq

marg inal

.

3 6,

,

23 2, 2

t hird p a rag rap h s sh ould h av e t h e

fter E st 8 4 3 a dd 7 p 2 S 30 E z r 4 8 5 0 a dd OBI2

20 0

nlDDWI S

seco nd and

end,

La

1

16

22 .

Jer 5 c f K Onig , ii ( .

.

DQ ‘

5 ,

Tfl

,

fi

Dt ‘

’

l?

E2

20

5 ,

LI S T O F A B B R E V I A T I O NS Th e following

ab b reviat ions

h ave

oc c a sional ly

b een used for w orks a nd

p e riodical s freq uent ly q uot ed A JS L

CI S Ed

.

Jo u nal of S emit ic Languag es

Americ a n

.

r

.

Corp us I nsc rip t ionum S e mit ica rum

M .

a nt.

= B ib lia Heb ra ic a

Jew ish

ex rece nsione

Q uart erly R eview

H Zimme rn .

A He b re w on

.

.

a nd

.

.

Jab lon ki s

B erolini, 1 69 9

,

und

.

of t h e

Le x ic on

a nd

C A B rig g s, .

.

.

Old Test ament , b ased

of

G esenius, b y F B row n, Ox fo rd, 1 9 0 6 .

.

mit isch en S p ra c h en

se

.

Lp z 1 8 8 9 - 94 Nac h ric h t en de r Get t ing er Gesell sch aft de r

Wissensc h aft en

Orient alist isch e Lit erat urz eit ung

1 8 98

.

Vienna ,

.

.

R ealencyc l op adie fur p ro t est a nt isc h e T h eol og ie Lp z 1 8 96 if 3 rd ed b y A Hauc k .

.

Proc ee ding s

.

o f th e

.

Et udes Juives

.

Sac red B o oks

.

Paris,

1 8 80

of t h e

Sa ma rit a ns

B a l t imore ,

1 8 76

1

if

.

ed

b y P Haup t .

.

Lp z

.

.

by E

ed .

S c h urer

Lp z

mias a nd H

Winek

.

.

.

ff

.

.

.

.

Je

Zeit sc h rift fur Assy rio l ogie

C B ez ol d

.

Ze it sc h rift sinc e 1 90

1881

{f ,

der deut sc h en

1 8 46

iii , sinc e

Geb iet e,

.

W issensch aft

ed

.

by

1 9 0 3 ed

.

ed

by

.

.

.

b y A Fisc h er

b y C S t euernag el .

M ,

ar t i 7 by K mo rg e nla ndisch e n Gesel lsc h a ft ,

a nd sinc e 1 90

.

.

des deut sc h en Pa last inavereins, 3

ed.

.

.

B S t a de, Giessen, Zeit sc h rift

.

und v erw a ndt e

Lp z 1 8 8 6 if Zeit sc h rift fur die al t t est ament lic h e .

.

re

.

.

.

.

8 9 3 if

Vordera sia t isc h e B ib l iot h ek, ed b y A le r Lp z 1 90 7 if

.

London ,

.

.

t h e Ol d T est a ment ,

of

Th eolo g isc h e Lite rat urz eit ung ,

Z DP V

K irc h e,

und

S ociet y o f B ib lic al Arch aeology

Th e ( H eb rew ) Pe nt at euc h

Lyz

.

.

R e vue des

.

if

if

1 879

a nd

.

by

.

B a rt h , Die Nominalb ildung in den .

Th L Z

Rap h ael

.

E ng lish Lex ic on

and

S R Driver,

J

D E

.

t h e Th esa urus

.

edidit

das Alt e Test a ment , 3 rd ed and H Winc kl e r, 2 v ols , B e rlin, 1 9 0 2 f

Die K eilinsc h rift en L exicon

No rz i

.

a n ua e 1 7 4 2—4 .

ayyi

B ib lia Heb raica

S al

Mt

m B a sila ,

H

rec ensione

ex

.

.

Lp z

.

1 878

if ,

CO N T E N TS

AD D I T I O N S LI S T TA

A BBR

OF

B LE

CO RR

A ND

EV

I A T I ON S

EA R L Y S

OF

S I L OA M I N S

E CT I O NS

E MI TI C

AL P H AB

C RI P TI O N

ET S

INTRODUCTION l

.

Th e Semit ic Lang uag es I n Gen eral

2 S ket c h .

3

t h e Hist o ry

of

Gra mmat ic a l Trea t ment

.

4

of

.

Division

and

t h e Heb rew Lang uag e

t h e Heb rew La ng uag e

of

Arra ng ement

oft h e

F IR ST

E LE

MENTARY

.

Gramma r

PAR T

PR I NCI PLE S, OR T HE S O UNDS AND CHAR ACT ER S

CH A P T 5

.

ER

I

TH E I N D I V I D U A L S O U N D S

.

Th e Consonant s : t h e ir Fo rms Divi sion

a nd

and

7

.

Ge neral , Vow el Let t eI s

8

.

Th e Vow els

In

of

CH A R A

CT E RS

Name s

6 Pronunc ia tion .

A ND

Co nsonant s a nd

Vowel S ig ns

.

Th e Vow el Sig ns I n p art ic ular Ch a rac t er o f t h e sev eral Vow els

o Th e Half Vo wel s and t h e Syllab le Divider ( sw a) 1 O t h er Sig ns w h ic h affec t t h e R ea ding .

.

1 2 Dag eS in g ene ral , 1 3 Dag es l en e .

.

§

14

.

15

.

Mp p iq a

.

17

.

Mq q a

Of t h e

C HA P T

ER

Q

e p h a nd P

II

Ie

.

Dag eS fort e in p a rt ic ula r

R ap h e

a nd

Th e Ac c e n t s

16 Of

a nd

Mt h e

eg

an d K t h ib h e

.

.

M

a sora

marg inalis a nd finalis

E C U L I A R I E S A N D CH A N G E S O F LET T E R S S Y LLA B L E A N TH E TO N E

P

TI

D

18

1n g e neral 1 9 Ch a ng e s o f Consona nt s .

.

20 Th e S t reng t h ening (Sh arp ening ) .

of

Consona nt s

:

THE

Contents PA G

Th e Asp irat ion o f t h e Tenues Pec ul ia rit ies o f t h e Gutt ura l s

75 76

T h e F eeb l eness of t h e Gut t urals R

W eak

Ch ang es o f t h e

Let t ers 1

a nd

n

79 82

a nd

Unc h ang eab le Vo w els Syllab l e format io n Th e Ch a ng e Th e R ise

of

84

it s Influenc e

a nd

‘

-

t h e Vow els,

o f New

V ow el s

Th e To ne, it s Ch ang e s,

Q uant it y of Vow els e sp e c ia lly a s re ards Q uant it y g

a nd

3 0 S t ems .

31

.

MOLOGY

on

PA R T

a nd

Q uadrilit eral

Grammat ical S t ruc t ure CH A P T

ER

Th e Pe rsonal Pronoun

I

TH E PR O N O U N

.

Th e S ep arat e Pronoun

.

Prono minal Sufli xes Th e Dem onst rat ive Pronoun

Th e A rtic l e

Th e R el at ive Prono un Th e Int errog at ive

a nd

Indefi nit e Pronouns

CH A P T

l§

38

.

General Vie w

39

.

Ground-fo rm

Md

40 Te nses 41

.

oo

.

.

a nd

ER

II

.

TH E V

Fle x ion ‘

Varia t ions from t h e Ordina ry Form I

42 In g eneral .

x

Fle io n

a nd

of

of t h e

T h e S t r o ng V e r b

.

S t rong Verb

.

.

A It s F orm

E RR

Deriv ed S t ems

s.

.

M

Th e Pure S t em,

or

Qa l

.

eaning

t h e Pe rfec t

of

Q al

Th e I nfinit iv e Th e I mp e ra t ive

Th e I mp erfec t

Sh ort e ning Th e

a nd

and

J u si s

T h e Perfec t

ve an

a nd

Th e Pa rt ic ip l e

it s In fle xion

Leng t h ening

of t h e

Imp erfec t

a nd

d Coh ort a t ive

Imp erfe c t w it h

W aw

88

94

O R THE PAR TS OF S PE E CH

,

85

92

th e Pause

and

Ro ot s ; B il it eral , T ril it eral ,

and

th e

Syllab l es

SE CON D

E TY

E

Con se c ut ive

I mp e rat ive

.

Contents B 51

Nip h

.

5 2 Pi el .

D er ived Conj -ug a t ions

or

.

al

Pu al

a nd

.

Hip h 11 a n d HOp h al 5 4 Hit h p a é l

53

§

Verb a D eri vative ,

.

x iii

.

‘

.

j

Less Common Co n ug a t ions 5 6 Q uadril it e ral s

55

.

.

S t rong Verb w ith Pronomina l S i g/fi xes

C

.

57

.

I n g en era l T h e Pro n omina l S uf

fix

.

e s of

b

t h e Ve r

Th e Pe rfec t w it h Prono minal S uffi x es

Q

6 0 Imp erfec t w ith Pro n ominal Suffi x es 61

u

I nfi nit ive, I mp erat ive and Pa rt ic ip l e w it h Prono minal S ffix es

.

Verbs w ith Guttura ls

.

62 I n g enera l 63 Verb s First Gutt ura l .

.

64 Ve rb s .

Middl

e

Gut t ural

65 Ve rb s Th ird Gut t ura l .

II

66 Ve .

67

s

.

W ea k

Th e

V erb

.

Pri mae R a dica lis Ni m( 1 ED) "

Verb s it v

.

Th e

Wea kest

( Verb a Q uiescentia )

Verbs

.

”

V erb s N 5 '

Verb s V s Verb s

1

V erb s

‘

”

”

51

.

.

D

.

First Cl ass,

s o rig ina

’

V e rb s p rop erly V s o r Ve rb s w it h Y odh a ssimilat e

S ec ond Cl a ss, T h iI d Cl ass,

lly 1 £1

b

Ve r

01

”

or

Ve rb s

Verb s m iddle i

(vulg o

It)

Verb s N s '

Ve

n5 ”

s

We a k R el a t ion o f t h e W eak Verb s t o Verb s Doub ly

.

o ne a not h er

Verb a Defec t iva

CH A P T 79

.

.

.

Deriva t ion

of

of

Gender

Nouns

8 2 Primit ive Nouns .

III

.

TH E NO U N

General View

8 0 Th e I ndic at ion 81

ER

.

In

Nouns

.

d

1

54

1

55

1

58

1 60

1 62

Cont ents

xiv 8 3 Ve rbal Nouns .

In

Gene ral

.

Nouns de rive d from t h e Simp l e S t em Noun s fro m t h e I nt e nsive S t em 8 5 Nouns w it h Pre format ive s a nd Afformat ives 8 6 Denominat ive Nouns

8 45 Fo rmat io n .

of

.

.

87

.

Of t h e Plural

88

.

O f t h e Dual

8 9 Th e Genit ive .

9 0 R e al .

91

.

t h e Co nst ruc t S ta

a nd

a nd sup p o se d

t

e

R ema ins of E a rly Case-ending s

Th e No un w it h Prono minal Suffi x es

9 2 Vow el Ch ang es in t h e No un 9 3 Pa ra dig ms o f a sc ulin e Nouns

M

.

.

94 F ormat ion .

95

.

of

F eminine Nouns

Para dig ms o f F eminine Nouns

96 Nouns .

of

Pe c ul iar F o rmat ion

97

.

Numeral s

98

.

Numerals

.

.

(a ) Cardinal Numb ers (b) Ordinal Numb ers CH A P T

ER

TH E PA RT I

IV

.

C LES

General View Adve rb s Prep o siti ons

Prefixed Prep osit ions ‘

Prep osit ions wit h Prono minal

Pl ural

Form

j unc t ions Int e j ec t ions

Con

r

T H IR D

PAR T

SYNTAX

CHA P T

ER

I

A

Use

of

.

.

I

.

TH E PA R T S

S y n t ax

Use of

t he

of

of

Tenses

a nd

t h e Perfec t

t h e Jussive

Th e I mp e rat iv e T h e Imp erfec t w it h Th e Pe rfe c t w it h

W aw

Wfiw

SP

t h e V erb

Use o f t h e Imp e rfec t Use o f t h e Coh o rt a t iv e Use

OF

Co nsec ut ive

Consec ut ive

EE C H

.

Md

oo s

.

Contents B 1 13

.

Th e Infinit ive Ab sol ut e

1 14

.

Th e I n finit ive Const ruc t

1 15

.

Co nst ru c t ion Ob

j ec t

a nd

The I nfi nit ive

.

of

XV Pa rt icip le

.

t h e I nfinit ive Co nst ruc t w it h S ub

j ec t a nd

.

1 16 Th e Part ic ip l es .

C

.

The Government

S ub ordina t ion

Th e D irec t Ac c usa t ive

of

t h e Ob

j ec t

T h e Looser S ub o rdinat ion

t h e Noun t o t h e V e rb

of

of

t h e Acc usa t ive t o th e V erb

t

Ve rb a l I dea s under t h e Governmen

of a

Verb

of

Co-o rdi nat ion

.

Passive Verb s

II

1 22 I ndic at ion .

of

of

S y nt ax

.

t h e Gender

of t h e

th

e

N o un

.

Noun

Th e R ep resent at ion o f Pl ural I deas b y means O f a nd b y t h e R ep et it ion o f W ords

.

of

Comp lement a ry V erb a l Ideas

Const r uc t ion

1 23

as

T h e Doub l e Acc usat ive

.

Pre p osit ions of

.

Nouns t o t h e Verb b y means

of

Th e S ub ordinat io n

th e Verb

f

o

Cll o

ec t iv es,

.

1 24 Th e V ario us Uses of t h e Plural-F orm .

1 25 Det erminat ion

of

.

Nouns in g eneral

Prop er Names

h

t

Det ermi nat ion

.

of

1 26 Det erminat ion b y means o f t e Ar ic l e 1 27 Th e Noun det ermined b y a foll owing Det erminat e Gen t ive .

.

i

.

1 28

Th e I ndic at io n

.

of

means of t h e

t h e Genit iv e Relat ion b y

Co nst ruc t S t at e

.

h

1 29 E x p ression of t h e Genit ive b y Circ uml oc ut io 1 30 W ider Use o f t h e Const ruc t S t a t e .

.

.

Ap p osit ion 1 3 2 Connex ion o f t h e S ub st a nt ive w it h t h e Ad

1 31

.

j ec t i

.

1 3 3 Th e Comp arison

of

.

t h e Co mp arat iv e

1 34 Synt a .

x

of t h e

.

( Perip h rast ic a n d S up erla t ive ) ve s

.

e

.

x p ression of

Numera l s

III

13 5

j ec t i

Ad

ve

.

S yn t a x

of

t h e P r o no un

.

Th e Person al Pronoun

1 3 6 Th e Demo nst rat ive Pro noun .

13 7

.

1 38

.

1 39

.

Th e Int erroga t iv e Pronoun

Th e R elat ive Pronoun

t nt i

E x p re ssion of Pronominal Ideas b y means of S ub s

a

ves

xv i

Cont ents CH A P T I

ER

II

.

TH E

S

E NT E N C E

T h e S e nt e n c e in G e n e ral

.

Noun clauses V erb al-c lauses, Th e Noun-c la use ,

and

.

t h e Comp ound S ent en c e

Th e Ve rb al c la use Th e Co mp o und S ent e nc e

bj

Pec uliarit ies I n t h e R ep resent at ion of t h e Su in t h e Vei b al c l ause )

ec t

(esp ec ially

M

Ag reemen t b et w een t h e e mb ers of a S ent en c e, es ec ial l p y b et ween S ub ec t a nd Pre dic at e , in resp ec t o f Gender and

j

Numb er

Const ruc t ion

of

Co mp ound S ub

j ec t s

I ncomp l e t e S ent enc es II

148

.

1 49

.

Sp

.

e c ia l

K in d s

of

S e n t e nc e s

or

Asse ve ra t ion

.

E x c l a ma t ions Sent en c es w h ic h

e

xp ress an Oat h

1 5 0 Int errog at ive S ent enc e s .

151

Desiderat iv e S ent en c es

.

1 5 2 Neg at ive S ent enc es 15 3 R est ric t ive a n d Int ensiv e Clauses .

.

S e nt e nc es c onnec t ed b y 1 55 R elat ive Clauses

1 54

.

Waw

.

1 5 6 Circ umst a nt ial Clause s .

15 7

Ob

.

158

j ec t

c l auses

rat io Ob l iq ua ) O (

Causal Cla uses

.

1 5 9 Condit ional Sen t ence s .

1 60

Co n ce ssiv e Cla uses

1 61

Comp arat ive Clauses

.

.

j unct i

1 62 Dis .

1 63

.

ve

Adv ersat iv e

S ent ences a nd

E x c ep t ive Cla uses

1 64 Temp o ra l Cl a use s .

1 65

Fina l Clauses

.

1 66 Conse c ut ive Cl auses .

1 67

.

Ap osiop esis, Ana c olut h on , I nvolved Se ries

PA R A D I G MS I ND E x

OF

E OF IND E X O F

I ND X

EC S HE B R E W W O R PA S S A G E S SU BJ

T

DS

o f S e nt e nc es

H E B R EW

GR A

MMA R

I NTR OD UCTI O N 1

The S emitic La ng ua g es i n Genera l

.

.

E K b nig , H ist -kr it S t a de , Leh rb der h eb r Gramm , L p z 1 8 7 9 , 5 2 fi Leh rgeb der h ebr S p r , i Lp z 1 8 8 1 , 3 H S t ra c k, B ir d in das A T , 6 t h c d , un ic h , 1 9 0 6 , p 2 3 1 H ( a g oo d b ib l i o g rap h y o f a ll t h e S e m it ic d ial e c t s) ; Th N Ol d eke , a r t ic l e ‘ S e mit ic L a ng uag e s , in t h e 9t h e d o f t h e E ncycl B rit a n d B et tr zur sem S p ra ch wiss , S t r a ssb , ( D ie semit S p rach en, z ud e d , Lp z '

B

.

.

.

M

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

’

.

.

.

.

.

.

m

.

.

.

.

.

9 0 4 ; W W r ig h t , L ectures on th e Comp ara tive Gra ma r of th e S emi tic L a ngua g es, ‘ R e k n d r c e o f, Zur K ara kt erist ik de r se m S p ra c h e n , in t h e Ca m b r 1 8 9 0 ; H m " i ii 1 112 c t e s d a Con res i nterna t d es Orienta listes at G e n ev a i n A X 1

.

’

.

.

.

g

(

.

.

,

8 9 6 ; O E L ind b erg , Verg l Gra mm der sem Sp ra ch en, i A : K onsona n t ismus, G o t h e n b urg , 1 8 9 7 ; H Z imme rn , Vergl Gra mm der sem Sp rac h en, B e rl in , 1 8 9 8 ; E K b n ig , H ebraisch a nd S emitisch : Prolegomena und Grundli nien einer Gesek der sem S p rach en, &c , B e rl i n , 1 9 0 1 ; C B roc ke l mann , S emitisch e S p rach wissensch aft, L p z 1 9 0 6, Grundriss d er verg l Gra mm d er sem S p ra ch en. v ol 1 ( L aut und F o rme nl eh re ) , p ar t s 1 —5 , B e r lin , 1 9 0 7 f a nd h is K urzg ef O r ) B e rl in , 1 9 0 8 Th e ma t erial c on ta in e d rergleich end e Gra mm ( Por t a L ing in in sc rip t ion s h as b e e n i n p r oc e ss of c o l l e c t io n S i n c e 1 8 8 1 i n t h e P a ris L idz Corp us I nscrip ti onum S emiticarum To t h is t h e b e st int ro d uc t io ns a re b arski’ s H andbuch der N ordsem E p ig rap h ik, W e imar, 1 8 9 8 , in 2 p ar t s ( t e t a n d p l a t e s) , a nd h is E p hemeris zur sem E p ig rap h ik ( 5 p art s p ub l ish e d) , G iessen , 1 9 0 0 f [G A C ook e , H a nd book of N orth -S emiti c I nscri p tions, O fo rd ,

L e ide n,

1

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

‘

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

—

.

.

.

M

.

.

x

.

.

.

.

1

Th e H eb rew languag e is

.

x

.

one

b ranc h

of a

f amily of la n a g Pale st ine, Ph oenic ia, reat

g uag es in West ern A sia wh ic h w a s indig enous in S yria , esop ot a mia , B ab ylo nia , A ssyria , a nd A rab ia , t h a t is t o

M

in t h e

c ount ries e

x t ending

from th e

t h e E up hrat es a nd T igr is, t h e sout h ern c oast of Arab ia of

and

In

.

ov er

islands

and sea-b oa rds o f

Cart h ag inian

c oast

or

S emitic

erranean

the

from t h e mount a ins ea rly

Mdit e

to the of

t imes, h o w ev er, it

erra nean , a s

ot h er side

Armenia t o sp read

c olo nies over

from

ma ny

for inst anc e t o t h e

mp reh ensive desig na t ion is found in early a nd na t ions of t his fa mily ; t h e name S emi tes

No

.

t imes for t h e languag es 1

e

Ab yssinia, and b y means o f Ph oenic ian

A rab ia

'

Mdit

say,

co

languages (b ased

up on t h e

fa c t t hat

acc ording

t o GB

1 0

21

most all nat ions sp eaking t h ese la ng uag es are de scended from S hem) is, h ow ev er, now g enerally acc ep t ed and h as a c c o rding ly b een

al

,

i

2 h r d e e

r et a ne

.

F i rst u se d b y S c h l b ze r i n E ic h h o rn’ s R ep ertorium f ur bibl u maryenl Li teratur, 1 7 8 1 , p 1 6 1 9 F ro m S h e m a re d eriv e d ( C u t h e A ra maea n a nd A rab fa m il ie s a s w e l l a s t h e H e b r e w s, b ut n o t t h e Ca n aa n it e s ( P h o e n ic ia n s) , w h o a re t rac e d b ac k t o H a m ( v v “ 5 it ) , a l t h oug h t h e ir l a ng uag e b e l o n gs de c id e dl y t o w h a t Th e l a ng ua g e of t h e B a b y l o nia ns a nd As sy ria n s a l so is n o w c a ll e d S e mit ic w a s l o n g ag o S h o w n t o b e S e miti c , ust a s A SSur ( G D is in c l ude d a mong t h e so n s o f S h e m .

.

.

.

.

.

C

OWL

BY

j

.

.

I ntr oduction

2

b

2

Th e b et t er known S emitic la ng uag es may b e

.

b- d

1

sub di v ided

‘

as

follow s Th e S o ut h S emit ic

I

.

t he

c lass cal

i

Arab ic b ranch

or

t h e A rab s

of

lit erary lang uag e

T o t h is b elong , b esides

.

a nd

modern

th e

v ulg a r

A rab ic p r ese rv ed in t h e S ab aean insc rip t ions (l ess c orrec t ly calle d H imyarit ic ), and it s o ffsh oot , t h e G e ez o r E t hiop ic , in A b yssinia

A rab ic , t h e

older sout h ern

'

.

II

Middl

Th e

.

t h e H eb re w

H eb rew ,

as

III

C

.

t his

of

a nd

re

mains of Ca naanit ish dialec ts p reserved in

p ersons,

a nd

in t h e insc rip t io n o f

Th e N ort h S emit ic Th e E ast e rn

N so raeans, S ab ia ns, a ( a ve ry

deb a sed

to be

seen

Western

in GB 3 1 , b y t h e 18 - 8 E z r 4 t o 6 , and

inscrip t io ns

a nd

a c onsiderab le

Gemara, it s

,

b ooks

c alle d

t h e disc ip l es

t h is

A

.

of

rep resent ed

mix t ure

of

Jer as

Mb oa

.

of

t he

of

St

.

Md an

J oh n) rep

a eans

r esent

J ewish

modific a t ion of S yria c is B ab ylonian Talmud 2 ) Th e (

th e

.

c alled

a lso

‘

Ch aldee

’

2 .

i n t h e O ld Test ament b y t wo words ‘ 28 and t h e sect ions D n 2 to 7 ;

w ell

by

as

numb er

a

of

J

non- ewish

J ewish

p ap yri (see b elow, unde r m), b ut esp e c ially T a rg ums, Pa le st inia n sec t ion o f e w ish lit e rat ure (

J

To t he

ad

rel i ious g

al so

v e rse

of

.

Palest inia n A ra ma ic , inc or rec t ly

47

king

,

names o f

Th e sub div isions Ara maic b ranch Ara maic or S yriac t h e lit erary lang uag e Th e

of

‘

a

or

in t h e lang uag e

or

MeS

.

fsh oo t of

This lat t er dialect is

by

M

es ec ially

t h e Ch ristia n S yrians

of

To t h is b elong s

.

ish na (see b el o w, in t h e 3 a ), a nd p Ph oenic ian, w it h Punic ( in Carth ag e a nd it s c olonies),

fo und

are

Canaanit ish b ranch

or

t h e O ld Te st a ment w it h it s desc endant s, t h e N ew

of

R ab b inic ; also a nd t h e v arious p lac es

S emit ic

e

me b ranch b elong s

sa

Heb rew forms,

al so

x

a nd,

e c ep t

t h e S amarit an, w it h

for t h e

ra t h er

A rab ic

t h e p rop er name s, t h e idiom of t h e N ab a t aea n insc rip t ions S inait ic p eninsula, in t h e E ast of Palestine, & c

colouring of

in t h e

.

F o r furt h er p art ic ula rs ab out t h e re ma in s O f W e st e rn A ra ma ic ( inc l udi ng t h o se in t h e N e w T e st i n t h e P a l my re ne a n d E gy p t ia n A ra ma i c in sc rip t ions) se e K a ut z sc h , Gra mm des B iblisch -A ra maisch en, Lp z 1 8 8 4, p 6 if .

(I

IV

.

.

.

T h e E ast S emit ic b ra nch , t h e lang uage

m insc rip t ions, t h e t h ird l ine

B ab ylc nian

c une ifor

of

of

.

t h e A ssyrio

t h e Ac h aemenian

inscrip t ions

.

On t h e imp or t a nc e l e ic og rap h ic a l p oint

x

j

A ssyria n for H eb rew p h ilology e sp ec i al ly fro m a De lit zsc h , Prolegomena eines neuen o f v ie w c f F rie d r of

.

.

F o r c o n ec t ures as t o t h e g radua l d iv e rg en c e o f t h e d ial e c t s ( fi rst t h e B ab y loni an , t h e n Can aanit e , i nc l uding H e b rew , l ast ly A ra ma ic a nd A rab ic ) ’ 3 fro m p rimit i ve S e mit ic , se e Z im me rn , K A T , ii p 64 4 fi 9 I n a w ider sense all Jew ish A ramaic is somet ime s cal l e d ‘ Ch al dee 1

'

.

.

.

.

§

1 e,

T he S emitic L a ng uag es in

f]

Worterbuch s z um A

h ebr -a rarn .

.

i n H ebra ica , Ch ic ag o , 2n d e d B er l i n , 1 9 0 6 .

G enera l

3

‘ P L z 1 8 8 6 H a u p p t , A ssy rian Ph o nol og y, , Jan 1 8 8 5 , v ol 1 3 D e l it z sc h , A ssy risch e Gra mma tik, .

T

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

I f t h e ab ov e division int o four b ranc h es b e g roup s, N o I as S out h S emitic , will b e ‘ N o rt h S emit ic b ranch es .

,

reduc ed

t o t wo p rinc ip a l cont ra st e d w it h t h e t h ree

.

A ll t h e se l angu ag e s st an d t o o n e a n ot h er in muc h t h e sa me re l a t io n as t h ose 6 o f t h e G e rm an i c fa m i ly ( G ot h ic , Ol d Norse , D a ni sh , S w e d ish H ig h an d L ow G e rm an in t h e ir e arl ier a nd l a t e r d ia l e c t s) , or a s t h e S l av o n ic l a ng uages ( Lit h uan ia n , Le t t ish ; Old S l av o n ic , S er b ia n, R ussi an ; Po l ish , B oh e mia n ) Th ey a re n ow e it h e r w h oll y e t in c t , a s t h e Ph oe n ic ia n a nd A ssy r ia n , o r -S d l e f o r m as N CO r e s e rv e o n i n d e b a s d a , y y riac a m o ng S y ria n C h rist ia n s p a n d Je w s i n e sop ot a mia a n d K urdi st a n , E t h io p ic ( Ge e z) i n t h e l a t e r A b y ssin ian d ia l e c t s ( Tigre, T ig rifi a , A m h aric ) , a n d H e b re w a mo ng so me mod e rn Je w s, e c e p t in so fa r a s t h ey at t e mp t a p ure ly lit e rary re p ro duc t ion A rab ic a l o n e h as n o t only o c c up ie d o f t h e l a n g uag e o f t h e O l d T e st a me n t t o th is d a y it s o rig inal a b o d e in A ra b ia p rop er, b ut h as also forc ed i t s w a y in a l l d i re c t i o n s in t o t h e d o main o f o t h e r l a nguag e s T h e S e m it ic fa mily o f l ang ua g e s is b ound e d o n t h e E ast an d N or t h b y a no th e r o f st ill w i de r e t e n t , w h ic h rea c h e s fro m I nd ia t o t h e w e st e rn l i mi t s o f 2 m n i c E urop e , a n d is c al le d I nd o G e r a sin c e i t c o mp rise s, in t h e m o st v ar ie d r a m ifi c at ion s, t h e I nd ia n ( S a n sk ri t ) , O l d a nd Ne w Pe rsia n, G re e k , L a t in , S l a v o n ic , as w e l l a s G ot h ic a n d t h e o t h e r G e rm a nic l ang ua g es W it h t h e O ld E gyp t ia n l a n g uag e , of w h ic h C o p t ic is a d e sc e nda nt , as w e l l a s w it h t h e l a ng uage s o f n ort h -w e st e rn A fric a , t h e S e mit ic h a d from t h e e arl ie st t ime s muc h in c om mon , e sp ec ial l y in g ramm at ic al st r uc t ure ; b ut o n t h e oth e r h an d t h e re a re fun da me nt a l d i ffe r e nc es b e t w ee n t h e m, e sp e c ial l y from a l e ic og rap h ic al p o in t o f v i ew se e E rm a n , D as V e rb al tn is d e s A e gyp t isc h e n z u d e n se mit isc h e n S p ra c h e n , in t h e ZD G lv i , 1 8 9 2, p 9 3 111 , and B roc ke l m an n, Grundriss, i 3 .

x

M

'

x

.

.

x

.

x

M x .

.

.

.

Th e g ra mma tica l st ruct ure o f t h e S emit ic fa mily of lang uag es, as c o mp ared w it h t h at of ot h er l a ng uag es, esp ec ia lly t h e I ndo-Germa nic , 3

.

xh ib it s

numero us

t inc t ive

c h a ra c t er,

e

Th e se

languag es

.

t he

sub st a nce O f

r a des ;

the

p ec uliarit ies wh ic h c oll ec t ively c o nst itut e it s dis alt h oug h ma ny o f t h em a re found sin l r i n t h e o g y a re—

( ) a

a

mong t h e

t h ese la ng uag es,

j

v ow el s a re sub ec t ,

c o nso nant s,

occ ur

wit h in

w h ic h in fa c t form

p eculiar g ut t urals of different t h e same c onsonant a l frame

g w ork, t o great c h ang es in order t o e x p ress v arious modifica t ion s of t h e sa me stem-meaning ; ( b) t h e word-st e ms a re almost inv ariab ly t rilit eral , i

.

e co .

mp osed o f t h ree

t o t w o t ense-forms, w it h

h as

o nly

1

( c) t h e

v erb

p ec ulia rly regulat ed use ; ( masc and fem ) and p eculiar

t wo g ende rs

a

.

.

indic at ing t h e

of

for t h e p urp ose

adop t ed

consona nt s ;

is re st ric t ed

h d t e ( ) e

noun

x p edient s are

c ase -rela t ions ;

() e

the

M

un ic h , 1 9 0 4 , H o mme l , Gru ndriss der Geogr a nd Gesek des a lten Orients, 7 5 112, p re fe rs t o dist ing uish t h e m a s E aste rn a nd W e st e rn S e mit ic .

.

p T h e ir g e ogra p h ica l p osi t ion , h ow ev er, is o f le ss i mp o rt a nc e t h an b ran c h e s t h e g e ne a l og ic a l re l a t ion o f t h e v ario us gr oup s of dia l e c t s, as rig h t ly p o int e d o ut b y A Jere m ia s in Th LZ 1 9 0 6 , c o l 2 9 1 9 ey er in Na ch F irst b y K l a p rot h i n A sia Polyg lotta , Paris, 1 8 23 ; c f Leo rich ten d Gott Gesellsch aft, 1 9 0 1 , p 4 5 4 .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

‘

.

.

.

.

13 2

M

f

I ntroduction

4

1

ob lique c ases of

t h e p ersonal p ronoun, as well and t h e p ronominal ob ec t of th e v erb ,

g l -

as all

t h e p ossessiv e denot ed b y forms

j are p ronouns a p ended direc t l p y t o t h e g ov erning w ord (suffi x es) ; ( f ) t h e almost c omp le t e a b sence of c omp ounds b ot h in t h e noun w it h t h e e x c e t ion p ( of

ma ny p rop er

names

)

in t h e

a nd

xp ression o f synta ct ic al

v erb

i m l i t y in t h e c p )g small numb er o f ar t icl e s p

(g

;

reat

si

h e t , g a nd t h e rev alenc e o f sim l e c o-o rdina t ion of c la use s w it h out er iodic p p p st ruc t ure Classic a l A rab ic and Syriac , h ow eve r, form a not nu e

i

l

re at ons, e .

.

.

x c ep tion as reg ards t h e last ment ioned p oint F rom a le x ic og rap h ic a l p oint of v iew a l so t h e v oc ab ulary of th e

imp ort ant 4

g

-

e

.

'

.

S emit es diffe rs

e ssent ia lly

from t h a t

of

t h e I ndo-G ermanic la ng uag es,

h re is a rent ly more a reement h e re t ha n in t h e rammar t h e a g g g pp

al t h o u

A

.

S emit ic

n umb er o f

c onsidera

b le

ms in t h e I ndo-Germanic family

w it h

sy nony

i

p ress ons ac t ual

ly b orrow ed

may b e

one a nd

families

of

r el at ion,

the

sa

languag e

.

for w h ich

Neit h er

an ag ree

B ut

.

unde r

in

ag ree a

p

(o nomat op oet ic a )

fro m

art

mila rit y

t o t h ose

and

,

ex

si

rea l

i), t h e

sound

p resent ed b y similar sounds in i nst inc t c o mmon t o t h e most va ried

me idea is

format iv e

of a

c onsequence

(

b elow ,

se e

t o imit at iv e w ords

reduc ed

in whic h

be

ms

r o ot s a nd st e

of

re

t h ese p ro v es

any

hist or ic

gen eric w oul d al so

ment in grammat ic al st ruc t ure

or

nec essary.

Co mp F rie dt D el it z sc h , S tudien uber indog enna msch -semitisch e Wurz elverwa ndt sch aft, L p z 1 8 73 ; N old e c h e n , S emit Glossen eu F ick a nd Curtius, ag d e b 1 8 76 f c C ur d y , A rg o -S emitic S p eech , A nd o v e r , U S A , 1 8 8 1 T h e p h o ne t ic r e l a t io n s h av e b e e n t h oroug h l ol le r i n S emit isch und y inv e st ig at e d b y H I ndog erma nisch , Te il i, K onsona ntcn, C op e nh ag en a n d Lp z 1 9 0 7 , a w o rk w h i c h h as e v o ke d c onsidera b l e c ri t ic ism A s o nomat op oe t ic w o rds, or a s st e m-sound s o f a similar c h arac t e r, w e may ’

M

.

.

.

M

.

.

.

.

.

M

.

.

.

.

.

h

co

mp are ,

g

e.

1

p9) ,

.

n? o

Aeixw, ling o, S kt

55g (of 5351 5333)

lecken ;

.

,

k

iw,

volvo,

.

lih , E ng

G erm

.

.

to lick, F r

.

Iech er , G e rm ’

quellen , wa llen, E ng

.

.

to well ;

a cir r au an “ 1 ra tta re, F r ra tter, E ng P e rs kh drida n, I t al to n g g , p x , D g, gra te, to scra tch Ge rm kra tzen ; 3 1 g fra ngo, G e rm b rech en, &c ; R e uss, Gesch ‘

'

lj

.

.

“

.

.

r

.

,

.

.

.

der h l S ch nften B raunsc h w 1 8 8 1 , p 3 8 , d raw s a tt e nt ion m oreov e r t o t h e S e mit i c e q uiv a l e n t s for ea rth , six , seve n , h orn, to sound , to mea sure, to mix, to smell, to p lace, clear, to kn eel, ra ven, g oa t, ox , &c A n e am p l e o f a so me w h a t diffe re n t kin d is a m, h a m ( 8 a m) , ga m, ka m, i n t h e se nse of t h e G e rma n sa mt , ‘

.

.

.

x

.

z usa

mmen,

tog eth er ; in

H e b re w op s ( w h e nc e }

mgr; p

eop le,

p rop e rly

mbly) , D}?

asse

mt, DE a lso, moreover, A rab ”DB to collect ; Pe rs h a m h a ma h (a t th e sa me t ime ; S h t sa md ) (with ) , G k &ua (anew ) , ey es, 6am? ( 5740 10 5 , a ti as) , and h a rde r non/ 69 , L a t cum, cumulus cunctus w it h t h e c orre sp o nd i ng sib ila nt S kt sa m, G k o u r, ( a , fw o b ut many of s, G ot h sa ma , G e rm sa mt, sa mmeln s é xo w o

( with )

sa

.

.

.

.

a re

M

.

.

.

t h e se inst anc e s

,

,

.

i

.

do ub t ful

.

Essent ially different from t h is int e rnal

c onne

x ion

is t h e

o c c ur

me words in different lang uag es wh ere one la ng uage h a s b orrowed direct ly from t h e oth er S uch loan-words are rence of

the

sa

,

.

IntrOduction

6

Wit h

deriv ed from

are

x ta nt

'

a

king

,

insc rip t ions, I i S C ( .

ol d

22

.

insc rip t ion o ld

m),

(

see

old

as

it

b elow , and

2

d),

and

so

mewh at

ap p ea rs o n

d) ,

2

e

(

t emple

a

earlier

st el c

t h an

B aal

of

Mesa

Th e

.

olde st

.

indirec t ly all E urop ea n

5 i)

se e

the

on

monument, t h e S iloam essent ial ly t h e same c h arac t er

the

x h ibit s

P h oenician w rit ing

resp e ct s,

in t h e old Ph oenician

t he b ronz e b owls from a re

all

c uneifo r

o rig inal alph a b e t , rep resent ed o n

sa

b elow ,

see

Plat e I V )

a nd

.

(

oa

w hich

of

if

Mb

of

Greek ,

from t h e

l

me

th e

one a nd

H eb re w w rit ing ,

Th e

(

t h e A ssyrio-B ab ylonian

of

monument s most fait hfull y b y th e ch aract ers used

Mes

of

e cep t ion

S emitic w rit ing, al t h oug h differing w idely in some

v ariet ies of

e

x

the

t, m

1

alp h ab et s, are

desc ended

.

S e e t h e Tab le o f A l p h ab e t s at t h e b eg in nin g o f t h e G ram mar, w h ic h sh ow s t h e relat io n s of t h e o lder v a rie t ies o f S e mit ic w riting t o o n e a n ot h e r a n d e sp e c ial ly t h e orig in of t h e p re se nt H e b re w c h a rac t ers fr om t h e ir p rim it iv e fo rms F or a mo re c omp l e t e v iew , se e G e se nius’ S crip tura e lingua eq ue Phoen icia e monumenta , L ip s 1 8 3 7 , 4 t o, p t i p 1 5 iii , an d p t iii t ab 1 —5 F rom n u me ro us m onume nt s sinc e d isc ov e re d , our know l edge of t h e S e mit ic c h a rac t ers, a rg e d an d m or e e sp e c ial ly t h e Ph oe n ic ia n b e n l o s i d e r a l h as b ec o m e c n y , a c c urat e Cf t h e al l b ut e h aust ive b i b liog rap h y ( from 1 6 1 6 t o 1 8 9 6) in ’ Lid z b a rski s H a ndbuch der N ordsemitisch en Ep igrap h ik, i p 4 if , a nd o n t h e orig i n o f t h e S e m it ic al p h a b e t , i b id , p 1 73 fit , a n d Ep h emm s ( se e t h e h ea di ng ’ ‘ o f 5 1 a ab o v e ), i p p 1 0 1 4 2 , 26 1 ff a n d h is A l t semit isc h e T e t e , p t i, 9 K a na anciische I nsch riften ( o ab it e , Old -H eb rew , Ph oe nic ian , P un ic ) , G ie sse n , 1 0 7 — 0 n t h e or i in a n d de v e l o me nt o f t h e H eb rew c h ara c t e rs an d t h e b e st g p 9 t a b l e s o f al p h ab e t s, see 5 5 a , l a st n ot e , a nd esp e c ia lly 5 e .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

x

.

.

.

’

.

.

M

.

’

.

.

x

,

.

.

.

m

6

.

As

re

g

ards

th e

r ela t iv e a

ge of

t h e S emit ic lang uages, t h e

oldest

ma ins of t h em are t o b e found in t h e Assyrio -B ab ylonian ‘ n ri t ions i h hi cuneiform i s w t w c h a re t o b e c lassed t h e earliest c ( p ) H eb rew frag ment s occ urring in t h e ol d Te st ament (se e Th e earliest non-J ew ish Ar a ma ic insc rip tions kn o wn t o us are t h at of 13 ? kin o f H amat h early eigh t h c ent B C hi c h see N oldeke o n w g ( ) Z A 1 9 0 8 p 3 7 6 a nd t h at found at Teima, in N Arab ia, in 1 8 8 0 onist xiv 4 [a nd p rob ab ly o f t h e fift h c ent B C of E Lit t mann in t h e Th e monument s of K a lammus of S am al, in t h e Cooke, op cit p 1 9 rei n o f S h alma nez er II, 8 5 —8 2 g 9 9 B C (c f A Sanda D ie Ara maer Lp z l it erary

re

,

“

.

.

,

.

,

,

M

.

,

.

.

.

.

,

.

,

.

,

’

.

.

,

.

.

.

.

.

,

,

1 8 8 8— 1 891

at Zenj irl i in N S yria, and t h ose found in 9 0 2, p including t h e Ha da d insc rip t ion of t h irt y-four lines ( early eig h t h c ent 1

.

‘

.

.

B

.

C

.

)

and

A ramaic

t h e Pa nammu insc rip t ion

J ewish

(

7 40

B

.

are

no t

in p ure t ime o f

Aramaic w rit ing s b eg in ab out t h e 3 Cyrus (c f E z r 6 s e c ially im ort ant b eing t h e p a yri from A ssua n p p p ed b y S aycc a nd C ow ley, Lo ndon, 1 9 0 6 and in a c h eap er form b y ( Th e

.

-

.

.

S t aerk, Bo nn, a nd

t h ree

whic h

o t h e rs o f

40 7

B

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p recisely da t ed from 4 7 1 t o 4 1 ed b y S ac h au, B erlin, 1 9 0 7

are

C

.

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1 B

.

C

.

,

.

A c c ord ing t o H ilp rec h t , Th e B a bylonia n E xp ed ition of th e University of Pennsylva nia , i p 1 1 iii , t h e i n sc r ip t ion s found a t Nip p ur e m b rac e t h e p e riod from ab out 40 0 0 t o 4 5 0 B c .

.

.

.

T he S emitic L a ng uag es in

§ 1 n]

M

ment s

( Sab aean insc rip t ions

c ent uries A . D .

in t h e fourt h

t h e A ra bic b ranc h first

of

o nu

fift h

c ent ury,

app ea r

7

in t h e

ea rl ie st

E th iop ic t ranslat ion of t h e B ib le

,

or

G enera l

N o rt h -Arab ic lit erat ure fro m t h e six t h

c ent ury A .

quest ion wh ic h a dh ered l ong est a nd mo st fa it h fully t o t h e

I t is, h ow ever,

of

a no t h er

t h ese l anguag es h a s

g inal c h arac t er o f t h e S emit ic, and wh ich c onsequent ly rep rese nt s t o us t h e e a rliest p h ase F or t h e mo re or less rap id t ransformat ion of t h e of it s dev el op ment or i

.

forms

sounds and

dep endent a nd

t he

e ve n

org a nic st ruc t ure

lit erat ure,

a

e

x hib it

t he

t o t h em t h e H eb re w -Canaanit ish , ow ing

Arab ic ,

the

to

ret a in

of

1

w o rds

orig i nal

reac h ed

le ng t h

at

Te st ament

sec lusion o f

t o t he

t ionary influence

is

fullness

I slam,

of

and

t he

st ag e

by

e arl

c onta c t

y

in it s

w ay t h e A ssyr ian

ow n

.

t h e desert t rib es wa s t h e longest

and

an

esp ec ially

.

p urit y

E ven h ere, h ow ev er, t h ere

.

nat ions a nd rac es,

Th us in t h e S emit ic g roup , ea rliest and g rea t est decay, nex t

different lang ua g e

Aramaic dialect s ‘

by

dist inc t from t h e growt h of a l it erat ure, o f a la ng uage is oft en c onsiderab ly im a ired p

b efo re it h as develop ed of a

a s sp oken

language,

quit e

on c auses

wit h p eop le t he

of a

of

the

ap p ea re d,

ev er-incr easing

fo rms

sounds and

t h rough t h e

revo lu

decay, unt il Arab ic

wh ic h we find H eb rew in t h e O ld

at

.

H en c e t h e p h e nome no n, t h at in it s g ra mma t ical

st ruc t ure

t h e an c ie nt 77, H e b re w ag ree s m ore w it h t h e mode rn t h a n w it h t h e anc ie n t A rab ic , a nd t h a t t h e l a t t er, a l t h o ug h i t o n ly ap p e ars a s a w rit t e n l a ng uag e at a l a t e r n t s p re serv e d a mo re c omp l e t e st r uc t u re a nd h t i n m a r e s e c r i d as e e o p , y y p a m ore o rig i n al v ow e l syst e m t h a n t h e ot h er S e mi t ic l a ng uag e s, of Nolde ke ‘ D as kl a ssisc h e A rab isc h und d ie a rab isc h e n D ial e k te , i n B eitrag e z ur 1 if I t t h us o c c up ie s a mong st t h e m a semitisch en S p ra ch wissenschaft, p i i n si milar t o t h a t w h ic h S an sk rit h o lds a mo n g t h e I n d o -G e r ma nic os t o p B ut e ve n t h e l a n g uag e s, o r G ot h ic i n t h e n arrow e r c i rc l e o f t h e G e rma n ic t oug h e st org a n ism o f a l ang uag e o ft en de t eriora t e s, a t l e ast in sing le fo rm s a nd de riv a t iv e s, w h il e o n t h e c o nt ra ry , i n t h e mid st of w h a t i s o t h e rw ise un iv e rsal decay , t h e re st ill re ma i n s h ere a nd t h e re so me t h ing orig ina l a n d a n d t h is is t h e c a se w i t h t h e S e m it ic l ang uag e s a rc h a ic F ul l e r p roof o f t h e a b ov e st a t em e n t s b e l ong s t o t h e c o mp arat iv e G rammar I t fo l low s, h o w ev e r , fro m w h a t h a s b e e n said ( 1 ) t h a t o f t h e S e m it ic l a ng uag e s t h e H e b re w l a ng ua g e , a s fo un d i n t h e sac re d lit e ra t ure of t h e Jew s, h as, in re sp e c t .

,

’

.

'

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.

.

E v en n o w t h e l ang uag e o f so m e o f t h e B ed aw i is muc h p urer an d more a rc h aic t h an t h a t o f t h e t o w n A rab s I t must , h ow ev e r , b e a d mi t t e d t h a t t h e forme r e al t e d e st ima t e of t h e p rimit iv e ne ss of A rab ic h as b e e n mo de rat e d i n ma ny re sp e c t s b y t h e most re c e nt sc h oo l of S e mit ic p h il o l o gy uc h ap p a re n t ly o rig i nal is t o b e re g a rde d w i t h N ol de ke ( Di e semit Sp r , p 5 E ncy cl B rit , e d 9 , a r t S T L NG U G S , p o nl y as a m odifi c a t io n o f t h e o rig inal Th e assert ion t h at th e A ra b s e h ib it S e m it ic c h a ra c t e r ist ic s in t h e ir p ure st form, sh ould, a c c ord ing t o Nold eke , b e ra t h er t h a t ‘ t h e i n h a b it ant s o f t h e dese rt l a n ds o f A ra b ia, un de r t h e i nfl ue nc e o f t h e e t rao rd ina r ily m o no t on ous sc e ne ry a n d of a l ife c on t in ua l ly t h e same a m id c o nt in ua l c h a n g e , h av e d ev e l op e d most e cl usiv e l y some of t h e p rinc ip a l t rait s of t h e S e mit ic race 1

.

x

M

.

.

.

.

EM I IC

A

A

E

.

x

.

x

x

.

.

.

I ntr oductio n

8

b

2 a,

t o i t s org a n ic st ruc t ure , al re a d y suffe red m ore c o nside ra b le l osse s t h an t h e A rab ic , w h ic h ap p e a rs muc h l a t e r o n t h e h ist o ric al h oriz on ; ( 2) t h at , no t w it h st a nd ing t h is fac t , w e c an n o t a t o n c e a n d in a ll p o in t s c o nc e de p r io rit y t o t h e l a t t e r ; ( 3 ) t h a t it is a mist a ke t o c o nside r w it h so me t h a t t h e A ra m a i c , o n a c c o un t o f i t s simp l ic it y ( w h ic h i s o nl y d ue t o t h e d e c ay o f i t s org a n ic st r uc t ure ) , is th e olde st fo rm o f S e m it ic sp e ec h .

2

S ketch

.

th e H istory

f

o

th e H ebr ew La ngua g e

f

o

.

S ee G e se nius, Gesch der hebr Sp rache u S ch rift, L p z 1 8 1 5 , 5 5 5 —1 8 ; Th ’ N old e ke s a rt , S p rac h e , h e b raisc h e , in S c h e nke l s B ibel-Lex ikon, B d v , Lp z ’ 1 8 75 ; F B uh l, H e b riiisc h e S p ra c h e , in H a uc k s R ea lencycl filr p rot Th eol u nd K irch e, v ii p 5 0 6 iii ; A C ow l e y , H eb re w La ng uag e a n d Lit e ra t ure , i n t h e fo rth c oming e d o f t h e E ncycl B rit W R S mit h in t h e E ncycl B ibl , i i L o n do n , 1 9 0 1 , p 1 9 8 4 iii ; A L uky n W i l lia ms, ‘ H eb re w , i n H a st i ng s D iet of th e B ible, i i p 3 2 5 iii , E dinb 1 8 99 .

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’

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’

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1

a

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.

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.

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T he

sa c red

name

T est a ment

.

.

.

of

of

J e wish

Th e name H eb rew languag e not oc c ur

usually

denot es t h e language

t h e I sra elit es w hich form t h e

also called

I t is

t h e N ew H eb rew

does

.

H ebrew L a ng ua ge

writ ing s

’

Anc ient H ebrew in

w rit ing s 1 3 3? W (

of

the

c anon of

the

Old

c ont radist inct ion

to

t h e p o st -b ib lic al p e riod 3 a) A G O cra f ey E a iov i cu wv, e fi p fl p y )

of

.

’

‘

‘

’

'

.

in t h e O ld Test a ment it self

I nst ead of it w e fi nd in I s

.

i n t he J ews la n ua e 9 t h e t erm la nguage of Ca na a n , and g g 26” 24 2 K 1 8 h h f 1 3 I n l a st -c it ed a e it a lread o I s N c t e ass ( g y p a rees w it h t h e la t er s t e x ilic u sag e, whic h gradual ly e x t ended o g (p )

1

18

‘

’

.

.

t h e name J ews, J ewish t o t h e w h ole nat ion, and

6

t h e b o ok

of

in H agg ai, N eh e miah ,

E sth er

.

Th e dist inc t io n b e t w een t h e names H ebrew

us)

as

is t h a t t h e l a t t er w as

( D WDV ‘

'

a nd

E BPa $0 4

r at h e r a n a t io n a l na

me

I sra elites

h onour, w it h

of

mp l oy e d b y t h e p eop le t h e mse l v e s, w h il e t h e fo rm e r ap p e ars as t h e l e ss sig n ifi c a n t na me b y w h ic h t h e na t io n w a s k n o w n a m ong st fo re i ne rs H e nc e in t h e Ol d Te st a me n t H ebrew s a re o n ly sp o ke n g o f e it h e r w h e n t h e n ame is e m l o e d b p y y t h e mse l v e s a s c o n t ra ste d w it h 18 9 fo rei g n e rs ( G n E x 2° & J 1 c o n , 3 ) or w h e n i t is p ut i n t h e mo ut h o f t h ose w h o a re n o t I srae l it e s ( G n 3 9 1 4 -1 7 4 1 1 2 &c ) or, fi na l ly , w h e n i t is use d in o p p o sit io n t o o t h e r n a t io n s ( G n 1 41 3 Ex a l so a re l ig io us si nific a n c e e g ,

.

.

.

x

In 1 S an d 1 4m t h e t e t is c l e a rly c o rrup t I n t h e G re e k a n d ‘ L a t in a ut h o rs, as w e ll a s i n Jose p h us, t h e n a me E Bpa ioi , H e b rae i, 2 &c , al o ne oc c urs O f t h e m any e p l a na t io ns o f t h e ge n t il ic ”7 3 35 t h e .

‘

.

x

.

d e riv a t ion fr o m any

a country on

th e

other side

w it h t h e de ri v a t iv e

sufii x

8 6 h ) a p p e ars t o b e t h e o nl y o ne p h i lo l og ic al l y p o ssib l e T h e na me ac c o rd i ng l y d e n o t e d t h e I srae l it e s as b e in g t h ose w h o in h ab it e d t h e eb er, i e t h e d ist rict o n t h e o t h e r sid e o f t h e Jo rd a n (o r a c c o rd ing t o o t h er s t h e E up h ra t e s) , a nd w ou l d t h e re fo re o rig ina l l y b e o nl y ap p rop ria t e w h e n u se d b y t h e n a t 1 o n s o n t h is sid e o f t h e Jo rda n o r E u p h ra t e s W e m ust , t h e n , sup p ose t h at a ft e r t h e c r ossin g o f t h e ri ve r in q ue st io n it h a d b e e n re t ain e d b y t h e A b ra h a m idae a s a n o l d-e st a b lish e d n a me, an d w it h in c e rt a in limi t s .

‘

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.

T h at H e b re w i n i t s p re se n t fo rm w as a c t ual ly d e v e l op e d in Can aa n a p p e a rs fro m suc h fac t s as t h e use o f yam se a for t h e w e st , neg eb ( p rop e rly dry ( ) ness, a ft e r w a rd s as a p rop e r n a me fo r t h e so ut h o f P al e st in e ) fo r t h e so ut h 3 T h e G ra e c o -R oma n form o f t h e na me i s n o t d ire c t l y d e riv e d fro m t h e ’ ‘ ‘ H e b re w a , b ut fro m t h e Pa lest inia n A ramaic ebrayd , th e H e b re w y .

m

.

H istory of the H ebr ew L a ng uag e

§ 2 c d] ,

9

h a d b e c ome nat ural iz e d a mo ng t h e m I n re fe rrin g t h is na me t o t h e p a t ro ny mic E b e r , t h e H e b re w g e n e a l og ist s h av e a ssig ne d t o i t a m uc h more c o mp re h e nsiv e sig n ifi c at ion F o r sin c e in G n 1 0 21 ( N u 2 4 24 d oe s n o t a pp l y ) S h e m is c a l l e d t h e fath er of a ll th e ch ild r en of E ber, a n d t o t h e l a t t e r t h e re al so b el o ng e d a c c ordin g t o G n 1 1 1 4 5 “ a n d A ra mea n a n d A rab ra c e s, t h e n a me , a ft e rw ard s re st r ic t e d i n t h e form o f t h e g e n t i lic i bri e c l usiv e l y t o t h e I srae l it es, must h av e o ri ina l l g y inc l ud e d a c o n sid e rab l y l a rge r g roup o f c ount rie s a nd na t ion s Th e e t y molo g ic al sig nifi c an c e o f t h e n a me must i n t h a t c a se n o t b e in sist e d up o n 1 Th e t e rm éBpa l o n is fi rst use d, t o de no t e t h e old H eb re w , in t h e p rol og ue C t o Je sus t h e so n o f S i rac h ( ab o ut 1 3 0 B a n d i n t h e N e w T e st am e nt R v 2 20 11 n 1 a nd n h i s O t e o t h r h a n i s e r v i n J r h s l o e d t e s e a a n 9 p 9 5 , p R v 1 61 6 t o de n o t e w h at w a s t h e n t h e ( A ram aic ) v e rna c ul a r o f Pal e st i ne as op p ose d t o t h e G ree k Th e mea ning o f t h e e p ressio n éBpa t s bi dh m r os in A c t s 19 2 2 2, an d 26 “ is d oub t ful f c h , Gra mm dcs B ibl -A ra m , p c a u t z s K ( Josep h us al so use s t h e t e im H ebrew b ot h o f t h e old H e b rew a nd o f t h e A ra m aic v e rn ac ul ar o f h is t im e T h e H e b r e w l angu ag e i s fi rst c all e d t h e sacred la ngua ge in t h e Je w ish A ra ma ic v e rsio ns o f t h e O l d T e st a me n t , a s b e ing t h e l a n g uag e o f t h e sac re d b ooks in op p o sit ion t o t h e ling ua p rof a na , i e t h e A ra ma ic v ul g ar t o ng ue

( see

ab o ve

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Wit h

the

ex c ep t ion o f

Ph oenic ia n insc rip t ions ; old

H e b rew

t h e O l d Te st ament -

,

only v ery

fe w

re

ma ins of

Of Ca naanit ish lit era t ure h av e b een p re served insc rip t io n, unfort unat ely muc h inj ur ed, o f t h irt y

an

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fo ur lines, which w as found in t h e

R eub en,

ab o ut

ruins o f

th e

t w elve

c it y of

t h e Gadit es,

miles t o t h e

D ib bn

a ft erwards

ab out

8 50

h is b uilding s, 1

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b elow,

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a nd o t h er

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t e rrit ory

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b y th e

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:

t imes b y

oa

(

( ) 2

e

king “

K 3 in sc rip t ion

c f. 2

an

of

mong t h e

M b it

I n it t h e

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a

earlier

h is b a tt les wit h I srael 2

t h e t rib e

of

t h e D e ad S ea ,

D ib an), inh ab ited in

now

recount s

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anc ie nt

W e ma y a l so

l e av e out of ac c oun t t h e l inguist ic all y p o ssib l e id e nt ifi c at ion o f th e I b riyyim w i t h t h e H a b ir i w h o ap p e a r i n t h e T e l l -e l A ma rna l e t t e rs ( ab out 1 4 0 0 B c ) as fre eb bo te r s an d me rc e n arie s in Pa l e st in e a nd i t s ne ig h b ourh o o d 2 T h is m o nume n t , uniq ue o f it s k ind , w a s fi rst se e n in A ug ust , 1 8 68 , o n I t w a s a ft e rw a r d s b ro ke n t h e sp ot , b y t h e G e rm a n missi o n ary F A K l e in i n t o p ie ce s b y t h e A ra b s, so t h at o n ly a n in c omp le t e c o p y o f t h e in sc rip t io n o st o f t h e fra g m e n t s a re n ow in t h e L ouv re in P aris c oul d b e m a de F or t h e h ist ory o f t h e disc ov e ry a n d for t h e e arl ie r l it e ra t ure re l a t ing t o t h e st o n e , se e L id z b a rski, N ord semitisch e E p igra p h ik, i p p 1 0 3 f , 4 1 5 f , a nd i n e t h e b ib l iog rap h y (u n de r ) , p 3 9 if Th e use ful re p r o duc t ion a n d t ra ns l a t ion o f t h e in sc rip t io n b y S m e n d a nd S oc in ( F re ib ur g in B a de n , 1 8 8 6) w a s a ft e r w ards rev i se d a nd imp ro v e d b y N o rdl a n de r , D ie I nsch rift des ’ ‘ oa b , L p z 1 8 6 b y S oc in a nd H o l z in ger, Zur c sain sc h rift K onigs esa von 9 a n d b y L id z b a rsk i, ( B erich te der K S cich sischen Gesell d W’iss , D e c ‘ e sa i nsc h xift E ine N a c h p rii fun g d e r ( Ep h emeris, i 1 , p 1 if t e t in h i s J H al ev y , R evue S emitique, 1 9 0 0 , A ltsemitisch e Texte, p t 1 , G iesse n , 29 7 1 90 1 , p 28 9 J La g ra nge , R evu e bibliq ue inter p p 23 6 F P rat orius in Z D G 1 90 5 , p 3 3 1 9 0 6, p 4 0 2 na tiona le , 1 90 1 , p 5 2 2 oa b i t I nsch r im I t s g e nuin e ness w a s a t t a c ke d b y A L ow y , Die E ch th eit der 1 2 2 ff Louvr e ( W ie n , an d G Ja h n i n D a s B uc h D a niel, L p z 1 9 0 4 , p ( al so i n Z D G 1 9 0 5 , p 7 2 3 ill ) , b ut w it h o ut ust ifi c at io n , a s sh ow n b y a l so D ri v e r , N otes on th e E K on ig i n ZD G 1 9 0 5 , p p 2 3 3 ff a nd 7 4 3 ff Cf [ H ebrew Text qfthe B ooks ofS amuel, O fo rd , 1 8 90 , p l v fi Cooke , op cit , p 1 it ] ‘

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I ntr oduc tion

10

2 e,

f

discovered in J une , lines ( p rob ab ly of t h e eig h t h c ent ury ’ 1 8 8 0 , in t h e t unnel b e t w e en t h e V irgin s S p ring and t h e Pool o f -st one s some o f r a a l r e n d e f l b u o t ve s r m a t o l a a t J e u sa e Si o m , y g ; (3 )

o f six

t h em

1

M

b ut b ea ring lit t le

ac c ab aea n

the

of

x ilic

re-e p

4 0 and 1

B

39

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c

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)

i n r c e p and

6

3

I n t h e wh ole

.

p rop er na

S imon (fro m t h e

h is

in t he t imes of V esp asian

exc ep t

f a nd t h e

suc c essor s

and

series of

z ud

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H a drian

th e

mes

year of

( 4)

2

c oins

deliv eranc e

coinag e o f

’

,

revol t s

t he

.

Heb re w w rit ing s,

anc ient

as

found in

monument s ( see ab ov e d), t h e la ng uag e (t o j udg e from it s consonant al format ion) re mains, a s reg a rds it s g eneral c h ara ct e r, and ap art from slig h t c h ang es in form fe rences o f st yl e ( see to t o w ) a t ab out t h e same st ag e o f a nd dif I n t his form it may at an e a rly t ime h ave b een fi x ed dev elop ment

t h e O ld Test a ment

and also

in

non-b ib l ic al

,

,

.

,

l it erary lang uag e,

as a

and

t h e fac t t ha t t h e b ooks

O ld Test ament were h anded down c ont rib ut ed

f

t o t h is

in t h e

must h av e

w rit ing s,

as sa cred

un iformit y

c onst a nt

conta ined

.

4 t h i l h n st oc k s s o d H e b re w , t e l a n g uag e of t h e Can aanit ish o r Ph oe n ic ia To c a me t h e n eare st o f a l l t h e S e m i t ic l a n g uag e s, as is e v ide nt p ar t ly fr o m t h e many Ca naa ni t ish n am es of p ersons an d p lac es w it h a H eb re w form an d

m ean ing

w h ic h

in t h e O ld Test a me nt

o c c ur

(e

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g

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pry

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Of t h is insc rip t io n— un fort una t e l y no t d at e d , b ut l ing uist ic a ll y a n d p al aeo g rap h ic al ly v ery i mp 0 1 t an t—7 re fe rring t o t h e b orin g o f t h e t un ne l , a fa csim il e i s g iv e n a t t h e b e g in nin g o f t h is g ra mmar S e e a l so Lidzb a rski, N ordsemitisch e E p ig rap h ik, i 1 0 5 , 1 63 , 4 3 9 ( b i b l iog ra p h y , p 5 6 fi fa c si mil e , v ol i i, p l a t e xxi, o n t h e n e w d ra w in ii p 6 1 if a nd se p a rat e l y g o f it b y S o c in (ZD P V see Li d z b a rski , Ep h emeris, i 5 3 ff a n d 3 1 0 f p ub l ish e d a t F re ib urg i B A g ai nst t h e v ie w o f A E sc h er ( Z D G 1 90 2 , ( t e t in A ltsemit Texte, p 9 p 8 0 0 f ) t h a t t h e six lin es a re t h e c on t inuat ion o f an i n scr ip t ion w h ic h w as n e v e r e e c ut e d, se e L idz b a rski , Ep h emeris, ii 7 1 T h e i nsc r ip t io n w a s re m o v e d in 1 8 0 , a n d b roke n i n t o six o r sev e n I t h as 9 p ie c e s in t h e p roc e ss sin c e b e e n w e ll re st or e d a n d is n ow i n t h e I m e r ia l use u m at Co nst an , p 1

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w h ic h in c l ude s t h e b ea ut iful se a l in sc rib e d DT 13 17 11 p p 8 0 , 225 fro m t h e c a st le -h ill o f e g id do, foun d in 1 9 0 4 ; [Cooke , p 3 D e S a ul c y , N umisma tique ole la Terre S a inte, P ar 1 8 7 4 ; A Lev y , Gesch d er j ail ilnz en, B resl au , 1 8 6 2 ; a d d e n , Th e Coins of th e Jews, L ond 1 88 1 ’ — i R e na c h , Les monna ies j uires, P aris, 1 8 8 8 Cf t h e l it e ra t ure in S c h ii re r s - 2 il Gesek d es j ild Volkes im Z eita lter J Lp z 1 9 0 1 , i p 20 if C oo k e l] , p 35 [ ” 3 792 , 11223 is t h e na t iv e na me , c om mon b o t h t o t h e Ca naa nit ish t ri b e s in P al e st in e a d t o t h ose w h ic h d w e l t a t t h e fo ot of t h e L e b a no n a nd o n t h e S y ria n c oa st , w h o m w e c al l Ph oe n ic ia ns, w h il e t h e y c al l e d t h e msel v e s 1133 2 o n t h e ir c o i ns T h e p e op l e of Car t h ag e al so c al le d t h e mse l v es so .

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H istory of the H ebr ew L a ng uag e

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Canaa n it e g l osse s ’ 1 t o A ssyrian w o rds in t h e c une iform t ab le t s o f T e l l -e l -A m arna [ab out 1 4 0 0 B c ] c f H W i nc kl er, D ie T h o n t a fe l n v o n T e ll ’ e l A m a rn a , i n K eilinsch r B iblioth elc, v o l v , B erl in , 1 8 9 6 f [t r ansc rip t io n a nd t ra n sl a t i o n] J A K nu d t z on , D ie E l -A marna -Tafeln, Lp z 1 9 0 7 f H Z imme rn , Z A 1 8 9 1 , p 1 5 4 if a n d K A TE’, p 6 5 1 iii ) , and p a rt ly fr om t h e ‘

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n ume ro us re m ains o f t h e Ph o e n ic ia n a n d P un ic l ang uag e s Th e l at t e r w e fi nd in t h e ir p e c ul iar w ri t i ng 1 k, l ) in a g rea t n umb er of i nsc rip t i on s a n d o n c o in s, c op ie s o f w h ic h h a v e b e e n c o l le c t e d b y G e se n ius, .

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Juda s, B o urg ade , D av i s, d e V og iié , L e v y , P S c h rod e r, v a l t z a n, E ut i ng , b ut e sp e c ia l l y i n Pa rt I o f t h e Corp us I nscrip tionum S emitica rum, Pa r is, 1 8 8 1 if A mong t h e i n sc rip t ion s b ut fe w p ub lic d oc u me n t s a re foun d , e g t w o l ist s o f fe e s for sa c rifi c e s ; b y fa r t h e m ost a re e it a h s or v o t iv e t ab l e t s Of p p sp e c ia l i mp or t a n c e is t h e in sc r ip t i on o n t h e sa rc o h ag us of K in g E smun a z ar p o f S id o n , fo und in 1 8 5 5 , n ow i n t h e L ou v re ; se e t h e b i b liog rap h y i n Lidz b a rski , N ordsem E p igr , i 2 3 iii ; o n t h e in sc rip t io n, i 9 7 {f , 1 4 1 f , T o t h e se may b e a dd e d i so la t e d w ord s 4 1 7 , i i p l at e iv , 2 ; [Cook e , p 3 0 ii ] i n G re e k a nd L a t in a ut h o rs, a nd t h e P un ic t e t s i n P l aut us, Poenulus 5 , 1 —3 ( b e st t re a t e d b y G i lde m e ist e r i n R it sc h l s e d it ion o f Pl a ut us, L ip s 1 8 8 4 t om ii, fasc F ro m t h e m onume nt s w e l e a rn t h e na t iv e o rt h og rap h y , fro m t h e G re e k a n d L a t in t ra n sc rip t ions t h e p ronu n c iat ion a nd v oc a l iz a t ion t h e t w o t og e t h er g ive a t ol e rab ly d ist i n c t i d ea of t h e l a n g uag e an d it s re l ati o n t o H e b re w .

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T h e numb e r of unst re sse d t h e syl l a b ic S y riac v e rse , i s a ccentua l sy l l a b les b e t w e e n t h e b e a t s ( ictus) is, h ow ev e r, n ot a rb it ra ry , b ut t h e sc h e me o f t h e v e rse is b ase d o n a n irre g ul a r a n ap ae st w h ic h ma y un der g o r h yt h m ic a l modifi c a t ions ( e g resol v ing t h e ic t us in t o t w o syll a b l es, o r l e ng t h e ning t h e a rsis so as t o g ive a d ou b l e ac c e n t ) a n d c o n t ra c t ion , e g o f t h e fi r st t w o sy l l a b l es Th e foo t al w ay s c o nc lud e s w it h th e ic t us, so t h at t one l ess e ndings, d ue t o c h a nge o f p ro nun c ia t io n or c orrup t ion o f t h e t e t , a re t o b e dis re g a rde d , a l t h oug h as a rul e t h e i c t us c o i n c ide s w i t h t h e H e b re w w o rd ac c e n t Th e m et ric a l sc h em e c o n sist s o f c o mb in a t io n s of fe e t in series ( of 2, — d oub l e t h re e s v e r fre ue nt l n er o d s or a n d f t h e e a a i i n i s o p , 3 y q y , do ub l e g fours in n a rra t ive , fi ves i n L ame nt a t ion s ( se e a b ov e ) a n d v e ry o ft e n e l se w h ere , an d se v e ns S ie v e rs reg a rd s t h e l ast t w o m et re s a s c at al e c t ic d oub l e t h re es a nd fours C o nn e c t e d se c t ion s d o n ot a lw ay s mai nt ain t h e sam e me t re t h roug h out , b ut o ft e n e h ib it a m i t ure of me t res an d

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l ong er b e d oub t e d t h at i n t h e a n a ly sis o f p ure ly p oe t ic a l p assag e s, t h is syst e m o ft e n fi n d s re ady c o n fi rma t ion a nd l e ad s t o t e t ua l a nd l i t e ra ry r e sul t s, su c h as t h e e l im ina t io n of g l o sses Th e re a re , h ow e v er , v a ri ous d iffic ul t ie s i n c a rr in y g o ut t h e sc h e m e c o nsist e n t ly a n d e t e n d ing it t o t h e p rop h et ic a l w rit in g s a n d st il l mo re t o n a rrat ive ( 1 ) n o t i n fre q ue n tl y t h e r e q uire d n umb e r o f fe e t i s o n l y ob t a ine d b y sa c rifi c i ng t h e c l e a rl y ma rke d p ara l l e l ism, o r t h e g r am mat ic al c onne ion ( e g o f t h e c o n st ruc t st at e w it h i t s g e nit iv e ) , a n d som e t imes e v e n b y m e an s o f doub t ful e m e nd a t io n s ; ( 2) t h e w h ol e sy st e m assumes a c o rre c t t ra n smission o f t h e t e t a nd i t s p ron un c ia t io n, fo r ne it h e r o f w h ic h is t h e re t h e l e a st g uara n t ee T o sum up , o ur c o nc l usion a t p r e se nt i s t h a t for p oe t r y p ro p er so me assure d a n d fi n a l re sul t s h av e b e e n a l rea dy ob t a ine d , a nd ot h e rs may b e e p ec t e d, fro m t h e p rin c ip le s l aid d ow n b y S ie v ers, al t h o ug h , c onsid e ri ng t h e w ay in w h i c h t h e t e t h as b e e n t ra nsmit t e d , a fa ul tless a rra n g e men t o f me t re s c an n ot b e e p e c t e d Con v i n c ing p ro o f of t h e consistent use o f t h e sa m e me t ri c a l s c h e me s i n t h e p rop h e t s, and a fortiori in n a rra t ive , c an h ard ly b e b r o ug h t forw a rd Th e g reat w ork of D H ul ler, D ie P rop h eten i n ih rer ursp rungl F orm ( 2 v o ls , Vie n na , 1 8 9 6 c f h is S trop h enbau u R esp onsion, ib id 1 8 9 8 , a nd K omp osition u Strop h enbau, i b id i s a st udy o f t h e most i mp ort a n t monume n t s o f earl y S e m it i c p oe t r y from t h e p o int o f v ie w o f st rop h ic st ruc t ure a nd t h e use of t h e re fra in , i e t h e rep e t it io n o f t h e same or similar p h rase s o r w ord s i n c orresp on ding p osit io n s i n d iffe ren t st ro p h e s

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T h e a rra ng e me n t o f c e r t a in p oe t ic al p assag es in v e rse -form re q ui re d b y 1 13 a i e rl y sc r b a l rul es Dt 3 2 2 S 2 2, ip ; Ju 5 ; r S ( Ex -3 2 7 -1 0 l 1 8 , 1 3 6 ; Pr f a o c 1 Ch s Jo Ec 3 ; E st 9 ) h as n ot h ing t o d o w i th t h e q ue st ion o f m e t re in t h e ab o v e se n se ‘

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W h en it h ad fina l ly ceased t o e x ist b y t h e p eo p le as a l iv ing l an ua e, it w a s st ill p reserved a s t h e la ng ua ge of th e g g S chools— no t t o ment ion t h e numerous H eb raisms int roduc ed int o t h e

l east

1

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F or p a rt ic ul ars, se e K aut z sc h , Gramm des B ibl -A ra m , pp 1 - 6 W e may c o nv e n ie n t ly re ga r d t h e re l a t io n o f t h e l a n guag es w h ic h c o-e ist e d i n t h is l a t e r p e rio d a s si mi l ar t o t h a t o f t h e H ig h a n d Lo w G e rma n i n N ort h G e rma ny , o r t o t h a t of t h e H ig h G e rma n a n d t h e c ommon dial e c t s i n t h e sout h a n d i n S w i t ze rl an d E v e n a mong st t h e m ore e duc at e d , t h e c om m o n d iale c t p re v a il s o ral l y, w h il st t h e H ig h G e r m a n se rv e s e sse n t ia l l y a s t h e l i t e rary a n d c ul t ured l a ng uag e , a n d i s a t l e a st u nd e rst o o d b y a l l c l a sse s o f t h e p e op l e W h ol l y un t e n a b le i s t h e n ot i on, b ase d on a n e rrone ous i nte rp re t a t io n o f N e h 8 3 , t h a t t h e Je w s imm e dia t e ly a ft e r t h e e il e h a d c o m p le t e l y forg o t t e n t h e H eb rew l a n g ua g e , a nd t h ere fo re n e ede d a t ran sl at ion o f t h e H o l y S c rip t ure s .

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Th e Old Testament w rit ing s b elong ing t o t h is a ll of

wh ic h t h e A rama ic

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ar t s o f p

c olouring

t h e Pe nt a t euch

a nd of

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t h e p rop h et ical b ooks

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Zec h ariah , I sa iah I I I ( 5 6

a

second

J oel J onah ,

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of

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larg e p art of Prov erb s, Job , Song of S ong s, E c c lesiast e s, A s lit era ry c omp osit ions, t h ese b ooks are some and most o f t h e Psalms

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a

.

t imes fa r inferior t o t h o se

of

t h e first p eriod,

p roduc e d wh ic h in p urit y of la ng uag e short o f t h e w rit ing s o f t h e g olden a g e

al t h o ug

h w ork w as

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decla ra ti on , DDS

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Th e e t en siv e use of H e b re w i n t h e p o p ul a r re l ig ious li te ra t ure w h ic h id ra sim , t h e isna , a nd t h e L it u rg y , is p a rt l y p re se rve d t o us i n t h e i nd ic a t es, mo re o v e r, t h a t H e b re w w a s w id e ly u n d e rst o o d m uc h l a t e r t h an H S eg a l , t h is Cf isn a ic H e b re w a nd i t s re la t io n s t o B ib l ic al H e b r ew ’ a n d A ra m a ic , i n J Q R , 1 0 8 , p 647 it 9 (a l so sep arat e ly ) 1

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Cf

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D av S t rauss, S p ra ch t S tud ien zu d h ebr S ira chfra g menten, Z uric h , 1 9 0 0 , a nd e sp e c ial ly p 1 9 112; for t h e Psa l ms C h e y n e , Ori g in of th e Psa lter , p 4 6 1 in g e nera l , K a ut zsc h , Die A ra ma ismen G ie seb re c h t i n Z A W 1 8 8 1 , p 2 7 6 if i m A T ( i, L e xika l T e i l ) , H a l le , 1 90 2 B ut a l l t h e p e c ulia ri t ie s o f t h e se l at e r w rit e r s a re n ot A ramai sms S ev e ral d o n o t o c c ur i n A ram a ic a n d must h av e b e l o n g e d a t a n e a rl ie r p e riod t o t h e H e b re w v e rna c ul a r, e sp e c ia l ly i t w o uld se e m in n o rt h e rn P a l e st ine Th e re c e rt ain p art s of Judg e s, a m o ng st o t h er s, may h av e o rig in a t e d , as i s

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mm o n form i n Ph oe n ic ia n (as w e l l

as

r at e) , for

i n J on a h , Lame nt a t i o ns, t h e S o n g

a ft e rw ar ds re c urs

of

S on g s, t h e l a t er Psal ms, a nd E c c l e siast e s Rem 1 O f dia l e c t ic a l v a rie t ie s in t h e o l d H eb re w l a n g uag e , o n l y o ne e p re ss m e n t io n o c c u r s i n t h e O T ( Ju ac c or d ing t o w h ic h the E p h ra im it e s in c e rt ai n c a se s p ro noun c e d t h e as D a rq uar t i n ( Cf .

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8 8 8 , p 1 5 1 if ) W h e t h e r in N e h 1 3 24 b y t h e sp eech of A sh dod a H e b re w , o r a ( w h o l l y diffe re n t ) Ph ilist ine d ia le c t is int e n d ed , c an n ot b e d ete rm in ed O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , ma n y p e c u l ia r it ie s i n t h e N ort h P a l e stin ian b ooks ( Judg es a n d H o se a) a re p rob ab ly t o b e r e ga rde d as d iffere nc es in dial e c t , a n d so a l so som e a n om a l ie s i n t h e oab it e i n sc rip t io n o f esa ( se e ab ov e , d ) e t m a n , Die h ebr S p ra ch e, ih re Gesch ich te u O n l a t e r de v e l op men t s se e L lexika l E ntwi ckelung seit A b sch luss des K anons u ih r B au in d Gegenwa rt, Je r usale m, 1 9 0 6 2 I t is e v ide nt t h at , i n t h e e t a nt re main s of o ld H eb re w l it era t ure ,2 t h e e n t ire st ore of t h e a n c ie n t l ang uage i s n o t p re se rv e d T h e c an on ic a l b ook s o f t h e O l d T e st a m e n t fo rm e d c e rt a inl y on l y a fra c t ion of t h e w h o le H e b re w n at io n al l i t e ra t ure ZA

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8

Gra mma tica l Tr ea tmen t

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f

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th e H ebr ew La ngua ge

.

1 9 39 G e se n ius, Gesch der h ebr S p ra che , O e h l e r s a rt ic l e, ‘ H eb r S p rac h e , ’ i n S c h m id s E nc ykl des ges E rz ieh ungs u Unterrich tswesens, v ol i ii p 3 4 6 if Cf a l so t h e l it e ra t ure c it e d ( in t h e z ud e d re v ised b y N e st le , p 3 1 4 1 and 2 a b ov e in t h e h e a ding s o f a l so B ot t c h e r , Leh rb der h eb r S p r , i L p z L G e ig e r , D as S tudium der H eb r Sp r in D eutsch l vom E nde d es 1 8 66, p 3 0 X V b is z ur itte des X VI J a h rh , B re sla u, 1 8 7 0 ; B P ic k, ‘ T h e S t udy of t h e H e b re w L ang ua g e a m on g Je w s a nd Ch rist ia ns, ’ in B ib lioth eca S a cra , 1 8 8 4 , ‘ ’ 1 ff n 0 d 8 8 0 B r i l r a a W c h e r t c e r a m m a in t h e J ew a G 5, p 4 7 ; p 45 , E ncyclop a edia , v ol v i, Ne w Y o rk a n d L on don , 1 9 0 4 Cf a lso t h e no t e o n d ’

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At th e t ime w h en t h e

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b ecoming 1

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"

e

x t inc t

- in t h e

PTl

,

a nd

Mi M

n or

a c a p ric e o f t h e 2 A c c o rd ing t o

the

.

.

H eb rew la ng uag e w a s g radually a fo rma t io n o f t h e O T c ano n w as ol d

.

P rop h e t s t h ro ug h o ut

5 H o 3 , &c (

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)

.

i s d ue

me rely t o

a so re t e s.

t h e D ut c h sc h o l a r Le usde n , t h e O T diffe re n t H e b i ew a n d A rama ic w o rds ; ac c ording t o 1 a b b in ic a l c o nt a in s c al c ula t ion s, a l t og e t h e r i n t h e P e n t at e uc h Cf a l so E N e st le , Z A W ’ ‘ 1 9 0 6 , p 2 3 ; H S t rac k , Z A W 1 90 7 , p 6 9 ff ; B lau , N eue m a sc re t S t ud ie n, in J QR xv i 3 5 7 t reat s o f t h e n umb e r o f l e t t e rs a n d w ord s, a nd t h e v e se d iv isio n in t h e O T th e

c a l c ul at io n

of

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1

I ntroduction

8

v ernac ular a

co

t h e ir

i

rev se

,

t ex t,

sac red

and

lang uag es wh ic h in

mong t h em

Th e

.

m o re (

J ew s

mp let ion t h e

ap p roa c hing

o ldest

so

b 3

b ega n t o

e

x p lain

a nd

cr it ic al ly

met imes t o t ranslat e it int o h a d b ec ome

vario us c ount r ies

is t h e G reek

tra nsla t ion

the

c urrent

t h e S even ty

of

S eventy - t w o) I nt erp re t e rs ( LXX), w hich w as b eg un P ent at euch at Ale x andria under Pt ol emy Philadelph us b ut

cor rec t ly

w it h t h e

,

on ly c omp le t ed

w h om h a d

t h e use

of

a

of va rious aut h o rs, so

I t w a s t h e w o rk

lat er

.

living know ledg e

J e ws

G reek-sp eakin g

in Al ex andria

e sp ec ia lly

,

la t er t h e Aramaic t ra nsl a t ions,

T arg ums

or

of

w a s int ended for

o rig inal, and

th e

of

me

i

S omew h at

.

e

.

in terp

.

ret a

made in Pa lest ine and B ab ylonia Th e exp la na tions deriv ed in p art fro m al leg ed t radit ion r efer a lmost e x c lusiv el t o c iv il a nd rit ua l law a nd dogmat ic t h e ology y and are no more sc ie nt ific in c h ara c t er t h an muc h of t h e t e x t ual tions), w ere fo rmed b y

suc c essiv e

.

rec ensions

,

,

,

B ot h kinds o f t radit ion ar e p reser ve d t h at p erio d isna , w a s finally b rough t Ta lmud, t h e first p art o f w h ich , t h e

t radit ion

in th e

of

.

M

t o it s p re sent fo rm t ow ards t h e end o f t h e se c ond c ent ury ; o f t h e h e J erusa lem or P a lestinia n r ema inder, t h e Gemara , one r e cension t (

Gem

.

nia n

a b o ut

)

Gem )

t h e middle

t h e fo urt h

t h e middle

ab out

.

of

of

the

the

c ent ury,

xth

(

ot h er

t h e B a bylo .

si

Th e

c ent ury

Mis

h a

fo rms t h e b eg inning of t h e New -H eb re w lit erat ure ; t h e languag e of t h e G emaras is fo r t h e most p a rt Arama ic To t h e int erval b et we en t h e c omp let ion o f t h e Tal mud and 2 .

b

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earliest

th e

g

ra

mmat ical

a c cent uat ion o f

mainly t h e

writers, b el ong

x

t h e h it h ert o unp oint ed t e t

of

v oc aliz at ion a nd ac c ording

the O T .

to

t h e p ronunc ia t ion t radit ional in t h e S ynag ogues a nd S c h o ol s 7 h , i ), a s w ell a s t h e g reat er f h ll i rit ical not es wh ich o ar t o t e c o e c t n o f c p

b ears t h e

na me o f

w h ich h as

sinc e

1

na m e

Me

(

a s ra

“ D OD tr a dit io

b een t ransmit t ed w ith

M

rig

M

l)

id

g E

F rom t his t h e t e x t

1

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uniformit y

by th e

MS S

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,

K on ig , E inleitung in das A T , Leh rgeb d h eb r Sp ra c he, i i 3 5 8 ii ) , a n d t h e g re a t d i ffi c ul t y o f sa t is p 38 ’ W B ac h e r s itteilungen, i 9 1 fl fac t oril y e p l a in in g i t , c f D e L ag a rd e , so a l so C L e v ias i n d e riv a t io n o f t h e e p ressi o n ( in J QR 1 8 9 1 , p 7 8 5 ff 37 0 e l u i i 1 f f r m 2 2 h H e b r w U n i o n C o l e A n n a l c i nn a t 1 0 f o E t e ge , ) , C n 47 9 4, p

On t h e

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asor a

(o r

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DWDD ; TN DD, i e ( rig h t l y r e ec t e d b y K on ig , l .

e q ua l ly

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rfi l DD is l a te r t h at

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moire

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me nt s,

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p lene

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at t e st e d

mark o f L e v ia s ( l

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a nd

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mien (JQR ea

th e

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xii

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r lie r M asore t e s

defective w rit ing ,

an d o n ly

me t o me a n tra ditio — G W il db oe r , in Z A W 1 9 0 9 , p 7 4, c o nt en ds WDD to h and on is n o t found i n t h e O T , it must b e a lat e de no mina

t iv e i n t h is

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se nse .

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§3

and

G ra mma tica l

d]

c,

M

Te x t

aso ret ic

t ex t

rec eived

is st ill t h e

T r ea t ment of the L a ng uag e of

th e O T , h a s .

.

ob t ained

t h e name

1 of

9

t he

.

R o se n m ul l e r a l re ady ( H a ndb uch fur d L iter d er bibl K ritik u E xegese, 1 7 9 7 , i 2 4 7 ; Vorrede z ur S tereotyp -A usg des A T , Lp z 1 8 3 4) m ain t a in e d t h a t o ur 0 T t e t w a s de r iv e d fro m Co d ic es b e l o n g ing t o a si ng l e re c e n sion O l sh a u se n ( si n c e J G S omm e r ( c f Co rn il l , Z A W 1 8 9 2 , p 1 iii ) , h a v e e v e n m ade i t a nd e sp e c ial ly D e L ag a rde (Proverb ien, 1 8 6 3 , p aso re t ic t e t w as d e ri ve d fro m a sing l e st a n d a rd p rob a b l e t h a t t h e o rig inal ma n usc rip t C f , h o w ev e r, E K on ig in Z tsch r f kirclzl Wiss , 1 8 8 7 , p 2 7 9 f , ore ov e r a g re a t m an y fa c t s, a nd e sp e c ia lly h is E inleitung ins A T , p 8 8 if w h ic h w il l b e n ot ic e d in t h e ir p ro p e r p la c e s, i n dic a t e t h a t t h e a so ra it se l f is b y n o me a n s un ifo rm b u t sh ow s c l ea r t ra c e s of d iffe re n t sc h o o l s a nd O p in ion s c f H S t ra c k in S emiti c S tud ies i n memory o K oh ut B e rlin , 1 8 9 7 , p 5 6 3 if f A n e c e l l e n t fo unda t ion fo r t h e h ist o ry of t h e asora a nd t h e se t t l e me n t o f t h e masore t ic t rad it io n w a s l a i d b y Jo h B uxt orf i n h is Ti beria s seu Commen ta rius to t h e asoreth icus, fi rst p ub l ish e d at B ase l in 1 6 20 a s an ap p e n d i R a b b inic a l B ib l e of 1 6 1 8 f F o r m ore re c e n t w o rk se e G e ig e r, Judisch e Z tsch r , i ii 7 8 if , foll ow e d b y H arris in J QR i 1 2 8 if , 24 3 iii ; S F re nsdo rfi Och la ’ W och la , H anov er, 1 8 64 ; an d h is assor W6rterb , p art i , H a n ov er and Lp z 1 8 7 6 ; a n d C h D G in sb urg , Th e a ssora comp iled from a nuscrip ts, & c , 3 v o l s , L on d 1 8 8 0 a nd I ntroduc tion to th e a ssoreti co-cri tica l ed ition of th e H ebr B ib le, L ond 1 8 9 7 (h is t e t , re p rint e d fro m t h a t o f Jac ob b H a y y i m [V e n ic e , 1 5 2 4—5 ] w it h v a ria n t s fro m S S a nd t h e e a rlie st e d it io n s, w a s p ub l ish e d in 2 v o l s a t L on d o n i n 1 8 a re v i se d e d i t io n i s i n p ro g re ss) ; H 94, 2 nd e d 1 9 0 6 ’ ‘ H yv erna t , L a l a n g ue e t le l a n g ag e d e l a asso re ( as a m i t ure o f Ne w H eb re w an d A ra ma ic ) , in t h e Revue b ib lique, O c t 1 9 0 3 , p 5 29 ff a nd B : Le iq ue ma sso rét iq ue , ibi d , O c t 1 90 4 , p 5 2 1 {f , 1 90 5 , p 4 8 1 ff , a nd p 5 1 5 if I n t h e u se o f t h e a sso ra fo r t h e c r it i c a l c on st ruc t io n o f t h e T e t , u se ful w o r k h a s b e e n d o n e e sp e c ial ly b y S B ae r , i n t h e e dit io n s o f t h e se v e ra l b o ok s (o nl y E od -D eut h av e st il l t o a p p e a r) , e dit e d from 1 8 6 9 c on o in t l y w it h F r D e l it z sc h , a n d sinc e 1 8 9 1 b y B ae r a l one Cf al so 7 h 1 7 ) fo rm o ne o f t h e o l de st an d mo st T h e v a rious rea d in g s o f t h e Q ° r e ( se e i mp or t a n t p a rt s o f t h e T h e p un c t uat i o n o f t h e T e t , h o w e v e r , is n o t a sora asora t o b e c o nfo unde d w it h t h e c o mp il a t io n o f t h e Th e forme r w as se tt l e d at a n ea rl ie r p e ri od, a nd is t h e re sul t o f a m uc h m o re e h aust ive l ab our t h an t h e aso ra, w h ic h w as no t comp l e t e d t il l a c o nside ra b l y l a t e r t i m e

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no t unt il ab o ut t h e

follo w ing t h e

mp ila t ions

w orks of R S a

'

Yesira

(

ed

.

in Arab ic

e

Of the

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x

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J ew s

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3

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a dya ,

My a

of

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x ample o f t h e

of

t h e t e nt h

c e nt ury

t h at ( l

Arab s b e gan t h eir gramma t ic al ra mma t ic al a nd le x ic o ra hic a l g g p

numerous

,

b eyo nd frag ment s in t h e c omment ary o n t h e S ep h er

mb ert , p p 4 2 4 7 7 5 on ly t h e e x la na t on p i m a ax le omen a in ore c orrec t ly ninet y h se v ent y g ) p (

er-La

t he

b eg inning

.

,

,

,

t h e O T h as b e en p re serv ed W rit t en like wise in Arab ic , b ut fr e n l l l n h u e t ra n s a e i o H b w w er i l e x t a nt w orks of t h e t e t d t r e e t s t e , q y .

.

.

g ramma r ians R Yeh uda Hayyfig (also c alled Ab u Za ka rya Yahya , ab o ut ’ t h e year 1 0 0 0 ) and R Y o na (A b u l-Wal id e rw zin ib n Canal} , a b out

M

.

.

B y t he

monly

ca lled

e sp ec ia lly

a id o f

t h ese

Ab en E z ra

g ained

,

ob

.

ea rlier

1 1

6 7)

’

.

lab o urs, Ab rah am b en E z ra a nd

a c lassic al rep ut at io n

R D av id .

Q imh i (ob

.

( c om

c. 1 23 5

)

b y t h eir H eb re w g rammat ic al

w rit ing s

.

O n h is inde p e n d e nt at t it ude t ow a rds t h e D e l it zsc h , Comm e u den Psal men‘ , p 3 9 .

.

.

0 2

M

asore t ic

p unc t ua t ion,

se c

I ntr oduc tio n

20

3

e,

f

g ra mm aria ns a re de riv e d ma ny p rinc ip le s o f arra ng e men t a nd t e c h n ic a l t e rms, so me of w h ic h a re st ill re t a in e d, e g t h e n aming VD, c ert a in o f t h e c o n ug a t i on s a n d w ea k v er b s a c c o rding t o th e p a ra d ig m o f F rom t h ese

ea rl iest

.

.

j

memoria les,

voces

4

6

D

Th e fat h e r

.

(

R euchl in

ob

and

11 5 3 1 33

as

of

.

t h e l ike

1 .

H eb rew p h ilol ogy among Ch rist ians w as J oh n t o w h om Greek lit era t ure also is so much

Like t h e grammarians wh o suc c eeded him, t ill t h e t ime h e st ill a dh ered a l most ent irely B uxt orf t h e elder (ob

indeb t ed

.

J oh n t o J e w ish of

.

F ro m t h e middle

t radit io n

.

field o f inv est ig at ion g ra dually w ide ned, lang uag es, c hiefly t h rough t h e l ea ders

f

5

ob .

c onnec t ed

N ordh ausen, F e b 3 , w h ere h e die d O c t .

1

mp reh e nsiv e

and

Sp r

.

.

.

ed. ,

8 th

,

(

1

.

wh o

8 8 2,

G ott

b ecame

.

of

mp t ed

at t e

in H eb rew p h ilology G esenius (b orn at of W .

.

,

.

8 2 7 ; A usfdh rl L ehr b d h ebr c h iefly a ime d a t referrin g ling uist ic

.

w ho

.

B erlin ;

at

Alb ert

luc id p rese nt at io n o f t h e a c t ual ly H E wald (oh 1 8 7 5 a t Go t t ing e n

forms t o g eneral laws and rat ionally ob

sc h ool ,

advances

the

i h n i st ic omena l n u e g p g Gra nt/ m der H ebr Sp r , Lp z

o c c urrin .

(ob

t h e kindred

fro m t h e year 1 8 1 0 Professor a t Halls, w h o ab ov e al l t h ing s aimed a t t h e

786

ob serva t ion

co

3

w it h t h e na mes

23,

.

K r it

st udy of

the

.

.

ar e e sp ec ially

th e

t h e D ut c h

of

.

.

nine t e ent h c ent ury

In the

.

1

service

fr uit ful

a nd

se v ent eent h c ent ur y

7 5 0 ) and N W S ch roder t o H eb rew g rammar

(

S c h ul t e ns

the

of

.

e

1

.

.

.

x p laining t h e la t t er J

.

Olsh ause n

L ehrb der h ebr Sp ra c he, B runswic k, .

a c onsist ent e

.

x p la nat ion

of

t he

e

x ist ing

.

1

861)

c o ndit io n o f

t h e lang uage, from t h e p resup posed p rimit iv e S emit ic forms, p reserved F B ot t ch er ( Ausfil hr l ac cording t o h im not ab ly in o ld A rab ic '

M

.

.

.

uhla u, 2 v ol s , L p z 1 8 6 6—8 ) en deavoured L ehr b d hebr Sp r ed b y F t o p re sent an e x h aust ive synop sis of t h e l inguist ic p h e nomena , a s w ell a s t o g iv e an e x p la nat io n of t h em fro m t h e sp h ere of H eb rew .

.

.

.

.

.

'

.

.

H e b rew g ra m ma ria n s, see S t ra c k a n d S ie g frie d, Leh rb d neuh eb r S p r u L iter , Ca rl sr 1 8 8 4 , p 1 0 7 if , a nd t h e p re fac e s t o t h e H e b re w L e ic on s o f G e se nius a n d F urst B e rli n e r B eitrcige zur h eb r Gra mm { m Ta lmu d o l de st

On t h e

x id u M b n M

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

‘

.

.

.

-tea mim k i k t ra c D i e D d u k h S e a des A h ron ra sch , B , a nd ere a lte g ramma tisch massoreth isch e Leh rstu e osch eh b en A sc h er u cke, L p z ’ G IV 1 7 0 , 11 2 ; E w a ld a n d D uke s , 1 8 7 9 , a n d P K ah l e s c ri t ic ism s i n Z D B eitrag e z Gesek der attesten A uslegung u Sp ra ch erklcirung des A T , S t ut tg 1 8 4 4 H up fe l d, D e rei gra mmatica e ap ud J uda eos i nitiis a ntiquissimisque scri 3 v ol s ‘ in Z D G 1 8 9 5 , p torib us , H a l 1 8 4 6 ; W B a c h e r, D ie A n fang e d e r h e b r b is z um 1 6 J a h rh , a n d Die h eb r S p ra ch wissensch aft c om 1 0 1 if a n d 3 3 5 if T r ie r , 1 8 9 2 9 A st ro n g im p u l se w a s nat urall y g iv e n t o t h e se st udie s b y t h e int ro duc t io n o f p rint in g — t h e Psa l t e r in 1 4 7 7 , t h e B o l o g n a P e n t a t e uc h i n 1 4 8 2 t h e S o n c in o se e t h e d e sc r ip t io n o f t h e t w e n t y-four e a rlie st O T c o m p l e t e in 1 4 8 8 ’ e d it io n s ( do w n t o 1 5 28 ) i n G i n sb urg s I ntroduction, p 7 79 ff 9 O f t h e l it e ra t ure 0 1 t h e sub e c t d o w n t o t h e y e a r 1 8 5 0 , see a t ole ra b ly ful l ac c ount i n S t e insch ne ide r’ s B ibliogr H a nd b f h eb r Sp ra ch kunde, L p z 1 8 59

erlin, 1

.

8 79 ; B aer

a nd

M

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.

.

I ntr oductio n

22

4

,

let t ers, w ords,

l

sing e

d d in t h e marg in

sent enc es,

wh ich

are

t h en

o ft en

x

t h enc e b rough t b ack int o t h e t e t in t h e

a nd

ad e

wh ol e

ev en

or

mission is g enera lly due t o h omo iot eleut on (c f G insb urg I n trod , p 1 7 1 if ), i e t h e sc rib e s eye wanders from t he h O er t o a sub sequent w ord o f t h e sa me or simi lar form l t c a e p suc h

wrong p lac e ;

o

.

’

.

,

.

.

.

.

ditt og rap h y, i

c a uses are

an d

.

sent e nces

e ve n

dog

op

h apl og rap hy ;

sit e , o p

l ett e r s, w ords,

of

a nd

last ly w rong

8 if sinc e at a c ert ain 5 , ( ) } t ransmissio n of t h e t e x t t h e words w ere not sep arat ed

in t h e

”

.

I ntent iona l ch ang es of

i t i n e t o p

erroneous re

.

m

a , and

Ginsb urg , I ntrod

cf

division of words p e riod

it s

;

e

due t o

a re

.

p

,

correc t io ns

t o t h e insert io n

of

g losses,

1

.

for t h e

so

sake of

me of t h em

dec enc y

or

v ery ea rly.

Adva nc e in g rammar is t h erefore c losely dep endent on p rog ress Th e syst emat ic p ursuit of t h e lat t er h as o nly in t extua l crit icism — f i ll k rs es ec a D o n i n n e n t ea c r c o J 1 1 6, L eid r c : o 11 n i n e u b eg y p y .

.

.

Cornill, E z echiel, 8 7 9 ; Wellhausen, Text der B b S a m , G ott 1 8 7 1 L pz 1 8 8 6 K lost erma nn , B b S a m u d K on , N ordl 1 8 8 7 ; D riv er, '

1

.

.

.

’

.

.

.

H ebr

on t he

N ot es

.

1

un c

,

1

1

.

S chriften des A T .

x

I nt erna t

t he 2 .

,

1

90

— 9 10

Grit

.

A

.

.

.

.

S a m , O xf

f

o

.

1

.

the

90 3

co

Comm

.

K lost er

8 90 ;

O ort , T extus he br

8 93

B urney on K ing s, O x f

90 0

N o w ac k ;

a nd

o

Mih

ma nn, D eu teroj esaj a , Lugd

the B ooks

f

text

.

.

.

menda tiones

e

M ti ,

mment aries o f

ar

Kautz sc h , D ie hei l

.

.

c rit ic al edit ion of

t h e O T w it h full .

.

indicat ing t h e different do c ume nt s b y c olours, is b eing p ub lish e d in a h andsome form b y P H aup t in Th e S a cred B ooks a nd B al t imore , 1 8 9 3 if six t een of th e Old Test , Lp z ( p art s h av e

t e t ual not es,

and

.

.

a

E x od , D eut

a red : e p p

.

.

,

Mi

me) ; K it t el, B iblia hebra ica

H a yyim

(

see

v ersions, a nd e

§

4

.

)

c

(3 )

,

1

M

i

selec t ion

of

90 9,

v al uab le

a

e

a soret c

o

a re

x

t e t from v a riant s

st ill

J acob

to

b

.

fro m t h e

.

D i v isi on a nd

c onst it uent

re p re sent ed

2

a nd

mendat ions

Th e divisio n t h re e

w it h

,

Prop h et s,

nor

co

Mg ill t h

.

a nd

A rr a ng ement

th e Gra mma r

f

o

.

g ment of H eb rew grammar fo llow t he of ev ery l angua e, v iz 1 ) a rt ic ula t e sounds g (

arra n e

p art s

b y lett er s,

.

a nd

unit ed t o

form

sy l la bles,

( 2)

wor ds,

a nd

sen tenc es

.

Th e first p art (t h e e lement s) c omp rise s a cc ordingly t h e t reatment of sounds and t h eir rep rese nt at ion in w rit in g I t desc rib es t h e nat ure .

d

an

1

rela t ions o f

t he

sounds of

t h e la ng ua g e, t eac h es t h e p ronunc iat io n

T h is scrip tio continua is a l so fo un d in Ph oe n ic ian in sc rip t ions Th e ‘ i nsc rip t io n o f e a a l w ay s d iv ides t h e w o rds b y a p o int ( a n d so t h e S il oa m i nsc r i p t io n ; se e t h e fa c si m il e a t t h e b e g inn in g o f th is g ramma r) , a nd fro q ue nt l y marks t h e c l ose o f a se nt e nc e b y a st ro ke

M

.

'

.

A rra ng ement Qf the

§ 4] t h e w rit t en

of

(

ort h og ra p h y

)

sig ns

(ort hoep y)

mb inat ion t ake s p lac e

co

Th e as

f

o

of

t h e law s

e st ab li sh ed

23

mode

of

w rit ing

mb ine d in syllab les

sounds a s c o

and c ondit ions

under w h ic h t h is

.

p art (et ymology) t reat s of words in t h eir c harac t er of sp eec h , and c omp rises : ( 1 ) t h e p rinc ip les o f t h e forma t ion

sec ond

p ar ts w ords,

t he

the

a nd

I t t hen t re at s of t h e

.

a nd s e c ifies p

d w ords,

an

,

Gr a mma r

or

root s or

t he

relat io n

of

from

v a rious

to

t h e derivat ion one a no t h er

forms wh ich w o rds

o t h er

of

a nd

;

th e different p art s

( ) 2

t h e p rincip l es

t h e words

t o t he

me

a ssu

of sp eech

of

from

infl exion , i

.

ac c ording

e

.

t o t h eir

sent ence .

Th e t h ird p art ( synt a x , or t h e arrangement of words) : ( 1 ) sh ow s h ow t h e word-fo rmat ions and inflexio ns o ccurring in t h e lang uag e are used

to

e

x p ress

different

sh ades o f

whic h t h e la nguag e ha s not

p erip h rasis ; sp eech

a re

o r synt ax

( ) 2

st at es

in t h e

c oined

t h e la w s

mb ined in

co

ideas, a ny

and

forms,

acc ording

sent ences

st ric t er sense of

h ow

a re

e

idea s, for

x p r essed

t o which t h e p art s

rinc i l es t h e p ( p

t h e t erm)

ot h e r

.

of

t he

by of

sent enc e ,

F IR ST E LE

MENTARY

I

PA R T

I

PR N C PLE

S

OR

T

HE

S OUN D S AND

CHARA CTE R S

CH APTER I I N D I V I DUA L

T HE

5

S OU N D S

their F orms

The Co nsona n ts

.

t h e T ab l e

( Cf

.

A N D CH A RACT ER S

N a mes

a nd

.

A lp h a b e t s )

of

.

j

A mong t h e ab undant l it erat ure o n t h e sub ec t , sp ec ia l a tt e nt io n is d ire c t e d t o A B e rl in e r , B eitrcige zur h ebr Gra mm , B erl in , 1 8 7 9 , p 1 5 {f , o n t h e n a me s, fo rms, an d p ro nunc iat ion o f t h e c on sonant s in Ta l mud and idrash ; H S t ra c k , S ch reibkunst u S ch rift b ei d H ebr dern, PR E 3 , L p z 1 9 0 6 p 7 66 B e nz in g er, N ow a c k Leh rbuch d h eb r A rch dol , H eb r A rchdologiez, T ii b ing e n , 1 9 0 7 , p 1 7 2 fi F re i b urg , 1 8 9 4, i 2 7 9 {f ; L idz b arski, H a ndbuch d nordsem Ep ig rap h ik, W e ima r, ‘ 1 8 9 8 , i 1 73 fi a l so h is art H e b rew A lp h ab e t , ’ in t h e Jewish E ncyclop aedia , i , ‘ 1 0 1 , p 43 9 9 ff ( of h is Ep h emeris, i 3 1 6 if ) an d D ie N a me’ n der A l p h a b e t b uc h st ab e n i n E p h emeris, i i 1 2 5 if ; K e ny o n , a r t ‘ W rit in g , in t h e D ictiona ry o f th e B ible, i v E dinb 1 9 0 2, p 9 4 4 if N ol de k e , D ie se mit B uc h st ab e nna m e n , i n B eitr z ur semit Sp ra ch wiss , S t ra ssb 1 9 0 4 , p 1 24 ff F Prae t or ius, Ueber den Ursp rung des h a na a n A lp h a bets, B erlin, 1 9 0 6 ; H G rimm e , ‘ Z ur G e n e sis de s ’ sem i t 1 9 0 7 , p 4 9 iii ; R S t ii b e , Gru ndlinzen e u einer A lp h ab e t s, in Z A E ntwickelungsg esch d S ch rift, unic h , 1 9 0 7 Je r ma in , I n th e p a th of th e A lp h a bet, F o rt W a y ne , 1 9 0 7 — L B lau, S tudien z um a lth ebr B uch wesen, &c , S t rassb 1 9 0 2 a n d h is U e b e r d E in fi uss d a l t h e b r B uc h w ese ns a uf d O rig in a l e &c , in F estsch r eu E h ren A B erliners, F rkf 1 9 0 3 ’ T h e b e st t a b l e s o f a l p h a b e t s are t h ose of J E ut ing in G B ic ke l l s Outlines of H eb Gram t ra n s] b y S I Cur t i ss, L z 1 8 p 7 7 in P t v i i of t h e Orienta l S er ies o f t h e P al a e o g rap h ic al S oc , L o n d on , 1 8 8 2 a nd, t h e ful l est o f a ll , i n Ch w o l ’ so n s Corp us insor H ebr , Pe t ersb urg, 1 8 8 2 ; a l so Lidz b arski s in t h e J ewish E ncycl , se e ab ove ‘

.

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M

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,

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xx

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.

’

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.

1

Th e H eb rew let t ers

.

sc ri

now

in

use,

in which

b ot h t h e manu

p t s of t h e O T are w rit t en and our edit ions of t h e B ible are ln l rint e d, c ommonly c alled t h e s ua re c h a r a c ter l so t h e a p q ( .

.

Assyria n cha ra cter Old H ebrew 1

Th e

na

a re not

(or

Old Ca na a nit ish

me fil let} (A ssy ria )

Mdit

i n a lly e m lo ed g p y w rit ing , as it w as used

t h ose ?

)

o ri

i s h e re use d i n t h e w ide st

.

se nse ,

on

t o in c l ude t h e

inh ab i t e d b y A rama ea n s ; c f S t ade i n ZA W 1 8 8 2, p 2 9 2 f O n some o th e r n ame s fo r O l d H e b re w w rit ing c f G H o fi ma nn , ib id 1 8 8 1 , p 3 3 4 if B uh l , Ca non a nd Text of the 0 T ( t ra nsl by J ac p h e rso n ) , E d inb 1 8 9 2 , p 20 0 2 I t is t ac it l y a ssumed h e re t h a t t h is w as t h e mo t h e r of a ll S e mit ic alp h ab e t s I n Z D G' 1 9 0 9 , p 1 8 9 112, h ow eve r, Prat orius h as sh ow n g o od c oun t rie s

th e

on

.

e

.

er ra nean

.

.

.

.

'

.

.

M

.

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.

M

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

5

The

]

a

Forms a nd JVa mes

their

Consona nts

25

d in t h e sec ond p ub l ic monument s i n t h e b eg inning of t h e nint h an h alf of t h e eigh t h c ent ury B C , is t o b e seen in t h e insc rip t ion of

Meé

.

‘

a

coins

b aea n st ill

w ell

as

,

in t h at

as

of

b ear much

the

S iloam

of

sec ond

.

Th e

.

cent ury

mb lanc e to th is

re se

B

.

C

.

,

(c f

and

of

of

F rom t h e

Alp h ab et s)

may b e

ment al c h aracter

M

ac c a

m s, g

(see

1

e

t h e Old H eb re w

h,

2

j ,and

th e

gy of t h e hist ory o f ot h er kinds assumed t h at out of a nd alo ng w it h t his me nu

.

w rit ing , it

the

o n a nc ient

Wit h

.

w rit ing t h e Ph oenic ian is nearly ident ical

Tab le

al so

d)

2

.

c h a ra c t ers on

an alo

m

ique and in some w ays ore c onv enient , r o unded style w a s early develop ed, for use 0 11 soft e r ma t erials, skins, b ark, p apyrus, and t h e like This t h e S amarit ans ret aine d after t h eir less

a

,

a nt

.

from t h e

sep a ra t ion

xth

si

a nd

t h e fourt h

J ews

J ew s

wh ile t h e

,

x c h a ng ed it )

c ent ury

g

ra

for

e

dually

an

b etw een t h e (

‘

Arama ic

c h ara ct e r.

Fr om t his g ra dually a rose ( from ab out t h e fourth t o t h e middle o f t h e t h ird c ent ury) w h at is called t h e squa r e c ha ra c ter , wh ic h c onse quent ly b ears g rea t resemb lance t o t h e e x t ant forms o f Aramaic w rit ing , suc h as t h e E g yp t ian-Ara ma ic , t h e N ab at ea n and e sp ecia lly t h e Palmyrene

.

O f H eb rew insc rip t ions in t he a l-E

mir

(

1

b elong s t o

miles

5%

older squa re

c h a ra c t er,

mouth

nort h -east of t h e

of

t he

t h at

‘

of

Araq

J ordan) p rob ab ly

83

1

Th e Je w ish sa rc op h ag us-i n sc rip t ion s o f t h e t ime of Ch r ist , foun d i n Je r usale m i n 1 9 0 5 , a l most w it h ou t e c e p t ion e h ib it a p ure sq ua re c h a ra c t e r T h is a l t e re d l it t l e in t h e c ourse of c e nt ur ie s, so t h a t t h e ag e o f a H eb re w S ca nn o t e asily b e d e t e rm ine d fr o m t h e st y l e of t h e w r it i n g T h e o l de st k n ow n b ib l ic al frag me n t i s t h e N ash p ap y rus (fo un d i n c o nt a i n i n g t h e t e n c o mm a n dme nt s a n d t h e b e g inn in g of D t o f t h e e nd o f t h e fi rst or b e g inning o f t h e sec o nd c e n t ury c f N Pe t e rs D ie d lteste A bsch r der 1 0 D Geb ote , F re ib g i B 1 9 0 5 S S o f t h e B ib l e t h e o l de st is p ro b a b ly Of ac t ua l o n e o f 8 20 — 8 50 D de sc ri b e d b y G in sb u rg , I ntrod , p 4 6 9 til , a t t h e h ead o f h is si t y p rin c ip al of o se s b e n A sh er a t SS ne t i n a g e is t h e c o de ’ Ca iro ( 8 9 7 A D , c f t h e a rt r i e S c b s in t h e J ew E ncycl xi a nd G o t t h e il i n J QR 1 9 0 5 , p D ) o f t h e C o de Th e d a t e ( 9 1 6 p r op h e t arum B a b y lon Pe t rop o l ( se e 5 8 g, n o t e ) is q ui t e c e rt a in — I n t h e sy nag og ue -ro l l s a dist in c t ion is d ra w n b e t w ee n t h e T a m-c h arac t e r ( sa id t o b e so c a ll e d fro m R a b b i Ta m, g ra nd so n o f R Y ishaq i , i n t h e t w e l ft h ce nt ury) w it h it s st ra ig h t st ro ke s, sq ua re c orn e rs a nd ‘ t it t l e s ’ ( t agi n) , i n G erma n a nd Po l ish S S , a nd t h e SS S ee foreig n c h arac t e r w it h roun d e d le t t e rs an d t it t l e s in S p anish furt h e r E K onig , E inl in da s A T , B onn, 1 8 9 3 , p 1 6 fi

x

x

M

.

.

.

A

.

.

x

.

.

A

.

.

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.

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M

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M

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.

x

.

.

A

.

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.

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,

x

M

.

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x

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M

.

M .

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’

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.

g rou nd s for b el ie v i ng t h a t t h e S out h S e mit ic alp h ab e t i s de riv e d no t fro m ‘ th e esa c h arac t e r , o r fro m some ki nd re d a nd h a rdl y o l d e r sc rip t , b ut fro m som e unkn ow n an d much e arl ie r fo r m o f w ri t i ng 1 O n t h e e ffe c t o f t h e t ra nsit ional mi t ure of e arl ier a nd l at e r forms o n t h e c o nst it ut ion o f t h e t e t see R K it t e l , Ueber d N otwendigk d H erausg einer , neuen h ebr B i bel, L p z 1 9 0 1 , p 20 til — L B l au, W ie l a nge st a nd d ie a lt h e b r S c h rift b e i d e n Jude n im G eb rauc h in K a ufma nng edenkbuch , B resla u, 1 90 0 ,

M

x

x

.

p 4 4 if 1 No t

1

c orrec t ly ,

.

7 6, n ot

as

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

fo rmerly h eld

m an

.

.

D river

.

a nd

Lidzb arski n ow

re ad

u r ni

v,

T he I ndividua l S ounds

26 2

Th e A lp h ab e t

.

c onsonant s, a

kind

form,

like

t y-t w o in numb er, t w en

a ll so

Chara cters

S emit ic

M

ME

sole ly

of

me o f w hich h ow ev er have also ,

,

.

NA

.

5 b

a lp h a b et s,

Th e follo w ing Tab le 7 b) p o w er ronunc ia t ion, a nd numeric al v al ue see In ) p (

of vocalic

names,

F OR

c onsist s,

a nd

sh o w s

t h eir

P R O N UN CI AT I O N

.

p iritus len is b (bh, b ut see s

B eth

Gimel

l i m G ( )

g (gh ,

6

n

)

n

d (dh,

z, a s

h, t

a st rong e

,

in E ng lish

mp hat ic

h (Ichfhnt

(

soft

u ral t t u g

t

r

6

see

n

)

Lamed

a

s, e

q,

Ph il ip p i, 1 ‘

Ic formed

at

mp h at ic st rong

a

t h e b ac k

w

(

see

p e culiar g utt ural b elo w)

’

of

t h e p ala te

5, p ronounced sh t (th b ut see 6

( Tau)

,

D ie A ussp rac h e der

se

n

)

mit Con sonant en

in Z D

1 und

.

MG

.

8 8 6, p 6 3 9 1 8 9 7 , p 66 {T a dd uc e s re a so ns in d e t a il fo r t h e O in ion t h a t , p t h e S e mi t ic ‘l a n d a re ce rt a in l y b y usag e c o n so nan t s, al t h o ug h b y n at ure .

.

.

t li ey are cf 5 8 m 2 As a

v o w e l s, v iz. u a n d

i,

a n d c o nse q ue n t l

y

a re c on son a n t a l v o w e l s

’

;

.

re p re se n t a t io n o f

o c c up i e s i n

N e st le sh o w n

t he

t h is souh d t h e L at in q is v e ry a l p h ab e t t h e p l a ce o f t h e S e mi t ic p ( G ree k

( A ctes

t h at t h e

da

m Congres

onzie e

orig inal o rde r

w as

W,

des Orienta listes,

W .

1

sui t ab l e , si nc e

xenn

8 9 7, iv

) .

it

.

h as

3 o

Consona nts : their Form a nd N a mes

The

f]

5

c-

A s t h e Tab le sh ow s, five l et t e rs h av e

.

f t h e w or d

Th ey

.

J ewish

are c alled

form

a sp ec ial

final le t t ers,

and

at

27

t he

end

C

mb ined b y t h e K a mnép has o r

w ere

co

225 ? mm ria ns in t h e mnemonic w ord V a g 1 Q Q Q r i h u ll r n d e a b et t e , w t A i e a s th e br ea ker in p iec es S ta de, T J O f t h ese, 1 , I, F] , r are dist inguish e d from t h e c ommo n fo rm b y t h e ra

M

.

b eing drawn

sh a ft

'

‘

,

'

.

st ra ig h t

d t o wards t h e left

ro un

2

.

down, wh ile in t h e

In t he

.

.

c ase of

fo rm it is b ent

usua l

mp let ely

D t h e let t er is

co

d

c lose

4

.

H eb rew is

.

b e div ided

not

at

read a nd

t he

w ritt en from

end of

M

r igh t

4

t he lines

t o left

b ut, in

W ords must d

3 .

order

mp t y

t h at no

e

may b e left , in S S a nd p rint ed t e x t s, c ert ain let t ers suit able p fo r t h e p urp ose are dilat ed a t t h e end o r in t h e middle of t h e line s ac e

.

.

In

p rint ed t e x t s t h ese liter a e dila t a biles ' H N (mnemonic w o rd DFIJHR

o ur

5

D h

l et t ers I, 3 ,

Rem

so

me

MSS

.

o t h er

fo r t h e p urp ose are also emp loyed in t h is w ay , as of S t rac k in t h e Th eol L ehr b , 1 8 8 2 , No 2 2 ; N e st le , Z A W

I;

9 0 6, p

1

In

suit ab le

"

"

t h e fi ve following

a re

.

.

1

.

.

.

.

7o f

.

Th e forms o f t h e l et t ers o rig inal l y re p re se nt t h e rude o ut l ine s o f 6 p e rce p t ib l e o b e c t s, t h e names o f w h ic h , re sp e c t ive l y , b e g in w it h t h e c on so na nt r e p rese n t e d ( a k rop h o ny ) Th us Yod, in t h e e arlie r alp h a b e t s t h e r ud e p ic t ure o f a h and 1 ) b u t as a l e t t e r si mp ly t h e so und , p rop e rl y d e n o t e s h a nd ( H e b 1

.

.

j

.

1

.

(y) , eye

‘

w i t h w h ic h t h is w ord b eg in s ; A yin, or ig in all y a c irc l e , p r op e rl y a n t , st a nds for t h e c on sona n t 17 I n t h e Ph oe n ic ian a lp h ab e t , e sp e c ia ll y ,

(ni)

th e

re se

.

mb l a nc e of t h e forms t o t h e

j

de not e d b y t h e n a me is st il l for I n som e le t t e rs I 1 T D, W t h e , , ,

ob e c t s

t h e mo st p ar t re c o g nizab le ( see t h e T ab l e ) s imil a ri t y i s st i l l p re se rve d in t h e sq ua re c h a ra c t e r T h ey I t is a n o t h e r q ue st io n w h e t h er t h e p rese nt n a mes are a ll orig i nal ma y b e me re ly d ue t o a l a t e r , a nd not a l w ay s a c c u rat e , in t erp r e t at io n o f t h e fo rms ore o v e r, i t is p ossib l e t h a t in t h e p e ri o d fro a b o ut 1 5 0 0 t o 1 0 0 0 B c t h e o rig ina l fo rms u nd e rw e nt c o n sid e rab l e c h a ng e T h e usual e p l anat ion o f t h e p rese nt n a mes o f t h e l et te rs 5 is

)

(

.

.

.

M

.

m

.

.

x

1

.

I n t h e T a l mud, d isreg a rd ing t h e

al p h ab e t i c al o rd er,

f th y

o

wa tch er,

S e e t h e d isc ussion s of t h is mn e mo nic w ord b y Ne st l e , Z A W = 1 0 , 1 l roc ee d ing from th y 1 f f o n h e r h o u d re a d w K i B ac w o 5 7 3 9 7 p p , g, ( 9 32 7 9 - wo r o h e t s l n t I s i 2 8 6 A l h e t w e K r ar m ors t e n i b i d t a u s s p p y t , , , p 7 l e t t e rs, t og e t h e r w it h t h e fi v e fi nal for m s, oc c ur i n Zp 3 3 2 Ch w o l so n , Corp us I nsor H ebr , c ol 68 , righ t ly o b se rv e s t h at t h e more o rig in al fo rm s o f t h e se l e t t e rs are p re se rv e d i n t h e literae fi nales I nst a nc e s o f t h em go b ac k t o t h e t ime of Ch rist 3 Th e same w a s o rig ina ll y t h e p ra c t ice i n G ree k , w h ic h o nly a dop t e d t h e o p p osit e di re c t io n e c l u siv e l O n t h e boustrop h don w rit in g y a b ou t 4 0 0 D C ( al t e rna t e l y in eac h d ire c t ion) i n e a rly G re e k, e arly S a b a ea n, a nd in t h e S a fa -i nsc rip t ion s of t h e fi rst t h re e c e n t urie s D , c f Lidz b arski, E p h emeris, i 1 16 f 4 1 -5, T h is d o e s n o t ap p l y t o e arl y i nsc rip tion s or se al s es Cf a , ll & c , S il oa m 2 8 e re t h e d iv isio n o f w ord s a p p e a rs t o b e c u st o ma ry w h , , , 3 , , 5 7 5 W e p o sse ss G ree k t ra nsc rip t io ns o f t h e H e b r ew n a me s , d a t ing from t h e fi ft h c e n t ury B c T h e L XXg ive t h e m ( in al m o st t h e sa m e fo rm a s E use b ius, I ra ep E va ng 1 0 5 ) in La 1 -4, a s d o al so ma ny Cod ic e s o f t h e V ulg a t e ( e g t h e i

.

e.

p r op h et

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28

T he I ndividua l S ounds

N 3} h ouse,

mg

a xe o r

5p :

mel (a c c ord ing

ca

5

-a xe i c k p ) , 11 1! door

t o L idz b a rski,

( p rop erly folding

] p erh ap s 13 th e fema le breast) , NE “

weap on

(

M

a c c o rd in g

P } fence, ba rrier st roke

p e rh a

“

1p

’

?

as

,

(b ut

co

p erh ap s

ox-g oa d

,

B jp wa ter,

i n E t h iop ic ) ,

p; u

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T h e p ron unc ia t io n of H eb rew b y t h e mo de rn G erman Je w s, w h ic h p ar t ly ‘ ’ r e se mb l e s t h e S riac a n d is l l e i i l r a l c a d P o l s h , d fl e rs c o n side ra b l y y g e ne y fro m t h a t of t h e S p a n ish a n d P o r t ug ue se Je w s, w h ic h a p p ro a ch e s n earer t o t h e A ra b ic Th e p ro nun c ia t io n o f H e b rew b y Ch rist ia n s fo l l ow s t h e l at t e r ( aft e r t h e e am p l e o f R e uc h l in) , in a lmost al l c ase s 6 Th e ol de st t ra d it io n is p re se n t e d in t h e t ra nsc rip t ion of H e b rew na mes in A ssy r ia n c une ifo rm ; a l at e r, b u t y e t i n it s w a y v e ry imp o rt an t sy st e m is X t ra nsc rib e H eb re w n a me s w it h G re e k se e n in t h e m a nn e r i n w h ic h t h e L X l e t t e rs 2 A s, h ow ev e r , c orre sp o n d ing sig n s for sev e ra l soun ds D 9 Y, P, W ’

.

x

.

(

.

x

)

,

,

w a nt in g in t h e G re e k a l p h a b e t , o n l y a n ap p ro ima t e re p rese n t a t io n w as p ossib l e in t h e se c ases Th e sa me ap p l ie s t o t h e L a t i n t ra nsc rip t ion o f H e b re w w o rd s b y Je ro m e , ac c o rd ing t o t h e Je w ish p ro n un c iat io n o f h is t im e “ O n t h e p ro nunc ia t io n o f t h e m ode r n Je w s i n N ort h A fric a, see B arg es i n t h e Journ A sia t , N ov 1 8 4 8 ; o n t h a t o f t h e S out h A ra b ia n Je w s, J D é re n b ourg , Pa ris, 1 8 7 1 a nuel d a lecteur , &c S of t h e y e ar ( fro m a emen ( e t rait 6 d u Journ A sia t a re

.

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M x

.

Wit h

.

.

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M

Y

.

2

c

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.

t o t h e p ronunc ia tion o f th e and of I: a nd p , it may b e r ema rked

sib ila nt s,

sev eral

re ard g

g utt urals

and

A mong t h e gut t ural s, t h e g lo t t a l st op N i s t h e l ig h t e st , c orre sp onding t o t h e sp iritus tents o f t h e G r e e ks I t m ay st a nd e it h e r a t t h e b eg i nn ing o r e n d ’ ’ ” o f a syl l ab l e e g lp s N ya sam E v en before a v ow e l R is al m ost t d mdr, OW , 1

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l ost t o o ur e ar, like t h e h i n h our v o w e l N g e n e ra lly a nd a t t h e e n d (

m

K ?

d

Tl b e fo re fi n al ,

v ow e l

a

it i s eith er

v ow el

—

a n orig in al

qard for

9

g

.

.

a

7

b

v is re l a t e d ra t t l e d ,

a

a nd

so und o f

o r a sp er

)

,

e

.

g

‘ .

i n t h e form e r

a

c f. e

sa

HAi,

.

see

to

fur t h er ,

w or d t h e

in d ic at ion

)

c on so n a nt a l

inaudi b l e of a

p re ce ding

.

e.

g

.

.

;

a ft er a

w h ic h is n o t

n h a s a p oin t

e nd

th e

at

7g

a sp e r

e n d o f a sy l la b l e

th e

st an ds

23 a , 2

( sp irit us

h

ou r

w it h i t ,

c oa l e sc e s

of a

v o w el , e .

w o rd , g

FI55

.

muc h st ronge r g ut t ural I t s st rong est soun d is g n p , L XX raga , 711 13 2 I ép o pfia ; e l se w h e re , a .

‘

i

.

me kin d ,

w h ic h t h e L XX

FSQ }?

c a se a so r t o f

Minh

)

a lw ay s

a

a.

fo rm e d i n t h e b ac k

se l v es

1

th e

it

or

b ut is

g ut t ural g ,

c t ly

e nd o f a

orth og rap h ic

75

t o it

w e ak e r

5

se e

mere

as a

.

(3

it ,

n

xa

a l w a y s at

th e

at

w ord,

.

( so

g utt ura l

of a

After

.

A rab qdrd d

,

c or re sp onds e

ndhp a kh ; 3 0 2 3

Mp p iq — i

g e nerally gd ld ; c f

a

i n t h e F re n c h h a b it, h omme ’

’

qdrd

a nd

re p

rod uc e

I n t h e m o ut h

gut t u

ral r,

in t h e la t t er

t h e t h roa t

of

.

—I t

is

of

by

a sp iritus

th e A rab s

o ne

( lenis

h ea rs

p e c ulia r t o t h e m i n c orre c t t o omit t h e 17

a so un d

as

D ie A ussp ra c h e d e s H e b r i n N eue J a h rb fl Ph ilol u Pa da y , 1 8 8 5 , B d 1 3 2 , p 1 4 6 S c h rein er, ‘ Z ur G e sc h d e r A ussp r d e s in Z A W 1 8 8 6 , p 2 1 3 fi 1 Cf F r an ke l , Vorstudien e u der S ep tuag , Lp z 1 8 4 1 , p 9 0 112; C K en ne ke , ‘ G y n1 n S t arg ard , 1 8 8 5 O n t h e t ra n sc rip t io n o f e l ev e n Psa l ms i n a p a l i m p se st fra g m e n t o f t h e H e ap l a at e rc a t i , A tti d elta R i la n , se e A ccord , i, T urin, 1 8 9 6 A quila , Ca mb r 1 8 9 7 , [Cf B u rkit t , F ragments of Cf C .

.

e

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o f,

‘

M

.

.

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.

.

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xxx

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M

x

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M

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3 ] 3 N um e rous e a mp l e s o c c ur in H ieronymi qua estiones h ebra ica s in lib ro g eneseos, e di t e d b y P d e L a g a rd e , L p z 1 8 6 8 ; c f t h e e h au st i v e a n d sy st e ma t ic d is ‘ ’ c ussio n b y S ie g frie d D i e e u ss r c h d e u in Z A W a A s H e b r b e i H i e r o n m s , y p , 1 8 8 4 . p p 3 4- 8 } I t i s, h o w ev e r , d oub t ful i f t h e L XXa l ways consci ousl y a ime d at rep ro d uc in g t h e a c t ual d i ffe re nc e s of sound

p

.

1

.

x

.

.

.

x

.

.

.

§

P r onuncia tion

6f —n]

e nt ire ly ,

rea ding

in

a nd

D iv sion of

i

I ( 512E li

t ransc rib ing w ords

and

x

Consona nts pbpp

1

,

u

33

A ma lek) ,

to

as

T h e st ro ng e r sound mig h t b e p ro n ou nc e i t e ac t l y l ike g or l ike a nasa l ng ” b ut sin c e in H e b re w t h e so ft e r soun d a p p ro im a t e l y t ra n sc rib e d b y gh or g as vg lR w as t h e m ore c omm o n i t is suffi c ien t t o r ep re se n t i t b y t h e sig n

x

.

'

’

‘

‘

1 13

arb a ,

a d.

f

de e p g ut t ural ch , as h e ard g e ne ral ly i n S w iss G erm a n , ach t, S a ch e, D och t, as i n t h e G e rman A ch a t, L ike y it w as, Z uch t ( n o t as in Lich t, K nech t) , a n d si mil a r t o t h e S p a n ish j 11 is t h e

g ut t ural so me w h a t

sound, a

st ro ng e st

M

.

h ow e v e r, p ro n ou nc e d i n ma n y w o r ds fe e b ly , in o t h e rs st rong l y A s reg a rd s W, its p ron un c ia t ion a s a p al at a l ( w i t h a v ib rat ing uvul a ) .

t o h av e b e e n t h e p rev a il i ng w it h t h e g ut t ura l s 2 2 q, r)

so

me

On t h e lingua l 1,

r e sp e c t s

ms

g is also c l a sse d

it

c f. 0 .

‘

.

T h e H eb rew l a ng ua ge is un usual l y ric h in sib il ant s

2.

T he se h av e, at an y [7 re t a ine d a s suc h in A ra ma ic .

me

ra t e

in

a nd

A rab ic

so

fro m de n t a l s w h ic h

c a se s, a rise n

i n th e Lexicon t h e l e t t ers 1,

( see

W nd Ww x t ) b y nly s

one

o

fo rm

W

-

a re

W)

Xa nd

.

st il l ( as is_

ere o rig in al l y rep re se nt ed

a

te

H e n c e in

one .

see

b ut t h a t t h e use

of

th e

t h is

i n t h e unp oin t e d 2 form t o e p re ss t w o

c ase

x

one

diffe re nt sound s ( a t l ea st in H eb re w ) w as d ue o n l y t o t h e p ov e r t y o f t h e a l p h ab e t , i s c l ear fro m t h e fac t t h a t t h ey a re diffe ren t ia t e d in A ra b i c an d B roc ke lm a nn , E t h iop ic ( c f N ol d e k e in Z tsch r f wi ssensch Th eol , 1 8 7 3 , p 1 2 1 Grundriss, i I n th e asoret ic p u n c t ua ti o n t h e y w e re dist i ng uish e d b y

M

.

.

m e a ns of t h e d ia c rit ic a l p o int The a

orig ina l

.

t h ey

a re so

5

5

d 1 ( t ra n sc rib e 3

P,

D,

.

0.

g

sh

W(f) u nd W 1

an d

)

so

.

1

g b y t h e L XX)

is

a so ft

w h iz z in g

a nd

1

Th e

.

k

.

Y i s d ist in g uish e d from

1

c onsonant s,

t h e weak

Th e

11 s a 1

t w ofold p ronunc ia t ion,

E nglish

2

,

W in v aria b l y

as

or ig in al v al ue o f

(1)

W

D,

2 .

art ic a

b y i t s p e c ul ia r or

x

ts ; w e t ransc ri b e it

467 if

.

.

middle h ard Palat als D ent als n

and

z 3

,

,

ee 11 3 n ( ) a

h a rder

so und,

as

mut es like ,

t h e ir H e b re w Pe n t a t e uc h

read in g

.

and

it s

.

.

.

re l at io n

to the

W nd W up t Z DM G

orig in al v al ue o f

a

,

M

.

.

’

.

.

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M

p C W L EY .

O

M

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.

.

713

t h us e sse nt iall y diffe re nt a n d al so a re o ft e n a sp i ra t e d

i s st il l u nde t e r m ine d , d e sp it e t h e v al uab l e in v e st ig a t io n s o f P H a , 1 8 8 0 , p 762 f ull e r, ‘ Z ur G e sc h ic h t e d e r se m it Z isc h la u t e , in t h e D H Verh a ndlungen des Wiener Orient Congresses, V ie n n a , 1 8 8 8 , S e m it ic se c t ion , ’ ‘ D e L a ga rd e , S am ec h , in t h e N G G W 1 8 9 1 , n o 5 , e sp p 1 7 3 ; p 2 29 ii ll e r, ZA W 1 8 9 1 , p 2 6 7 A ug N old e ke , ZD G 1 8 9 3 , p 1 0 0 f E G l ase r, Z wei Wiener Public a tionen ii ber H a b asch itisch -p un isch e D ia lekte in S u da ra b ien, un ic h , 1 90 2, p 1 9 iii — O u t h e p h one t ic v a lue o f 3 see G H ii si ng , OLZ 1 90 7 , P 467 .

l

a re

e v e ry o t h e r s

mode rn S ama rit an s, h o w e v er, i n

p ro noun c e

an d

a r t ic ul ati on a n d

a st ro ng

.

a

in

.

1 1 2110 1 3 18

h av e

a nd

to h ire, E z r 4 5

th e F renc h

s,

-

S ix

b y D,

to

.

l a t ion , a nd i n no w ay c o rre sp on d s t o t h e G e rm a n ’ s c f B u s i n u r e e by ; G g , Z m La ut w e t d s x, in OLZ .

to be foolish ,

78

17

di ffe re n t fro m t h e G e rma n 2 ( ts) an d p ro b ab l y Y a re p ro noun c e d w i t h

b e l o w , n)

3

me t ime s marks

up? )

13 9 for

“

so

sou n ds

b ot h

as

T h e fi rst t w o n and D, w h ic h c o rre sp o nd t o o ur t a nd

.

53 9

y

alw a y s r e p re se n t s

a co

from

D1

a nd

s

199 to close, ugl to h ire,

.

m p r e ssion o f t h e l a ry n x

w it h

(se e

W(

as

.

.

m e t i me s int e rc h a nge d ;

11 1 3 19 fo r 111 9 0 folly, E c al t o g e t h e r

.

"

S y riac

be p rudent, to be wise a l so

.

d iffe re nc e b e t w e en t h e

di st in c t ion in me aning ,

H eb re w

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

M .

.

T he I ndividua l S ounds a nd

34

init ial b, 9 ( h ard) , d ; h arder sound is t h e o rig inal

h, p , t , Th e

( )

and

or

6

o,

a so ft e r sound a s s

2

I t is

.

Chara ct ers

re t a ine d a t

the

p 1

p ir a nt es b eg inning o f .

immediat ely p re c eding t o influenc e t h e p ro nunc ia t ion, and is deno t ed b y a p oint , D ages lene p lac e d in t h e c onsonant s, v iz 3 b, a g , 1 d, 3 h, a p , n t The w eaker p ro syllab les,

w h en t h ere is no

v o w el

.

.

immediat el y p rec edes e sp in SS , b y d he 1 4 e , b ut in ) mere ab senc e of t h e D a ges I n t h e c a se

nunc iat io n ap pea rs a s soo n a s a v o w el sound

I t is

o c c asio nally

denot ed

p rint ed t e x t s usually b y t h e of 3 J, a, n, t h e t w o sounds ‘

,

M

.

,

.

.

.

'

.

a re c lea rl y

dist inguish ab l e

ev en

to

our ea r

G erma n (w eak) ch , p a nd p h, t and ih (in thin) Th e Greeks too e x p ress t h is t w ofo ld p ronunc iat io n b y sp ecial c h arac t ers I n t h e same way J sh ould b e p ronounc ed D 95 ; n r n 9 3 K, 3 X a b

as

a nd v ,

71:

a nd

.

.

,

Wagen

like t h e N o rt h German 9 in Ta ge, dist ing uish ed from 3 a nd 1

a nd

,

"

1 like ih

in the,

as

“

.

F o r mo re p re c ise i n fo rma t ion p ro nun c ia t io n t ake s p l a c e , se e a sp ir a t e d 3 a s v, t h e a sp i ra t e d

th e

0 11

21

n

c ase s

Th e

.

a s s, e . g

.

in w h ic h t h e o n e or t h e o t h e r m o de rn Je w s p ro noun c e t h e

31

me (

j ), h f;

b a is

o r ev en ra

.

Th e c ust om ary t ra n sc rip t io n ( use d a lso in t h is G ra mm ar) of t h e sp irant s 3 , D, n b y bh , kh , th is on ly a n unsa t isfa c t ory ma ke sh ift , sin c e i t may l e ad i n t h e c ase o f bh re al a sp ira t e s, b —h , k- h

( e sp

4

o

a nd

.

.

kh ) t o

a n e rrone ous co nc ep t ion o f

th e

so u nds as

.

Ac cording t o t h eir sp ec ial

c h arac t er

th e

c onsonant s a re

div ided

int o

( ) (b) (c ) d ( ) e () (f )

G ut t urals

a

In t he

Pa lat als D ent al s Lab ials

S ib ila nt s S onant s

u it s h a rdest p ronunc ia t io n as a p a la t a l (see ab ov e, disting uish ed from it s more unusual so und a s a ling ual

c a se of

9 , end) is t o b e

p ronounc ed

,

in t h e front

of

th e

mout h

.

O n t h e t w o fold p ronunc ia t io n o f r i n T ib e ri as, c f De l it z sc h , Ph ysiol und ‘ k h 10 fl B a er an d S t rac k, D ikdu e a t a mim, Lp z 1 8 7 9 , usilc, Lp z 1 8 68 , p p 5 , no t e a , a n d 7 of t h e H eb re w t e t , a s w e ll as p 8 2

M

.

'

.

.

.

I n acc orda nc e w it h E S iev ers, .

me

of

i T h roa t .

1

So

sounds

a t any ra t e a t

.

Mt

t h e H eb rew p h onet ic formerly g ive n in t his g rammar sc h e

.

x

.

p

.

( G ut t urals)

e r isc

he S tudien , i

m is

syst e

:

.

.

1

4 , t h e follow ing

sub st it ut ed

for t h e tab le

R n v n

.

t h e t ime w h en t h e p re se nt p unc t uat ion

ar ose .

§

P ronuncia tion

6 q—s 7 a ] ,

11

M th ou

.

-sounds

1

S ib ila nt s

2.

3

D ivision of Consona nts 3 5

a nd

1

S onant s

.

D

WW

1

Rem 1 T h e mea n ing o f t h e l e t t ers a t t h e t op is, w = w e a k , m = middle ( 1 Co nsona n t s w h ic h a re p ro duc e d b y t h e sam e o rg a n of h a rd , e = e mp h at ic sp e e c h a re c al l e d h omorg a nic ( e g 1 a nd 3 a s p a l at a l s) , c o n son a n t s w h ose .

.

.

.

‘

.

.

.

so un d

is

of

th e

sa

.

nat ure h omogeneous

me

(

e . g.

1

an d 1 as se

m i-v ow e ls)

.

On

t h e ir h o m o rg a n ic c h arac t e r a n d h om og e ne it y d ep e nds t h e p o ssib il it y o f i nt er c h a ng e , w h e t h e r w it h in H e b re w it se lf or w i t h t h e k ind re d dial e c t s I n suc h c a se s t h e so ft sound g e n era ll y int e rc h a ng e s w it h t h e so ft , t h e h ard .

w it h t h e h ard, &c

x

.

(

°

n= v ,

e. g .

F urt h e r t ran sit ion s

P

m

a re n o t ,

= n c t h e i t e r h a n e o f a n d H e r e it i s 3 = P) n g g o f imp or ta n c e t o ob se rv e w h e t h er t h e c h an g e t ake s p l a c e i n a n i n it ia l , me d ial , o r fi n a l l e t t e r ; sinc e e g t h e c h a nge in a l e t t e r w h e n me dia l d oe s n o t a l w ay s p rov e t h e p o ssib il i t y o f t h e c h ang e w h e n i n it ial Th at i n c e rt a in c a se s t h e c h a ra c t er o f t h e c o nson a n t al soun d al so in fl ue n c es t h e p re c e d i ng o r fol l ow ing v ow e l w il l b e not ic ed i n t h e ac c iden c e as t h e i n st anc es o c c ur R em 2 V e ry p rob ab ly i n c our se o f t ime c e rt a in n ic e r d ist inc t ion s of 7 Th us p ronunc ia t io n b ec ame m o re and m ore n eg l e c t e d an d fi n al l y w e re l ost " w h ic h w as k n ow n -t o t h e L X e n h e s t ro e t r l X(se e ab ov e, e), b e c ame l 9, g g

h o w ev e r ,

e

c lude d, a s e .

.

.

.

.

.

.

”

.

.

.

.

.

ma ny

in

G a lil ea ns ll

a nd

11 like N , 11 l ike R em 3 Th e v iz .

a nd

h,

F1 w ere

W l ike

l a t e r Jews ; b y t h e S ama rit an s p ronou nc e d me rel y as N, a n d so in E t h iop ic ,

l o st t o

th e

3.

w h ic h it is usual t o d e sc r ib e e sp ec iall y a s wea k, 3 t h o se w h ic h r eadi ly c oa l e sc e w it h a p re c e d ing v ow e l t o fo rm a l o n g v o w e l , N , 1 , 1 ( a s t o n, c f 5 2 3 k) , o r t h o se w h ic h a re most fre q ue nt ly a ffe c t e d .

a re

a l t o ge t h e r

c ase s

c o n so n a n t s

.

.

b y th e c a se s

c h an g e s

n a nd

5

d esc rib e d i n

1

-l b , 9

fi n a l ly t h e g utt ural s

a s ag a i n

a nd

N, 1 ,

fi for t h e

1 ,

an d

reason

a nd

J,

g ive n in 5

in

c e r t ai n

22

b

a nd

q

.

Th e Vow els in Genera l, Vowel Letter s a nd Vowel S igns 1 T h e orig inal v ow els in H eb rew as in t h e o t h er S emit ic t ong ues 7

.

.

.

are a ,

,

,

i, u

E

.

and 0 a l w ays a rise

from

a n ob sc uring or c ont rac t ion

t h ese t h ree p ure sounds, v iz 5 b y modific at ion from i or it ; sh ort 6 from it ; 6 b y c o nt rac t ion from a i (p rop erly a y) ; and 6 somet imes b y modificat io n ( ob sc uring ) from (2, somet ime s b y c ont ract ion from a n of

(p

.

ro e rly a w p

)

1 .

I n A rab ic w rit ing t h e re are v ow e l sign s onl y for a , i, u ; t h e c omb ine d so un ds a y a nd a w ar e t h ere fore re ta in e d unc o n t ra c t e d a n d p ro n o unc e d a s d ip h t h o ng s

(a t

)

a nd a n , e .

g 5 .

1WArab

.

sa ut , a nd

5 }?

D1 1

A rab

‘ .

a ina in.

I t w as

I n p rop e r n am e s t h e L XX o ft e n use t h e d ip h t h ong s a t and a ir w h e re t h e H e b re w form h as e or 6 I t is, h ow ev e r , v e ry d oub t ful w h e t h er t h e a t a n d a t: o f t h e L XX r e a l l y re p rese n t t h e t rue p ron unc ia t i on o f H eb re w o f t h at t im e ’ se e t h e in st ruc t iv e sta t ist ic s gi ven b y K it t el in H a up t s S B OT , o n 1 Ch 1

.

.

D 2

a

T he I ndividua l S ounds

36

a nd

Cha ra cters

[i

—d b 7

in l a t er A rab ic t h a t th eyb ec ame i n p ro nunc iat ion é_ a nd 6, a t l east a ft e r w eake r o r soft e r c onson ant s ; c f A ra b b a in, bén, Di” A rab ya um, yom

o nl y

.

.

.

.

Th e same c ont rac t ion a p p e ars al so in o t h er l a ng uag e s, e g i n G ree k a nd L a t in ( 0a 6p a , I on ic Gam a ; p la ustrum p lostm m) , i n t h e F ren c h p ronu nc iat ion o f a i a nd au, an d like w ise i n t h e G erm a n p op ul ar d ia l e c t s ( Oge for A ng e, S imil arl y , t h e ob sc uring o f t h e v ow e ls p l ay s a p art in v a ri ous l an g uag e s ( c f e g t h e a in mode rn Pe rsia n , S w e dish , E ng l ish , .

.

’

.

.

.

l)

Th e p art ial is), wh ic h (n, 1 , 2

e

.

x p ression

of

t he

vow els

during t he lifet ime

ficed suf

long er p eriod aft erwards ( c f 2 p assed t h ro ugh t h e follow ing st ag es a st ill

for

need of a w rit t en

Th e ) ( felt in

in

long

such a ca se

Mes

t ion

of a

inscri p t io n,

a

of

final

me

t he

e.

fact w e find

of

‘

.

0

t h e l ang uage,

k), must in t he main h av e th e

v owel

first ma de it self

in t h e

o rig inal

as an

indic at ion

ret a

merely

sound of

t h e w ord

final

c onsona nt , a .

of a

in t h e O ld Test ament ,

ev en

final

as al ready

.

est a b lish ed

— alt h ou h d l o e p y g of a

In

.

in t he

n employed in t h is way (see b el ow) as an indica From t hi s it Was only a st ep t o t h e emp loyment t o indic a t e

a lso ot h er v o wel s

wh en final (t h us,

Aft er t h e

.

.

t least

v ow el

’

h ad b ee n

C

Th e first

.

2 i h fl n e i n c t ion of t h e verb s n 5, t h e v ow el s t e , g e m lo yment of 1 a s a v o wel let t er for a and Q2, a nd of p e

a nd

a

consonant

sa

of

of

c onsonant s

j

formed t h e final

w as t o

let t er, i

a s a vow el

p o int

v owel

indicat ion

certain

re ec t ion of a consonant , or of an ent ire

wh ere,a ft er th e

cases

syl la b le, a st ep

I

.

a

by

not

(

see

b elow,

)

e

consi st ent ly—

t h ese

consona nt s

for th e

me

i

for 6

also e

were

v ow els at

sa

a nd

t he

i,

m

end

w ord

.

x

A c c ording t o 5 9 1 b and d , t h e suffi o f t h e 3 rd sing masc in t h e noun ( as i n t h e v e rb ) w as orig inall y p ro n o un c e d an B ut i n t h e p l ac e s w h e re t h is .

.

.

in w i t h fi nd t h e

j

p re ce d ing a is c ont rac t e d in t o 6 ( aft e r t h e re e c t ion o f t h e n) , w e " ' 1 n 4 91 1 , 71 G i ! st il l fre q ue n t ly re t a ine d as a v ow e l l e tt e r, e g ifi 0 5 1 p,

a

'

M

.

.

cf 5 9 1 e so t h rough out t h e esa i nsc rip t ion nit g nh i g ( a lso ru g n l, ), nu s, F133 , “ 5, fl b g l a ; on t h e o t h e r h and alr eady in t h e S il oam i n sc rip t i o n j .

m Mesa

4

oi

.

h is

m

na ez s»" ( 1 “

d

I

>

‘

,

Th e

f

chie s. .

1 2

‘

1 S = 1‘ p .

forms w it h

v erb al

f) .

:

h is da ys is unusua l ,

an d

n

as al so

sufli xed

a re

“ W1 1 20 if it is for N9 8 ! to b e re ad Q n’ l ( l "

.

S Q

1 ( m

.

.

:

x

As a n e a mp l e o f t h e orig inal c o nsona nt b e ing re t a ine d , w e m ig h t a l so i nc l ude t h e i o f t h e c o n st r st a t e p l ur m a sc i f it s 6 ( ac cordi ng t o 5 8 9 d ) is .

.

.

I n S an skri t , i n t h e Old Pe rsia n c une ifo rm , and in E t h iop ic , sh o rt a a lo ne o f a l l t h e v ow el s is not re r e sen t e d b ut t h e c on so na nt b p , y it se lf i s p ronounc ed w it h sh o rt a ’ 3 C f e s e c ial l p y S t ade, Leh rb der h ebr Gm, p 3 4 fi 3 A c c ordin g t o S t ade , th e emp l oyme nt o f n for a p rob ab ly t ook p l ac e 1

.

.

.

fi rst i n t h e

we

c ase
S

fig

by

a

mp l e s

{

5

an ( for

.

i n P u al ‘

fr om

Ws ’

w it h

suffi

Mil

as

for

’

so al so

o13 ”; n

z

el c a n o n l y

as ,

al s

l

’

.

m

Je r

ig b )

1

8

3 ;

mpg 2 K ‘

21 0

;

m

y}:

‘

b ut ,

ac c or di ng

t h e p erfect be

.

in I s 1 8 2-7 ( b u t

in t h e p ar t ic ip l e Pi el

3

10 ,

Th e

to th e

j

M

.

x iniag t

1

i

I s 5 41 1

3

e

7

27 ,

9

2

w h e re , h ow e v e r,

.

to

17 2 6 , si nc e

p m ay b e fa v oure d

Pr 25 1 9 ( w h ere , h o w ev e r,

fix

), S

'

fi na l

a c c ording

Ez

(al w ay s a ft e r Us is t o b e

,

rea d

b ut

c f.

w it h

rea d,

B roc ke l man n , Gr undriss, p 2 64 f ) a nd "inn Zp No t ic e , I s 8 1 -8 h ow e v e r, B a rt h s sug g e st ion ( N omina lb ildung, p 2 7 3 ) t h at , a s t h e ac t ive o f forms l ike 23 o nl y oc c urs i n Qa l, t h e y a re p e rfe c t p a rt ic ip l e s o f form e r -

.

.

’

.

5

p a ssives of

Q al ( see e) , a nd

2 3 1 2 g E 9 45 ,

se e

5 65 d

.

i n Je r

1

p erfe c t

p art ic ip l es o f

Pi el — O n ‘

.

r

21 .

Th e se

.

yt h e a o f t h

asora , not

re e c tion o f t h e

a l so '

1

t h e inf

t h e p a rticip le P u a l wi t h out t h e p re fo rma t iv e ( p Ju

f

of

'

x

ninit ial D

31 3 1173 )

o c c ur o f

w e fi nd 3 53 G n 4 0 1 5 — No inst a nc e

d ist in g uish e d fro t h e p erfect ( asin N ip h a l ) b F o r o t h e r e amp l es, see I s 3 0 24, E c 91 2 ( w h ere

so n, st a nd s

H

st rong v e rb

are

syll ab l e .

5

a bsolute o f P u a l ‘

I 44

53

§ 1

a

Th e

.

53

H ip h il ‘

.

c h aract erist ic o f

t he

Hop h a i ‘

a nd

.

'

i H i l i s h p ) (

ac t iv e

«H

(

D x r fi e d e p

a

it s

on

D w it h t h e at at t enuat ed t o i, as in i i h r f n t ec e e t 55 ) p ( t of t h e w h ic h forms a c l o sed syllab le wit h t h e first c onsonan

o r ig in see '

P i él) , st e

m

Th e

.

j

t h e Arab ic

of.

t h e p erfec t h ad

second syllab l e o f

P a th a k in t h e

c on

Iv

.

’

and

a qtald,

.

z ud a nd rst

o rigina lly a n

also

in Heb rew t h e

t he

of

ret urn

a;

&c Aft er t h e att enuat ion of p ers t h is a t o i , it o ug h t b y rule t o h av e b een leng t hened t o e in t h e t o ne syllab le, a s in Ara maic 5D P $ b eside Stops in B iblic al Ara maic I nst ead .

.

.

of

t h is, h o wev er, it is

b ut

so

l ac ed in t h e p

me t imes writ t en defec t ively

infinit ive

a nd

c onst ruc t

a nd

Th e

al w ays re

w h ic h

Arab ic fo rms

c orres ondin p g

o riginal

i in t h e

sec ond syllab le of

T

,

.

fro m

p a t ed

b y i,

S imila rly in t h e 9 g imp erfect and p art ic ip le c f.

in t h e

sync o

are

st rong verb

‘ ”

5 I9QDD ; muqtil) p oint

a nd

il u t j g ( ‘

a nd

t h ese forms

‘

I n Heb rew t h e

k

23

to

.

an

g ular l eng t h ening o f t h is i t o 2 ap p ears in t h e st ro ng v erb at l east in t h e j ussive and in t h e imp erfect consecutive (see n), as also in t h e imp era t ive t he

of

a nd sin . g

ret urn of

(

.

see

m)

r in o rig inal o

t he

5

“ 35 0 2 2

on

th e

,

”

33 5 5 2 2 3

d syllab le

of

secon

c f.

26

p

t h e Imp era t

.

.

,

re

O n t he J ussive,

g utt ural , c f § 6 5 f I n t h e p a ssive (H op h a l) t h e p refor mat iv e is p ronounc ed w it h a n ob sc ure v o wel h i l i n w s t h o n s ll a b l h as a t e e s c d e , y ( p ause d ), a s it s under t h e

&c

b

masc

.

influenc e

of a

.

.

'

t h us z— P erf

c h a ra c t e rist ic ,

-

SEW : ( syncop at ed

or

.

g a c S from P a r t 59 9; or ig ) o r 5c infinit ive a bsolute h as t h e form519 W

f rom (

.

ar s ; e p )

b ut t h e

.

j

t h e n p re fo rma t ive in t h e p erfec t, imp era tive, a n d infi nitive ; in t h e imp erfect a nd p a rticip le H ip h il, P a t h ah un de r t h e p re for mat iv e s, in t h e H op h a l 6 o r a

Th us t h e

c h a rac t e ri st ic s o f

b o th

c on ug at ion s a re

‘

‘

.

C

n more frequent ly § N h t o t h an in P i el t i f a l t o o t h H i u sa e o e or 2 c a v , , Q , 5 g) g z g f p br ing forth , t o lea d fort h , t o dra w for th W ? t o be holy H ip h t o sa nct ify 2

T h e mea ning

.

of

H ip h il is p rimarily, ‘

a nd eve

‘

.

.

.

.

,

U nder t h e e

.

g

c a u sa t iv e

is

a l so

inc l uded

PW TJ t o p r onounce j ust ; F ill? ‘

.

!

wpv in H ip h il '

.

( as in P i él) t h e decla ra tive sense to ma ke on e a n evil doer (to p ro ‘

Jb

,

f I p ) Q al has already a t ransit iv e meaning , H ip h il t h en t akes t wo acc usa t ives 1 7 cc I n so me v erb s, P i él a nd H ip h il occ ur side b y side in ( see )

n ounce

guilty

;

‘

of.

,

,

to

r ep resen t a s

erverse

.

‘

I

the 1

1

”

v,

sa

‘

'

.

me

sense , e .

g

.

“g t

i

p

eri it ,

'

Pi é l

and

‘

H ip h il , p erdidit

ma y h av e b ee n t ra nsfe rre d o r ig inal l y fro m t h e imp e rfe c t s o f v e rb s c o nv e n i e n t m e a n s o f d ist in c t io n b e t w e e n t h e i nd ic a t ive a n d u ssive,

Th is i as a

l

a s a ru e,

j

t o t h e imp erfect o f t h e st ro ng v e rb S t ade , Ph il ip p i, Prae t ori us, Z A W

.

a nd a ft e r w a rds 1

8 8 3, p 5 2 f .

.

t o t h e w h ol e

of H ip h

‘

il

so

T he Verb

1 46 Of

d iffe re n t kind

a

b ut ) to

ears,

t h e G erma n

m: (

t h e denomina tives fro m :

are

with th e

a ct

-m h 53

c f.

to h ea r ;

ea rs,

( t o ma ke

move

to

sca rc e l y

to p rick up th e

th e tong ue, to

sla nder

a nd

,

) fusseln naseln, sch wa nz eln ; 1 3 ? to sell corn ; fl op p ose d t o J ’ j DDWto set out ea rly ( t o l oa d t h e b ac k [of t h e c a me l , &c ] y ll 3 Th e mea ning of H Op hfa l is p rima rily t h at of a p a ssi ve o f ” r H ip h il e g i roiec t us est ; o e c i t o W , p p (b ) somet imes equiyalent t o a p a ssive of Qa t, a s UP ; to avenge, H oph t o be a veng ed a ug eln

‘

e y es ,

,

.

,

.

'

.

,

.

.

(b ut l

)

b e lo w ,

see

u

.

x

R e m r Th e i o f t h e grd sing ma se p e rf H ip h i l remain s, w it h out e c e p t ion , i n t h e grd fe m ( in t h e t on e -sy l l ab l e ) Th at i t w as, h o w e v e r, o nl y l e ng t h en e d fr om a sh or t v o we l , a nd c o n seq ue n t l y is c h a ng e ab l e , is p rov e d b y t h e forms o f t h e i mp era tive a n d imp erfect w h ere e ( or , u nde r t h e in fl ue n c e o f g ut t ural s, a ) t a k e s i t s p l ac e I n a n op e n sy l l a b l e t h e i is re t a ine d a l mo st t h roug h out ; e o nl y i n v e ry isol a t e d i nst a n c e s h a s i t b e e n w e aken e d t o f ted ( se e n a n d o) T h e infi nitive a b solute c o mm onl y h as Sere w it h o ut Yodh , e g i 2 U u 1 73 .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

k

.

l e ss fre q ue nt l y i t t akes

e.

g

A m 98 ;

.

35 10 J b E c 1 W it h N ihst e a d of 0 34 , 44 , 3 er 2 5 e rr o r, n o t a n A r a m a ism) w e fi n d D’ Q W B

23 3 2,

25

,

S

r e ad

p e rh a p s D t 2 61 2 flt/ 3] .

for fl i

ltj ynb)

oc c urs

B

R are

.

th e

mean ing

/ pg ) w as in t e nde d, (fi r

as

I

in

e

.

e

x

fo r 1p

S 8 1 5 -1 7

I s 594 , Jer 3 1 5 ,

14 ,

Neh

10

mere

a

sc rib al

w h ere t h e

c e p t ion s,

S

3 S am i 2 t D ngnn; g 3 ( o n t h e o t h er h an d,fo r .

.

e l isio n

sin c e e l se w h e re “

to tith e ;

5

infi nit iv e H ip h 1 1 w i t h

an

is simp l y

rig h t re a d ing

th e

it h w

l ooks l ike

1

n ( p rob ab l y

for t h e infi nitiveconstruct, are , r nn) , Je r 4 41 9 -25 , P r 2 5 2, Jb 1 3 3 y

( w hich

Dt

.

ere st a nd s

w it h

i ?

J

of

J

.

.

.

39

of

t h e n,

t h e P i el

al on e

'

p e rh ap s t h e in f Q a l A t t h e same t ime it .

= to ta ke th e t ith e) (

.

i s d ou b t ful w h e t h e r t h e p rese n t p u nc t uat io n doe s n o t o f t w o diffe re n t re ad in gs, t h e Q al a n d t h e Pi é l

a rise

fr om

a c onfl at ion

'

.

1

I nst ea d so

J

of

me t im e s

er

50

34 ,

L v 73 5 so e

x

th e

or d in a ry

oc c ur s,

33 1 5

a nd

e

.

g

.

"‘

l p

zftj

of

t h e infi nitive

to destroy, Ut

nirpn fo r

Lv

S 2 21

5 5 5 l) , 2 ( p l a ine d b y K b n ig 1

se e

form

(i

K

1 2

.

7 6 ) w h ere

1 443

5p

construct 1’ 4

y

28 4 8

,

fro m

: Lv

cf

;

mpg;

1 1 16

1

46

4

,

sc arc e l y ,

sipptj l

Jos

1 1 34 ,

h ow e v er ,

in t h e p assag e s a ft e r p re p osit io n s 1 ;

(a ft er WWW?) ap p ear s

D r iv e r o n D t 3 3 , 4 1 5 , 7 24 , W i t h a in t h e se c o nd sy l l a b l e t h ere

m

t h e form

an d

C f.

[

sub st a nt iv a l

i nfi n

i n E 2 24 26 ( as H i thp a el, D n

.

WYDH

[3 9 1 3 32 11 E z

—I n t h e A ra m ma n n er

S

.

(c f

myp v nSi .

x

On t h e

2 1 29

th e

.

’

fo rm) fo r t h e infi ni tive H ip h i l ( c f e l isi o n o f t h e n a ft er p re fi e s, see q

c onst ruc t

a

‘

771

1

oc c urs

s

foun d

t h e infi nitive

.

I n t h e imp era tive t h e i is re t aine d t h ro ug h out i n t h e op en sy l l ab l e, and b e fo re sufii xe s ( see § 6 1 g ) a n d a cc o rding t o i , c o n se q ue n t l y al so

3

FL

T

.

,

p

a ra gog ic, e

.

i n g g ppg .

l? fi m ; i

B a e r, n o t N

5

“ 9 3 3 3 i b id

H

.

-

l

as

a ttend

G in sb

On t h e

v . 25

.

t i n i ( gp

;

a nd

ot h e r

‘

n

to, N

K it t e l

8 25 ,

in

ed

w it h t h e t o ne

at

h a n d, i n t h e

m

1 1

as

2 n d si ng.

.

M

a nt . ,

th e

.

Ara b i c

M

'

a qtil

.

.

gm

.

J

.

.

1

e nd o nl y

.

ap p ears

.

M

S

m

.

.

5 7 2 y) ;

K8

6

;

cf

.

,

A s t o t h e d oub t ful ne ss, on g e n era l g roun ds, of t h is form o f t h e I nf H ip h R ob e r t son S mit h in t h e Journ of Ph ilol , xv i p 7 2 f .

se e

a b l. ,

ma sc t h e o rig in al i an d b e c o me s S eg h él

m a ke fa t, i n s l e t h e n e d e t e g o e , g g ( ) 21 — h for a qqep h e T e f or m “ b e fo re b g r e p g , 13 1 9 a n o ma l o usly a fe w t im e s r e 69 v a nd I s J 1 7 43 , it 9 4 , ‘ J, e g 2 e l se w h e re t h e a sora h a s p re fe rre d t h e p un c t ua t ion DPT e 5 1 4 2 — I n L a 5 1 np ’ f 1 5 r e q u ire d b y t h e Q re fo r nu n of

’

J

.

.

.

.

,

n—p

53

H ip h il

]

H ep h d l

a nd

'

‘ -

1

47

j

I n t h e imp erfect H ip h t l t h e sh orter form w it h Sere p rev a il s for t h e ussiv e 7 b in t h e 3 rd masc and fem a nd 2nd ma sc sing , e g ma ke not grea t, " 12 4 3 l e t H i m c u o ! 1 2 ev n t e i n c rr l o Ob p ec t ! x 1 E a fi (l ; : y h s 9 a nd

4

.

m

Ec

c

.

.

f

al so

.

to 5

'

ang el

a nd

h,

109

2 24 ,

Ex

b y:

“

al

1

c on sec . , e

mo st

in

I st

29

5

$3 3 31 iid

Jb

.

m W5 1 Ju 6

'

q)

1

feu d,

19

e

.

g

Ju

.

1

3

13

Ju 1 8

22

x

P i el 5

M

Jb

2

9

( b ut

g en e ra l l y

9

1

4

ag ai n , a n d

ce p t io n s, 22 ,

2 1 3 ,

e

t h e S ere

b e fore

sufiixe s,

a

‘

ju

ssiv e a n d a ft e r

1

c on

w h ere t h e i i s w e a ke n e d

Ch

1

2

10

;

may; J e

r 1 11

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l ast w ith t h e ve , b ) ; b ut t h e a re 1 r e e a more c orre c t l e x l ain e , w i t h K onig , a s H ithp a el or ms, t h e o u b l ing o f t h e b e i ng a b n o rma l l omi t t e — S uc h a re e xiv e o f Qa l, w it h t h e n t ra ns o se ,

y p y

P

nnnSn ( o n

in

oc c urs

p

i n t h e i n sc ri t io n N ip h

‘

d

d

th e

of

a n al og

y

of

O T .

M b it k i

th e

H

.

e b re w

Mt

ng

e

oa

f

fl

.

.

e a

,

p

to be

w it h t h e

d

p

ro no u n c e

.

p

p

in t h e

1

9,

" 3 nb nr gSna in h is fig h ting against

sufli x,

55

a nd

m

.

32

i n line

'

i n th e infi nitive w it h

13 1113 5111)

m e a n i n g of t h e O T

13 11 53 to fi g ht, to wage war : see t h e in sc ri t io n, l in e s 1 1 , 1 5 , fi rst t w o l ac es i n t h e imp erfect w it h waw consecutive Dfl13 5§ l

al

d

d

19

e.

Less Common Conj uga tions

.

.

Of t he less c ommon

with a P i él ot h ers with H ip h il To t h e for mer b el ong t h ose w h ich a r i se from t he leng th eni ng of t h e v ow el or t h e rep etiti on of one or ev en t wo radic als in fa ct from an i nt ernal mo di fic a ti o n o r de v elop ment of t h e st em ; t o t h e la tter b el o ng th ose w h ich a re formed b y p re fixing a c onsonant li ke t h e n of H ip h il Amongst t h e c onj ug ati ons a nalog ous t o P i él are i nc luded t h e p a ssiv e fo rms di st i ng ui sh ed b y th e i r v o w els as well as t h e reflexives wi t h t h e p refix on t h e a nalo y of H ith a él g p Th e follo wi ng c onj ug a ti ons are rela t ed t o P i él as rega rds t h ei r 6 inflexion and p artly in th ei r meani ng 1 P el S nip p si P l Snip re fl xi H ithp el P p ond ing p iPlfllj t th A b i c onj u fl xi tat ala ; nd onj v1 t ala p q i tila w imp f t Sb iP’ p ti ip l SDiP i i D i mp f t p n S p & H n it pp '

c onj ug at i ons

3 9 g)

me may b e c la ssed

so

'

.

,

,

,

‘

.

,

‘

,

'

.

‘

,

‘

0

.

o

as

,

e

ra

c

er ec

ve

ar

c

a ss

,

t

.

e

,

ve

e

,

1.

.

,

oa

,

er ec

y

‘

o

a

c o rre s

,

c

.

.

ass ve

re

e

e

c.

f

ve

ce

ea rs

a

df

t h a t i n H e b 1 e w t h e o o f t h e fi rst s ll a b l e is in a l l t h e o rms ob sc u re ro m 07 , w h il e t h e assiv e o rm i s ist in uish e si m l b g p y t h e a so un i n t h e se c on s l la b l e I n t h e st ro ng v e rb t h ese c o n ug a t io n s a re ra t h e r ra1 e E xa m l e s ‘

p

y

f

DEW/ D mine

”

( d e nominat ive d

15 10 1

unl e ss

‘

out,

lflx flin ‘

t

( Th e Q ré ‘f

.

13

gt 7 7

sh oul

y

d j

d

re

( i f no t be

d

re s

ra t h e r

d) ;

re a

d

wh o woul

qui

'

d

p

’

th e tong ue) sla n

ro

K th

d

a d t ersa ry ,

m 1i

f

e

th ey h a ve p oure

(

d

.

p artic ip le

tongue)

'

d

conten

ering

5

with

(a s if intent

Jig / D m lol ni

”

Pu at) ‘

lyb ‘ H 0

e

‘

Jb 9

me, on

15

;

1

m ll ‘

I h a ve ap p ointed, o

e

inj ur i ng with th e

a s Na 1 3

wh ? )

3?

d

to ta

k

e root,

1

p

S

'

213

assive

T he Ver b

1 52

d n min

W1 12) , th ey

p

sh a ll

71 131:

ro

m W1 ? )

er 25

I s 5 25

l Jlj 13

a nd

C

moved,

be

artic ip le

f J

a tive

e o

p ro b a

is

8

er

ro

.

a

m5

a v e rb




g D .

to

minister

th ere, D t 1 7 1 2,

is virtua lly st re n gt h e n e d , G n g

a nd

.

Dyg

5 i x p la in s e

.

ed

mfi]

Dn

h e blessed , G n 2

Jb 8 1 8 1 22 a n d

e ve n

in t h e

( se e 5 29 g)

fre q ue n t ly ,

c a se o f

( b)

.

WW) “ Y

a ft e r

a nd

he

g

1 .

b y A b ul w al id

as

t h e grd p e rs p erfect Pu a l, b u t b y ’

.

Q imh i

T h e fol l ow ing

3 ( e lse w h e re .

"

( for

gss p

;

l

a c co r ding

in

fe w

a re a

porn, &c

lo t

Middl

Ver bs

64 h , i, 65 a, b ]

.

,

rarer a no

in p a use

fi

; in t h e imp era tive P i et “ imp era tive H ip h il pD lJ b J 1 f 3

)

5

J u 5 s xp t d) 99

ec e

e

(

Ez

'

1

71

i n t h e imp erfect Qa l p0 3 G n zu 6 [5 6 t 2 n G 11 6 c n d l a 3 g ( ) 3 ) ; fi e.) (p e rh ap s p rima rily fo r fi g fi;

:

10

n:

ns w ould b e ru

union

ma l ie s

c f.

y g i g , p

t h e p erfect P f el

t o Gn

G uttura l

e

t

,

m il a rly

np llz it 5 1 7 fo r ‘

a n d si

‘

”g

t i n he l n a l fi ; y , ) in b ot h c a se s p rob ab ly

c f. a b ov e ,

52 n

24 6 t 1p i 9 , i n fl ue n c ed b y t h e c l bsin g c o n so a nt , a rid b y t h e p re fe re nc e for P e th a h in r u t al so b u h P & c a 2 i h o t e u se n w t t p a use ( a c c o rd ing t o q p 9 ) ; p ‘

an d

‘

“

m

.

new Jo

x

W

1 z E r 8 & c , w it h z t i l i f f i fi n d l n l n A s i n i ve H i th a e w t h a s u w e i D fj f fi p 4 , 64 B ae r, h o w e v e r , fi rmly c l ose d sy ll ab l e , a l so t h e p a rticip le D’ l j lj p N eh 2 7 ‘

.

a

re ad s i n a l l

K th ibh e

fig

M

e

Q re;

t h e fo rm

Ru 5

wit h

r

Af

ew

§ 1

ot h e r

Pi el, w i th 10

e

l

x

a

h

.

h an d

22

t h en t akes fur t ive P a th a k,

for as

middl e

a vow e l ,

Lv

1

8

23 ,

rea din g

x p lains s np fi p

or

re

sylla bl e

h as

g

i )

.

send

.

1 .

inc om a

a v o wel

t w o p ossib ilit ies p re sent

,

marked t h at '

l

i

,

25

h enc e

are al wa ys ret a ined,

b) s

.

Q

p is almost a l w a ys

SW

ret a ine d : 9

5W p a r t

Ui

,

a lso

cf , .

a nd 171? N u

,

,

al

So

a rt .

.

”

to

.

73 g

.

imp erf c onstr .

f?

e

l ose s i t s

e n t ire ly

g ula r v ow el rema in s, a nd t h e g ut t ural P a tha k (in p ause Q a mes) ta kes it s p la c e

c o nne

&c

ag r e e s, e

w il l b e found in

x ion wit h a sub st ant iv e I s 5 8 m fifi o f t h e in n itive wit h suffix es are Gn 3 fi fl in c lo se

W>

re

under suc h c irc umsta nc es ; .

ra di c a l ,

)

unc h ang eab le v owel s

.

)

I s 4 41 3

.

in t h e

as

.

t o b e in t e n de d b y ’ ” cf b J D 55

w i t h w h om D e l i t i sc h

.

y it is t o h e

in t h e inf

6

d?

e not an a -sound

art ic ularl

W5W, H ip h

a p p e a rs

t h e 6 fo r "lt

d, w h en t h e la st

.

even

of

Ver bs Thi rd Gut tur a l,

.

p T a ( ) he

a t,

q uiesc e s i n

w it h t h e gut t ura l (i t hemselves, v iz eit h er t h e

ore

Q im hi,

w h ic h

l a i b t e p

M

imp erfect Po él

i rre g ul a r

an

mp l es in

According t o

.

an

r

.

.

N ip h

.

.

v al ue a n d

65

)

irre gu la r sh or t e n in g

‘

as

c o nsona n t a

an

th e

on

c f.

.

sa m e v e rse

in t h e

?

0 0

a so a

10 15

4

W

.

.

? ) (p a rt WS W g 266 f — I n i nfi gg v iz .

re ading s,

K 6 n ig , Leh rgeb aude, i p

cf

me an in gl e ss

e q ual ly un in t e ll ig ib l e

th e

re q uir e s

t w o d iffe re n t

co

.

1 71a

( 21 18 0 !

e f o r w h ic h t h e Q re (

mb in e s

e v ide n t ly

.

— Th e ui t e q

g o o d aut h o rit y ,

fi N NA (imp erf

a nd

the

c ase s, o n

9 E 2 lNWNJl 9

'

n)

t h e se

'

W

29 2 }

t he

a ss.

p l ess firm .

h o w ev er , 20

E xa mp le s

3 .

Nu 3

5 11

113

5

.

Th e imp erfect and imp era t ive Qa l almost alw ays hav e a in t h e 6 second syllab le, some t imes, no doub t , due sim l p y t o t he influenc e o f

(b)

t he g ut t ura l (for

t he

o ri

g inal

60

see

c

.

g Fig .

;

v ow el,

t one-long 6 , ‘

WY

t h us ”Q

,

o rig ina lly

WSW ,

)

a

,

b ut

& c ; w it h .

so

fi suf

met ime s

x es

’

‘ W b

Jfi

b eing

as

”

?

,

fiSW ,

.

Ve rb s {V e

a

5 in w h ic h

th e

to be h ig h , 51 17 9 1 to be

3

" a

! is

consona nta l o b v i o usly

astonish ed,

on l y ( ?

Flat

b e l on g

a l so

t o t h is c l ass;

in H ithp a lp el) to dela y

.

1

T h e Ver b

72 E

x

in t h e

c e p t io n s,

imp era tive

d

R em

me)

x

c l usi v e l y ; 1

)

[

su r f. 1 11

in ? ) 11 9 4

a l so

) “ e a nd a

5s} '

x

e

vo w el

met imes in

c f.

,

h

10

syl la b le,

c h o ice of one o r

mstanc e s o f t h e t one i ,

t h e p a rtic ip le Qa l, P i cl ‘ nae w it h sue

m

c e p t in

\e 1

sw h

”

b s it

.

e

.

E t ikp a él, t h e fo rm s

an d

‘

and

.

w e fi nd , i n

e re

ygnein

5

,

t h e l ast

n

o n,

1 17,

Lv

Th e p ar t P u a l is 113 1 19 E z 45 2 I

sy ll ab l e —

‘

.

a re

xi

c l o se c o n n e

vein

Je r 3 1 3 5 , ypfi I s 4 25 ,

1 15,

th e

.

t h e fi na l

t he

in

;

.

9 on

4

of

use ;

'

w i t h t h e t o ne

27

ec ial c irc u p

s

b ut

,

W

re ula r g

a re so

Q ré) ‘

.

c a se s

w ould b e t h e

a b solute sta te o f

In the

.

( w it h

use d e

all

1

.

f

de c ided b y t h e

o t h er 1 s

5

Je1 5 7 , K ’ th a s ny DS I s

11 1 13 1:

r/ cot

( n suc h

b ot h forms ( w it h the

m

nan G n

(c ) W h ei eS ere

c

1

c —h

65

ac c o r d

i

i ng t o t h e b e st

6

a u t h or it i es

( K it t e l

S i mil a rl y , i n t h e imp erf a nd inf N ip h a l, and i n t h e p erf i nf an d imp erf Pi et t h e ( p r o b a b ly mo re o rig i n a l ) fo r m w it h a c o mmo n l y o c c urs i n t h e b od y “ o f t h e se n t e n c e , a n d t h e ful l e r for m w i t h e i n p a use ( a n d e v e n w i t h t h e l e sse r d ist in c t i v e s, e g w i t h Deh i 1t 8 64 in t h e imp era tive P i el ; w it h I ip hh a 1 K 1 23 2 in t h e infi nitive Pi él ; Je r 4 3 ‘ i mp erfec t H ithp a el ; Je r 1 66 imp erfect N ip h a l) , c f 6 g 4 1 Nu 3 3 D a i h 2 w t 6 1 1 r t e v e n w it h re t rac t i o n o f t h e t o n e i n 13 3 ; 7 , p 2

‘

.

.

.

.

.

.

'

‘

.

.

‘

.

.

t h e inf

a b s.

.

N ip h

'

al

VJ

n

W

N u 4 2° w it h VB ; La

a b solute

P i él h a s t h e fo 1 ‘

1 1 6

cf

5 52

.

a

fi na l

‘

n

28

m ” SWD t

"

1 is

e

x

a

m p le

In th e

imp erfect

.

consecutive o f

th ou ,

rosp er

zu d sing

mgr

,

ar t h

B

as

i nfi nitive

2

g

.

a

(

.

e nd

H ip h i l w h ic h

Wh e n

e

ma ke to

1

S

a l so 2

“

171 1 3 4 11 1 9 3 51

5

a b sol ute

S

o c c urs

in

25

cf

.

o rd ina ry

e

4

h

64 ,

Ch

2

28

4

; b ut

3

m

5 63

a nd

)

fi nds

n

m

.

an

i-imp erfect

of

Qa l

.

e

.

c o n ne

” 1

5W

”

xi

3 11 3

on

.

‘

v

.

’

b

fi xl

in t o

’

W ‘

Q

371 to ma ke h ig h ;

(Jb

on

)

as

yu m

k.

fo rm

SW

DH

g

.

(

.

'

in H ithp a lp el

so

me n de d

ap s t o b e e

main s,

c l o se

a a l one o c c urs, e . g

h e ma de to grow

i s p e rh

ere re

5 53

st ro ng

ma ins

re

B ut in t h e

.

c o nne c t ed

wh en not z ud sing

.

er 1

e nd o f

the

st a nds a t

J

K

Rem

f

.

P i el 1 0 151 1 1b

g la — 0 9W ” a h el ing P e th a h t akes t h e l h d a c e o f t e te S , p p 3 S i s t o b e l ead not DUPS I 4 , “ UP also I n I .

flSW

104

J Ex

'

‘

ve

t h e g ut t ura l w it h quiesc ent Sf wd

w it h suffi x e s,

1

th e

construc t, 0 11

c ep t

jussi

v

t he

sylla b le,

5W x

i n g ut t ura l s,

I s 35

ngin

(

T h e infi nitii e

Is

,

1

construct

1

to devour

.

let h im

con struct

3

"

me a nin g is o n ly fo un d in Qa l masc o f t h e i mp era tii e a nd i n t h e form s o f t h e j ussive an d

— I n t h e infi nitive infinit ive

.

RB I" ) 2 K

a n d e v en

se e a b o v e ,

np in Ch

a ut h o ri t ie s,

a l w a ys a s

‘

.

.

al

f

1

; t h e infi n itive

man E 2

'

,

d i n t h e imp era tive P i cl un d e r t h e i n fl ue n c e o f “ “ — In i n t h e imp erfect N ip h a l 13 1 l N u s &c

2

iFIB Jb 3 6

1 1 22

c

e ac h

t w ic e , i n

9

ypg n E z

of

Jb 1 4 9 ( c f gt Pr sin c e t h e in t ra n si t i v e

3

K

7

er

; for infi nitive H ithp a él ,

h as it , t h o ug h no t i n p a use,

A 11

.

n

J

H

9 b H UDQ H 3 , w ith

i n p a use i n t h e imp era tive N ip h

a

p

(

e l se w h e re

h a n d , w h e n w it h o ut t h e p a use is

11 3 7” H b

f

"

Hb

ot h er

1

U Nu 3 0 3

w i t h o ut t h e p a use ) ;

c a se

.

f

m p erfec t

e

3

25

.

)

28 e

.

,

T h e so ft c om b in a tio n w it h c omp ound S e wd oc c u rs o nly i n t h e 1 st p lur p erfec t w i t h suffi e s, sin c e in t h e se fo rms t h e t o n e i s t h r o w n o n e p l ac e fa r t h e r ‘ 2 's 29 e fore t h e B fo r w a rd, e g W w h u e k n o t e e H f 2 6 IJL o 8 c C m t , , ( , g 44 .

x

.

fi

suf x es

.

a

.

T

a nd

.

th e

DD,

m i; h k w b tg

g u t t ura l

must h av e

e.g.

“

1

s On t

/1 31

e

w ea

G 11

er

e

27 1 3

$

6

,

,

J er 3 1 1 1 1 5 11 11

se e e sp ec ially

1

82

.

5 74

.

t s ,

7 l j

I will

send

th ee,

I (l

T he Ver b

74

W hen

66 d—g

p reforma t ive, N un st ands a t t h e e nd o f a syllable, it is readily assimila t ed t o t h e sec ond radic al 1 } 5 for yinp el, he will fa ll ; 1 9 t h us in t h e imp erfl c t Qa l, e g $ ’ W2? for g inga i for p in ten , he w ill g ive (on t h is singl e e x amp le 2

a ddit ion o f a

t h rough t h e

,

.

.

imp erfec t w it h

o f an

i n a l i in t h e g

.

QU W (

t h e p erfect N ip h a l 2? for n inga i t h rough o ut H ip h il H ap h a l ( wh ich in t h e se v erb s al w ays h as Q ibbus, in '

h)

second syllab le , o f

ori

W

.

‘

’

‘

7 W l l a b l f e c n 3 , y 9 ) 1 Th e o t h er for ms are

s

.

2

al so

&c

,

.

)

sh ar

a

p

in

a nd

ened

.

q uit e reg ula r , e g t h e p erfec t , infi nitive a bsolu te a nd p a r tic ip le Qa l , all P i él, P u a l, & c I n Paradig m H , o nly t h ose c on ugat ions are g iv en wh ic h differ a ll

.

’

.

‘

.

j

from t h e 6

form

l ar u g

re

.

Th e ch ara cteristic of t h e se v e rb s in a l l forms w it h a p re fo rma t iv e i s P age} fo ll ow ing it in t h e se c ond ra d ic a l S uc h fo rms, h ow e v e r, a re al so fou nd i n .

” c e rt a in v e rb s 1

t h e i mp era tive o f v e rb s

imp

,

N ip h

Q

st a nd s

111,

— O n HE} 11 1 , 2 ,

a nd

11 13 1

mp)

al of

,

and

in

as a

DP) , &c — A lso .

pfi é (w i t h m pbl nd ot

for

Wit ( 5

v e rb s

a nd

'

al o f

f

WEI ( G n 1 9 )

“

t h e 6 in di c a t e s,

of

in

9

al so

1 E1 ( 5

er ects

b ut

W3

”

( imp erfect w r it ing

a nd e v e n

B

m il a r

t h a t t h ey

r ul e ,

(t i

39

1

8

)

mail a nd

c orresp on ding

5

5

a sh a rp e n in g o f

b

mble t h e

r e se

from 11 12 to ta ke, , forms o f v e rb s

si

P19 15

T h e infi nitive

see

—I n t h e full

to be

a re n o t

g

.

forms

re g arde d a s

i s no t t o b e d e rive d fro m

th e« D

as c o

mp e n sa t ion for t h e

PD) , l o ss

i

of

th e

fro

o asce

an d

W

5 44 S imil a rl y t h e H ip h n ; 1b 7 8 21 a re mo st p rob ab l y from Q ‘

.

W

f

Re m

K aut z sc h , Gra mm des B ib l -A ra m ,

5 9 f, 9 ‘ 1 il-forms 1P E z 3 11 W: I s 39 , j ,

1

se e

a st e

m 71 5W,

.

.

an d

.

t h e Nip b

‘

al

pWJ '

n ot

.

T h e i nst a n c e s a re c omp ara t iv el y fe w in w h ic h t h e form s ret a in " 5 1 t h e ir N un b e fore a fi rm c on sona n t , e g 11 i e r m f t r e c e e l se w h e r e 1 93 9 , 1 p 3 ( 2 1

.

.

J

“

.

1 19 3) Pr

al so

)

5

p

,

5

.

t h e p a usal fo rm is 2

a lwa ys

11

32 13 ( w it h out

t h e p a use

1

Pr

Jb

I n N ip h

ause.

cf

fro m 13

1 8 3 3 i m i l r i a 61 s 8 6 a l y n I s 29 , 5 8 , V , ( w h ere , h o w e v er, 1171913 is i n t ended ) ,

20 22

1 4 0 2-

"

.

‘

th e

t h is n e v e r

al

k) , i n H ip h il

and

‘

51

re t e nt io n o f

(

o c c urs

H op h

‘

e

t h e Nu n is

x

w ith t h e

i n t h e irre g ul ar inf 11211 0 3

c ep t

.

se l do

a i v e ry

a l w ays c o nn e c t e d

m;

e.

g

1

3

.

1311 31

5

3 6 8 A ,

(

Ez

1 1 th e t h e h a nd ea d 55 5 a c c ord in g t o 5 5 3 q 0 5 5 1 th e M i n is r g u di al is l ly r t a ine d i n l l v e b s o f w h ic h t h e s c o n d a g ut t u al e g 50 31 h e will p s s al t h o ug h t h e e a e ra e c a ses l ike 11 1 11: ( als

Ju

20 3 1

fo r

N u 5 22

513

e

r

,

ar

r

a

e

n

11 13 1 1) h e w ill desce d, Je r a c c e n t e d as r eg a r d s

Mil el) '

11 13 :

h e h a s g r ieved

g

2.

Th e

i mp erfec t 1

xx

Cf

.

th e

p lur

a

er

m ,

La

o

as

r

13

(c f § .

i mp erfect N ip h

‘

20

al

m

‘ ,

20

i

Mi n

m) 7113951

Le fut ur q a l de s

,

M

c

o f v e rb s

a p p are n t

‘

al

1 E)

1 a,

13 113 for D113 ) 1

imp era tive 11 12, ”

re aso n

h o w e v er, p rob ab ly

a sora,

N ip h

v erb e s

ra

,

o

w i t h o ut

th e

r

r

from

ta ke i s t r e at e d l ike t h e

b e rt

r

11 1115 P r

( ev e n

Jb 21

c oh or t a t iv e

3 6 if A n im p e r fe c t in ac t ua l

13

e

,

.

Qa l h

My

21

51 111 11

.

5 a nd 111 11”

5 of 11121 ) t

v i i. 1

2

,

r

os e s,

.

.

o

.

,

H e nc e 9 i n p a use and

i n th e R EJ D N B V, , ”

’

.

.

a

form i n use

11) (W

i s g ive n in t h e Parad ig m, in t h is v e rb 1

.

mp ly b e cause

si

i t is

66 h —k, 6 7

a

.

b e fore

&c

K

c f.

fo r

a l so

11 3 11

1 2 , of

)

Th e

5

7 is

1

v e rb

N ip h

{D

J

‘

11 13 3

a l,

mist ake

a

,

,

Mqq p h

b e fore

a

“

e

fre q ue n t l y ) a

for t h e

mp l y me a nt b y t h e

si

ore o v e r,

w ea k

as a

t

M

“

113 1

1

on ly

‘

(cf

al

.

a

11 13

3

h ow e v e r,

,

Ho

a

i n Ju

1

x

a

65 ,

imp era tive

re a d in g

st ra ng e

v e ry

( o nc e

11 1113

o n ly e

in 02, i s t h e

ab o v e

p e rh a p s

,

—Th e me a ning l e ss

mean in g le ss

c o rre sp o n d i ng

a

82 th e

i

11 1353 n

a l w ay s

7

11

;

re a d

1 13

mp l e

of a

It

e l se w h e re

111

( ve ry

or

i s n o d ou b t

a

M

111 , f m

Jr-1 N D J) ; b e fo re J t h is v e ry c o mmon v e rb h as t he p e c u l ia1 it y t h a t i t s fi n a l N un,

M

.

a nd

11 11 13 ; H op h

fiix

e q ua l ly

1

const ruct

”

su

fo r yinten ;

3

in

w it h

me n t io n e d

to g ive,

111 , ( but

5;

K

1

infi nitive

,

h o w e v e r, is

VD w i t h imp erfect i n e

v e rb

81 0

5

w ith

imp erfect 11 2 1

E 2 3 7 1 6, P r

1

75

1

g) , p aragogic fo rm 11 11 3

5 61

se e

L XX and L u c ia n )

.

”

u

.

5 E x 11 9

cf

,

93 h)

.

fo rm 11 3 E z

3

5

G n 48 9 ,

NJ DQ ? ‘

on

113

”

9

5 53

(

fi ixes 113

mist a ke 2

]

su

( b ut

.

V er bs P rima e R a dica lis Ivan

n a sa l ,

aso ra

is

a l so

to

su gg e st

a ssi

a qqep

m il a t e d ;

'

1 11 1_

J

h

'

f0 1

‘

e

QU

J

nath a nti ,

o r,

v e ry

mi

fre q ue n t l y , fl l jl , w it h a k in d o f o rt h og rap h ic c o m p e n sa t io n fo i t h e j J 7 25 l at e d N un ( c f i r N h l t l L 2 z r a e ec v 6 E h D I J p p f 4 4 g) ; , 9 .

“

.

assi

.

I n t h e infi ni tive cons truct Qa l t h e g ro un d fo rm t int is n o t l e ng t h e ne d t o ténetk t ( as l lWJ fr om WJJ), b ut c on t r ac t e d t o tilt, w h ic h is t h e n c o ri e c t ly l e n g t h '

.

to 11 11

e ne d

b ut W i t h

,

w i th t h e

suf fi

x

e s ”11

11

o

,

m ission of D agel‘ forte in t h e fi n al 111111 &c ,

b e fo re

.

M qq p h a

c o nso na n t , see

w it h t h e p re fi

e

zo

l

,

x

21 7 x E n a d e v 1 e w n h e n c l o s e l b h e 1 m e a n s e n c o nn e c t e d o t G 5 , g y g 5 , y H ow e v e r, t h e st ro ng fo r m a t i on o f t h e infi nitive construct a l so o c c urs i n ,l lJ N u

e

.

.

.

.

‘

20

21

an d

‘

9 8 1 1 G m 3 3 ; 1

111 11 5

read e it h e r

fo r 11111 In

5 19

o t h e r st e c a nd

c f.

5 44

5 53

B

On th e

o.

roc ke l

c ont rac t ion

.

from

9

S

2

), Verbs Vs

th e

as

t h e t h ird

m a l o us

41

22

on

w el l

S emit ic

e

Q

re,

h a n d , fo r 111 11

K

1

1

7

.

g

.

14 ,

5

1

K 61 9

re q u ire s

DJi

a p h ae re sis o f 1 9 2. —

cf

,

ra di c a l , e .

o ne

o rig inal

,

33?

.

p

.

1

st ems

to

11 11

th e

W

éJ

NJ

”

,

,

c f.

Mi n w it h

a

O u t h e p a ssive imp erfect

su rr ou nd .

Grundriss, p

55

h av e

v e rb a l

forms in w hic h t h e

as

ra dic als

th e

sec on d ra dica l,

w ere fo r merly

fo rms w it h t h ree

e

.

6 3 2 ff

.

fo rms w it h

o nly

m h a s b een made

st e

h enc e

x p la ined

ra dic al s

.

c a lled v erb s as

f

it

.

b e ing due t o

I t is more

c o rrec t

65 in h is B ib l e , c o m p a re s t h e fo rm o f t h e A ssy r ia n = 111 i tta n ( b e si de s i na din, i na mdin) from na ddnu = B ut 1

Ju

1

'

or

g .

f

from

.

.

numb er o f as

e

S emit Sp ra ch wiss

a rep et ition o

H a up t

t h is

J)

.

man n ,

imp erfe c t idda n c o ul d

as

’

F orms w it h t w o

P

ust

ot h er

.

t rilit e ra l b y

1

On th e

.

u

radic a ls,

t wo

2

e n t i re l y a n o

( for Q U

i n 11 1111

A la rg e

.

1 j

mp l y 11 15,

o r si

ms, t h e J is re t a in e d

67

1

5 6 9 m , n ot e

.

st ron g v ow e l ” 1 1 1

c f.

p a ssa g e b e t h e

’

.

o nly

t rac e l e ft in H eb re w

of a n

imp e rf in .

a

a

1

76

The Verb t h em

re a rd g

to

as rep resent ing

d t he forms w ith t h e

m (w it h t w o

the

orig ina l st e r a dic al

se c ond

an

dev elop ed from t h e monosyllab ic

67 a d

m

rep ea t ed

)

ra di cals

,

sub se

q uent ly

as

l g c ont ra ct io n o f t rilit eral st ems is due t o t h e fa c t t h a t in b ilit eral forms " t he se c o nd radic al reg ula rly re c eiv es D a gei fort e b efo re a fiormat ives, e x c ep t in t h e c a ses not ed in 2 2 b and g T his p oint s, h o wev er, not st e

1

a p p ea rance o f a

Th e

.

enera

'

.

doub ling , b ut merely t o

a n a c t ual

to

a st reng th e ning o f

the

g iv ing more b ody t o t h e mo nosyllab ic st e m, and making it more t o th e ch ara ct er of t rilit eral forms

c o nsona nt ,

ap p ro

x imat e

.

Th e develop me nt

b ilit eral t o t r il it e ral st ems

of

p lac e in t h e grd sing t ra nsit ive v e rb s, or at 33 9

w it h

an

T l?

as

t he

e

an

.

fm

d

e

a nd

.

grd p lur

x p ressing an a c t ivity e g suffi x 950 v er I I ) ; so met imes

3213 9

ma ke

to

stra i t ,

x cep t ions

in

,

“ 3 to

be in

a stra i t

.

,

int rans it iv e forms,

a nd

furt h er de t ails, including

m t akes p la c e

th e

of

t he

e ve r

2 nd

v o w el, as,

b

2

in

Q

a l,

b e t w e en t he

(

e

.

g

i 13 0

m

p

re c eded

by

(b)

as a

is

q uired rule , w h en re

a n essent ially

Poal , 3 3 50

and

'

‘

,

3 3 30

lo ng

.

x c ep t (

in H ip /t il and t h e i mp erfect v o w el w hic h w oul d h a v e b een req uired

a lw ays

secon d a nd

or

m Poel

3 33 0

st e

a nd

.

is fo l lo w e d

b elow ) t ake s t h e

a l , see

'

whic h

t h e fo r m

ra dic al

T h e b il it e ra l

.

N ip b

th ir d

e

ra dical o f

t he

or dinary st r ong

fo rm,

or

in t h e g round-fo rm, since t h at v o w el is c h a ra c t erist ic of -form 1 B Q 7 ” 5 D 1 S r u n d h b i n t o t e o e a n er t o s w Q, 9 4 3 ), g g g

st ood

t h e for m t a q dl dt, ’

c

of

(a )

st e

nec essa rily wh e nev er t h e st ren th enin h f z ud ra dical o t e g g

b y t h e ch ara c t e r

.

.

,

see

;

Th e develop ment

aa .

.

of v erb s e

a ny rat e

” 5 n 7 Gn 3 3 (b ut w it h , e v ident dist inc t ion b et w een t ransit iv e

ng g p

,

ma sc

.

g enerally t akes er ec t Q a l o f p f

.

mil

.

t o t h e g ro und-form

infinit ive, 3 b t o

alit

t

39 9

.

T h e inse rt ion of B a gca for t e (ment io ned unde r a ), fo r t h e p urp ose o f st re n t h enin 20 1 h l see l ac e t n d di n r k e s r v e e c o a ca e e t a s , g g p ( ) Y

3

.

in t h e final it

pp ears a gain o n

a”

E D ,

d

4 t he

933 9

&c

th e

a

'

.

g

o f afior

mat ive b eg ins

g ly p ro nounc ed c losed s llab le , y

m syllab le

ddit ion

9 '

a flor

st ro n

-

t h e w or d,

DB

.

3b

,

BB

n ot

,

mativ es or

,

3b

suflixes, e

.

g

; b ut 35513 ,

.

.

Wh en t he

.

e nd of a

st e

,

of

c onsonant

and

t he

w it h

sec o nd ra dic al a se a r a t ing

p

'

a fio i '

mat ive

in t h e imp era t ive and imp erfec t f o r s a bb t c t s a b b n a t a s é na b b ( , , ) '

.

” T

.

,

(

a c o nsonant

J,

woul d p r op erly

Th e

,

and

me

co

h ence at

the

l is insert e d b et w een t h e

v owe

I n t h e p erfec t e g 13159 , nii p , .

n)

.

t h is

M

is l ,

imp erfec t

art ific ial op e ning of

1

vo w e l

th e syllab le

M xxx

S o ( p a rt l y foll o w in g E w al d a n d B ot t c h e r) A iii ul le r, ZD G S t ad e , L eh rbuch , § 3 8 5 b , c ; N old e ke , a nd more re c e n t l y W e l l h a use n, p 69 8 ff Ue b e r e in ig e A rt e n sc h w ac h e r V e rb a i m H eb r ’ ( S kizzen v Vora rb v i 2 5 0 ft ) A g a inst B ot t c h e r see a n d B roc ke lman n , a s v 3 30 L amb ert , R EJ a b o ve .

.

.

.

.

M .

.

.

xxx

.

.

.

.

.

.

The V er b

78

1

it

6

t h e imp erfect

7 2)

is

o rig inal vow el

The

.

(b)

f r ya-sob c f o Q ( t h e p erfect N ip h a l 3 9 2for .

‘

(11 0

3 9 1 71 , w ith irre ula r l en t h en in g g g

1 D for h osd b from h it ”

)

i

ot h er

On t he

sa t) ,

-

i n h t e p reformat iv e of f ( ) 4 7 b , 6 3 b, and for v e rb s W n d— sab 5 1 a ) ; (c) in H op h a l

ret ained, see

al

in

67 h —l a

,

‘

do ub t

th e

on

a nalog y of v erb s

1 1 3 9 from y d -sa b, & c imp erfec t

i ()

a n a lrea dy att enuat ed v o wel

h a nd,

.

underlie s

t he

int ra nsit iv e imp erfect s Q a l w it h a in t h e sec ond syllab le ( prob ab ly 1 1 9 1 m l h h k f di s i i l a i n t t o w s t g for t e sa e o s e w v o e ), e g for yi-mar f rom h i-seb see p ) ; a nd in t h e p refo rma t iv e of H ip h il round ( g ( “

.

.

,

‘

513 90

form

)

a

,

w ell

as

,

t h e p art icip le

as of

m

(

-f r r o u n d o g

I n t h e sec ond syllab l e of t h e t h e p erfec t Perf t h e underlying v owel is i , at t enuat ed from a n orig inal ct , w hich in t h e st rong v e rb is ab normally leng t h ened t o i The e 5 3 a) a nalog y of

th e

on

.

.

.

l engt h ened from i is,

i

k

7

a nd

h ence w h en

b efore D a g et fort e w e h av e e g 7315 9 51 orig inal a in t h e sec ond syllab l e, c f v

the

Th e t one,

.

t one-long ,

’

a nd

w it h out t h e t one re t ent o n o f

o nly

of c ourse ,

.

.

.

.

On t h e

.

t ends t o keep t o t h e

n ral r ule, e e g

as a

.

ste

m-syllab le

,

ass t o t h e a ffo rma t ives “ p , ) ( T 1 a nd 5 1 7 1 r i i n em i m erfec t ) ; e g d s n 2 n d s e m r e e c t g g f ( g f p 3 p f " 26 -h i 1 m “ 1 T i l 1 ? w ith 1 a nd g ut t urals in p a u se on ; (for ) E 1} 4 4

does

a nd

n ot

in t h e

as

.

.

.

ec t t h e t o ne-sylla b l e

.

.

.

1513 ,

3

1211 3

Q

5 ,

in

al

&c

13

513

1215 ; 1

,

t h ese

5 9 1 3

e

&c ; .

,

w hich

al w ays

the

c ause s

(

it

or

a,

w hic h t h e

l

8

In

.

)

,

v ow els

x c ep t

.

Eh 3 , re ma ins

f

er ec t

(or

.

on

11 y, inst e ad

st e

m-sylla b le in t h e

H ip h il ng én,

13

571 ;

v o w els,

t o t h e fi nal

syllab le,

ending s

D“

sh ift ing

of P i

a nd

of

)

c f cc .

,

e

.

g

.

ID in t h e p erfec t,

t h e t one nat ura lly

v o w els

S

imp erfec t

t h e t one is

e a nd 6 t o i

from

t h e p reformat iv e b ec o mes

sev e ra l v e rb s

t he

‘

th e merely t one -lo ng

”

In the

1 1 152 w e a l so 5 i t w h 1 , , g & c ; b ut in p a use al wav s

h enc e 1315 9 51 from fi PU,

v o w el o f

E x 2 51

71 1

sep ara t ing

Th is

.

b u t (

12

a lon

6

b efore t h e

h ear t h e t o ne

sh ort ening o f

see n

p

v aries ;

I n t h e fo rms w ith

.

mov ed forwa rd t o 1

Is 6

t oday c onsec utiv e

3 rd p lur p erf 12 1 7 1 1 5 1 Is 5 9 , find 5 1 a nd 512, 171 5 173 111 & c Th e t one lik e wise

1

.

mg

h and, w ith

i mp erfec t

.

7

7

o th er

v erb

st ro ng

on c a ses

e

L Ud, see a

él, P u a l

a nd

‘

a nd

b ov e ,

in

f

.

H ithp a él, t h e '

less freq uent c onj uga t ion P oel, w it h its p assive a nd re fle x iv e, oc c urs ost rob a b ly o n t h e ana l ogy o f t h e corre sp onding fo rms o f verb s ” It , m p ( '

7 m)

cf

2

.

p

refle

a ssiv e 1

,

n ra lly w it h t h e e e g

x ive

S om e t ime s b o t h P t el

w it h

‘

a

d iffe re nc e

of

make p lea sing, 13111 e ncomp ass to

.

sa

me mea ning ,

1

rom f ( a nd

me a n in g,

Po el 9

.

g

.

a re

.

g

to b rea k in p ieces, to turn, to

to ill-tr ea t ,

.

t h e Hithp o el from 3191

fo rme d fro m t h e

m ;

to h a ve p ity ; a

cf

e.

ch a nge,

‘

,

sa

me

st e

m, t h o ug h

to op p ress ;

3 3 10 to go

round ,

to

§

V er bs it v ’

67 m- o] f

Is

a nd

'

w it h

suf fix

may

to

exa lt

8

1

—F or

)

.

,

R I

I

1 13

33

e

.

g

.

imp era t iv e

to deligh t in ; p a ssiv e c anno t

in

ap p e ar

a

m

H ithp a el ; }! 27 S 2 2 re a d, ac co rding t o

'

1

79

2

a nd

‘

l fi of

'

.

n ew

27

8

1

mo re t h a n P i el , P u a l,

I s (

,

Th ese forms ‘

55g) ;

f ( rom

f ”W2? t o comfo rt

h er, Pr

2i 7

5 5 f ) is found,

P ilp el

r oll onesel

to

‘

a ny

a nd 12 l

(I s

59511 71

f rom (

ca r essed

be

b ilit e ral fo rm

i

)

v erb s a lso

fe w

a

H ithp a lp el

roll,

to

in

1

EMA K R

Qa l

On

.

S.

.

x

I n t h e p erfect, i sol a t e d e amp l e s a r e fou n d w it h 6 in t h e fi rst sy l l a b le , w h ic h i t is c ust o ma ry t o re fe r t o t ril it e ra l st e m s w i t h middl e 6 ( l ike .

5 43 fi

t

a

)

v iz .

to 1 5 "

Is 1 6

r at h e r

2

to be

1

t h is

ut

e

xp l

2

is

a n a t io n

fiL g : ‘

)

b e in g i n

as

l ong ,

a nd

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my rock in 3“ 1 in Jb 3 Is 4 2 also, t h e omission o f i li n n d e t erminat e A i oe t c c e c e f t r a n e p

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ti le o nly a last c lause b ut one 51 3 2 sub t ant i e J er 2 k I n th is c se also t h e ret osp ectiv e word is not inf eq uently sup ressed i b old ex p ressions suc h a s ving r ise t o e xt remely sh ort g p I s 5 1 lool unt o the rock DFJQ NQ (w h enc e ) ye w ere hewn a nd t o the hol 7 ‘ W Q D h h nc e) ye were digged 21 t h e de i e w e e J b t w h e p it e E ( ( f w ith ) y a ct v i len tly a g inst me — A ret o p ect iv e adve b i sup p essed in J b where is the w ay (t o t h e p lac e wh ere ) the lig ht dw elleth ? cf l R m T h mi i n f t h t p t i w d u m t f qu nt l y in l ti n d by t h n t u t t t f g p d i ng l u whi h i n f t im ) n d h n i t u ll y i n t h u b t nt i ( p i lly n xp l d y g i n in g n it i I n ddi t i n t th in t n f th 3 d f l l w ing ft L 7 ft Di p J 3 6 ft imp l D) t 5 6 4 56 h n I m f id) ft nyn Ch 9 ( NTN D) n th d y w t th tim w h n th bu nt fi ing b g n) my? D t 3 ; 4 ,Jb 6 ; ft ft nil 1 9 Mi 5 ft h yp gt 4 th u h t p ut g l dn in my h t m th n t he

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38 l a c e in a sim l e c o -ord in a te d an d e rso n a l so t a es 2 61 4 wh o art th ou ( t h a t ) criest ? Cf , h ow e v er, I s 63 1 9 we 1

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— ch ic fl in oet ic y p

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th erw i e elevated style— ev en ind p endent elat i e c lauses a e simp ly c o ordina ted w it h a eg ens wh ereas we sh ould exp ect t h em al w a ys t o b e p e c ed d b y a demon st rat iv e p ronoun on t h e ana logy o f t h e ex amp le s in 1 38 e Th e sup p essed p ronoun w ould st nd ( ) A s subj ect I 4 1 n a bomina tion (is h e) tha t ch oseth you ( b ut 3

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v e rb a l

6 W N c lauses after 0 the hap p iness of t h e i 8 1 1 4 1 Jb Q Gn La 1 a ft er S 3 9 b ut w e must c erta inly read h e re w ith t h e ‘ S amaritan and L XX lS W; WWN sQ as in verses 5 and 8 ; Ex 3 19 1 2 5 l l 1 Ch 2 9 2 Ch 3 0 verb a c auses a ft er E zr 1 -c lauses a ft er ’ Q HN J er d over ne d b y a re osit ion G r b a l s o ve p p ( ) 2° N = s l t o the a ce where I Ex aft er h C b u 23 t b efore t h e same p ( ) ”1

.

"

“

9

f

,

,

4

,

,

‘

'

,

-

“

5

,

,

.

o o

0

”

,

so al so

&c

ea rth ,

Ho

“

1 0

Re m

f

or

a nd

”Q Q f r o (

mula

1 1

9

D QQ ‘

t

58

the

lN in 1 f

b eing t urned t o 31 23 2— 1 , Is 4 9 Cf

K

.

c hildren

with

d 6 g 5

fa ce

'

moth er

DN

no e 2

aa

i

N

533

'

,

53

we fi nd

’

.

ll

a

1

,

Gn 3 2

of.

b

by

.

xp p

g

O n c irc um l oc ut io ns of t h is kin d t o e r e ss ne a t iv e a t t ri ut es o f sh ort n o un-c la use s ( c om p l e t e or i n c om l e t e ), cf 5 1 5 2 u

el o w

e

mong

f)

th

a nd a

,

ma y b e

(

&c

c laus s (see b

t ive

(

f down

a st on esel

As c irc umst antial

.

see

to

'

.

me a n s 3

.

Gn

fina lly t h e

d

c

-

the

Sent ence

T he

49 0

c lauses

verba l-

)

metimes

1

ma

a ffir

so

neg a

t ive c l

auses

c ert ain numb er f exp es ions which e q uival ent t o neg a t ive dverb ial ideas

(3 )

ese

.

( ) fre quently ( 2)

w e find

,

b ut far more

,

a

simp ly a s

regarded

3

.

o

s

r

a

see

Ex

a

p

y

u b w oe unt o t h e m t h at t arr I s s , ( ) 5 24 31 i w h w i n e i n a m s t h 1 1 0 e I l e e m s er 0 fl , 3 , 2 , [2

m l es

of

1

J

b

l at e i n t h e 20 1 5 ,

p

4

e v e n ing ,

3

5

,

12

13 2 1 , ,

Th e c irc um st a n t ial v e r al -c l a use is use d t o a rt ic ul ar iz e a n a c t io n e ore e e n e p r e sse d g e ne rall , i n 01 1 1 4 41 2, 4 8 1 4 = crossing h is w h ic h h as 19 27 d D u 6 h an s t 2 , i WHB wh erewith h owever h e lied ; a nt it h e t ic a ll , 1 K

6 25

bf J

.

unto h im

e

-c

lause

se e

O n th e

i n w h ic h

c ases

ms t o assig n

qu n e

i n (b

ce

p f

im

an

s

a re a so n

’

a c o n se

co

.

y

y

mma nded j udgement

th ou h a st

R em

b

ve r a l

Th e

.

x

b

e r ect

10

in t h e

b din t d t b f m t i n ( g n l ly mp) d in t Of ub b l - l u w it h N5) ( in f by with ut nd t h g und if t h ubj t b t h su

or

o a v er

a e

a

o

c l ause

p f

)

0.

,

g

)

up on i t

Lv

.

W it h

.

E ng l i h

,

c l a uses

in t h e

s

N5)

Jb

13

1

6

b

2

at

)

T

one h at ns

'

r

re c e de s 3

a

b

o

e

IS

22 ,

3 2 4

ro

a

; in

no s

e

.

b

;

p

ri nc i

5 w it h

1 34

p

al

th e

N

(with out

its being b lown c on se c ut iv e c l a use in

M

,

18

l

44

'’

Du? Ch

2 ,

“

.

o

25

1 is ,

17 2

k

10

p b b ly

on l

a

ro

e no

e

.

y

o e

in th e fa ce (i

one a noth er

loo

“

r

,

e

ro

Nina t

9

ares, i

.

a sh ort e ne d

m(VWN) is reall y t o b e regard

e d a s a v irt ua l

1

ca sus

as a

v er

a

h armon iz in

a

so

e en

b

instrumenti, is

.

e s o f t h e se

h av e

b

g

in

o ut 1

6

p

t ra n s c ap

.

or 1

osit io n

21

7

y

I

sh

;

ma e l

e ars o l d.

see n

f

v er

rea d

w as

b

m I s 4 923,

sc ussed

c l ause al ’

’

in

s

,

9

c o nt e n d

in

e.

to

f

m for nswnn

or

rip en '

nN) ch i

redic at e

w h e re

t o DT éN,

e

D‘ B N

a no t h e r c o nn e

5g DWis

-

W V WWa st ill a y oung

’

p

ro

y di

e e n al rea d

mst an t ial

h e w as

u a

o

ve a

1 20 a - c . I n G n 2 1 1 4 t h e c irc u

u se d

Jb 3

I s 33 1 ,

a c o nc essiv e se n se,

er a

a

x m pl

so u rc e

Jb

q

‘

‘

me

24

ov e ,

4

a

S

a sunder

in t h e

as

ren de re d

N5 ( p p h k w it n t) n w N5 ) t 3 5 P 5 5m ? b l ut ) K b Jb 6 (b ut 5m): N51 n infi n it i ( ft t) p nly I 3 ( b ut d ) ; fi n: N5 ( p p th y h id f t th

4

D EEN th e

me

y

.

“

'

a nd n o t

Jb

34 1

1

with out dividing i t

sa

is

c l ause

.

E ngl ish usual l

Q

e

1 20 c

?

re ss io n

K

N5

bj

a

see

;

3:

e

ec

s

e

,

fi n al

se n se o f a

se e

ses

since

5 4

2 25 in G 1 1 44 4, E x 3 428 , 2 0 0 3 , diffe re n t su ec t , e ui v a l e n t t o a

I s 30 1 4

xp

e

nus

p

31?

27

,

Th e

c om

2

c f.

22

c a

,

D W

5 3 DQ 1 1 7 7 1 7

.

2 0 2,

aringly,

1

51

) DQ

S

c f. 1

unsp

5

17

e ra

e

t i

— t h l i e u oreo v e r v e r b al r n s o h a t th s a l s o m o r e e N p y TT sa m e se n se ( w ith out d o in g, &c ) a re fre que n t l y c o n ne c t e d by

2 7°

Is

Of

g

1

so u se d

is

er ec t

er

e

o

o

ver a

a e

or

s

o

3

in

.

ld ;

0

A

o nl

ac c or

on

y du

g d ing

c c ord in

xi e

to

t o th e

to

Cir cumst a ntia l Cla uses

m ]

1 57 c

Jb 5 Jb 4 1

1

a lso

W J; W

15

(t

93

i

5

-

nian

1

(p

!

.

g

'

? N5

I s 40 2°

)

Is

unceasingly,

1 4°

tottering ) immova b ly ; c f

( with out

.

.

c or dis

ed ver ba

restra ins not

Obj ect-Cla u ses (Or a tio Obliqua )

.

Cla uses wh ic h dep end

c all

he

.

261 .

,

157

p

D13

a nd

)

3

ro

N5 with out wavering (l

i DN

'

N51)

1WN:

18

49 1

i

,

on a

bs

e . v er

.

t ransiti e v b esp ec ially on wh at are a d no t ing any ment l t such s t o ee er

v

,

e

a

ac

a

,

s

,

hea r , t o know, t o p er ceive, t o believe, t o r emember, t o forget, t o say , t o think, & c , may b e sub o rdinat ed t o th e g ov erning verb w it h out t h e h e lp of a c on unct io n b y simp le ux t ap o sit ion 1 2 0 a , or th e m ay y ) to

.

j

j

t

t

c o - ordina ed

be

d—h )

1 20

a

As

.

th e

ei

it

rule,

a

,

t

w it h ou

or

j

ob e

ct ive c lause

f

p

cop u l ti e is int oduc ed

w aw

WW N t ha t re q uent ly b y

less

”

c on

t

wi h

r

h o wever, t h e

j unction Q t ha t

by t h e

Ex

wi h

a

v

r

l .

m l es

O bj

j

p x

g

w i t h ou t a c o n u n c t io n B e sides t h e assa e s me nt i on e d un de r e) t h e re a re a n um er o f e a m p le s, i n w h ic h i n 5 1 20 ( e s ec ia l l a c l ause de p e n d in o n a verb um d icend i 0 1 sentiendi ( t h e ora tio ob liqua o f t h e a t in a n d n l ish ra mm a r) is a d d e d i n t h e o r m o f a n in de e n d e n t n ou n

( ) a

e c t - c l au se s

p

L

E g bl

c l ause

o r v er

my

art

1 0 1 2,

10

sister ,

O bj

( b) a nd

11

g

.

sa w

y f qu

Jb

n1 i l]

g

n

G n 1 21 3

.

1

p

N

lj tlN NJ ‘

th ou th oug h test

(

a

ft

kd

th a t th e w ic

”

D,

e.

1

g

I p ra y th ee, th ou

sa y ,

W)

-

W

f ma n

by

PQ

173 ; runs h imI

21 / t ; s9

(

a

ft

1) 1

er

17

k

th yself

was surely li

e

me do ; I s 4 8 2, H o 7 2 ’ 13 W 1 NW G n 65 DW NH 31 3W 1W E JW 1 1 1 _ }6

.

seen

T ‘r

.

lr '

wa s g rea t , &c — D irec t na rra t i on a l so " ( a n a l o o us t o t h e on recita tii um ; re ue n t l ,

e ness o

1 o du c e d

WDN

er

G n 4 1 1 5 , Ju 9 4 2 wh a t ye h ave

by

1

‘

‘

Ne h 66 ; Zc 8 23

i n t ro duc ed

y in t

b

f

2 4 2 5 2 -1 ,

21

''

en t l

re

e.

;

v5 0

ectc l a use s

th e L ord

is v e 1

.

Wfor

1

r ead

c l a use

a

v e 1 b a l -c lause s, e

[b ut

y g G

.

;

p

f q

.

g

y

G n 26

9

i n d e e d , w it h t h e se c o n d ai y ide a o f a a rt ic le o f a sse v e i a t io n , a s in , 4 2 622, 2 922, 3 7 35 , Jo s 22 , &c , e v e n w h e n t h e d ire c t e G n 2 1 20, 4 25 31 51 1 -O n t h e i i i d m 2 1 1 nd c a t e , G n a r1 a t o n i s n o t e ressl 8 4 , 3 , 4 , 13 ee re ssio n o f a se c o nd ob e c t me a n s of a c la use i nt 1 od uc e d e , s

g

.

xp

5

1 1

7 h

( ) ”W W ”for

e c t c l a use s

by

O n t h e se

sh ou l d

by WWN

in t ro duc e d

h e h a d told th em th a t h e wa s

d ire c t n arrat io n , 1

y j

2

Ex

.

.

by

.

O bj

0

xp

.

1

S

2

c l ause s

w it h

b

re n de r a s su

1 4.

S

1

3

a

e

,

.

S

J ew ; 1

g

E st 3

.

1

f

WW N a nd

g

a nd

P

'

8 15, E 2

S o me w h at

W

I

WBW" 3

N1 1W W N DW)

‘

Ec

y

re q ue nt l

e ne r a ll

y

'

bf

even

WUN

is

p

re c e d e d

o n c l a use s

b Sy

e o re

by

w h ic h w e

x

’

nt a i n N eue D o rw a ld Z ur h e r " 1 15 fl J a h rb b fur h ilol und Pa da g 1 8 9 0 , 2 I nst e a d o f a c o m l e t e o j e c t i v e c l a use w e so m e t im e s fi n d a ind o f ac c usa t i v e a n d i n fi n i t i ve c on st r uc t io n , e s e c ia ll a t er ( rop to g ii e up )

P

.

in th e

o rd i n a t e ,

c f.

p

'

p

.

sen se o f

to

.

a llow, e

.

g

b

.

.

.

21

23

in D t 1

K 3

1

28 5 6

9

4

1

ft

er

.

g

.

Gn

no: to

9

,

28

9

3

venture ;

NWto request) ( a fte r s

I n Je r

usual

(

a

,

e

se e

Ex 3 5

1 1

19 .

—

3 d)

V

border ;

Cf

.

a l so

Ju

'

20

21

th e

1 1 2°

;

f

o l lo w e d

a na l o

g

o us e

x

by a

( aft e r Pp N- to

W

a nd

an

mp le s trust)

,

.

a sub ect-c l ause

j

1 7,

.

sNWW DN 7m: {UJ N51

153 13 W3 }?

S ih on did not sufi er I sra el to p a ss th rough h is

5

p

y f

‘

i nfi n it iv e w it h

k

.

p

Nu

.

‘

is t h us int roduc e d

by

WWN

i n st e ad

of

th e

0

t h e nota

S

1

"

accusa tivi

241 1 2 9,

wh ich

S

2

q

1 1 20,

I s 3 8 3 , b ut in G n 3 0 29, D t

29 1 5

qui

e

val e nt

e

g

.

J

.

d

a; .

O S 21 0

t o th e w ay in

.

15 8

Ca usa l Cla uses

.

.

c omplete c lause assig ning t h e so met imes fol lo w s w ith t h rea t A

13

g ive us help 17 Gn 6

ma n ,

a

ga inst the 22

9

,

si

22

12

cop ul

waw

p e rh ap s

,

,

(for) va in

ad ver sa ry , a nd

Ex 2 3 J b

12

ment s de mands,

s a e

mp le

t he

s

t t

for

reason

,

112 60

58

1

l lN ( e uiv al e n t t o th e circumsta nce, the fa ct, th a t) , '

§ a,

Sent ence

T he

49 2

al so

a t ive, e .

g

h

o

is t he

1,

.

f

el

p

o r even

t W w e g Gn A s a r ule h o wever sp c ial c onj unctions in various c o mb ina tions are used t o int oduc e c ausal c lauses I 3 nd W & WN m b Th m t mm n u l nj un t i n u p p n unt f th f t th t ; b t h h w m y l b b h t n d t

w i h ou

a

.

,

.

,

e

,

r

eca

e

os

se,

ro

to th e 9

o

p m : Nu S 5

34

1

,

p

m h a sis, | QjW1 1

Ml

3

10

on

mink

WWN

42 20 ,

,

is use d for

WW N SQ z /z '

so

b b yf WW N 111

p f S

or

9

1 26

1

to

or

3

261 6 -22,

o

,

a so

a

17

&c

,

.

,

1

c ., a

,

e v e r,

K 3 1 9 , S3 3 , H 0

1

'

G

is

4

so

4

1 15

Zc

,

s WWNW

me t im e s

ma n sintema l a nd

al o

;

re

p

e at e d

a lldieweil

er

‘

,

J

th a t,

very ca use a l so

so

Lv

)

a nd D t 3 1 17 WWN SQ 2 S WW N W WW SQ beca use of th e circumsta nce tha t

th is

,

p

m le

si

1

er

p

m le

th e

si

3

2

53

“

G n 3 1 2°

B ut

.

j ust

p f

w it h t h e

a nd 1

5W?)

e r ec

Dt

28

b

55

for

2 643 ,

Ju 3 1 2,

,

2 35

Dt

p m

m le

th e

as

e

12 n G 0 WWN , 3

to

or

or e

e s

‘

E zr

,

16

s

b eca use, G n 3 1 4

me t h ing l ike t h e

1

1 1

o

a

a l so

a

s a re

o

h a n d, t h e

ot h er

the g round th a t ;

-

ac

&c

( w i t h out 1

21 4

a

(

c

.

On t h e

.

co

e

20 1 2,

15

1

sa

o

m le

si

9 23 n G 39

E2

ca

acco

o

.

1 3 27

4 1 3 ,

e

co

.

si

st a nd s

t

ot h

fo r

w it h t h e

f u t h WWN WP}? G 6 nd 3 DP? ( S l l w it h t h p f t w it h th p f t ; Am 4 } imp f t ) p p i t w it h t h f t th t ; imil l y g in t h f th imp l W 8 w it h t h im p f t P}? N u 4 w it h t h p f t nd D t 7 " = fi n l ly WW I i i m t h t n f t t h b ND WW & N 11 11 15 S 6 f 3 g 4 e r ec t ,

e q u iva le n t

2

a

e

a

WWT-1 D t

a nd

Rem

C

(5

1 1

Am

1

.

)

13

a c c or din “

ar s

59 go ve

37

4

f

gt

re

S

5

yu

uc h

ve1

'

th e

53

e

12

th a t

,

ea n s

e.

Is

g

2 21 ,

1

c

.

,

g

f ) w it h t h e in fin it i ve

.

ful l

c a usa l c l ause

c f. e

.

g

.

t h e i n fi n it iv e may , h o w ev e r, o f a fi n i te v e 1 b , i n w h ic h c a se

Am

a nd remembered not,

.

er ec

on a ccount o

w it h

;

e

.

v a le n t o f a

a s a c on unc t io n

a

e

eca use

q ui

by m

20

,

12

a

ar

s

,

a

a. c o n st r uc t io n c o n t i nue d

a

5

2

e r ec

e

ac

e

( b ecause of,

the

n 2 21 3 ,

er

1 21 0

a

,

reason

j

b

beca use th ey de livered up

d

for

or

ac

e

se d as

be

1 1 4 r,

the

1 29

r

2

er ec

ro

os it i on

re q ue n t l

o

r ns

,

Pr

p p

Th e

.

is

e

4

e

s

,

1

n re urn

.

2‘

1

e

ro

—Cf

not

.

e r ec , a

er e c

e

s

t o beca use

by

1

9

1WW1

&c

n 5 DWJDW y

N51

1

24

.

'

W i t h o ut d

p

p

,

rinc i le s st at e d i n T h e c h o ic e o f te nse is re ul a t e d t h e g e ne ral 1 0 6 iii , v iz t h e e r e c t ( c f e sp e c ia ll 1 0 6 f ) re e rs t o c ause s a l re a d ro u h t ull in to e ffe c t , t h e im e r ec t t o t h o se w h ic h m ay c o n t i n e n t l a r ise ; c f e g Dt 1 8 3 3 , w h e re t h e im e r e c t l ea v e s t h e ossi il it st ill o e n t h a t t h e e rson s a d d re sse d w i ll e rh a s esc a e t h e t h re a t e n e d uni sh m e n t s a v oid in d iso b e d ie nc e — Cf urt h e r , 5 1 1 1 h on t h e i m e r e c t c o nsec ut iv e , a nd 1 1 2 nu o n t h e e r e c t c o n se c ut iv e i n t h e a o do sis t o c a usa l c l ause s 2.

f y .

p

.

by

1 2

S

A

p f

.

lso

K

g

79

69

’ 2 1 8 ° Q ré,

p f

p f

-1

;

a nd

p r0 p .

yg

.

.

f

or

p f p p

p f

p

the refore, G n

why WWN J b

34

f

27 ,

a l wa

1

y

85, s

y b y

g

yb

g

p p p f

.

Nu

19

mean forasmuch

p

.

as

.

1 0 31 ,

1

4

43 ,

T he S ent ence

49 4

h

w

i mp rf t in t h pr t i h p rf t n ut i w it h th

th e

at

e

H0 su

ppr

ec

e

e

Jb

esse d ,

e

5

3

co

ec

( se e

ad

r pr

v e,

Gn 4 7

o as s

)

7

10

se c

x

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Th e int roduc t ion

62

D isj unctive S en ten ces

162 a

1

Aft er

A dversa tive

.

Cla uses

E xcep tive

a nd

(

neg at iv e sent enc es esp ec ially a ft e

.

r

p roh ib it ions) t h e ant i 19 ” O S h t esis (but) is int r oduced b y 3 , e g 1 S 8 a nd they sa id, N a y, 2 but w e will ha ve a hing over us ; it: 1 , & c ; fr e q uent ly al so b y alone 2 5 11 q 1 e g Gn 1 9 , or ev en sim ly c onne c t ed w it h 1 as n G , 7, p 1

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erfec t c onsecut iv e p

42

Ex 5

of.

15 .

ly i rtu lly nt i n d in t h pr di ng en t nc rh t ri l qu t i n ( Mi f nd i t i n g in t h f r m f whi h t b r g rd d n t h i ng b n ful fi ll d (Jb 3 ) 3 DN 3 in u h a b om qui l nt t o n y r th r R em

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E xcep t ive clauses, dep ending on anot h e r sente nc e , are int r oduced ’3 DDS exce t tha t and a ain aft er ne at iv e sent enc es, see a ab ov e by ( g p g ) 1 ” UN un less ; esp ec ially UN 3 w it h t h e p e r fec t e quiv al ent t o unless ( 2

.

,

r

imp er fect s wh ic h

decla r at ion,

'

27

r a r h et orical q uestion

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r ec eding

o d uc e d

l

neg at iv e

by WWN ns t h u

pp

j un t i

ose d c o n

s at

,

c

on

(e

qui l

v a en t

.

Th

tha t

not a

t ha t

rudent ,

d

j

,

God is

‘

r) the son of ma n

the

h x mpl from t h e anal og y of H o 1 4 3

a WN N5 h 1

rr oga t ive sent ences

i (n

se nt e nc e

th e

sa

me

t

im

e

o f a n ob e c t -c ause .

o

a s a su

neg a t iv e and int e

Ex

d in

an

,

h and, in

at t a c h ed

is

ta

r

; in

I n Gn

ob ec t .

coh o

a

n ot

?

r

c op ul a tive

’

3 39 1

lb

1°

b y mea ns of simp le wciw

a re a dded

1 i

.

anfip nn ;

.

03 ?

19

.

Consec utive Cla uses

.

esp ec ial ly a ft e

g Nu 23 sh ou ld lie, a nd i ( e

166

e

a

e s as 1°

3 13 1 1 a nd

a re

Jb 9

to be 33 .

r

to

eg a

th e

rd ed

Ar b i

as

a

c

j ussi

ti) ve

1

is

K6

19 ,

se e

p rob abl

e

T he S ent enc e

506 p r essed ; h o wev e r

G 11 c

3

23 .

13

x

b ut the t e t Delit z sc h

,

5 ( with 1

c an

on

Gn

24

h rh

a nd

42 f

“

,

a nd

f

p

.

(c f

18

.

,

On

.

,

a nd, ro m t h e On t h e o t e c o m o u n d se n t e n c es a re not t o b e 40 1 44 7 e n 1 1 n o r ve m G 3 Gn 7 (of ,

1

r c e r t ainly c o rr u t p

h e ; ) p ap s also I s 6 6

ra t ive) see 1 1 0 e as inst r uc t ive ex am les p

t h e imp e “

r

c o rec t

t h e p assage, w h ic h is

We may ment ion

sent enc es

h a r dly b e

1 67 c

of

involved

series o f

Gm

S m i t i p i nt f i w t h r g rd d a i n t an e of e

e

c

a

e

o

o

s

s

v e

c s

e va

ri

an ac

k i nd ol ut h n o us

o

,

s of

e. g.

TH E

PA R A D I G

MS

.

I N t h e p a r adigms o f t h e v e rb s, t h ose forms whic h are t o b e esp ec ially not ic e d b y t h e b eg inne r a re ma r ked t h r ough out b y a n

T hus e g in t h e st r ong ver b t h e grd sing 3519 “ 3 19 m h d i s t e m o e l f or e w h ic h likewise h as only a v oc alic f 1 12 2 1 139152 and hi ch afiormat iv e and 3355 2 is t h e model for w 5 ast erisk as

model for ms

.

.

.

.

.

,

”

,

in t h e nant

sa

me

w ay h av e ot h e

On t he

.

r

x b eginning w ith

a ffi

t he

o nw a

O ld

r ds)

a re

r mat ive

b eg inni

w it h

a c onso

E, wh ere t h e

d

an

h as t h e t one, st and b y t h e mselv es th e ast e r isk h as a diffe r ent meaning ; b r acket ed fo r ms ( fr om Pa r adig m G

a co nsonant

me r ely

a nalo ous

g

.

fo r mat ions

not

rr ing

oc c u

in t h e

.

r p t o var ious v er b s

new ly added

b elong ing

affo

h and, t h e fo r ms

of

T est ament

Th e

to neless

t h e p r onouns fo o t no t e t h e r e — Th e

I n t h e t ab l e see

a

m g (Q )

a adi .

consist s o f

forms

ac t ually

found

,

Pa ra dig ms

A Nominat iv e

S ing

1

.

’

.

sep a ra tu

t h e Prono un,

.

”

.

me

11

”

i n p ause DbN

mm

co

of

m

P ronomen

or

Accusa t iv e

t h e Pronoun,

of

The P ersona l

.

.

JN, in p ause ‘ JN I .

m

.

m p ause

in p ause

“1

38

nai

m

sin he

f

N”?

.

.

P lur

I

.

.

.

sh e.

mm unis

co

ause

P

nit: in

m

DHN

f

0 1 8

.

.

m

,

D”

.

(

13 1

ni , in u ( )

h er

}

i r ;

“

W

i;

i n. 1 ;

n; n

as;

(

ca

h im

.

m)

.

us

.

5) DJ

DD__

na bs

,

7 13 5

1

(

)

DH

,

D; D

7

(

D

] 75 l [m

,

113

OT .

"

.

,

them

U

(

)

cos

.

Pa ra dig ms

1 0 5

B

.

S tro ng

* p n 5 5 g, e

1

c.

* n w n a n

1

I nf

.

d

haol

c.

.

S ing

2

.

.

m

.

"1 3 3 *

Plu

r

.

2.

m

.

"

S ing 3 m .

13 3 “

.

.

“

2

,

m

7 33“

,

t

I P lur

.

0

.

wa: n*

7 33K

.

3 m

11 3 3 ’

.

.

man

mSéw '

muse " m i ni nn

S hor tened Impf

.

Pm

.

ac t .

J u esive ( )

.

Saw

51m ?

th e

Seer

5mm

S t rong Ver b

Pu

'

a l.

w ant ing

.

H ip h i l

51

H ithp a el '

.

w ant ing

.

.

1

P

a ra

51 2

dig ms (7

S trong

.

S ufi wes

.

2

Plu

r.

.

S ing m .

.

2

S ing

.

f

.

3 S ing m .

3

m

.

c.

.

2.

1

c.

m

.

c.

Qa l

.

I mp

Qa l

.

2.

( fr om an I mp erfi in a

f Qa l

I mp

3 m .

.

.

f P i él .

r

.

.

3 m .

5

3 0 2)

1

111713 0

)

in ?

.

w it h N nn energ

Plu

1

she et

3 m

er

2

.

.

1

P

S ing

3 m

Qa l

I nf

I

Ver b

.

m

.

.

i niyg ’

bj

.

Pa ra digms

1 5 4

D

Verbs

.

p

ma e guttura lis

ri

N ip h a l

P

f S ing

er

.

.

2.

m

I

c

.

.

.

c.

Wg

"

r ing

a sol .

b

on

my

my

my

pm

m ngr y i g

,

mp g?

my? "

1113 1 1

1

ni nth

f

,

?

"

“

rp

y fi n n g

w o rn

g

w ant i ng

w a

h

ngj é n

m “

wh en

r ang

1p

ru n

m m 1

l

I mpf S ing 3 m .

.

.

3

.

2.

I

.

f m

.

0.

S hortened I mpf

.

rt . a c t .

.

.

“

Pa

H op h a l

f

my

.

.

.

.

1

.

.

3 m

.

3

I nf

H ip h il

‘

‘

'

J u ssive ( )

.

m

"

l”

wl

"

il ?

“

.

V er

E

bs

media e g uttura lis

Ver b s media e

.

N ip h a l

guttu ra l is

.

Pu

‘

‘

P

f

er

.

.

.

2

.

m

[ 1 13 t 3

.

.

i

3

,

,

2

.

c

6

.

,

ratchet :

"

nam es

,

m

e

ilt?

" sp

‘

f

n n n w ;

c

nuij r g

.

I

,

,

m

ung ;

ar ci nn

manna [m ] -

a 13

11 19 t

’

mai ann

annex n

nnnnv i

’

mafia

'

’

’

nnnnv

ng j a

mag ii a

mun

m m}

f .

n]

na

.

I

H it hp a él

a l.

‘

“ T TI

f

3

NW

.

DE “?

S ing 3 m .

5 5 1

aa;

-

-

i;

tins 13

m

may ?

11 3

5

13 1

3

‘

* n n n n n

w ant i ng

.

I nf

a

.

I mp

bsol

.

S ing

.

m

.

.

’

nnv *

f

.

Plu

m

r.

mae rn '

w ant i ng

1:3 a

.

“

15

.

me tl» 7

3

ngnbnn

) g

"

2 IT

‘

I mpf S ing 3 m .

.

.

3

.

2.

gg s

.

f

nbr gg

P

t

’

nnv n

’r

.

c,

3 m

.

.

nnv u

W

QDH

‘

f

ngnhwn

ngnij g rn

m

no en

i nne

/ n i g g n nnw:

i

‘

3 2

.

.

.

.

.

f

.

m

a e

’

1

f

I mp

P

.

.

c

w ith S ufi

a rt. a ct .

_ W

‘

’

lur.

13 0

.

,

“

n

m

f

.

DD?

,

r 1-

n a e ng / g

ngahzn

ns firm ,

ni nfiann

1

arr 13

3

5

1 1 33 13 11

ll ‘

i ni m m

-

run13

'

"

m

y

an ;

1115 11 ?

mam

.

Para dig ms F N ip h a l ‘

.

P erf S ing .

.

3 m .

.

f

3 2.

I nf

.

1

c.

1

c.

a bsol.

Plu

m

r.

.

1

c.

igw

ngn

S

an v n

f

.

I

S h ortened I mpf

.

I mp f with sup .

P

a rt . a c t

.

n m n v i a i

c.

.

" .

‘

J u ssive ( )

.

3 17

0

.

Ver b s

Para dig ms

518

G

.

P

f

er

.

S ing

.

3 m .

3

D”

.

f ’

’

1

.

2.

"

33

v

‘

Ver bs media e

W“

c

gemina t a e

m

DD)

*

m

'

m

.

1

e.

1

c

.

3 13 W“

I nf

.

nian, op p

a bsol.

P lu

r.

m

.

3b

I

I mpfi w ith

P

.

Wct w '

? (

ma

p)

as“

6.

c onsce .

ause p (

a rt . a c t .

e e? n m (f ) e

.

Ver or

bs

media e g emina ta e

or

doub le

1 5

1:

do ub le v

.

H ip h il

P

'

.

‘

o a l.

3 0m

J OTI 3 0 W

“

“

n ?

”4 ?

J DH*

want ing

up: no?

i

ra

n

13 6

;

nr a nm ‘

" as? 3 0 13 “

(

on e

)

.

want ing

.

9

Pa ra dig ms

20 5

H

.

Ver bs VB

.

N ip h a l ‘

.

H ip h il ‘

H op h a l ‘

.

.

P erf S ing 3 m .

.

.

.

fi

3 2.

m

.

regula r.

: net s '

“

nan ar m tian

earn : i Tll?

i 71a an

u ” c

-

0

.

11 2551

I nf

.

v

twi n

b

a sol.

want ing

P lur m .

.

I mp f S ing 3 m

175“

f

1 2957-

.

.

.

.

3

,

2.

.

m

0

r egula r

P lur 3 m .

.

2.

.

.

1W

m

.

M! ?

e W i [ ] 1

.

0

.

Shortened I mpf (Jussive) .

P a rt

.

a ct .

1453)

can 7

.

m a r i [a ]

.

Pa ra dig ms

5 22

K

.

Wea k Ver bs

,

N ip h

I

c

I

gul a r

.

re

.

a

c.

ne w air want ing

bsol 1!

v

Plu

r.

‘

nv

*

new

m

.

I mpf S ing 3 m .

.

.

f

3 2.

m

.

7

1

c.

7

f

,

I

.

:

m a b [ ] ru

C

.

S h ort en ed I mp f (J ussive)

.

I mp f with .

P

a rt

.

a ct .

a l.

.

fi a ni

I nf

‘

Waw

c onsce .

3

3 12 11

.

V er V/

D

(f

’ ‘

Ol

/

bs p rop erly L

)

YD

.

We

2 5 3

Ver bs p r op erly

.

H ip h il ‘

.

’

ne iat ’

HDWVI '

r egula r

marina .

up g g m

0 11 3 13 1 11

mum

s

HWY! " 3 13 1 11 "

want ing

3 19 m 3 19 1 151

3 10111 1

D Wl n

:

r un s

J‘ D’ FI Q D ii ‘

’

12

‘ f

19 1 11

1 3 3 5 1 11

1

3 W1"*

J‘ D‘ D

Pa ra dig ms

2 5 4

M

Wea k

.

H ip h il ‘

DE"

S ing 3 m

.

.

.

3

P lu

r.

m

use;

.

1

.

c.

.

c.

2

.

m

.

.

1

I nf

?

f

“ 79

2

3

c

.

DF‘DE

.

110 3

b

a sol.

P lur m

.

.

1

0 1 985

c.

.

mp; ty ngn ea m n p f g ,

1

0

.

mp;

.

DP

S h or tened I mp f

.

I mpf with d .

I mpf with S ufi .

P

a rt. ac t .

consce

.

? 0 121 p a use Dbill ) 5( ‘

Ibdraafig m ns

2 K 5 5

.

Wea k

0

Qa l

N ip h a l ‘

.

A

F

P

f S ing

er

.

.

3 m .

3

f

2

§p

x

* o xx

.

.

A

e r we

r

.

3 2

NX D N3 ?

nxynz

.

fi

nxbp

nxxo

.

Plu

RYDJ*

m

.

1

.

.

c.

.

c.

m

.

.

axyo

bp axfi n

NYDJ H

nnxxn

nnxSn

DJ DHRX

" w

’

e

nx

‘

nw aJxS p

DH&X D

e

I I nf

a

.

bsal

c

.

7

.

*

a

Plu

r.

m

HNYE H

.

§p

*

“

‘

r x

g

I mpf S ing 3 m .

3 2

.

.

N3 D

.

.

.

f

xxnn

m

xxnn

mv

xy O.

0

T

*

.

NYE “ T

~ n xxm

.

Imp f with S ufi:

P

a rt

.

a ct .

an

]

m

axy ~

matinw

maingw

M iran

ru x§ n

S h ort ened Impf (J ussive)

w [

NX DN

xxux axxns

NED“

0

m

.

fr in a

“

,

RYE )

xgno

Wea k

Ver bs, W 5

2 5 7

Ver bs W 5

.

,

Pu

‘

a l.

mm]

i

s p

warm

fi§ § 9

nwi m

nnxsn

nnxmn

HKX DJITI '

'

'

DDNYD H

DHFI &X ‘

w ant ing

wa nt ing

.

mm

want ing

w ant ing

w ant ing

.

.

.

.

HNX Dfl fl

nn ngsi m

[

xmm

mnn Nmnn a

0 3 73 151 1 '”

l

’

DH RX

‘

\

DH NX '’

l

j

‘

5

mm

§ NX D‘

~ ssp nn

3

mm

ax

wie

r fi

m

awi n

a*

m maxim1qay

vi an a

syp nn

mm

Para dig ms

2 8 5

P

P erf

S ing

.

.

3 m .

.

f

3

m

2.

I

C.

I

c.

a sol.

b

I nf I mp

.

.

S ing

m

.

.

P lur

m

.

.

I mp f S ing 3 m .

.

.

.

f

3 2.

I

m

.

0.

.

is s

S hortened I mpf

.

I mpf wi th S ufi

P

a rt . ac t.

1592s

” .

’

i

h)?

“

53 :

.

Wea k

P

0 53

a ra

dig ms Q

.

Ver b s W5 2.

P fQ er

a l.

S ing

.

f

3 m

.

.

T ‘l

2

.

‘

m

.

P t vi m! “

.

Pi

f

.

Plu

m

r. 2.

Plu

r.

.

3 m .

2

.

.

m

.

H ip h

.

Pi

mafmn nian

” .

.

mas

.

Ver b s

with S agid es '

w ith S ufi xes

.

3 S ing .

.

m

.

3 S ing .

.

I P lu

f

.

P i inn s

Pi

.

.

r.

3

.

Plur

.

m

.

wins

mm

H ip h 013 71 .

Pi

.

m H ip h nim .

Pi

.

Mann nuns

p g miss

»

,

M111

2

f

Indea

o

’

53 4 m,

1 c,

2 q , t,

F ind, 58

52

67 g

of ve

a

Ar

:

am

MB 7 5 kh

.

,

th e 87 e

e

c,

by

.

rbs V i) Ar m a

z

rb W f rb

7 2 cc : o

,

r i

te m

.

h

c

a

fr

m i n i ne , 8 0

f

N N

, 47 Nun e p e n t h e t ic um, s, o ms Of v e V,

44

24 e,

84 d B oust o

r ph

a

,

s,

a s

c

,

a e

e

c

s

o

e

a

co

o

es

a

e o e

so

2

,

ve, 1 2

e a

ve ,

e a

, a

,

os

e

a

e

e

,

a

o

o

2 7 f—t

st . , 1

: o

e

co

o

o

a

e o ,

e , e , a e s, s

.

a

o

s, 1

ss

a

o

,

i

t

t

a

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on ,

f

a

,

a

a

s

e

,

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o

,

-ass

ac

i

~

N.

p p yri A yr i n l ngu A y n d t on ss

c,

,

1 z

19

Assuan

.

1

d

g, h ,

1 20

1

a

54

(a) A t h e me rahiq 2 0 f, g A t h n ah, c h i e f d i v i de r o f v e rse prose, 1 5 f : se c b nda ry d i v i de r

p

oe t

ry

1

,

5 h

in in

.

f 45 Att r t i n N 1 46 a A t t r i bute A dj t i A t t r i b ut i i d x pr d by ni t i f ll d by w 3 g 3 8 8 : by t h p g niti i n pp ub t n t i 3 5 m by by ub t a p sit i n 1 3 n g ti x pr d d di t 1 41 S ls by n un l u 52 A dj t i l i de ac

“

s- v

a

:

1

o

s

o,

,

o

a

s

.

re

esse

ve e

se , 1

va

byl i byl i

a

e

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o

ec

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c,

c a e,

ve

s a

1 c- e :

,

a

s

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v e, 1 2

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e

e

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eas e

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1 2

3

,

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a.

l p

on an an guag e , 1 a , d, e, i Ba 3 u n un c t a t o , 4 2 on an Ba ° ° d B g a k p h a t h e t t e s, 3 d , 6 n, 1 2 a 1 3 c : as a t o n o f, 2 1 ’ e c e ns o n o f t h e t e t , s s e B en

l

r

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.

.

.

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i

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,

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,

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