Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change

PALGRAVE STUDIES IN CLIMATE RESILIENT SOCIETIES SERIES EDITOR: ROBERT C. BREARS

Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change Edited by Tara Rava Zolnikov

Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies Series Editor Robert C. Brears Avonhead, Canterbury, New Zealand

The Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies series provides readers with an understanding of what the terms resilience and climate resilient societies mean; the best practices and lessons learnt from various governments, in both non-OECD and OECD countries, implementing climate resilience policies (in other words what is ‘desirable’ or ‘undesirable’ when building climate resilient societies); an understanding of what a resilient society potentially looks like; knowledge of when resilience building requires slow transitions or rapid transformations; and knowledge on how governments can create coherent, forward-looking and flexible policy innovations to build climate resilient societies that: support the conservation of ecosystems; promote the sustainable use of natural resources; encourage sustainable practices and management systems; develop resilient and inclusive communities; ensure economic growth; and protect health and livelihoods from climatic extremes. More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/15853

Tara Rava Zolnikov Editor

Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change

Editor Tara Rava Zolnikov Department of Community Health, National University San Diego, CA, USA School of Behavioral Sciences, California Southern University Costa Mesa, CA, USA

ISSN 2523-8124     ISSN 2523-8132 (electronic) Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies ISBN 978-3-030-01212-0    ISBN 978-3-030-01213-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01213-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018963213 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: © Melisa Hasan This Palgrave Pivot imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

This book is dedicated to Atlas, Evan, Sydney, and Jake, who have lived with me during hurricanes; my mom and dad, who have endured many fires and floods; and my Kenyan brothers and sisters, who have endured endless droughts. I also wanted to take a moment to mention all the people who suffer from outcomes related to issued mentioned in this book—you are not alone and we will continue to fight for you.

Preface

This book was written in hopes of providing a source of information for people who are looking to curb climate change outcomes. Climate change is not a new topic and it has been explored by many other researchers, but currently there is no existing resource full of resiliency strategies being employed in each continent. It was my goal to gather as much information as possible on how people are working to adapt to climate change, so that readers could learn this information and apply it as necessary. That said, climate change, in general, is a somewhat abstract topic and is difficult to review because instead of being a single idea labeled as “climate change”, it is often categorized as facets of climate change, like “air pollution”, “natural disasters”, “sea level rise”, etc. This myriad of outcomes for climate change effects limits the search to the terms used in the search and article, white sheet, or website titles. Additionally, instead of limiting the search to only academic search engines, as would be the typical approach for peer-reviewed or academic publications, the search included Google because most of the policy information or active nonprofits are available on government websites or just general websites. This “open” search also limited the scope of the information that was listed in search results that appeared. Moreover, the quality of the information included in this review was not assessed and only information in the English language was included, which may result in missed information from countries where English is not the official language. All this information merely confirms the expansiveness of the issue that is climate change. There were many different effects (e.g. natural disasters, air pollution) and outcomes (e.g. sea level rise, adverse health effects) vii

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included in this book, although perhaps the most interesting finding was that there may not be a single way to mitigate or adapt to climate change and, ultimately, contribute to resiliency. Strategies ranged from small-scale nonprofit groups promoting change to transnational commitment policies on collaborating to decrease carbon emissions. This book ultimately sets the tone to understand the differences in communities that may help or hinder progress under the new world set forth by climate change. I hope that this amassed information provides insight into the various ways that outcomes related to climate change can be decreased and people will be able to live without suffering from the effects of climate change. Together we can use this information to start or continue working to decrease greenhouse gases and climate change outcomes. San Diego, CA, USA

Tara Rava Zolnikov

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge all the individuals who are actively working to understand climate change, advocate against it, and create personal life changes to decrease greenhouse gases. Thank you for being the change.

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Contents

Introduction to Climate Change Vulnerability, Adaptation, and Resiliency  1 Tara Rava Zolnikov Africa 11 Deborah Nabubwaya Chambers Antarctica 31 Danielle Cook and Tessa Rava Zolnikov Asia 51 Jennifer Raymond Australia 65 Robert C. Brears Europe 79 Tara Rava Zolnikov North America 91 Tara Rava Zolnikov xi

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South America103 Daisy Ramirez-Ortiz The World Adapting to Climate Change117 Tara Rava Zolnikov Index133

Notes on Contributors

Robert C. Brears  founder of Our Future Water, Mark and Focus, and Mitidaption, is the author of Urban Water Security, The Green Economy and the Water-Energy-Food Nexus, Blue and Green Cities: The Role of Blue-­ Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban Water Resources, and Natural Resource Management and the Circular Economy. Brears is a contributing author for the World Bank’s Water Blog, Asian Development Bank’s Blog, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization’s Making It magazine, and the Green Growth Knowledge Platform’s Insights Blog. He has conducted field research around the world, including Antarctica. Deborah Nabubwaya Chambers  is a health promoter and global health researcher. She is actively involved in National University (NU) in San Diego, CA, as an ambassador under the NU Scholars Program. Chambers received a Master of Public Health (MPH) from NU and is pursuing her second graduate degree in Healthcare Administration at the same school. She holds a BA degree in Psychology from Daystar University, Kenya. Chambers mainly focuses on qualitative global health research on breast cancer care in underserved communities in Kenya and the United States. Danielle  Cook  is an NU graduate student pursuing her MPH degree, with a specialization in Health Promotion. She plans to pursue her doctorate degree upon completion of her MPH.  She holds a BS degree in Geography from Portland State University, with focuses in environmental justice and health, cultural geography, and biogeography and climate xiii

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change. Cook’s research focuses are global health issues in low-and middle-­income countries. She has worked within the medical field as a practitioner and researcher for more than 26 years, specializing in trauma and its effects emotionally, mentally, physically, and epigenetically. Daisy Ramirez-Ortiz  is a PhD student in Public Health with a specialization in Epidemiology at Florida International University. She completed a master’s degree in Public Health at the University of Miami and a bachelor’s degree in Biology at the University of Puerto Rico. She is originally from Puerto Rico and has worked in several research projects on public health issues affecting underprivileged communities around the world, such as environmental pollution, the spread of HIV/AIDS and access to safe drinking water. Her plan after graduation is to work in collaboration with Latino communities to reduce health disparities and promote social justice. Jennifer  Raymond received her bachelor’s degree in Sociology and Social Inequality from the University of California, San Diego. She then went on to receive a master’s degree in Public Health and Health Promotion at NU and is pursuing a doctorate in Public Health at Capella University. She is most interested in global health and the prevention of infectious diseases. Raymond has spent her career in clinical trials, working with the University of California to conduct trials in viral diseases, such as HIV/AIDS and hepatitis C, and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. She has participated in medical missions trips to Cuba, Uganda and Peru, and is a volunteer with the American Red Cross of Ventura County, located in the central coast region of California. Tara  Rava  Zolnikov  is an associate professor at NU at the School of Health and Human Services. Zolnikov teaches courses in both the Bachelor of Public Health and MPH programs. Her primary courses are environmental health and global health. Zolnikov holds a PhD in Developmental Science from North Dakota State University and an MS in Environmental Health from Harvard School of Public Health and a second MS in Industrial Hygiene from Montana Tech of the University of Montana. She also holds a BS degree in Biological Sciences from Montana Tech of the University of Montana. Zolnikov’s research primarily focuses on global health issues in low-and middle-­ income countries, including Kenya. She has worked with the Kenya Red Cross on a variety of public health projects, ranging from infectious

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­ iseases (e.g. Ebola and HIV/AIDS) to access to water projects. She is d primarily a qualitative researcher and concentrates on providing vulnerable populations with a voice; she uses autoethnographic and phenomenological perspectives to understand or live through these experiences in order to recreate them for a widespread audience. Finally, Zolnikov is the vice president of a nonprofit organization, the Shepherd’s Village, which focuses on providing access to water to Maasai communities around Narok, Kenya. Tessa Rava Zolnikov  is in her third year of medical school at University of Washington School of Medicine. She obtained her Russian and Political Science undergraduate degree and MBA from the University of Montana. She volunteered for the WHO in Tajikistan for six months, started a nonprofit during her MBA and ran her own consulting business. Zolnikov enjoys international travel, deep country backpacking and Maisie, her Cavalier King Charles Spaniel.

List of Tables

Introduction to Climate Change Vulnerability, Adaptation, and Resiliency Table 1 Sectors affected by climate change and mitigation, adaptation, and policy strategies to improve upon them 4 Africa Table 1

Climate change and some effects in Africa

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Antarctica Table 1 Some effects of climate change and areas affected in Antarctica Table 2 Policy in Antarctica Table 3 Policy for protection and mitigation Table 4 Policy, objectives, and countries included for climate change focus for Antarctica

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Australia Table 1 Roles of NSW government Table 2 Prioritised sectors to build resilience in Australia

69 75

The World Adapting to Climate Change Table 1 Examples of mitigation and adaptation strategies by continent Table 2 Policy focused on climate change in each continent

34 40 42

121 125

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Introduction to Climate Change Vulnerability, Adaptation, and Resiliency Tara Rava Zolnikov

Abstract  Climate change affects people not only through environmental exposure and health outcomes but in how they live their lives. Consequences will affect various sectors, ranging from tourism to water to energy development. Because of these forced changes, people must adapt. This chapter is an introduction to climate change vulnerability in the world, and the adaption and resiliency measures that must take place. The chapter sets the tone to understand the differences in communities that may help or hinder progress in the new world set forth by climate change. Keywords  Environmental health • Definitions • Climate change • Mitigation • Adaptation • Resiliency

Introduction Over the last century, the temperature of our planet has gradually increased, but in the last 1400 years, the 30-year period between 1983 and 2013 had the highest average temperature (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate T. R. Zolnikov (*) Department of Community Health, National University, San Diego, CA, USA School of Behavioral Sciences, California Southern University, Costa Mesa, CA, USA © The Author(s) 2019 T. R. Zolnikov (ed.), Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change, Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01213-7_1

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Change [IPCC], 2014). In fact, land and ocean surface temperature data confirm that between 1880 and 2012, the temperature increased 0.85 °C (with a range of 0.65 °C to 1.06 °C) (IPCC, 2014). Most of this increase comes from ocean warming, which primarily occurs near the surface in the top 7 metres of water, measuring an increased change of 0.11 °C (IPCC, 2014). These changes are associated with greenhouse gas emissions (McCarthy et  al., 2001). Greenhouse gases are a conglomeration of water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, fluorinated gases, and ozone. These emissions—and climate change in general—are primarily brought about by humans and are exacerbated by economic and population growth (IPCC, 2014). Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, composed of carbon dioxide (81%), methane (11%), nitrous oxide (6%), and fluorinated gases (3%), have steadily increased since the pre-industrial era (Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2016; IPCC, 2014). Since 1990, these emissions have increased by approximately 7%, though they fluctuate based on a myriad of influences throughout the year, such as a cold winter, fuel demand, and vehicle miles travelled (IPCC, 2014). Generally, electricity production makes up most greenhouse gases at 30%, while transportation or burning fossil fuels contributes 26%. The rest is made up of industry (21%), commercial and residential (12%), agriculture (9%), and land use and forestry (11%) (EPA, 2016). More specific to the types of gases, burning fossil fuels and deforestation contributes to carbon dioxide concentrations, while agriculture and livestock management (e.g. manure and fertilizers) causes elevated levels of nitrous oxide and methane, respectively (Zolnikov, 2018a). There are many consequences resulting from these emissions. People, animals, and the environment alike suffer from consequences of increased greenhouse gas emissions. More natural disasters, specifically hurricane, cycles, droughts, and floods, are some examples of climate change outcomes that affect many aspects of life. Stronger hurricanes and severe heat waves are not only destructive to the ecosystem (e.g. life cycle changes due to disrupted conditions) but are life-threatening to everything in the path of these natural disasters (Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2016; Zolnikov, 2018b). Because of these changes, humans and animals are consequentially affected since they rely on this biodiversity to exist (Zolnikov, 2018b). It is these types of scenarios that will frequently occur and have large consequences—and all because of increased greenhouse gas emissions.

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Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resiliency The scale of climate change and the outcomes related to the environmental changes resulting from greenhouse gases will be significant (Marshall, 2010). Vulnerable populations must be supported in order to evaluate, research, anticipate, and control the effects of climate change (Marshall et  al., 2010). Mitigation and adaptation can help prepare communities, ecosystems, and populations to build resiliency and deal with climate change as effectively and efficiently as possible. Ultimately, mitigation and adaptation strategies against climate change must go hand in hand to effectively reduce the number of consequences that impact people or communities (ACT, 2018). However, it should be noted that while mitigation efforts are positive, the benefits from these actions can take a significant amount of time to create change, so adaptation must occur long before the results of mitigation efforts (ACT, 2018). For example, if people decrease emissions by driving electric cars and using clean energy, there will still be an allotted amount of time that current greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere and have an effect on people. This is just one scenario that confirms the need for the combination of mitigation and adaptation efforts to aid in climate change resiliency. Mitigation According to Pelling (2011), mitigation is not necessarily a separate domain of adaptation, but more a subset of it. Mitigation focuses on the causes of climate change and seeks to reduce or reverse contributing anthropogenic factors (Action on Climate [ACT], 2018). These greenhouse gas-producing activities can include fossil fuel burning, deforestation, and livestock farming (ACT, 2018). Lifestyle changes and using technology to reduce carbon are adaptation measures that seek to support mitigation (Pelling, 2011). Some more specific examples of change addressing these contributors include using clean or renewable energy, eating a plant-based diet, driving an electric car, using energy-efficient lighting, reducing energy consumption, and planting trees. In addition to decreasing greenhouse gases, there are many benefits to these types of actions, like better air quality, decreased health costs and adverse health effects, increased energy efficiency, and improved energy security (ACT, 2018). The major sectors affected by climate change (see Table 1) can also mitigate activities through policy measures. For example, there can be

Solid waste management; wastewater treatment; land use and crop management; hydropower; afforestation Crop management; plant drought- or flood-­ resistant crops

Water

Resource management; do not build houses in coastal zones

Avoid megacities; have emergency plans; receive regular check-ups

Infrastructure/ settlement (including coastal zones)

Human health

Agriculture

Mitigation

Sector

Relocation; seawalls and storm surge barriers; dune reinforcement; land acquisition and creation of marshlands/wetlands as buffer against sea-level rise and flooding; protection of existing natural barriers Heat-health action plans; emergency medical services; improved climate-sensitive disease surveillance and control; safe water and improved sanitation

Rainwater harvesting; water storage and conservation techniques; water re-use and recycling; desalination; water-use and irrigation efficiency Planting dates and crop variety adjustment; crop relocation; improved land management, for example, erosion control and soil protection through tree planting

Adaptation

Integrated policies and management; sustainable development goals

Longer growing season in higher latitudes; revenues from ‘new’ products; new products to eat

Integrated water resources management; synergies with other sectors

Resiliency

(continued)

Public health policies that Better health services; recognize climate risk; improved quality of strengthened health life services; regional and international cooperation

R&D policies; institutional reform; land tenure and land reform; training; capacity building; crop insurance; financial incentives, for example, subsidies and tax credits Standards and regulations that integrate climate change considerations into design; land-use policies; building codes; insurance

Water policies and integrated water resources management; water hazards management

Policy

Table 1  Sectors affected by climate change and mitigation, adaptation, and policy strategies to improve upon them

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Use public transportation; rideshare; bicycle; walk

Turn off lights; be cognizant of energy use; use natural light; use energy-efficient bulbs; use clean or renewable energy

Transport

Energy

Policy

Use of new technologies; new local resources

Improved technology and integration with key sectors

Revenue from ‘new’ attractions; involvement with more stakeholders

Resiliency

Source: Adapted from IPCC (2007). Adaptation and mitigation options. Retrieved online https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms4. html

Integrated planning (e.g. carrying capacity; linkages with other sectors); financial incentives, for example, subsidies and tax credits Realignment/relocation; Integrating climate design standards and change considerations planning for roads, rail and into national transport other infrastructure to cope policy; investment in with warming and drainage R&D for special situations, for example, permafrost areas Strengthening of overhead National energy policies, transmission and regulations, and fiscal and distribution infrastructure; financial incentives to underground cabling for encourage use of utilities; energy efficiency; alternative sources; use of renewable sources; incorporating climate reduced dependence on change in design single sources of energy standards

Plan year-round activities Diversification of tourism attractions and revenues; shifting ski slopes to higher altitudes and glaciers; artificial snow-making

Tourism

Adaptation

Mitigation

Sector

Table 1 (continued)   INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE VULNERABILITY, ADAPTATION… 

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incentives provided to individuals or sectors that use renewable energy instead of fossil fuels (ACT, 2018). The success of mitigation strategies ultimately depends on global collaboration between individuals, government, and business, wherein everyone plays a significant role to help achieve positive outcomes. Adaptation Throughout history, humans and socio-ecological systems have changed in response to external pressures (Pelling, 2011). Climate change is slightly different in that there is a certain amount of uncertainty involved in its impact, as well as the fact that while humans bear the brunt of the effects of it, they are also contributing to it. For these reasons, understanding the depth of this issue makes adaption to climate change the most critical challenge of today (Pelling, 2011). Adaptation must account for both the capacity and ability to act to change (Pelling, 2011). Capacity focuses more on scope for action, which could actually hinder the capacity to act (Pelling, 2011); for example, if a farmer decides to sell his/her diesel tractor to reduce his carbon footprint, then he/she becomes limited in future adaptive action and recovery to farm at all (Pelling, 2011). Adaptation strategies will help sustain livelihoods and quality of life by preparing for climate change, although these strategies will need to be catered to the specific environment affected, as impacts are likely to vary depending on the population, community dynamics, environmental context, and present industry (Marshall et al., 2010). Adaptation ultimately involves actions used to reduce vulnerability of future environmental changes or challenges (see Table 1). The efforts can counteract outcomes related to climate change and work more to anticipate events and responses to it (ACT, 2018). Adaptation strategies can include built environment development based on sea-level rise, purchasing upland development or property rights, expanding planning and land use to incorporate climate predictions, protecting biogeochemical zones and critical habitats that may be exposed to changing climates, connecting landscapes with corridors to enable migration, designing estuaries with dynamic boundaries and buffers, replicating safe habitat zones, preventing or decreasing groundwater extraction from shallow aquifers, managing water demand, fortifying dikes, and hardening seawalls (EPA, 2018). Many of these strategies relate to specific risks involved in a certain area or sector and focus on steps that can reduce risks, thus confirming the flexibility and fluid nature of adaptation, in general (ACT, 2018).

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Resiliency The term resilience, in general, means to move beyond or recover from a negative event. In this case, the negative event is climate change. Resiliency to climate change happens when people, communities, businesses, and various sectors independently or dependently come together to successfully cope with the effects of climate change (ACT, 2018). Because climate change has such a wide array of outcomes, measuring resiliency can be quite challenging; however, instead of viewing this as a weakness, it should merely show how diverse it can be (Aldunce et al., 2015; Borquez, 2017). Resiliency in this context can have many faces but can actually have the potential to contribute to positive outcomes; for example, the water sector may now be controlled by integrated water resource management or, perhaps, the health sector now has improved access to healthcare (see Table 1).

Conclusion Outcomes related to climate change are indisputable; these effects can include increased precipitation in some areas and decreased amounts in other areas, and increased frequency of natural disasters (e.g. floods, droughts), ocean changes (e.g. pH), and sea level rise. Because humans inhabit much of the world, they will be affected by these outcomes. Thus, mitigation and adaptation to climate change will have to occur. Mitigation encourages populations to decrease contributors to climate change (e.g. carbon dioxide emissions) through control measures, like driving electric cars, using clean energy, and even walking instead of driving. Adaptation strategies seek to curb outcomes related to climate change or help brace these human populations for change that is already happening; actions like using drought- or flood-resistant crops or relocating to areas outside of coastal zones are examples of ways that people are already adapting. Both mitigation and adaption strategies can contribute to resiliency in human populations—or the ability to move beyond and potentially even thrive in adverse situations. That said, there are a few challenges involved in implementing these changes. Adaptive capacity is linked to both social and economic development (e.g. natural and man-made economic drivers, social networks, human capital, governance, national income, health, technological abilities), wherein some regions of the world may not be sufficiently equipped

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and thus may not be able to mitigate or adapt to changes (IPCC, 2007). This scenario causes an uneven distribution of adaption measures to climate change across the world (IPCC, 2007). This range of barriers creates diversions  where the world can work  together to curb climate change. These barriers limit the implementation and effectiveness of measures, as well as the capacity for populations to adapt. In other areas where adaptation to climate change is more likely to be implemented because of available resources, there are few local solutions that can actually reduce the impacts of climate change (Marshall et  al., 2010). For example, managing coral reefs is complex from a social and ecological perspective and requires holistic and practical systems dynamics planning (Berkes & Folk, 1998; Marshall et al., 2010; Plummer & Armitage, 2007). That said, there are still some local community climate change resiliency strategies can help decrease vulnerability or ‘soften’ the outcomes of climate change (Marshall et al., 2010). In the case of coral reefs, local strategies could include understanding local regulations and laws surrounding the reefs and helping enforce these rules to ensure coral reef management.  Resiliency strategies that integrate impact prediction, analyse vulnerabilities, and identify opportunities for effective adaptation are the most useful and probably the most successful (Dessai & Hulme, 2007; Marshall et al., 2010). As mentioned, mitigation and adaption are more likely to work on a larger scale if adapting can retain or increase livelihood outcomes (Marshall et al., 2010). But all these influences and factors need to be accounted for and explored. This is ultimately why this book was written, in hopes of understanding changing dynamics in the world to review what has worked, how people have changed, and who has become resilient and why. These types of solutions need to be employed worldwide, so that people will be able to not only survive but thrive in this new environment. Flexibility and responsiveness are needed to encounter these potential benefits. Resilient communities will be able to minimize the social and economic impacts of climate change and capitalize on their potential gains, while inadvertently relieving the already stressed environment. But in order to actionize these changes, information must first be identified and evaluated for each specific population worldwide, as it is known that every community does not have the same experiences and outcomes resulting from climate change. Thus, this book seeks to understand climate change adaptation and mitigation differences in each continent to help deliver ideas to promote change in this new world set forth by climate change.

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References Action on Climate. (2018). Mitigation, adaptation, and resilience: Climate terminology explained. Retrieved from http://www.actiononclimate.today/act-oninformation/mitigation-adaptation-and-resilience-climate-terminologyexplained/ Aldunce, P., Beilin, R., Howden, M., & Handmer, J. (2015). Resilience for disaster risk management in a changing climate: Practitioners’ frames and practices. Global Environmental Change, 30, 1–11. Berkes, F., & Folke, C. (Eds.). (1998). Linking social and ecological systems. Management practices and social mechanisms for building resilience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Borquez, R., Aldunce, P., & Adler, C. (2017). Resilience to climate change: From theory to practice through co-production of knowledge in Chile. Sustainability Science, 12(1), 163–176. Dessai, S., & Hulme, M. (2007). Assessing the robustness of adaptation decisions to climate change uncertainties: A case study on water resources management in the East of England. Global Environmental Change, 17(1), 59–72. Environmental Protection Agency. (2016). Sources of greenhouse gas emissions. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gasemissions Environmental Protection Agency. (2018). Strategies for climate change adaptation. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/arc-x/strategies-climate-changeadaptation IPCC. (2007). Adaptation and mitigation options. Retrieved from https://www. ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms4.html IPCC. (2014). Climate change 2014: Synthesis report. In Core Writing Team, R. K. Pachauri, & L. A. Meyer (Eds.), Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (151 pp.). Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. Marshall, N.  A. (2010). Understanding social resilience to climate variability in primary enterprises and industries. Global Environmental Change, 20(1), 36–43. Marshall, N.  A., et  al. (2010). A framework for social adaptation to climate change. Retrieved from https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/ 2010-022.pdf McCarthy, J. J., et al. (Eds.). (2001). Climate change 2001: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pelling, M. (2011). Adaptation to climate change: From resilience to transformation. New York, NY: Routledge.

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Plummer, R., & Armitage, D. (2007). A resilience-based framework for evaluating adaptive co-management: Linking ecology, economics and society in a complex world. Ecological Economics, 61(1), 62–74. Zolnikov, T. R. (2018a). Climate change. In T. R. Zolnikov (Ed.), Autoethnographies on the environment and human health (pp.  32–37). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Zolnikov, T. R. (2018b). A humanitarian crisis: Lessons learned from Hurricane Irma. American Journal of Public Health, 108(1), 27–28.

Africa Deborah Nabubwaya Chambers

Abstract  Africa suffers from outcomes related to climate change. There is a need for the continent to adapt and become more resilient despite the numerous challenges it faces. This chapter summarizes the impact of climate change in Africa and barriers that affect Africa’s response to climate change. Keywords  Climate change • Africa • Resiliency and adaptation • Indigenous knowledge systems

Introduction Africa is located south of the Mediterranean Sea and is in between the Indian Ocean and Atlantic Ocean. It is the second largest continent in the world and is approximately 11,670,000 (mi2)/28,489,869 (km2) and covers over 20% of the Earth’s land area. As of 2016, the population was 1,119,307,147. Lagos, a city located in Nigeria to the west, is the largest city in Africa by population. Algeria is the largest country by land area (Kroner et al., 2018; World Atlas, 2018). Africa is renowned for its diverse

D. N. Chambers (*) Department of Community Health, National University, San Diego, CA, USA © The Author(s) 2019 T. R. Zolnikov (ed.), Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change, Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01213-7_2

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languages, unparalleled safaris, beaches, history, unique culture, geographic diversity, traditional practices, and wild animals. Compared to other countries, the average age of the population is the youngest in the world. Africa boasts of the Nile River, which is over 4000  miles long, making it the longest river in the world. Moreover, it is home to the second largest lake in the world, namely, Lake Victoria located in Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. The continent is located in both the northern and southern temperate zones, and the equator runs through several countries on the continent (Kroner et al., 2018). Africa, a continent rich in natural resources, is made up of many landlocked countries. Fifty-five countries make up the African Union Member States (African Union, 2018; World Atlas, 2018). This continent is highly susceptible to climate change (Conway & Schipper, 2011).

Climate Change in Africa Africa is a continent that grapples with severe climate change. The continent is currently struggling with increased sea levels, intensified heat waves, droughts, landslides, rainstorms, and floods (Pauleit et al., 2015). Mean average temperature increases in Africa are likely to exceed 2  °C (Niang et  al., 2014). Moreover, the land temperatures over Africa have been projected to increase more than the average global land temperatures (Niang et al., 2014); this scenario means that more of the continent will turn into semi-arid and arid land, which is prone to drought. In addition to this, precipitation will decrease over northern Africa and South Africa, though rainfall will increase in some areas like the Ethiopian Highlands (Niang et al., 2014). Ocean ecosystems will be affected by ocean acidification, warming, and upwellings (Niang et al., 2014). Lastly, all these will affect the existing water availability even more throughout the continent and some areas will become extremely vulnerable to economic stress (e.g. agriculture). Nevertheless, small cities in Africa are well suited for counteracting the challenges of climate change. These cities are able to stimulate climate-­ smart resource management, processing, land use, production, and consumption in their hinterlands (Pauleit et al., 2015). African cities need to adapt and become more resilient to present and future effects of climate change despite the numerous challenges they face (Pauleit et al., 2015). Transformation is visible already, especially in southern African ecosystems (Toulmin, 2009).

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Adaptation and Mitigation The global climate is affected by various human activities, such as burning of fossil fuels. Decreasing emissions of greenhouse gases (e.g. improved energy use, transportation, etc.) can lead to reduced air pollution, which improves health (WHO, 2018). Climate change adaptation entails altering structures, processes, and practices in order to act on the conditions that are constantly transforming (Leal Filho, 2011). On the other hand, climate change mitigation occurs when emissions are reduced and greenhouse gases are contained to reduce the size of the future threat (Leal Filho, 2011). Adaptation to and mitigation of climate change occur within the context of adaptive and mitigative capacity (Leal Filho, 2011). Mitigative capacity is often described as the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions that cause global climate change (Leal Filho, 2011). Climate change and climate variability mostly affect small communities. Data from Africa are disintegrated, outdated, and sometimes non-existent; this makes it difficult to identify the exact small communities properly (Leal Filho, 2011). Community-based adaptation is used as a systematic and participatory approach that reinforces the resilience of African communities and the ecosystems they rely on in light of climate influences (Leal Filho, 2011). It is an action by or for a community to improve or respond to the negative effects of increasing climate dynamics. Consequently, human security and levels of social and economic development are improved (Leal Filho, 2011). Communities that are actively involved in local adaptation efforts to confront both development and climate change objectives (Leal Filho, 2011).

Resiliency Adaptation requires readiness to adapt and to provide the means and abilities for managing the effects of climate change. Additionally, it involves taking appropriate action to reduce the damaging results (Leal Filho, 2011). Improving coastal vegetation offers a conducive base for environmental governance and can reduce soil erosion in the coastal regions of Africa (Leal Filho, 2011). Coastal forest buffer zones can become efficient measures to reinforce the coastal environment and expand its strength to handle future change and the impacts of climate change (Leal Filho, 2011). These areas offer environmental benefits, improve the aesthetic value of landscapes, and increase protection from storms (Leal Filho, 2011). Africa is uniquely positioned to promote resilience by employing

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feasible solutions such as improving productivity and climate-­smart agriculture, enhancing resilience to climate shocks, reducing carbon emissions from deforestation, and restoring forest lands (Williams & Kniveton, 2011). A mapping project that promoted a global networking infrastructure focusing on community-based adaptation to climate change in Africa occurred in 2010. This project demonstrated how local and indigenous awareness are entrenched in such initiatives to challenge both broader development and climate change objectives (Leal Filho, 2011). The identified initiatives were divided into two categories, namely, social and economic resilience. Social Resilience Depending on the perception of risk, networks of community groups are created. Social networks and social capital, for instance, how risks are perceived by rural communities or local saving schemes which regulate behavior toward adaptation, offer social resilience (Leal Filho, 2011; Williams & Kniveton, 2011). The resources available to the communities through their interaction give them power to be sustainable and grow economically (Leal Filho, 2011). Institutions are important in informing policy to improve resilience, for instance, design, function, and governance of institutions which improve or limit adaptive capacity. Development of new strategies leads to improved institutional structures (Leal Filho, 2011). Economic Resilience Viable adaptation measures are needed to decrease vulnerability to both current climate variability and future climate change; their application is not forthright and more interdisciplinary efforts are necessary. Flexibility and resilience to future changes in Africa should be included in adaptation strategies (Williams & Kniveton, 2011). • Diversification of livelihoods, such as income diversification, can reinforce resilience to changes. This was and can be improved by integrating indigenous knowledge in communities (Leal Filho, 2011; Williams & Kniveton, 2011). • Technology, such as seasonal forecasts or improvement of rain-fed systems through water harvesting and conservation techniques or use of new crop varieties, can enhance resilience to shocks. Introduction of new technologies improves soil and water management activities. As a result, food security and risk reduction take place (Leal Filho, 2011; Williams & Kniveton, 2011).

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• Infrastructure, like road networks and additional physical infrastructure can advance adaptive capacity. Existing infrastructure must be improved in order to withstand harsh climate (Leal Filho, 2011; Williams & Kniveton, 2011). • Equity is perceived on numerous scales, for instance local and global capacity to access outside funding sources or donor aid on various levels (Leal Filho, 2011; Williams & Kniveton, 2011). According to a report by the World Bank, there are 24 African countries that will be most affected by impacts of climate change and 16 of these are low-income countries (Leal Filho, 2011). Table  1 illustrates how these African countries are affected by the five climate change outcomes, namely, drought, flood, storm, coastal 1 m, and agriculture. Table 1  Climate change and some effects in Africa Country

Climate change outcomes

Effects

Ethiopia Zimbabwe Niger Malawi

• Drought • Livelihoods of pastoralists are affected. • Agriculture • Pastoralists lack insurance. • Little healthcare coverage to address diseases associated with climate change. • Few technological resources for predicting likelihood of floods or harsh weather. • Traditions and beliefs connected to seasons weakened. • Communities in vulnerable locations are greatly impacted. • Seasonal rivers dry up, pasture dwindles, livestock have no food to eat, and water sources run dry. • Water contamination occurs and water-borne illnesses such as cholera and diarrhea are rapidly spread. • Girls and women walk for long distances to fetch water; therefore girls do not attend school as frequently as required. This hampers their quest for education. • Livestock purchasing power significantly reduces, no food, and the local economy suffers adversely. • Wildlife attack livestock and destroy property and any remaining crops on the land. • Water quality for consumption and other necessary domestic use affected. • Poverty, food insecurity, and deaths. People die as a result of hunger and high child mortality rates are reported. • Malnutrition and death caused by poor nutrition. • A general feeling of social insecurity and disharmony due to lack of sufficient food. (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Country

Climate change outcomes

Mauritania • Drought Mozambique • Flood

Benin Rwanda Madagascar

Flood Storm

Effects

• Livelihoods of pastoralists are affected. • Pastoralists lack insurance. • Little healthcare coverage to address diseases associated with climate change. • Few technological resources for predicting likelihood of floods or harsh weather. • Traditions and beliefs connected to seasons weakened. • Communities in vulnerable locations are greatly impacted. • Seasonal rivers dry up, pasture dwindles, livestock have no food to eat, and water sources run dry. • Water contamination occurs and water-borne illnesses such as cholera and diarrhea are rapidly spread. • Girls and women walk for long distances to fetch water; therefore girls do not attend school as frequently as required. This hampers their quest for education. • Livestock purchasing power significantly reduces, no food, and the local economy suffers adversely. • Wildlife attack livestock and destroy property and any remaining crops on the land. • Water quality for consumption and other necessary domestic use affected. • Poverty, food insecurity, and deaths. People die as a result of hunger and high child mortality rates are reported. • Malnutrition and death caused by poor nutrition. • A general feeling of social insecurity and disharmony due to lack of sufficient food. • Homes are destroyed or damaged. • Loss of both human and animal lives. • Environmental degradation. (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Country

Climate change outcomes

Effects

Egypt Tunisia Tanzania Libya Senegal

Coastal 1 m

Sudan Mali Zambia Morocco Algeria Eritrea Chad Kenya

Agriculture

• Increase in storms, rising sea level, and repeated natural hazards. • Deforestation, coastal erosion, and access to and ownership of natural resources. • Seaweed farming increases soil erosion, and causes loss of coastal vegetation and deforestation. • Beach erosion caused by cutting of mangroves, building infrastructure too close to the high watermark, beach sand extraction, and building jetties. • Compromised agricultural production. Low adaptive capacity. • Food insecurity. • Poor crop yield. Total loss of agricultural production.

Drought

• Livelihoods of pastoralists are affected. • Pastoralists lack insurance. • Little healthcare coverage to address diseases associated with climate change. • Few technological resources for predicting likelihood of floods or harsh weather. • Traditions and beliefs connected to seasons weakened. • Communities in vulnerable locations are greatly impacted. • Seasonal rivers dry up, pasture dwindles, livestock have no food to eat, and water sources run dry. • Water contamination occurs and water-borne illnesses such as cholera and diarrhea are rapidly spread. • Girls and women walk for long distances to fetch water; therefore girls do not attend school as frequently as required. This hampers their quest for education. • Livestock purchasing power significantly reduces, no food, and the local economy suffers adversely. • Wildlife attack livestock and destroy property and any remaining crops on the land. • Water quality for consumption and other necessary domestic use affected. • Poverty, food insecurity, and deaths. People die as a result of hunger and high child mortality rates are reported. • Malnutrition and death caused by poor nutrition. • A general feeling of social insecurity and disharmony due to lack of sufficient food.

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The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change warns that countries may be pushed into poverty and that further progress in reaching the Millennium Development Goals will be thwarted (Leal Filho, 2011). To prevent shortcomings, sustainable development proprieties and climate change adaptation should be in line with each other and included on all levels from national to local and in all sectors (Leal Filho, 2011).

Limitations to Successful Adaptation Adaptation planning succeeds as a result of proper climate change projection. Predicting how the climate will change in the future, identifying the correct impacts that can be connected with it and when, as well as where to expect these impacts to happen can greatly facilitate adaptation planning (Leal Filho, 2011). It has become gradually accepted that current climate models might have miscalculated the impacts of population on climate change (Leal Filho, 2011). Climate change is sometimes excluded from context, and hence it fails to be part of discussion of vital developmental issues (Leal Filho, 2011). Some difficulties that indicate the need for further research on climate change include: 1. Failure of climate change adaptation works to contextualize climate change risks within the set of other climate data used in making decisions 2. Isolation of climate change impacts from the broader context in which developments are taking place 3. Failure to understand vulnerability context Before any adaptation occurs, it is vital for stakeholders to be aware of climatic changes in order to decide whether or not to accept suitable measures (Leal Filho, 2011).

Climate Change Adaptation and Indigenous Knowledge Systems The susceptibility of food security in Kenya is affected by the rising changes in the persistence, frequency, and intensity of rainfall and temperature extremes (Leal Filho, 2011). Shorter growing seasons and extended

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intra-­seasonal dry spells usually cause massive collapses of harvest on a scale that homes cannot handle. Consequently, crop production declines, leading to a rise in risk of food insecurity (Leal Filho, 2011). Some of the communities in Nandi and Keiyo districts, Kenya, have come up with indigenous, innovative ways of surviving these shocks caused by climate change and reducing susceptibility to food insecurity. The coping strategies include going an entire day without food during seasons of acute food shortage. More than 30% of households reduce their meal portions. A traditional coping strategy known as kesumet is used, whereby household members are sent to seek food assistance from relatives or friends (Leal Filho, 2011). To deal with climate change issues, households have created indigenous knowledge and information systems of weather patterns that assist them to prepare for unusual events. Most of these knowledge systems are based on environmental resources; therefore, increased environmental degradation and the death of older members threaten the indigenous knowledge systems (Leal Filho, 2011). Households observe the diverse behaviors and characteristics of animals, plants, celestial bodies, and wind patterns as vital traditional ecological and climatic indicators that influence the planting dates, seed selection, harvest times, consumption patterns, and asset management of households (Leal Filho, 2011). These communities predict the onset of rains by using indicators such as the flowering or shading of leaves of certain indigenous tree species, for instance, setiot, the direction of the wind, bird and insect migration (Leal Filho, 2011). Most households plant indigenous crops that mature early and can evade drought or survive under limited rainfall (Leal Filho, 2011). A traditional practice called seed banking that is still currently utilized for crops like millet, maize, and sorghum is part of seed broadcasting techniques in small kitchen gardens. These seeds are preserved by smoking or covering them in ash, to deter anyone from consuming them as food (Leal Filho, 2011). Some of the issues these communities grapple with include irregular rainfall patterns, shorter growing seasons, and excessively long dry spells. As a result, crop production reduces, livelihood opportunities are affected, and food prices are increased, causing households to be more vulnerable to food insecurity. Risks to food insecurity are the result of persistent agro-climatic conditions, a combination of numerous economic, social, and environmental factors like access to food, ecological health, changing climate conditions, and affordability and availability (Leal Filho, 2011). Despite these looming risks, the Nandi and Keiyo communities in Kenya continue to have

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rain-fed subsistence production systems. They have an important, dynamic, diversified, and cost-effective resource that enables them to survive and produce under conditions of risk without exposing them to maladaptation and more risks (Leal Filho, 2011). Local communities in Africa, which commonly employ traditional indicators to predict weather patterns, temperature, humidity, wind, lightning, and clouds, should partner with the Kenya Meteorological Department (Leal Filho, 2011). Consequently, this will guarantee the incorporation of the existing systems with the established weather forecasting techniques for simpler broadcasting. In addition, varieties of traditional food crops that are appropriate for local agro-ecological conditions need to be identified. Also, extensive research needs to be carried out to improve their tolerance to harsh climates (Leal Filho, 2011). Another suggestion is to establish community food reserves besides the existing government food strategic reserves. This will inspire communities and thus motivate them to strive toward achieving local food security and to expand opportunities for promoting their crops (Leal Filho, 2011).

Adaptation Methods and Country-Specific Approaches Throughout Africa, there have been several adaptation methods and approaches taken by individual countries to combat areas that are affected by climate change. For example, forest and woodlands indirectly sustain the adaption of economies to climate change by reducing the costs of climate-­ related negative influences. This is because forest ecosystems reduce susceptibility to the effects of climate change. Thus, commercial forestry builds resiliency among Africans because it is a source of employment throughout the continent, contributes to national incomes, maintains trade and industry sector, supports livelihood and food production, and creates employment (Leal Filho et al., 2017). There are other countries that have created specific improvements in sectors in order to contribute to climate change resiliency. Two prominent countries are Ethiopia and Nigeria. Ethiopia Soil erosion is one of the most severe environmental issues in Ethiopia. Climate change aggravates this problem, which has the potential to lower agricultural productivity by 10–20% (Leal Filho et al., 2017). Consequently,

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Ethiopia has taken on soil and water conservation technologies as a key adaptation strategy. Stone terraces are used by farmers for soil and water conservation, which reduce runoff and soil loss by improving soil structure, enhancing infiltration and soil resistance to detachment because of increased soil cover (Leal Filho et al., 2017). The famine that swept over Ethiopia in 1973/1974 caused land degradation as a result of soil erosion. Land reclamation projects as well as soil and water conservation projects emerged under the support of donor agencies. Degraded areas are being rehabilitated. Diverse conservation structures, related to distinctive types of soil, topography such as stone bunds, and rainfall conditions, were established. Moreover, different cities in Ethiopia have adopted water harvesting in drier areas, tree planting on hillsides and catchment areas, construction of earth dams, check dams, and ponds, diversion of drains, gully plugging, and traces (Leal Filho et al., 2017). Nigeria Irrigation promotes climate change adaptation and resilient agriculture in Nigeria. To ensure sustainable agricultural production and food security in Nigeria, farmers are expanding the area under irrigation. Additionally, other subsectors of agriculture are being enhanced. A shift in policy occurs when the rain-fed agricultural production is advanced to irrigation system of agricultural production (Leal Filho et al., 2017). Farmers in northern Nigeria continue to recycle garbage and use it as organic manure to survive the negative climate change effects on soil, thus restoring soil fertility and enhancing agricultural production (Leal Filho et al., 2017). Nigerians have also adapted the rhumbu indigenous storage and conservation best practice that safeguards against post-harvest losses that are caused by prevalence of pests and drought conditions linked to climate change. Maize, millet, sorghum, and cowpea are stored in the barn, which is fumigated using smoke that is produced from hot charcoals placed inside it overnight. The bottom and sides of the barn are lined with pepper powder, ashes, and a malodorous plant called Buzurun fadama (Hyptis spicigera) in Hausa, a native language that is spoken in Nigeria. The crops are spread inside in an alternating manner, layer by layer until all the crops are stored (Leal Filho et al., 2017). The characteristic, pungent smell of the substances deters insects from attacking the stored crops. A strong lid is then placed on the barn and then sealed with clay. Crops are well preserved for between 10 months and over a year. The rhumbu can survive for about three years before decreasing its efficiency. It is an indigenous

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technology that has been used by farmers in northern Nigeria for several decades and continues to be used (Leal Filho et al., 2017). Stacking of maize, sorghum, and millet on treetops is a vegetative best practice that is used in Nigeria as a conservation measure for feeding livestock during periods of drought and for other household uses such as roof thatching and fencing. Farmers use this method to preserve stalks from destructive activities of pests such as termites, rodents, and human thieves (Leal Filho et al., 2017). Communities in Nyando, western Kenya, deal with climate-related risks by varying crop choices by using improved agronomic practices and high diversification. Households are using more than three crops and significantly expanding on farm choices for resilient crop varieties (Leal Filho et al., 2017). Kenya has developed the National Climate-Smart Agriculture Program 2015–2030 to deal with climate change risks. The program was established by the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (Leal Filho et  al., 2017). These are research locations where scientists, development partners, and local farmers have collaborated to reduce local climate risks and vulnerabilities, thus increasing agricultural systems that are resilient (Leal Filho et al., 2017). The project Climate-Smart Villages aims to act on climate variability, decrease periodic hunger, guarantee food security, and improve household incomes (Leal Filho et al., 2017). The farmers are using improved livestock breeds, mixed cropping, crop diversification, irrigation, tree planting, diversification of livelihoods, and improved early-warning systems that monitor drought and seasonal forecasts (Leal Filho et al., 2017).

Policies African nations have signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; additionally, the Kyoto Protocol was approved by most of these countries. This indicated how essential it was for government to be affiliated with existing institutions and policies and generate new ones that will promote adaptation and mitigation programs to tackle climate change. Presently, a governments in countries such as Kenya, Senegal, South Africa, Ghana, the Democratic Republic of Congo are in the early stages of increasing policies related to climate change and the carbon market (Leal Filho et  al., 2017). For example, South Africa has established a working paper on climate change policy that summarizes some significant areas pertinent to sustainable forest management, similar

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to Ghana and Senegal. Kenya has similarly cutting-edge strategies, and has drafted a climate change policy and a climate change bill to mainstream climate change into distinctive sectors. In addition, it has strategies of evolving REDD+ Strategy to control its operations in the country to be in line with an existing draft on national policy on carbon finance and emission trading. This draft policy aims to lead the setting up of legal, regulatory, and institutional frameworks for emerging and handling carbon trade for sustainable development (Leal Filho et al., 2017). The policy aims to create a carbon sector which will support sustainable development programs, improve Kenya’s balance of payments, tap into international climate change finances, provide employment and economic change, increase access to innovative research and technology, and nurture involvement of the private sector in carbon investment and trading. The policy envisions creating a carbon trade regulator that is independent and similar to the Capital Markets Authority to oversee the market, ensuring financial transparency and correctness while delivering guarantees and confidence to global funds, development partners, and private investors (Leal Filho et al., 2017). National policies should also encourage the inclusion of forest adaptation in the framework of sustainable forest management and encourage inter-­sectoral coordination for linking forest and other sectors in adaptation policies (Leal Filho et al., 2017). Afforestation and reforestation programs are renowned as Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (Leal Filho et al., 2017). A Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy was launched in 2011 by Ethiopia. The country has witnessed positive economic growth over the last ten years; thus, Ethiopia has become aware of challenges that exist in building a ­middle-­income country that is both resilient to the impacts of climate change and is low-carbon (Leal Filho et al., 2017). Two main components constitute this policy initiative: green economy and climate resilience. The Green Economy strategy was driven corresponding with the CRGE vision in November 2011. Its objectives are to support Ethiopia in attaining the middle-income threshold by 2025 while observing carbon-neutral growth of the country. Several elements and focus areas of this strategy have been recognized and planning is under way. The Climate Resilience (CR) strategy has developed in a different way by focusing on sector. Both the Agriculture and Forestry Strategy and Water and Energy CR strategy papers were introduced in 2015 (Leal Filho et al., 2017). The Agriculture and Forestry Strategy places emphasis on agricultural crops, livestock, forestry, food security, and disaster prevention (Leal Filho et al., 2017). This strategy has a total annual investment that is estimated

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at approximately USD 1 billion. Forty percent of this amount is geared toward government investment through the Ministry of Agriculture, while private sector investment is at 20% and is estimated to rise to more than 40% by 2030 (Leal Filho et al., 2017). The Water and Energy Strategy is intended to protect all these vital sectors. Rainfall mainly contributes to the growth of Ethiopia’s hydropower supply, and therefore evaluating and reducing the challenges related to rainfall variability will be paramount to enhancing food security and livelihoods in Ethiopia (Leal Filho et al., 2017). The CRGE strategy document acknowledges both the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) and the Environmental Policy of Ethiopia. The GTP is the main government policy instrument that controls the significant economic and social development efforts of Ethiopia. Also, it creates a goal for Ethiopia to achieve middle-income country status by 2025 via steady double-digit growth. Consequently, it will become carbon-­ neutral (Leal Filho et al., 2017). In order to reach this goal, the country is focusing on developing export growth, boosting agricultural productivity, and strengthening the industrial base (Leal Filho et al., 2017). Impact of Climate Change on Africa The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change describes climate change as any change in climate over a period of time, caused by either natural variability or human activity (Leal Filho, 2011). Africa is likely to be the worst affected region by any climate variability and forthcoming climate change (Pauleit et al., 2015; Williams & Kniveton, 2011). Africa is considered to be one of the most vulnerable continents to climate change and variability due to HIV/AIDS prevalence, rapid population increase at numerous levels, land degradation and desertification, overdependence on subsistence agriculture, decreasing runoff from water catchments, overdependence on rain-fed agriculture, insufficient government mechanisms, low adaptive capacity, and regular natural disasters (e.g. floods and droughts) (Leal Filho, 2011; Williams & Kniveton, 2011). The most susceptible communities to the impacts of climate change are found in dry regions (Leal Filho, 2011). Africa remains susceptible to climate change sensitivity, which becomes worse due to existing developmental challenges, for instance, limited access to capital, including markets, infrastructure, and technology, high illiteracy levels, poor management capacity, low GDP per capita, inadequate primary

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health care, degradation of ecosystems, weak institutions, policy planning experiencing gender inequality, extensive, endemic poverty, and armed conflicts and complicated disasters. Such matters contribute to Africa’s feeble adaptive capacity, hence causing it to be predisposed to climate change (Leal Filho, 2011). Human, political, economic, and ecological systems are affected by climate change in Africa. Furthermore, ingenuity and policy agendas have been infiltrated by climate change (Leal Filho, 2011). Excessive dependency on agriculture, inadequate ability to adapt, and unfavorable direct effects (e.g., some regions, particularly Eastern Africa, have been predicted to get wetter while Southern Africa is getting drier) are some impacts of climate change on the continent that are predicted to be severe (Collier, Conway, & Venables, 2008). As mentioned, climate change may cause storms, drought, floods, and decreased food production (Leal Filho, 2011). Africa relies heavily on agriculture as the backbone of its economy. However, climate change negatively affects livestock and crop production, thus reducing food production on the continent. Food production will need to be improved in order to meet food demands (Leal Filho, 2011). Projections for the impact of climate change have been made for certain regions. For instance, the southern African region is predicted to experience a decline in total rainfall and an increase in dry spells during the wet season. Consequently, these conditions will negatively impact crops, economic development, and livestock production (Williams & Kniveton, 2011). Unaddressed, climate change can contribute to local extinction of some fauna species, soil erosion, scarcity of pasture and water, and conflicts due to lack of resources (Leal Filho, 2011). As a result, livelihoods are negatively affected due to livestock and human diseases, food shortage, family and social instability, and insecurity (Leal Filho, 2011).

Health Effects Africa is currently experiencing extreme weather conditions. Consequently, many Africans have suffered and continue to suffer severe health problems due to heat waves. Natural disasters, for instance, floods, and diseases such as malaria and other emerging infectious diseases continue to remain rampant. Climate strongly influences the occurrence and spread of malaria, which is transmitted by the Anopheles mosquitoes in Africa (Leal Filho, 2011).

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According to the World Health Organization, changes in patterns of the spread of infectious diseases commonly result in climate change in dry regions (Leal Filho, 2011). Malaria remains a major threat in Africa, causing between 1.5 and 2.7 million deaths per annum. Of these deaths, 90% are children below 5  years of age. Additionally, malaria retards Africa’s economic growth by up to 1.3% per year (Leal Filho, 2011). Approximately 600,000 people, the majority being children under 5 years old, die from malaria per year (WHO, 2018). The social and environmental determinants of health are affected by climate change in Africa. The mortality rate is predicted to increase by an additional 250,000 deaths per year between 2030 and 2050 (WHO, 2018). Children, the elderly, and people living with preexisting medical conditions who are residing in poor nations will be most affected by climate change (WHO, 2018). Negative health effects are witnessed all over the world as we notice climate change having significant effects on environmental and social determinants of health, such as secure shelter, clean air, and safe drinking water (WHO, 2018). Kenya has experienced droughts, for instance, between 1991 and 1992 and 1997 and 2000. Several communities lost their livestock and suffered malnutrition. Also, many people all over the country died due to lack of food and water (Leal Filho, 2011). During the worst floods that Kenya has ever experienced during El Nino in 1997/1998, human and livestock diseases spread rapidly. Many Kenyans suffered from cholera, Rift Valley diseases, and malaria. A simple sand filtration system or cloth filters could be used to improve the quality of drinking water and decrease rates of water-borne diseases would be valuable in improving health conditions in Africa (Leal Filho, 2011). These are ideas that can be used to promote overall health, as well as improve population health as a result of climate change.

Impact on Energy, Development, and the Economy Approximately 30% of sub-Saharan Africa suffers from extreme poverty and food insecurity (Leal Filho, 2011). The population is expected to double by 2050 due to several political, environmental, and socioeconomic factors. Africa contends with its ability to adapt to climate change (Williams & Kniveton, 2011). For example, Kenya experiences anthropogenic impacts that contribute to climate change. These include a decrease in tree cover on farmlands, deforestation and soil erosion, overutilization and degradation of natural

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resources, and industrialization (Leal Filho, 2011). The impact of climate change on Kenya may worsen over the next few years due to the anticipated rise in temperatures (Leal Filho, 2011). Weather patterns continue to change with decreased rainfall and increased evaporation rates in the dry regions. According to the Kenya meteorological department, rainfall may increase by 5–20% during December–March and will decrease between by 5–10% in June–August (Leal Filho, 2011). Kenya’s economy is susceptible to climate change, which is worsened by poverty, poor governance, corruption, limited access to capital and markets, poor infrastructure, poor technology, complex natural disasters, and ecosystem degradation (Leal Filho, 2011). Alternative types of energy, for instance, biogas (livestock dung) and crop residue, are recommended to conserve energy in Africa. In addition, energy efficiency could be increased by using fuel-efficient wood stoves and decreasing negative health impacts (Leal Filho, 2011).

Conclusion Africa will be severely affected by climate change for many reasons, such as a feasible direction toward strengthening the coastal forest buffer zones in Africa would be including multiple stakeholders, stricter policy enforcement of building and environmental rules, and better and more equal access to the surviving natural resources (Leal Filho, 2011). For example, enhanced climate adaptation in Zanzibar needs additional resources among local institutions that are in charge of resource management. To accomplish this, availability of training courses, more expertise and funding in climate modeling, as well as using social science approaches in climate change adaptation and via multi-sectoral collaboration toward a national adaptation policy precisely for Zanzibar are recommended (Leal Filho, 2011). Adaptation needs to be locally sourced and driven instead of it stemming from external sources (Leal Filho, 2011). A positive example occurs in Kenya, which is a country committed to increasing biomes under protected zones like forests, marine parks, national parks, heritage sites, and reserves (Leal Filho, 2011). The coverage for inland waters is insufficient. More marine parks and reserves may be established as a result of the integrated zone management strategy (Leal Filho, 2011). Strategies that promote sustainable development without resulting in increased emissions of greenhouse gases need to be promoted (Leal Filho, 2011).

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Farmers have a low ability to adapt to the shocks caused by climate change. If their ability to cope remains low, they will continue to face more hardship. Low adaptation occurs as a result of inability to employ the necessary measures that make it possible to cope with the consequences of climate change (Leal Filho, 2011). Shortage of food and water is one of the consequences of climate change in Africa. Advanced satellite technology could be useful to monitor droughts and enhance early-­ warning systems in diverse regions all over the continent. These systems, integrated with proper policies, can effectively prevent famine and starvation in regions that lack food security (Leal Filho, 2011). Land degradation in eastern and southern regions of Africa is caused by conventional tillage, poor husbandry practices, and mono-cropping. Droughts in these regions are worsened by unsuitable and weak farming methods (Leal Filho, 2011). Consequently, practicing conventional tillage leads to average annual losses of top soil accumulating to about 35 t/ha (Leal Filho, 2011). A reduction of organic matter, phosphate, and nitrogen also occurs. Conservation farming, which is a combination of traditional and scientific crop and soil management practices of food production under sensitive tropical circumstances, is therefore performed to enhance sustainability in farming (Leal Filho, 2011). Another positive adaptation technique is Radio and Internet technology (RANET), which was developed by national meteorological services in Africa. As a result, climate-related and development data is dispersed to rural communities. Indigenous knowledge components are included by RANET in broadcast messages in order to enhance accuracy and reliability of data (Leal Filho, 2011). All of these suggestions and solutions can contribute to climate change resiliency in Africa. These individual country-specific adaptations can help create resiliency on a more general platform that can improve climate change effects in Africa. Together, these shifts and changes will be able to improve outcomes in populations that are more at risk, because of their vulnerable socioeconomic status.

References African Union. (2018). Member state profiles. Retrieved from https://au.int/ en/memberstates Collier, P., Conway, G., & Venables, T. (2008). Climate change and Africa. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 24(2), 337–353.

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Conway, D., & Schipper, E. L. F. (2011). Adaptation to climate change in Africa: Challenges and opportunities identified from Ethiopia. Global Environmental Change, 21(1), 227–237. Kroner, et al. (2018). Africa Continent. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa Leal Filho, W. (2011). Experiences of climate change adaptation in Africa. Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. Leal Filho, W., Simane, B., Kalangu, J., Wuta, M., Munishi, P., & Musiyiwa, K. (2017). Climate change adaptation in Africa. Switzerland: Springer. Niang, I., Ruppel, O. C., Abdrabo, M. A., Essel, A., Lennard, C., Padgham, J., et al. (2014). Africa. In V. R. Barros et al. (Eds.), Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part B: Regional aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp.  1199–1265). Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Pauleit, S., Coly, A., Fohlmeister, S., Gasparini, P., Jorgensen, G., Kabisch, S., et  al. (2015). Urban vulnerability and climate change in Africa. Cham, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London: Springer. Toulmin, C. (2009). Climate change in Africa. London and New  York: Zed Books. Williams, C. J. R., & Kniveton, D. R. (2011). African climate and climate change. Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London, New York: Springer. World Atlas. (2018). How many countries are there in Africa? Retrieved from https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/how-many-countries-are-in-africa.html World Health Organization. (2018). Climate change. Retrieved from http:// www.afro.who.int/health-topics/climate-change

Antarctica Danielle Cook and Tessa Rava Zolnikov

Abstract  Antarctica has already begun to experience marked negative effects from climate change. This chapter will discuss the need for much more research and data collection to learn Antarctica’s larger role and background processes that influence the global climate system as well as to understand protective treaty, conventions, and protocols that are in place to protect the Antarctic environment and ecosystems, with an eye toward future potential frictions among different party interests. Keywords  Climate change • Antarctica • Resiliency and adaptation • Policy • Sea-level rise • Patagonian fisheries • Antarctic fisheries • Ecological effects • Biodiversity loss

D. Cook (*) Department of Community Health, National University, San Diego, CA, USA T. R. Zolnikov School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA © The Author(s) 2019 T. R. Zolnikov (ed.), Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change, Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01213-7_3

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Introduction Antarctica is the fifth largest continent and covers the southernmost part of the earth, with most of its mass being found predominantly within the area enclosed by the Antarctic Circle. It is the planet’s geographic South Pole. Antarctica’s size varies seasonally due to expanding coastal sea ice but is generally accepted to be approximately 5,400,000 square miles (14,000,000 square kilometers) in area; for context, the United States has an area of 3,600,000 square miles (9,360,000 square kilometers) (Redd, 2012). Most of Antarctica is covered in thick ice averaging 1.2 miles (2 kilometers) in thickness. The continent is divided into two primary regions, separated by a mountain range that runs across the continent, called the Transantarctic Mountains. On either side of this range are East Antarctica and West Antarctica, respectively. East Antarctica comprises a two-thirds majority of the continent’s landmass and is the more continental aspect of Antarctica; it is covered in sheet ice. West Antarctica comprises the smaller one-third of the continent’s landmass and consists of a series of islands that stretch toward the southernmost tip of South America; a smaller continental area that is covered in sheet ice, the Ronne Ice Shelf on the Weddell Sea side of West Antarctica, and the Ross Ice Shelf on the Ross Sea side of West Antarctica. The West Antarctica continental ice sheet currently sits below sea level and is warmer than the higher-elevation East Antarctica, which is colder due to this higher elevation and more continental influences in the interior (Redd, 2012). Despite all of its ice, Antarctica is a designated polar desert, with a large area of the East Antarctic ice sheet receiving less than 5 cm of water equivalent snowfall a year (Turner et al., 2009). Most of the snowfall received in Antarctica is in the coastal regions.  To date, Antarctica has  approximately one-tenth of the planet’s land surface, which includes 90% of earth’s ice and 70% of its fresh water (Kennicutt et al., 2014). There are no permanent indigenous inhabitants living on Antarctica; however, there are several governments that have permanently manned research stations and field camps on the continent and nearby islands. These stations and camps are manned by scientists and researchers from around the world, with the population fluctuating depending on the season. The summer season brings an increase in the number of staff. Antarctica is claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom, with the United States and

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Russia having reserved the right to make claims (the United States does not recognize any other international claims). There have been no formal claims in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west (Central Intelligence Agency, 2018). The governing of Antarctica is done based on an international treaty signed in 1959, the Antarctic Treaty, as well as three other major international agreements: the 1972 Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, the 1980 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), and the 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Australian Government, 2016a, 2017).

Climate Change in Antarctica According to Clarke, Johnston, Murphy, and Rogers (2007), three areas of the globe are currently experiencing rapid climate change in their regions: the Antarctic Peninsula, northwestern North America, and an area in central Siberia. Rapid warming of the Antarctic Peninsula has drawn considerable attention and concern, although a significant meteorological trend of increased temperatures across the continent is yet to be seen: some regions are warming and others are cooling (Clarke et  al., 2007). As will be discussed later in this chapter, more data and research is needed to understand the processes and factors that are occurring. A significant portion of the current data is focused on the coastal regions of the continent (Clarke et al., 2007). Larsen et al. (2014) have reported that the strongest rates of warming are occurring in the western Antarctic Peninsula.

Effects of Climate Change The effects of climate change on Antarctica are both tangible and unknown. Some of the tangible effects include: • Sea ice and physical environment changes to the west of the Antarctic Peninsula • Ecological effects stemming from decreased duration and extent of ice and snow cover, enhanced permafrost thaw, and changes in precipitation-­evaporation balance • Inability of natural systems, wildlife, flora, and other organisms to adapt at the increased pace of climate change

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• Increased vulnerability to invasions by non-indigenous species • Ocean acidification • Melting of the large ice sheet of West Antarctica • Loss of ice sheets and significant loss of snow and ice banks, resulting in more open ground Some climate change effects, vulnerability, and areas affected are depicted in Table 1. Table 1  Some effects of climate change and areas affected in Antarctica Climate change effect

Vulnerability

Areas affected

Sea ice and physical environment changes to the west of the Antarctic Peninsula

Altering stocks and productivity of phytoplankton and krill, leading to potential effects in the Patagonian toothfish fisheries and Patagonian and Antarctic krill fisheries Terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems

Sea ice to the west of the Antarctic Peninsula; ocean fisheries in Patagonia and Antarctic

Embryos of Antarctic krill; potentially the larger krill fishery

Ocean surrounding Antarctica; food webs in Antarctica and its surrounding ocean; larger krill fishery as a whole (Antarctica, Patagonia) Global

Ecological effects stemming from decreased duration and extent of ice and snow cover, enhanced permafrost thaw, and changes in precipitation-­ evaporation balance Inability of natural systems, wildlife, flora, and other organisms to adapt at the increased pace of climate change Increased vulnerability to invasions by non-indigenous species Ocean acidification

Melting of the large ice sheet of West Antarctica Loss of ice sheets, significant loss of snow and ice banks

Antarctic freshwater systems (lakes, ponds, short streams, and seasonally wetted areas); continental lakes; aquatic ecosystems of Antarctica Biodiversity loss; possible loss Antarctic continent and of tourism stemming from this ocean surrounding loss of biodiversity, loss or Antarctica endangered status of the wildlife tourists seek to see in Antarctica Terrestrial ecosystems Antarctic continent

Potential for significant climate-induced sea-level rise Consequent increase in open West Antarctica; ground, exacerbating warming Antarctic Peninsula trends

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Sea Ice and Physical Environment Changes Climate change is affecting both land and sea in Antarctica (Clarke et al., 2007). Changes to sea ice and the physical environment to the west of the Antarctic Peninsula have been found to be altering phytoplankton and krill stocks and productivity (Larsen et  al., 2014), leading to potential effects in the Patagonian toothfish fisheries and Patagonian and Antarctic krill fisheries. More specifically, these shifts in sea ice affect key habitat for juvenile Antarctic krill that are important for the marine ecosystem because of the food and protection it provides (Larsen et al., 2014). Additionally, sea ice is used by seals and penguins during foraging trips for food, with extent and distribution of sea ice altering spatial overlap of predators and prey (Larsen et al., 2014). Ecological Effects Terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems (e.g., lakes, ponds, short-term streams, and seasonally wetted areas) in Antarctica are beginning to be affected by the ecological effects of climate change stemming from decreased duration and extent of ice and snow cover, enhanced permafrost thawing, and changes in precipitation-evaporation balance (Larsen et  al., 2014). In regions where this climatic effect has been occurring, research is showing increased water column temperatures and changes in water column stratification, as well as increased salinity in lakes caused by warm climates that contribute to evaporation and sublimation (Fountain et al., 2016; Hodgson et al., 2005; Larsen et al., 2014). These changes affect freshwater ecosystems’ biota, which are dominated by benthic (an ecological region of body of water, such as a lake, that is defined as the lowest level; bottom) microbial communities that create a simple food web of green and cyanobacteria algae in freshwater lakes (Larsen et al., 2014). Terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems are both affected by thawing permafrost, with biogeochemistry of water entering lakes and rivers, and the ecological structure and function being affected, with one result being enhanced eutrophication (Larsen et  al., 2014). Larsen and colleagues (2014) further described how small increases in temperature can have a significant effect on areas of in freshwater freshwater lakes (Larsen et al.,

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2014). Should climate change effects continue as they have been, ice cover will be affected, and thus water flow and ecological effects will occur, though this will vary depending on each lake’s depth-to-surface area ratio (Larsen et al., 2014). Larsen (2014) cites several colleagues: Longer ice-free seasons may cause physical conditions to be more favorable for primary production, but very high irradiances experienced during summer in some systems can substantially inhibit algal blooms under ice-free conditions, which would favor the growth of benthic cyanobacteria species. In other lakes, increases in meltwater supply may increase suspended solids and reduce light penetration and may offset the increases in the underwater light regime predicted as a result of extended ice-free periods. (p. 1587)

Natural System Adaptability The inability of natural systems, wildlife, flora, and other organisms to adapt at the increased pace of climate change may influence the loss of biodiversity, the possible loss of tourism stemming from this loss of biodiversity, and/or the loss or endangered status of the wildlife tourists seek to see in Antarctica. Larsen and colleagues (2014) explain that the rapid rate at which Antarctic climate change is occurring will impact natural systems’ ability to successfully adapt. Clarke and colleagues (2007) state  that despite evolution and the ability of species to adapt, unfavorable conditions will limit these natural adaptive abilities. Alternatively, climate change may make Antarctica more tolerable for some species with the result of an increase in some ecological communities (Larsen et al., 2014), both indigenous and invasive. As well, some endemic species will be able to more fully adapt because of regional timing, environmental conditions, and available prey (Larsen et al., 2014). Increased Vulnerability to Non-indigenous Species As discussed earlier, a warmer future will have significant effects on biodiversity and biogeochemical cycling, which may leave some ecosystems at an increased risk for detrimental environmental change from invasive species (Fountain et al., 2016). Additionally, an increased rate of invasive species spread due to greater ground exposure caused by sheet ice retreat may become an issue that will need to be mitigated through biosecurity measures, particularly in the wake of potential human activity increases in these terrestrial areas (Larsen et al., 2014).

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Ocean Acidification Research has shown that the embryos of Antarctic krill are vulnerable to increased concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the Southern Ocean (Larsen et al., 2014), as are several other oceanic organisms that form a critical part of the regional food web system. The effects this has on krill embryotic development and post-larval krill metabolic physiology may affect the reproductive success of the species (Larsen et al., 2014), with the potential for larger effects in both the Southern Ocean food webs, and Antarctic and Patagonian krill fisheries. Much is still unknown about circumpolar productivity because of regional variability of positive and negative climate change effects on the different factors that affect krill, directly and indirectly (Larsen et al., 2014). It is possible that krill will utilize the full depth of the ocean, which could allow them to find refuge from both warmer water temperatures and air-breathing predators (Larsen et  al., 2014). West Antarctica Ice Sheet Melting The melting of the West Antarctic continental ice sheet presents the potential for significant sea-level rise globally. An increase in sea level would have the short-term, immediate effect of submerging coastal areas and increasing the incidence of coastal area (land) flooding, and the introduction of saltwater into land surface waters (Nicholls & Cazenave, 2010). Long-term, future effects would include increased erosion to coastal land areas and the introduction of saltwater into groundwater, which is used for drinking water in many areas, and coastal wetlands (e.g., mangroves and saltmarshes) would decrease due to increased sea levels, which provide storm water surge and flood protection in some areas; all of which would have direct and indirect impacts on the socioeconomics of many coastal regions (Nicholls & Cazenave, 2010). As will be discussed later in this chapter, if sea-level rise continues as models and analyses indicate, the impact on coastal populations are poised to be severe and outcomes could affect 187 million people (Nicholls et al., 2011). Significant Loss of Snow and Ice Banks The atmospheric warming of the Antarctic Peninsula and West Antarctica has increased the length of the summer melt period, leading to many

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­ laciers retreating in the last 50 years, with the average rate of acceleration g increasing (Clarke et al., 2007). This warming has also produced the loss of multiple layers of ice sheets in the last 50 years, and a significant loss of snow and ice banks, resulting in an increase in open ground (Clarke et al., 2007). An increase of open ground and less snow and ice means a marked difference in albedo (e.g., reflectivity of a surface; percentage of radiation returning from a given surface compared to the amount of radiation initially striking that surface), particularly snow-albedo feedback. The melting of snow and ice allows more solar energy to reach the surface of the earth, which further raises the temperature of the surface. Snow and ice are high-albedo surfaces, and allow low absorption of sunlight, which leads to gradual or minimal surface warming. An increase in water surfaces, that is, ocean, such as we would have as ice shelves continue to melt, also markedly affects the earth’s energy and heat balance. Water’s albedo is around 10%, meaning it absorbs most of the radiation that reaches it (Clarke et al., 2007). This compounds acidification and warming of oceans with detrimental effects on fisheries and biodiversity, enhanced iceberg and coastal water ice bank melting, and increased effects on ocean surface air temperatures that consequently have a global effect on the climate and atmospheric conditions. Environmental and ecological feedback loops interact to detrimental effect (Clarke et al., 2007).

Mitigation: A Hope for Future Understanding Mitigation of climate change on Antarctica is predominantly focused on research and fisheries. As has been discussed in this chapter, local landmass transformations from loss of ice, ocean circulation changes, and atmospheric ozone recovery have local and global climatic, biodiversity, sea-­ level, and societal consequences (Kennicutt et al., 2014). Per Kennicutt and colleagues (2014), defining the global reach of how Antarctica’s atmosphere and Southern Ocean affect the planet’s energy budgets, temperature gradients, and air chemistry and circulation is key to understanding local and global implications of climate change; little is known about these processes at this time. Gales, Trathan, and Worby (2014) propose that in the coming years, research, international party priorities, environmental ­protection, and resource utilization will experience points of tension, particularly as the 2048 ban on mining per the Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty comes up for review. With the increase of ice-free ground leading to easier extraction possibili-

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ties, there is speculation that exploiting extractive resources may become a more pressing issue (Gales et al., 2014). Balancing these many different and varied priorities will require a coordinated international effort within the interdisciplinary scientific body, with expanded joint projects and sharing of knowledge to move forward with maximum scientific and technological return and minimized detrimental influences on an already taxed environment and ecosystem (Kennicutt et al., 2014). It is of utmost importance to establish or continue, monitoring and warning systems (Larsen et al., 2014). Additionally, research and data need to be collected and analyzed to further the understanding of climate-induced processes that influence the increasingly rapid sea-level rise, with specific attention to the role of West Antarctic (and Greenland) ice sheet melting, producing models that can help us to quantify and more accurately forecast future global effects of sea-level rise (Nicholls et al., 2011). This information must then be used to develop carefully planned actions for adaptation of vulnerable coastal and deltaic regions globally (McGranahan, Balk, & Anderson, 2007). Larsen and colleagues (2014) specify that more research needs to be conducted to understand how ocean acidification may be affecting polar ecosystems. Gales et al. (2014) state that, moving into the future: In the Southern Ocean, an expanding krill fishery responding to a growing human population will test the precautionary management regimes that account for dependent predators such as whales, seals and penguins. Science will need to support sustainable fishery models that integrate the ecological consequences of krill catches with those of climate change. (p. 487)

Additional consideration of fishing for different species or diversifying fishing or other income sources (Larsen et al., 2014) may be a good recommendation for those in Antarctic and Patagonia fisheries, to prevent possible socioeconomic and ecosystem collapses, depending on future effects of climate change and the krill population. While it may be too late for mitigation of some already marked climatic effects on Antarctica, global mitigation of continued climatic change influences can and need to be addressed. Additionally, informative research needs to be carried out, so that processes and systems can be better understood and used to inform other mitigation plans of action (locally and globally) (Table 2). Unified, collaborative action will be key.

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Table 2  Policy in Antarctica Priority sector

Action

Research

Define the global reach of how the Antarctic atmosphere and Southern Ocean affect the planet Coordinated international efforts as an interdisciplinary scientific body with expanded joint projects and sharing of knowledge Sustainable fishery models balancing krill catches and consequences of climate change

Research

Fisheries

Region specific

Country specific Global

Global scientific community

Antarctica; Patagonia; global fishing industry

Adaptation in Antarctica Adaptation from Antarctica’s response to climate change is in large part on the side of the global community. Rising sea levels in low-elevation coastal and deltaic zones are a main consequence of climate change’s effects on Antarctica. The large concentration and continued population growth in coastal zones mean that potential impacts are high (Nicholls et al., 2011). According to McGranahan and colleagues (2007), this includes about 10% of the world’s population. This presents no small concern of importance to some global communities. The magnitude of this effect remains uncertain, given that global warming is most likely to accelerate through the twenty-first century and beyond, and is dependent on the continued melting of the West Antarctic ice sheets—and other melting occurring in Greenland and Alaska—and the extent of changes that will occur at sea level (Nicholls & Cazenave, 2010). Per Nicholls and Cazenave (2010), two main factors that contribute to sea-level rise are (1) thermal expansion of sea water due to ocean warming and (2) water mass input from land ice melt and land water reservoirs. Ocean temperature data collected during the past few decades indicate that ocean thermal expansion has increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century. Those that stand to experience the direct effects of sea-level rise are those in low-elevation coastal and deltaic zones of the small islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans; the Caribbean, Micronesia, and Asia; Africa; parts of mainland Asia; and southern and western coastal areas of Europe.

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Adaptation in the form of protection can greatly decrease the potential impacts. Nicholls et al. (2011) stated that: Most analyses have contrasted the simplest case of protection versus retreat (or land abandonment). While protection has significant costs, the available analyses suggest that in densely populated coastal areas, protection costs are generally much less than the avoided impacts, and protection generally makes economic sense. However, this does not mean that protection will take place, and a question remains about its practicality—and proactive adaptation in general, especially in the world’s poorest countries, such as most small-island states or sub-Saharan Africa. (p. 163)

Nicholls et al. (2011) also stated that while widespread upgrade of protection in the form of sea walls and flood-warning systems in these vulnerable regions can decrease some effects of sea-level rise, it will come with a cost that may be approximately 0.02% GDP. However, the cost could be much higher in some countries with the likelihood of successful implementation being lowest in small island regions, leading to coastal abandonment (Nicholls et al., 2011). Migrations away from some low-elevation coastal and deltaic zones may become necessary, and there may become a need for planning and consideration of how to best implement these costly and difficult solutions with the least disruption to populations, assets, and ecological resources. No small order. Most migrations of displaced populations cause severe disruptions to the migrating population, and the communities they move into. The future of adverse effects related to sea-level rise depends on the ability of society to adapt and, ultimately, cope (Nicholls & Cazenave, 2010). Global understanding, cooperation, and adaptive solutions to our changing and uncertain future with climate change are critical. At this point, mitigation is not a likely option because it is too late for prevention options (McGranahan et al., 2007) (Table 3). Six main treaties currently protect and govern Antarctica: the Antarctic Treaty (1959), the Protocol on Environmental Protection of the Antarctic Treaty (the Madrid Protocol) (1991), the Montreal Protocol (1987), the High Seas Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), the CCAMLR (1982), and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972).

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Table 3  Policy for protection and mitigation Priority sector

Action

Region specific

Country specific

Engineering and strategic planning

Building of sea walls and use of flood-­ warning systems in low-lying areas along coasts and deltas

Low-­ elevation coastal and deltaic zones

Global; small islands of Pacific and Indian Oceans; the Caribbean, Micronesia, and Asia; Africa; parts of Asia; low-lying coastal areas of Europe

Antarctic Treaty (1959) The Antarctic Treaty was signed on December 1, 1959, by 12 countries which had scientists actively working in and around Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year of 1957–1958. It was put into effect two years later in 1961. Since this time, numerous other nations have acceded the treaty, with the total number now at 53 nations (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011a, 2011c). Some important provisions of the Treaty include: • Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only (Art. I) (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011c) • Freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica and cooperation toward that end … shall continue (Art. II) (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011c) • Scientific observations and results from Antarctica shall be exchanged and made freely available (Art. III) (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011c) • Provisions prohibiting all activities related to extractive activities to gain mineral resources; except for extraction for scientific research only (Art. VII) (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011d) • Cooperation in the carrying out of these protections has been a key, central theme for Antarctic Treaty Parties. Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the Madrid Protocol) (1991) The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, also known as the Madrid Protocol, was signed into effect in Madrid on

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October 4, 1991. The Environmental Protocol entering into effect seven years later on January 14, 1998 (Australian Government, 2016c; Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011d). Contracting parties of the Environmental Protocol “‘commit themselves to the comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems and … designate Antarctica as a natural reserve, devoted to peace and science’” (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011b). The Protocol consists of six Annexes of which Annexes I through IV were adopted at the initial 1991 signing of the Protocol, with enforcement beginning in 1998 (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011d). Annex V (Area Protection and Management) was adopted later, in 1991, by the 16th ATCM (the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting), entering into effect in 2002 (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011d). Annex VI (Liability Arising from Environmental Emergencies) was also adopted later, in 2005, by the 28th ATCM, entering into effect once all Consultative Parties had approved it. Each Annex and its specific provisions are as follows as cited by the Australian Government (2016c): • Annex I—Environmental impact assessment • Annex II—Conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora • Annex III—Waste disposal and waste management • Annex IV—Prevention of marine pollution • Annex V—Management of protected areas • Annex VI—Liability for environmental emergencies The Environmental Protocol can only be modified by unanimous agreement of Consultative Parties to the Antarctic Treaty until the 2048 review date (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2011d). The Montreal Protocol The Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987 and is an international agreement to protect the atmospheric ozone layer through phasing out ozone-­ depleting substances. The agreement was created to decrease chlorofluorocarbon emissions and halons (Ahrens, 2015). The Protocol timeline for phase-out of targeted ozone-depleting chemicals was sped up in 1992, with a permanent fund established to help developing nations find or develop ozone-friendly chemicals to replace their ozone-depleting chemicals (Ahrens, 2015).

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This is important to Antarctica as the ozone layer above Antarctica, referred to as “The Ozone Hole,” has been detected to be significantly less concentrated, and distributed unevenly over most of Antarctica (Ahrens, 2015). Atmospheric ozone provides protection from ultraviolet solar radiation. An increase in ultraviolet radiation can have detrimental effects on human skin and eyes as well as those of animals, adverse crop and flora impact, possible altering of stratospheric wind patterns due to cooling of the stratosphere caused by lack of ozone to absorb solar radiation, which also keeps the planet warm, and, of significant importance to Antarctica, decreased ocean phytoplankton growth (Ahrens, 2015). Since the time of the Montreal Protocol’s signing and enforcement, chlorofluorocarbon emissions decreased by 96% between 1986 and 2005 (Ahrens, 2015), with continued need for monitoring and assessment in the future. It is hoped by scientists that ozone layer concentrations globally will increase to pre-1980 levels by 2050, with concentrations over Antarctica likely remaining low until near 2070 (Ahrens, 2015). High Seas Marine Protected Areas International law makes clear provisions for States to protect and preserve marine environments, and to conserve marine resources and biodiversity through the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). These provisions protect marine biodiversity in areas that extend beyond national jurisdictional boundaries. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) can help protect, recover, and maintain ecosystems if properly designed and managed with humans participating accordingly (Gjerde, 2006). MPAs were initially introduced to protect and manage coastal fisheries and ecosystems, with the term having been expanded over the years to include marine refuges, tourism eco-reserves, and research reserves (Dodds & Brooks, 2018). As living resource management practices, MPAs can include interventions that range from being very restrictive “no-take” zones to sustainable commercial fishing and recreational areas (Dodds & Brooks, 2018). In 2016 the Ross Sea was adopted as the world’s largest marine protected area, granted and to be enforced for at least 35 years from the designation. It came into effect in December 2017 (Dodds & Brooks, 2018). This occurred through a joint proposal by a variety of participating parties (e.g., New Zealand, the United States, the European Union) (Dodds & Brooks, 2018). The Ross Sea Marine Protected Area encompasses 1.5 million square kilometers. Of this 1.5 million square kilometers, 1.12 million

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square kilometers are ­designated as a “no-take” zone (Dodds & Brooks, 2018). Additionally, the Ross Sea  Marine Protected Area also contains areas identified as “special research zone” and “krill research zone” (focused on krill research fishing), where limited commercial fishing for research can be done (Dodds & Brooks, 2018).

Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) The CCAMLR came into effect in 1982 and is a part of the Antarctic Treaty System (Australian Government, 2016b). The main objective of the Convention was to conserve Antarctic living marine resources. An important aspect of the Convention was that it requires the conservation of Antarctic living marine resources be subject to “rational use,” and decisions made regarding rational use must be based on an ecosystemic approach (Australian Government, 2016b). This was an unprecedented and far-sighted approach at the time, as most fisheries focused primarily on the status of the commercially targeted species of interest; CCAMLR required that consideration be given to all species in the ecosystem and to conserve ecological relationships (Australian Government, 2016b). As stated by the Australian government (2016b), the Convention defines three principles of conservation to be used when any harvesting is to be done: (1) the prevention of the decrease in the size of any harvested population to levels below those that ensure its stable recruitment; (2) the maintenance of the ecological relationships between harvested, dependent, and related populations, and the restoration of depleted populations; and (3) the prevention of changes or the minimization of the risk of changes in the marine ecosystem which are not potentially reversible over two or three decades.

Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972) The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals was signed on June 1, 1972, entering into effect in 1978. The Convention was created to protect stocks of Antarctic seals from commercial exploitation, enabling their protection and the ability to conduct scientific research on them (Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, 2016). The Convention also allowed for a satisfactory balance of Antarctic seals in the ecosystem, making it possible for seal populations to recover from previous exploitation (Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, 2016) (Table 4).

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Table 4  Policy, objectives, and countries included for climate change focus for Antarctica Policy name

Objective

Participating countries

Antarctic Treaty (1959)

Maintain peace

The Protocol on Environmental Protection of the Antarctic Treaty (the Madrid Protocol) (1991)

Designates Antarctica as a “national reserve, devoted to peace and science,” establishes environmental principles for all activities conducted, prohibits mining and extractive activities, subjects all activities to assessment of their environmental impacts prior to action, establishes the Committee for Environmental Protection which advises ATCM, sets forth environmental emergency response contingency plans, and provides for liability for environmental damage; part of the Antarctic Treaty System Phase out ozone-depleting substances A “general protection zone” where no commercial fishing may take place, a “special research zone,” and a “krill research zone” (focused on krill research fishing) where limited commercial fishing for research can be done Limit commercial activities (exploitation of natural resources, industry, fishery) and protects ecosystem; part of the Antarctic Treaty System Protect stocks of Antarctic seals; part of the Antarctic Treaty System

Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom are seven of the signatories; a total of 53 nations have acceded the Treaty International

The Montreal Protocol (1987) High Seas Marine Protected Areas

Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1982) Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972)

International International; Ross Sea granted protection in 2016

Antarctica and those countries that operated there for research or commercial purposes Antarctica and those countries that operated there for research or commercial purposes

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Conclusion There is still much to learn about Antarctica and its complex environmental processes and ecosystems. Only through international collaboration and sharing of ideas, information, and technology can we all make the changes we need toward mitigation and adaptation in the future. Many of these solutions will require humans to assess how they have been operating in their environment and see what they can do differently to decrease their footprint to slow increasing impacts and global trends that are contributing to climate change. We all have a part in this, however small it may seem. Local treaties, protocols, and protections can help conserve resources and slow certain environmental effects, but what needs to be grasped is the larger picture of what needs to change to halt climate change and its effects, and work toward those activities and actions that will help the climatic system recover. This is no small, short-term task, even if we haven’t already reached some sort of “tipping point.” Each person worldwide will need to do this for generations to come. While no indigenous peoples permanently live on Antarctica, we  can  all learn much from indigenous cultures that have lived for generations in environmentally sensitive regions of the world, and worked with their environment, climate, and resources. Indigenous practices, ethos, and insights that we can all benefit from if we consider.

References Ahrens, C.  D. (2015). Essentials of meteorology: An invitation to the atmosphere (7th ed.). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning. Australian Government. (2016a). Australia and the Antarctic Treaty System. Australian Antarctic Division: Leading Australia’s Antarctic program. Retrieved from http://www.antarctica.gov.au/law-and-treaty Australian Government. (2016b). Convention on the conservation of Antarctic marine living resources. Australian Antarctic Division: Leading Australia’s Antarctic program. Retrieved from http://www.antarctica.gov.au/law-andtreaty/ccamlr Australian Government. (2016c). The Madrid Protocol. Australian Antarctic Division: Leading Australia’s Antarctic program. Retrieved from http://www. antarctica.gov.au/law-and-treaty/the-madrid-protocol Australian Government. (2017). Who owns Antarctica? Australian Antarctic Division: Leading Australia’s Antarctic program. Retrieved from http://www. antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/people-in-antarctica/who-owns-antarctica

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Central Intelligence Agency. (2018). The world factbook: Antarctica. Central Intelligence Agency Library. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/ publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ay.html Clarke, A., Johnston, N. M., Murphy, E. J., & Rogers, A. D. (2007). Introduction. Antarctic ecology from genes to ecosystems: The impact of climate change and the importance of scale. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 362(1477), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.1943 Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals. (2016). Umwelt Bundesamt. Retrieved from https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/convention-for-theconservation-of-antarctic-seals Dodds, K. D., & Brooks, C. (2018). Antarctica geopolitics and the Ross Sea Marine Protected Area. E-International Relations. Retrieved from http://www.e-ir. info/2018/02/20/antarctic-geopolitics-and-the-ross-sea-marine-protectedarea/ Fountain, A. G., Saba, G., Adams, B., Doran, P., Fraser, W., Gooseff, M., et al. (2016). The impact of a large-scale climate event on Antarctic ecosystem processes. Bioscience, 66(10), 848–863. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biw110 Gales, N., Trathan, P., & Worby, A. (2014). Social change affects Antarctic priorities. Nature, 513(7519), 487. https://doi.org/10.1038/513487a Gjerde, K.  M. (2006). High seas marine protected areas and deep-sea fishing. Prepared for the Expert Consultation on Deep-sea Fisheries in the High Seas which took place in Bangkok, Thailand from 21–23 November. Hodgson, D. A., Roberts, D., McMinn, A., Verleyen, E., Terry, B., Corbett, C., et al. (2005). Recent rapid salinity rise in three East Antarctic lakes. Journal of Paleolimnology, 36(4), 385–406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10933-0069010-0 Kennicutt, M. C., Chown, S. L., Cassano, J. J., Liggett, D., Massom, R., Peck, L.  S., et  al. (2014). Six priorities for Antarctic science. Nature, 512(7512), 23–25. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/polopoly_fs/1.15658!/ menu/main/topColumns/topLeftColumn/pdf/512023a.pdf Larsen, J.  N., Anisimov, O.  A., Constable, A., Hollowed, A.  B., Maynard, N., Prestrud, P., et al. (2014). Polar regions. In V. R. Barros, et al. (Eds.), Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part B: Regional aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp.  1567–1612). Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5Chap28_FINAL.pdf McGranahan, G., Balk, D., & Anderson, B. (2007). The rising tide: Assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones. Environment & Urbanisation, 19(1), 17–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0956247807076960

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Nicholls, R.  J., & Cazenave, A. (2010). Sea-level rise and its impact on coastal zones. Science, 328(5985), 1517–1520. https://doi.org/10.1126/science. 1185782 Nicholls, R. J., Marinova, N., Lowe, J. A., Brown, S., Vellinga, P., de Gusmão, D., et al. (2011). Sea-level rise and its possible impacts given a ‘beyond 4°C world’ in the twenty-first century. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 369(1934), 161–181. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2010.0291 Redd, N. T. (2012). Antarctica: Facts about the coldest continent. LIVESCIENCE. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/21677-antarctica-facts.html Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty. (2011a). Parties. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty. Retrieved from https://www.ats.aq/devAS/ats_parties.aspx?lang=e Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty. (2011b). Environmental protection. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty. Retrieved from https://www.ats.aq/e/ats_environ. htm Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty. (2011c). The Antarctic Treaty. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty. Retrieved from https://www.ats.aq/e/ats.htm Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty. (2011d). The protocol on environmental protection to the Antarctic Treaty. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty. Retrieved from https://www.ats.aq/e/ep.htm Turner, J., Bindschadler, R., Convey, P., di Prisco, G., Fahrbach, E., Gutt, J., et al. (Eds.). (2009). Antarctic climate change and the environment. Cambridge, UK: Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR).

Asia Jennifer Raymond

Abstract  Asia has a diverse array of cultures, economic developments, and environments which create different threats of climate change. This generates complex scenarios in each region that produces negative effects on occupation, health, and livelihood. Keywords  Climate change • Asia • Resiliency and adaptation • Carbon dioxide • Sustainability

Introduction The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines the continent of Asia as 51 countries/regions broadly divided into six sub-­regions: Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and West Asia (Hijioka et al., 2014). Asia has a diverse array of cultures, economic developments, and environments which create different threats of climate change. The land contains many of the world’s largest mountains, plateaus, deserts, lakes, rivers, deltas, and steppes (Asian Development Bank (ADB), 2017). The region also consists of rainforests, savannahs, d ­ eserts, J. Raymond (*) School of Nursing and Health Sciences, Capella University, Minneapolis, MN, USA © The Author(s) 2019 T. R. Zolnikov (ed.), Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change, Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01213-7_4

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alpines, grasslands, and deciduous forests (ADB, 2017). East Asia can be described as humid subtropical, cold arid, and subarctic, while Southeast Asia is tropical and Central Asia is cold arid and semi-arid (ADB, 2017). Asia is significantly affected by climate change. Between 1996 and 2015, six of the ten most effected countries in the world were located in Asia (Myanmar, the Philippines, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Pakistan, and Thailand) (Kreft, Eckstein, & Melchior, 2016). An increase in extreme climate change will have a negative impact on human health, livelihoods, and poverty with varying magnitude based on the region of Asia (Hijioka et al., 2014). The coastal areas are threatened by rising sea levels and may cause mass population displacement. The coral reef systems are at risk of severe bleaching and will have a major impact on coastal livelihood (ADB, 2017). The cause of death for approximately 3.3 million people every year for the last ten years has been the effects of outdoor air pollution, with the most deaths occurring in Asian countries: China, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh (Lelieveld, Evans, Fnais, Giannadaki, & Pozzer, 2015). Increases in heavy rainfall and temperature will increase the risk of diarrheal diseases, dengue fever, and malaria, while more frequent and intense heat waves will increase morbidity and mortality in vulnerable groups (Hijioka et al., 2014). Low-income countries are limited in resources and quite often depend on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, tourism, and forestry, which means they are directly affected by extreme weather events (Sovacool, D’Agostino, Meenawat, & Rawlani, 2012). Climate change does not just impact the physical, but also social and psychological well-being. For example, children in Mongolia experienced psychological stress due to herding livestock in the middle of snow blizzards and dust storms (Lawler & Patel, 2012). Women are also disproportionately more vulnerable to climate change, in particular parts of India and South Asia (Yadav & Lal, 2018). Furthermore, climate change exacerbates the threat of human trafficking due to the added strain of poverty, migration, conflict, and instability (Coehlo, 2017).

Climate Change in Asia Countries in Asia will experience various outcomes related to climate change. These outcomes will affect sectors, occupations, food, human health, and more. Many changes will be made because of these outcomes (e.g. ­switching crops, tourist seasons). This section focuses on the most specific changes that will occur throughout Asia and how mitigation and adaptation strategies will hone these various aspects in order to promote resilience.

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Mangroves Asia is home to approximately 45% of the world’s mangrove forests, which are an important element of coastal protection (Giri et al., 2011). They protect against shoreline erosion, coastal flooding, and tidal surges from tsunamis, as well as offer a rich habitat for aquaculture (Ahmed, Cheung, Thompson, & Glaser, 2017). They are subject to daily changes in tide, temperature, anoxia, and salt and water exposure, which makes them highly adaptable to climate change (Alongi, 2008). Mangroves also play a key role in human sustainability and livelihood among coastal populations, as they are used for food, fuel, medicine, and timber (Alongi, 2008). Mangroves store, sequester, and release blue carbon (carbon related to coastal and marine ecosystems) (Ahmed et al., 2017). Blue carbon plays a crucial role in climate regulation, and therefore its conservation is an important measure that may reduce the negative impacts of climate change (Ahmed et al., 2017). The deforestation of mangroves has occurred due to shrimp cultivation (Ahmed et  al., 2017), fish and crustacean culture ponds (Ellison, 2008), rising sea levels (Shaffril, Samah, & D’Silva, 2017), and tourism and urban development (Ahmed et al., 2017). Occupation Fishing and farming are two occupations that are expected to have profound impacts on livelihood due to climate change in Asia. Fishermen are highly vulnerable to changes in weather and thus earn less income during the north-east monsoon because their vessels are destroyed, the water is unsafe to travel (Shaffril et al., 2017), and fish are more likely to migrate to cooler temperatures (Senapati & Gupta, 2017). Agriculture plays a principal role in the Asian economy. For example, 43% of the economy in Pakistan (Ali & Erenstein, 2017) and 70% of the population in Nepal is employed in agriculture (Khanal, Wilson, Hoang, & Lee, 2018). Climate change is expected to impact low-income, developing countries the most because they are the least equipped to cope with change (Hertel & Lobell, 2014). Extreme weather events (i.e. heavy rainfall, flash floods, prolonged droughts, unseasonal rains) due to climate change have already caused damage to crops and land (Ali & Erenstein, 2017; Khanal et al., 2018). For centuries, farming has been sensitive to climate change, whether due to natural causes or human activities. Farmers have thus used adaptation techniques to improve their crop yields, such as

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adjusting sowing and harvesting time, using drought-tolerant crops, shifting to new crops, inter-cropping, and investing in irrigation and agroforestry (Ali & Erenstein, 2017; Tripathi & Mishra, 2017). Food Security and Water Scarcity Asia is a diverse region in which food production will be affected depending on the specific area. One study found that, due to climate change, a food shortage is expected to occur in South Asia as early as the year 2030 (Bandara & Cai, 2014). More specifically, rice production will decline by 4%, cereal production by 7%, and wheat production by 11% (Bandara & Cai, 2014). Another study found that by the year 2050, maize production will decrease by 16% and sorghum by 11% in South Asia due to climate change (Knox, Hess, Daccache & Wheeler, 2012). Increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation has led to a decrease in vegetation growth in Central Asia (Xu, Wang, & Zhang, 2016). Severe droughts can negatively affect cotton production and increase food shortages and susceptibility to infectious diseases. Droughts disproportionately impact farmers, agricultural laborers, and small businessmen (Hijioka et al., 2014). In Japan, snow accumulation and melting in the winter influences water movement and solute transportation from soils to surface waters (Park, Duan, Kim, Mitchell, & Shibate, 2010). This can result in much higher concentrations of solutes, such as phosphorous and nitrogen and, thus, can have a negative impact on the quality of drinking water. Air Pollution The atmosphere is the blanket of gases, particles, and clouds surrounding the planet, and it holds several billion tons of pollutants within it each year. The major sources of pollution include fossil fuel combustion (from power generation and transportation), cooking with solid fuels, and burning of forests and savannah; the ultimate by-product of all burning is carbon dioxide (Ramanathan & Feng, 2009). Carbon dioxide can sit in the atmosphere for at least a century and can also travel through fast atmospheric transport, meaning that pollutants produced locally can travel halfway across the world in a matter of days (Ramanathan & Feng, 2009). Ambient (outdoor) air pollution originates from natural (e.g. forest fires and dust storms) and human-made sources. The pollutant that affects

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humans the most is particulate matter (PM), and this consists of sulfates, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black carbon, mineral dust, and water (WHO, 2016). Chronic exposure to PM can contribute to acute lower respiratory illness, cerebrovascular disease, ischemic heart disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (Lelieveld et al., 2015). The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that almost two million people in the Western Pacific and South East Asian regions died from outdoor air pollution in 2012, about two-thirds of the global total (WHO, 2016). Nearly the entire population (99.9%) of South Asia is living in regions with air quality that does not meet the minimum standards recommended by the WHO (Krishna et al., 2017). The rapid urbanization of Asia has led to an increase in urban air pollution. Main contributors to air pollution include vehicular emissions, construction and road dust, and industrial emissions, while the main fuel sources for power include coal, natural gas, and oil, all of which contribute to increased PM levels (Krishna et  al., 2017). In 2014, approximately half of all Asian countries were at least 60% urban and a quarter were 80% urban (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs [DESA] Population Division, 2015). By the mid-twenty-­first century, Asia’s urban population will account for half of the global population (UN DESA Population Division, 2015). The rapid increase in urbanization has led to a rise of private cars, which affects carbon dioxide emissions. Woodcock et al. (2009) found that a reduction in the distance traveled by motor vehicles will have a greater effect on air pollution than lowering the amount of emissions produced by each vehicle (i.e. hybrid vehicles). Household air pollution is produced by cooking and heating with inefficient fuel, including coal, wood, charcoal, animal dung, and crop waste (WHO, 2018a). The smoke thus fills indoor spaces, regardless of chimneys and open windows, and then progresses to outdoor pollution (Chafe et al., 2015). Three billion people around the world rely on solid fuels for cooking and heating. Household air pollution from cooking kills approximately four million people every year (WHO, 2018a). Traditional cookstoves release about one-fifth of all black carbon emissions globally, contributing to the disruption of weather patterns and the acceleration of melting snow and ice (EPA, 2015). South Asia and East Asia account for nearly 90% of global deaths from outdoor air pollution that is attributed to household cooking with inefficient fuels (Chafe et al., 2015). Reducing both outdoor and household air pollution would save up to approximately two million Asian lives annually (van Vliet et al., 2012).

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Human Health Climate change can alter the path of vector-borne diseases, increase the burden of diarrheal diseases, and escalate the morbidity and mortality of heat-related illnesses (WHO, 2015). Vulnerable groups, such as women, children, older adults and poorer populations, are most at risk for harmful health effects. Over the past 50 years, the incidence of dengue has increased 30-fold (WHO, 2015). Approximately 75% of the population exposed to dengue live in the Asia-Pacific region (WHO, 2018b). Globalization, urbanization, travel, and warming temperatures are some of the ways the main vectors of dengue, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, are spread (Murray, Quam, & Wilder-Smith, 2013). Human response to a changing climate, including water storage, land use, and irrigation, can also affect the geographic range and incidence of dengue (Ebi & Nealon, 2016). Although there are mixed results, temperature, rainfall, and humidity are considered to be contributing factors to an increase in incidence of dengue transmission. Malaria is not necessarily associated with climate variability factors; however, there have been a few studies to correlate malaria incidence with rainfall and/or temperature in India, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, and China (Hijioka et al., 2014). An increase in climate change may make malarial transmission more suitable; yet, extreme high temperature may also restrict the growth of mosquitoes, therefore reducing the spread of malaria (Bai, Morton, & Liu, 2013). Tjaden et al. (2017) found that the Chikungunya virus, also transmitted by Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, is expected to increase in large parts of China and Southeast Asia, while decreasing in central regions of India. Japanese encephalitis (JE) is spread through the mosquito Culex tritaeniorhynchus and transmitted mainly by pigs as a reservoir host. A literature review on JE in China found that relative humidity is important for JE transmission because mosquitoes can survive longer with suitable temperature and rainfall (Bai et al., 2013). Diarrheal disease is the leading cause of malnutrition and second leading cause of death in children under 5 years old (WHO, 2017). Climate change can exacerbate the causes of diarrhea, which include drinking contaminated water, malnutrition, and poor hygiene (WHO, 2017). Increased temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, and air pressure have been shown to contribute to changes in the incidence of diarrhea; however, the rate is also highly dependent on the replication rate of the pathogen (Kolstad & Johansson, 2011). The unavailability of fresh water can compromise

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hygiene and provide a flourishing environment for cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and salmonellosis (WHO, 2015). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has indicated that warming trends and rising temperatures have been observed throughout Asia over the past century (Hijioka et al., 2014). Over the period 1951–2010, greenhouse gas emissions have likely caused surface temperatures to rise between 0.5 °C to 1.3 °C (IPCC, 2014). Heat-related morbidity and mortality is expected to increase with increasing temperatures, with the greatest burden affecting the elderly and people who work outdoors. Heat stress can cause dehydration, heat exhaustion, and/or stroke, exacerbate cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, and worsen air quality (Kovats & Hajat, 2008). In 2015, two separate heat waves in India and Pakistan were attributed to climate change and claimed approximately 3300 lives (Wehner, Stone, Krishnan, AchutaRao, & Castillo, 2016). Murari, Ghosh, Patwardhan, Daly, and Salvi (2015) projected that severe heat waves will intensify in India.

Adaption Strategies While there are many mitigation and adaptation strategies to climate change throughout Asia, this section will primarily represent trends that have been adapted to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Area-wide policies to mitigate or inhibit climate change have occurred through non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and governmental agencies. Few governments have the resources available to prevent the irreversible effects of climate change. As the largest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, it is important for Asia to come up with greener, more earth-friendly practices. Global agencies like the World Bank Group are determined to help Asia pave the way for sustainable living (World Bank, 2016). Singapore is currently a leader in sustainable living. For example, there are over one million public housing units in the country that are home to about 80% of residents. These units are high-rise structures with terraces and gardens that replace the greenery lost on the ground. The Sustainable Singapore Blueprint 2015 states that all car parks must have rooftop greenery, solar panels will be expanded to over 200 blocks of homes, and rainwater harvesting has been implemented to encourage the use of ­non-­potable water for common area washing (Ministry of Environment and Water Resources & Ministry of National Development, 2014). China currently produces the most carbon dioxide emissions in the world, almost twice as much as the United States (World Bank, 2018). The

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bulk of energy-related methane comes from coal mining, while nitrous oxide emissions are due to the use of synthetic fertilizers and chemical production from cropland and industrial activities, respectively (Ross & Song, 2017). Under the Paris Agreement, China has pledged four goals related to climate change to be achieved by 2020: (1) reduce carbon dioxide emissions per unit of GDP by 40 to 45% below 2005 levels; (2) increase the share of non-fossil fuels in primary energy consumption to 15%; (3) increase forest stock volume by 1.3  billion cubic meters; and (4) increase forest coverage by 40 million hectares relative to 2005 levels (Climate Action Tracker, 2017). In early 2017, China reported that they have already exceeded their goal of increasing forest stock volume by almost 200% and have nearly reached their goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions, while the remaining two goals are more than 60% achieved (Ross & Song, 2017). India is presently the third largest emitter of greenhouse gases (World Bank, 2018), largely due to economic development (World Bank, 2016). To combat their carbon dioxide emissions, India has taken several important steps. In 2014, India passed a law that mandated corporate social responsibility. The law requires companies with annual revenue over 10 billion rupees (US $156 million) to donate a minimum of 2% net profits to charities involved in hunger, education, and the environment (Kamal, 2017). India is also working with a company called International Solar Alliance to provide solar equipment across the nation (Kamal, 2017). Additionally, a government-sponsored program has led to an increase in LED bulbs in which 260 million inefficient light bulbs have already been replaced (Kamal, 2017). Several organizations are also making valuable efforts to reduce climate change across the continent. These include the following: • Greenpeace is the leading NGO working in East Asia to fight climate change. Their climate and energy campaign has four main goals: (1) ensure China takes a leading role in international climate negotiations; (2) lobby China to move away from coal and to invest in renewable energy; (3) push for the Hong Kong SAR government to invest in renewable energy and energy efficiency, instead of nuclear power; and (4) get Mainland China and Hong Kong public to take personal action and support government action on climate change (Greenpeace, 2018). • ICLEI—Local Governments for Sustainability assist local governments in over 1500 cities worldwide to design, promote, and draw external resources to support programs and campaigns that develop

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and aid sustainability. They assist major secretariats in Southeast Asia, South Asia, and East Asia to become green economies with smart infrastructure in urban areas (ICLEI, 2018). • The UN-HABITAT’s Sustainable Cities Program supports over 66 cities in 10 Asian countries to provide support for urban development and sustainability challenges (UN-HABITAT, 2018). • The ASEAN Cooperation on Climate Change works with its member states to (1) enhance regional cooperation and action to address adverse impacts of climate change on socioeconomic development; (2) formulate the region’s interests, concerns, and priorities; and (3) serve as a consultative forum to promote coordination and collaboration (ASEAN, 2018). • The Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves has focused on providing cleaner, more efficient alternatives to traditional cookstoves in eight countries, three of which are located in Asia (Bangladesh, China, and India). Clean cooking not only reduces greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane, it also reduces the need for women and girls to spend their day collecting fuel. This creates more time for income-­ generating activities or schoolwork (Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, 2018).

Conclusion Asia is one of the most vulnerable regions of climate change—not just because of current practices, but because it is home to the majority of the world’s poorest populations. The effects of climate change involve substantial negative impacts on occupation, environment, and human health. In 2006, China bypassed the United States as the largest producer of carbon dioxide emissions (Levine & Aden, 2008). Kameyama, Morita, and Kubota (2016) estimated that US $125–149 billion per year would be needed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Asia by the year 2035. This is an incredibly large amount of capital; however, Asia is in a position to create the biggest positive impact on climate change and can lead the way for other regions to do the same. Reducing carbon dioxide emissions through the development of sustainable cities, more efficient cooking fuels, and increasing greenery would improve the effects of climate change, as well as the livelihood of billions of people around the world.

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Chikungunya transmission in the 21st century. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 3813. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-03566-3 Tripathi, A., & Mishra, A. K. (2017). Knowledge and passive adaptation to climate change: An example from Indian farmers. Clinical Risk Management, 16, 195–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2016.11.002 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. (2015). Clean cookstove research. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/air-research/clean-cookstove-research UN-HABITAT. (2018). Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP). Retrieved from http://www.fukuoka.unhabitat.org/programmes/detail04_03_en.html United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division [UN DESA]. (2015). World urbanization prospects: The 2014 revision, (ST/ ESA/SER.A/366). van Vliet, O., Krey, V., McCollum, D., Pachauri, S., Nagai, Y., Rao, S., et  al. (2012). Synergies in the Asian energy system: Climate change, energy security, energy access and air pollution. Energy Economics, 34(Suppl 3), s470–s480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2012.02.001 Wehner, M., Stone, D., Krishnan, H., AchutaRao, K., & Castillo, F. (2016). The deadly combination of heat and humidity in India and Pakistan in Summer 2015. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 97(12), S81–S86. https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00021.1 Woodcock, J. W., Edwards, P., Tonne, C., Armstrong, B. G., Ashiru, O., Banister, D., et al. (2009). Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: Urban land transport. Lancet, 374(9705), 1930–1943. https://doi. org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61714-1 World Bank. (2016). Asia can help lead the way to change the course of climate change. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/opinion/2016/05/03/asia-help-lead-way-change-course-climate-change World Bank. (2018). CO2 emissions (kt). Retrieved from https://data.worldbank. org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.KT?view=map&year_high_desc=true World Health Organization [WHO]. (2015). Climate change and health in the Western Pacific Region: Synthesis of evidence, profiles of selected countries and policy direction. Retrieved from http://www.wpro.who.int/mvp/climate_ change/10-facts/en/ World Health Organization [WHO]. (2016). Ambient air pollution: A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease. Retrieved from http://www. who.int/airpollution/en/ World Health Organization [WHO]. (2017). Diarrhoeal disease. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/ World Health Organization [WHO]. (2018a). Cleaner cookstoves. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/sustainable-development/housing/strategies/ cleaner-cookstoves/en/ World Health Organization [WHO]. (2018b) Dengue and arbo-viral diseases. Retrieved from http://www.wpro.who.int/mvp/dengue/en/

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Australia Robert C. Brears

Abstract  A key aspect of Australia’s National Climate Resilience and Adaptation Strategy is that climate change adaptation actions are determined at regional and local levels. As such, State and Territory governments have the main role in leading adaptation actions. This chapter summarises a selection of strategies being implemented. Keywords  Climate change • Australia • Resiliency and adaptation

Introduction Australia is the sixth-largest country in land area and is the only nation to govern an entire continent. The country has a population of nearly 24 million people, with the largest city being Sydney with a population of 4.9 million. Australia has around 10% or percent of the world’s biodiversity and is one of the 17 mega-diverse countries that together account for almost 70% or percent of the world’s species. Australia is a large agricultural, mining, and energy producer, and has a strong economy with over a

R. C. Brears (*) Mitidaption, Christchurch, New Zealand © The Author(s) 2019 T. R. Zolnikov (ed.), Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change, Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01213-7_5

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quarter-­century of uninterrupted economic growth, averaging 3.3% or percent per  annum (Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2016).

Climate Change in Australia Australia’s climate has warmed in both mean surface air temperature and surrounding sea surface temperature by around 1 degree Celsius since 1910. Over the past century, the duration, frequency, and intensity of extreme heat events have increased across large parts of the country. Since the 1970s, there has been an increase in extreme fire weather, and a longer fire season. Regarding precipitation levels, there has been a shift spatially and temporally, with winter rainfall reducing by around 19 per cent since 1970 in southwest Australia while rainfall has increased in parts of northern Australia. Moving into the future, climate change will result in Australia’s temperatures continuing to increase with more extremely hot days and fewer extremely cool days, the number of days with weather conducive for fire in southern and eastern Australia is projected to increase, while winter and spring rainfall is projected to decrease across southern continental Australia with more times spent in drought (Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology, 2018).

Government and Climate Change In 2015, the Australian Government released a National Climate Resilience and Adaptation Strategy (the Strategy) that articulates how Australia is managing climatic risks for the benefit of the community, the economy, and the environment (Australian Government, 2015). The Strategy guides national action in priority areas or sectors that Australian governments have collectively identified after considering the economic, social, and environmental magnitude of potential climate change impacts, their likely timing, and the relative importance of taking early action to manage these risks. The sector and policy areas that are covered include coasts; cities and the built environment; agriculture, fisheries, and forestry; water resources; natural ecosystems; health and well-being; disaster risk management; and a secure and resilient region. As part of the Strategy, the Australian Government aims to maintain a strong, flexible economy and well-maintained safety net to ensure climate change does not disproportionately affect vulnerable groups; effective

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natural resources management across land, water, marine, and coral reef systems; and that economy-wide implications of actions are determined at regional and local levels. Overall, this aim is guided by a set of principles that underpin resilience and adaptation and include: • Shared responsibility: Governments at all levels, as well as businesses, communities, and individuals, each has different but complementary roles in managing climatic risks. • Factoring climate risks into decision-making: Climate resilience can be achieved when short, medium, and long-term decision-making considers current climate risks and a changing climate. • Evidence-based risk management approach: Decisions are guided by leading physical, economic, and social science while recognising the imperfection of information, and hence risk management tools and approaches are used to manage climate risks and find emerging opportunities. • Helping the vulnerable: Policy decision choices and the social welfare system support those who may be vulnerable to climate-related impacts or have limited capacity to respond. • Collaborative, value-based choices: To identify action that is appropriate and effective, decision-makers should understand and respect the knowledge and experience of those affected, and actively involve them in the decision-making processes wherever possible. • Revisiting decisions and outcomes over time: Adaptive management reassesses actions and incorporates new knowledge to ensure choices remain appropriate and capture emerging opportunities. National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility In addition to the Strategy, the Australian government committed A$9  million in funding over a three-year period (2014–2017) for the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility (NCCARF) to support decision-makers throughout Australia as they prepare for and manage the risks of climate change. The NCCARF over the period commenced a project to address the needs of adaptation decision-makers and practitioners as they dealt with projected climate change impacts including more frequent and intense heatwaves, increasing flooding risks, and increasing coastal erosion

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(Australian Government, 2018b). In 2016, the NCCARF released an online tool, CoastAdapt, to help local governments and other organisations understand and manage coastal climate risks including rising sea level, storm surges, and other coastal hazards. CoastAdapt helps ­decision-­makers balance a range of risk factors including environmental, legal, economic, and social in an integrated way, encouraging decisions that are locally relevant and consider legal liability, planning requirements, and community values (Australian Government, 2018b). Nonetheless, the federal budget of 2017 saw the NCCARF’s funding reduced to A$600,000 for the fiscal year, with a portion having to be shared with the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. From 2018 onwards, the NCCARF’s funding has ceased entirely (O’Donnell & Mummery, 2017).

State and Territory Government Adaptation Actions State and Territory governments have the main role in leading adaptation actions through their planning laws and investments in public infrastructure. The focus of State and Territory governments is ensuring appropriate regulatory and market frameworks are in place, providing accurate and regionally appropriate information, and delivering an adaptation response in those areas of policy and regulations within their jurisdiction. This includes key areas of service delivery and infrastructure, for example, emergency services and infrastructure, environmental protection, planning, and transport (Australian Government, 2018a). A selection of examples of State and Territory governments implementing adaptation actions are as follows. New South Wales’ Climate Change Policy Framework The New South Wales Climate Policy Framework aims to maximise the economic, social, and environmental well-being of New South Wales (NSW) in the context of a changing climate, with the long-term goals of achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 and becoming more resilient to a changing climate. The NSW government has three roles regarding climate change mitigation and adaptation, summarised in Table 1 (NSW Office of Environment and Heritage, 2016).

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Table 1  Roles of NSW government Emissions savings

Impacts and adaptation

Government policy

Implement emissions savings policies that are fair, efficient, and in the public interest

Government operations

Lead by example to save emissions in government operations Advocate for Commonwealth and international action consistent with the Paris Agreement

Implement policies to plan for climate risks and provide targeted support for households, communities, and businesses Assess and effectively manage climate risks to government assets and services

Government advocacy

Advocate for Commonwealth and international action to support effective adaptation

Policy Directions to Mitigate and Adapt to Climate Change The NSW government policy directions to mitigate and adapt to climate change are summarised as follows: • Creating a certain investment environment by working with the Commonwealth to manage the transition: With the world moving towards zero-emissions, the framework aims to ensure NSW is part of the global transformation of the world’s energy system. This will lead to investments and job opportunities in emerging industries such as advanced energy, transport, low-carbon farming, and environmental services. Meanwhile, a stable and supportive policy environment will encourage private sector investment in mitigation and adaptation technologies. To ensure the flow of private investment, NSW will work with the Commonwealth Government and take complementary action to create a conducive investment environment in NSW, all the while making the transition to a net-zero emissions economy in the state more affordable. • Boosting energy productivity and reducing household and business energy bills: NSW will boost energy productivity and resource productivity to reduce the impact of rising energy prices and the cost of the transition to a net-zero emissions economy. In addition, NSW will position itself as a national leader in energy efficiency, including its programmes to help vulnerable households to take energy efficiency measures.

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• Capturing co-benefits and managing unintended consequences of external policies: The NSW government aims to capture the many positive benefits from emission savings efforts, including improved health and lower air pollution levels. These benefits will be taken into consideration in the design of emissions savings actions. • Taking advantage of opportunities to grow NSW industries: The shift to a net-zero emissions economy is likely to spur new economic opportunities in sectors where NSW has a competitive advantage, including professional services, agriculture, and advanced energy technology. At the same time, the government will seek opportunities to grow these emerging industries in the state. • Reducing risks and damage to public and private assets in NSW from climate change: Climate change will lead to more extreme weather events, increasing the risk of direct costs to public and private assets and services. The government will manage the impact of climate change on its own assets and services by embedding climate change considerations into asset and risk management. The government will also seek to remove barriers that prevent effective private sector adaptation by providing information and supporting regulatory frameworks for adaptation at the local level. • Reducing climate change impacts on health and well-being: The NSW government will enable communities and individuals to be better prepared and more resilient to climate change by anticipating increased demand for services including health and emergency services. The government will also identify ways it can support the communities most vulnerable to the health impacts of climate change. • Managing impacts on natural resources, ecosystems, and communities: The government will lead long-term efforts to increase the resilience of the state’s primary industries and rural communities as climate change impacts water quantity and quality. The government will also manage the environmental impacts of climate change including loss of habitats, weeds, and air pollution. Victoria’s Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2017–2020 Victoria’s Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2017–2020 (the Adaptation Plan) sets out the government’s strategic priorities, measures, and responses for adaptation in Victoria over the next four years, as required

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by the Climate Change Act 2010. Over the period 2017–2020, the ­government will ensure policies and programmes are in place to encourage adaptation and remove barriers to action in the core economic sectors, with a specific focus on policy areas and sectors that will be most affected by and/or are critically important to successful adaptation to climate change as follows (State of Victoria DELWP, 2017): • Addressing the impacts of climate change on health and human services: The Victorian Government is addressing climate change impacts in health planning through a variety of plans. For example, the Victorian public health and well-being plan (2015–2019) emphasises the need to adapt to climate change and build community resilience to improve the overall health of Victorians. Meanwhile, the Adaptation Action Plan for the health and human services sector (2017–2020) will bring together various stakeholders to first conduct a sector-wide risk analysis including hospitals, health centres, and services for the elderly and disabled. • Preparing for and responding to extreme weather events: With climate change likely to bring more frequent and severe extreme weather events, the government is regularly updating its policies and systems in place to manage specific emergencies. For example, the Floodplain Management Strategy of 2016 clarifies the government’s roles and responsibilities for managing floods and seeks to improve flood warnings and information for communities. Meanwhile, the Critical Infrastructure Resilience arrangements (2015) help government and industry work together to ensure continuity of supply of essential services including power, water, and communications and to minimise disruptions to emergencies. • Managing impacts on the natural environment: The effects of climate change will vary across regions and ecosystems in Victoria. In some cases, this may be severe, with climate change likely to cause irreversible changes to ecosystems and species. With nature also linked to human health and the cultural heritage of Aborigines, Victoria has a range of programmes in place to protect its unique flora and fauna. For example, Protecting Victoria’s Environment— Biodiversity 2036 sets out the government’s long-term approach to protecting biodiversity, with the plan focusing on improving understanding of the impacts of climate change on biodiversity through an adaptive management framework.

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• Helping the agricultural sector to adapt: With climate change putting pressure on the agricultural sector, the government is helping farmers prepare for droughts through the Drought Preparedness and Response Framework, which provides incentives for farm businesses to build capacity and become self-reliant, as well as establishes a process for drought assistance. Meanwhile, the Agriculture Infrastructure and Jobs Fund supports projects that improve resilience and efficiency, with one example being the installation of a Doppler radar station to provide farmers more accurate weather tracking and forecasts. • Protecting Victoria’s water resources: Climate change will result in Victoria being hotter and drier, reducing water availability. Meanwhile, heatwaves and droughts will place strain on the state’s water supply and infrastructure. To ensure the water system can cope with climate change impacts, the Water for Victoria Plan targets the efficient use of water and seeks to improve water users’ understanding of the risks and impacts of climate change. The Aboriginal Water Program has also been established to help incorporate Aboriginal values and expertise in water management. • Improving the resilience of the built environment: With extreme weather able to damage or even destroy buildings and settlements and threaten people’s lives, the Victorian Government is addressing risks in land-use planning to reduce potential future costs of climate change-related disasters. For example, the government is working with the City of Melbourne as part of Plan Melbourne to review planning and building systems to support environmentally friendly sustainable development outcomes in new buildings to improve energy and water efficiency, as well as waste management. In addition, the government is working with local councils to develop standards for managing climate change risk in land-use planning.

Pathways to a Climate Resiliency The State of Queensland recognises that it requires a coordinated approach to climate adaptation that recognises the state’s exposure to a variety of climate hazards and the diversity of its communities, regions, natural environments, and industries. The Pathways to a Climate Resilient Queensland: Queensland Climate Adaptation Strategy is based on four key objectives:

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1. Recognise: Queenslanders recognise the risks climate change poses to communities, businesses, and the natural environment while also recognising the economic opportunities presented by new sustainable industries. 2. Equip: Queenslanders have access to the best science and risk-­ analysis tools to support adaptation decisions. 3. Integrate: Queenslanders integrate climate adaptation into their policies and processes. 4. Collaborate: Queenslanders collaborate to achieve effective climate adaptation through partnerships that span communities, educational institutions, governments, and industries. Queensland’s Pathways to a Climate Resilient Queensland: Queensland Climate Adaptation Strategy will see the state government deliver on these four objectives through four defined, complementary pathways, all the while recognising that adaptation actions will differ across the state’s regions, communities, and economy (Department of Environment and Heritage Protection, 2017). People and Knowledge This pathway provides tools, guidelines, and climate change information to support individuals, social groups, communities, government, regions, and businesses to understand climate change, its risks, as well as the opportunities it provides. This pathway also recognises that climate change risks are not spread evenly, with the elderly, young, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, and other marginalised communities most impacted. One example of a programme to enhance knowledge is the Drought and Climate Adaptation Program, which helps improve the capacity of farmers and regional communities to manage climate variability and climate extremes, including drought, as well as help landowners adapt to a changing climate. This is done through a range of activities including science information products, decision support tools, and workshops. State Government Pathway Under this pathway, the Queensland Government will take a leadership role in climate adaptation through its Government Adaptation Action Plan that will provide a coordinated whole-of-government response to

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both climate change risks and opportunities. Under this plan, each Queensland Government agency will undertake a detailed climate risk assessment and either develop a specific adaptation action plan to address prioritised climate risks or incorporate climate adaptation actions into existing plans and risk frameworks. Sectors and Systems Pathway This pathway addresses the specific adaptation needs of the state’s major economic sectors as well as the critical systems that are depended on for essential services, for example, biodiversity and ecosystems. Through this pathway the state government will work with industry, businesses, as well as non-governmental organisations to develop Sector Adaptation Plans that will enable stakeholders to collaborate with relevant government agencies, prioritise adaptation activities, address complex and cross-­cutting issues, identify emerging opportunities, identify potential financial mechanisms for adaptation projects, and ensure adaptation measures are complementary and avoid negative outcomes.

Australian Capital Territory’s ACT Climate Change Adaptation Strategy The Australian Capital Territory’s (ACT) Climate Change Adaptation Strategy: Living With a Warming Climate was published in 2016 to help the community, city, and natural environment adapt to climate change and become more resilient to projected impacts by communicating the risks and impacts of climate change in the region, incorporating climate change risk considerations and adaptation actions in ACT Government policies, programmes, and practices, and encouraging changes in daily lives that will increase resilience and foster emerging opportunities (ACT Government, 2016). Five Sectors of Priority The Strategy has selected five sectors to focus on in building resilience to climate change, which are disaster and emergency management; community health and well-being; settlements and infrastructure; water; and natural resources. Each sector has a range of actions that were to be taken by the end of 2017, with some of the main actions listed in Table 2 (ACT Government, 2016).

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Table 2  Prioritised sectors to build resilience in Australia Sector

Action

Disaster and emergency management

Bushfire-prone areas

Description

The government will consider if current regulatory settings adequately deal with bushfire risks Reducing impacts Increase awareness of climate risks and see what from the warming can be done in individuals’ daily lives climate Climate risk Undertake or update assessments of climate risk assessments and resilience of government-owned buildings Framework for Complete a revision of the framework and flood ensure implementation management Strategic bushfire Complete the framework under the Strategic capability Bushfire Management Plan framework Community health Increasing healthy Provide appropriate support infrastructure to and well-being living promote active travel, including expansion of pathways and drinking fountains as well as assess opportunities for investment in community gardens and spaces Identifying heat Review opportunities for public buildings to be refuges used as heat refuges Settlements and Climate change Introduce mandatory requirements in new infrastructure sector impacts and developments planning City resilience Review design standards to ensure adaptation is considered in public infrastructure and ensure ACT region-specific guidelines for buildings and estate planning Actions for the Water for life Evaluate stormwater infrastructure for water sector irrigation of public spaces, mitigation of nuisance flooding, and protection of aquatic habitats Integrated Ensure the catchment plan for the region is catchment completed and being implemented management strategy Actions for the Biodiversity At the landscape scale, enhance the resilience natural resources conservation and adaptive capacity of the ecosystem and ecosystem Safeguarding Undertake and facilitate targeted interventions sector species to safeguard species from climate change Caring for land Improve knowledge and understanding of land and water managers about climate change and adaptation actions, coordinate pest animal and plant control, and monitor the climate impacts on the ecosystems

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Conclusion The Australian Government’s National Climate Resilience and Adaptation Strategy articulates how Australia is managing climatic risks for the benefit of the community, the economy, and the environment. As part of the Strategy, the Australian Government aims to ensure climate change adaptations actions are determined at regional and local levels. As such, State and Territory governments have the main role in leading adaptation actions through their planning laws and investments in public infrastructure. This chapter provided an overview of a selection of State and Territory governments implementing adaptation actions including NSW, Victoria, Queensland, and ACT. NSW aims to become more resilient to climate change while pursuing net-zero emissions by 2050. NSW’s policies to mitigate and adapt to climate change focus on creating a conducive investment environment, enhancing energy productivity, capturing co-benefits of mitigation and adaptation, taking advantage of economic opportunities from transitioning to a net-zero emissions economy, reducing risks and damage to public and private assets from climate change, reducing health impacts associated with climate change, and  enhancing the resilient of the state’s natural resources and communities. Victoria’s Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2017–2020 sets out the government’s strategic priorities, measures, and responses for adaptation in Victoria over the next four years, as required by the Climate Change Act 2010. Over the four-year period, the government will address climate change impacts in health planning, update its policies and systems in place to manage specific weather-related emergencies, implement a range of programmes to protect the state’s unique flora and fauna, help farmers prepare for droughts, target the efficient use of water and incorporate Aboriginal values and expertise in water management, address risks in land-use planning to reduce potential future costs of climate change-­ related disasters, as well as work with local councils to develop standards for managing climate change risk in land-use planning. In Queensland, the government recognises the need for a coordinated approach to climate adaptation due to the state being exposed to a variety of climate hazards in addition to having a diverse set of communities, natural environments, and industries. The state has developed a pathway to a climate-resilient future that involves a variety of stakeholders to understand both the risks and opportunities of climate change, the government

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taking a leadership role in climate adaptation, and working with industry to develop sector-specific adaptation plans that ensure adaptation measures are complementary and avoid negative outcomes. Finally, ACT’s climate change adaptation strategy focuses on communicating the risks and impacts of climate change in the region, ensuring climate change risk considerations and adaptation actions are incorporated in government policies, programmes, and practices, and encouraging individuals to make changes in their daily lives to become more resilient.

References ACT Government. (2016). ACT climate change adaptation strategy: Living with a warming climate. Retrieved from https://www.environment.act.gov.au/cc/ what-government-is-doing/climate-change-adaptation-and-resilience Australian Government. (2015). National climate resilience and adaptation strategy. Retrieved from https://www.government.nl/topics/energy-policy/contents/energy-agreement-for-sustainable-growth Australian Government. (2018a). Adapting to climate change [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.environment.gov.au/climate-change/adaptation Australian Government. (2018b). National climate change adaptation research facility [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.environment.gov.au/climatechange/adaptation/climate-change-adaptation-program/research-facility Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology. (2018). State of the climate 2016 [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate/ Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. (2016). Australia in brief. Retrieved from http://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/ Documents/australia-in-brief.pdf Department of Environment and Heritage Protection. (2017). Pathways to a climate resilient Queensland. Queensland Climate Adaptation Strategy 2017–2030. Retrieved from https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/assets/ documents/climate/qld-climate-adaptation-strategy.pdf NSW Office of Environment and Heritage. (2016). NSW climate change policy framework. Retrieved from http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/climate-change/policy-framework O’Donnell, T., & Mummery, J. (2017). The 2017 Budget has axed research to help Australia adapt to climate change [Online]. The Conversation. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/the-2017-budget-has-axed-research-tohelp-australia-adapt-to-climate-change-77477 State of Victoria DELWP. (2017). Victoria’s Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2017–2020.

Europe Tara Rava Zolnikov

Abstract  Europe is on a united front when it comes to dealing with climate change. Strategies  confronting climate change effects have been developed by the European Union as well as individual Member States. These measures include policies and programs that seek to curb negative outcomes resulting from climate change. This chapter reviews how Europe is progressive in the face of climate change. Keywords  Climate change • Europe • Resiliency and adaptation • Policy

Introduction Europe is the second smallest continent in the world, set on the westward-­ projecting peninsula of Eurasia. The irregular coastline of Europe is indented by numerous bags, fjords, and seas, and includes four major peninsulas as well as many islands and archipelagoes (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018). In total, there are 50 countries in Europe, though many of these countries have territory in both Europe and Asia. Because of the location, T. R. Zolnikov (*) Department of Community Health, National University, San Diego, CA, USA School of Behavioral Sciences, California Southern University, Costa Mesa, CA, USA © The Author(s) 2019 T. R. Zolnikov (ed.), Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change, Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01213-7_6

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the moderate climate, and the terrain, Europe is the third most populated continent in the world (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018). This continent supports high-density populations, which are concentrated in urban-­ industrial regions; the people are typically educated and highly skilled, using economic cooperation between countries to achieve numerous successes in science, technology, and the arts. Europe has used these collaborative unions to uphold policy measures on changing climate change outcomes.

Climate Change in Europe Climate change has already had and will lead to many effects on the environment, economy, and society as a whole (European Environment Agency [EEA], 2017b). While a couple of these impacts are positive (e.g. decreases in cold weather-related mortality and morbidity), many are negative. Average annual land temperature is projected to increase more than the  global average temperature (EEA, 2017a). The effects of climate change are unevenly distributed throughout climate-sensitive European regions, including eastern and northern Europe in the winter and southern Europe in summer (Biesbroek et al., 2010; EEA, 2017a). As a result, more precipitation will fall in northern Europe, precipitation will decrease in southern Europe, and extreme weather events will increase as well (EEA, 2017a). There will be human-, plant-, and animal health-related outcomes as a result of the changing climate. Many of these threats currently exist and others will become exacerbated and thrive in this changing environment. Effects may include increased summer heat-related morbidity and mortality rates; wide-ranging adverse effects due to intense storms (e.g. hurricanes); changed disease burden (e.g. seasonal distribution, emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases) in humans, animals, and plants; and increased risks and outcomes related directly to air pollution (European Commission [EC], 2017). In addition to health effects, employment may experience some consequences resulting from increased health effects in populations, which could affect the productivity and viability of economic sectors throughout the European Union (EU) (EC, 2017). Finally, within this context, some people will be more predisposed to these outcomes. Vulnerable populations include populations living in low-income urban areas, unemployed and socially marginalized populations, displaced or migrant populations, and older individuals who experience reduced mobility and health impediments (EC, 2017).

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Other outcomes that can have more of a direct impact on individuals within society revolve around economic conditions and occupations. Many resource-rich industries will wax and wane depending on the region, and this will have an effect on individuals who work in these areas. Timber harvest in Europe will likely experience both positive and negative effects, including growth in northern Europe, but reductions in the Mediterranean  region (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2001). Agricultural yields will likely increase in northern Europe but will decrease in southern Europe, due to water shortages and shorter seasonal growth duration (IPCC, 2001). Fisheries and aquaculture production will likely suffer from faunal shifts, unsustainable exploitation, and environmental changes (e.g. ocean acidification) (IPCC, 2001). Some industries, like insurance companies, may experience unobtainable demands (e.g. losses from natural disasters), while other industries (e.g. transportation, energy) may face demands, but also market opportunities if they are able to adapt in a timely manner (IPCC, 2001). Tourism may be affected by flooding, erosion, wetland loss, heat waves, and less reliable snow conditions; these changes may occur throughout Europe (IPCC, 2001). Because of these changes, adaptation strategies need to exist and be implemented in order to be prepared for future scenarios related to climate change. By reducing vulnerability through increased action measures, climate change outcomes may be reduced. So far, the primary response has been to try to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Biesbroek et al., 2010). The EU has been extremely responsive to change and has been a frontrunner in achieving emission reduction targets, but has realized with continued rising trends that these efforts are not enough and has since shifted gears (Schreurs & Tiberghien, 2007). Thus, education and awareness have now become prime factors in creating this change (EC, 2017). To encourage this resiliency, the EC united in 2013 and created an EU strategy on adaptation to climate change (EC, 2013). This framework created accompanying documents to provide guidelines supporting adaptation, promoting better research, and encouraging information-sharing in relation to climate change outcomes and effects (EEA, 2017a; EC, 2013). In addition to this inclusive document, the EU developed an initiative to promote growth in an upstream fashion to accommodate these changes instead of just bracing against downstream outcomes. The initiative, entitled the ‘Roadmap to a Resource-Efficient Europe,’ outlines strategies to improve and increase resource productivity through policy

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measures that interrelate resources, economic growth, and the environment (the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Region [EESCCR], 2011). The main goal of this policy action is to ensure that policy measures complement each other in order to streamline adaption efforts instead of hindering them; the themes often cross sectors, from energy, agriculture, and fisheries, to transportation or even consumer behavior patterns (EESCCR, 2011). Both of these science-­based objectives ultimately encourage climate change resilience and adaptation. Following suit with an economic focus is the EU Action Plan for a Circular Economy, which also boasts directives to improve the economy while combating climate change effects, in an effort to successfully interweave change into society.

European Union Strategies These strategies focus on adapting to climate change and resilience in Europe, as a whole continent. The primary strategies include frameworks and policy measures, including EU strategy on adaptation to climate change, the Roadmap to a Resource-Efficient Europe, and the EU Action Plan for the Circular Economy. Each one of these has its own focus, but ultimately is seeking to aid in the population’s successful adaptation to climate change. EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change The EU strategy on adaptation to climate change is not an actual document but more of a framework with mechanisms on how people in the EU can be prepared for climate change impacts. The strategy has three main objectives: (1) promote action by each Member State, (2) promote informed decision making through education in the European Climate Adaption Platform, and (3) promote adaptation in vulnerable sectors (e.g. agriculture, fisheries) through policy and insurance use (EC, 2013). Implementation of this strategy is based on eight tenants focused on action to encourage use of the main objectives. These action points include the following: • Encourage Member States to adopt climate change resiliency strategies, which if not accepted and undergoing sufficient change, will be lawfully deemed insufficient through the law (EC, 2013).

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• Use LIFE funding, the EU’s financial instrument for supporting environmental projects, to encourage capacity building (EC, 2013). • Introduce Covenant of Mayors framework, which is an initiative that will use local authorities to commit to adaption strategies and awareness activities. • Identify knowledge gaps and use tools to address them (EC, 2013). • Use and adopt Climate-ADAPT for everyone to access climate change information throughout Europe (EC, 2013). • Use the Common Agriculture Policy and Cohesion Policy and the Common Fishers Policy to aid in program design, development, and implementation for authorities and stakeholders (EC, 2013). • Ensure resilient infrastructure by mapping industry standards of energy, transportation, and buildings, to determine standards that can be invested in and improved upon (EC, 2013). • Encourage insurance and other financial avenues to invest in adaptation and management of climate change; the aim is also set to understand possible natural disaster outcomes and  provide insurance in order to improve access and availability for people to have insurance (EC, 2013). The ultimate goal of this framework and workable action model is to offset the risk versus benefit ratio. For example, it has been suggested that the minimum cost of not adapting to climate change in the EU is currently 100 billion euro per year, which has been projected to increase to 250 billion euro per year by 2050 (EC, 2013). Thus, with early changes, the EU’s adaptation strategy to climate change is predicted to have climate change benefits that eventually outweigh the costs. It has been suggested that, ultimately, these action measures will promote sustainable growth, stimulate climate change adaptation and resiliency investments, and create and employ individuals in new jobs (e.g. water management, insurance, etc.) (EC, 2013). Roadmap to a Resource-Efficient Europe A European 2020 strategy set forth to create a resource-efficient Europe, and in order to put this into motion, a roadmap was used to create and define objectives and ways to achieve these goals. The Roadmap to a Resource-Efficient Europe builds upon targets that ultimately seek to ensure a low-carbon economy while transitioning toward an eco-friendly

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economy (EESCCR, 2011). The framework uses policy integration to implement and aim for these targets, which is done by interlinking key sectors and resources through discussions with stakeholders to develop appropriate action to allow effective policy implementation all while understanding possible barriers that may arise as well (EESCCR, 2011). Ultimately, the Roadmap is seeking to transform the economy because the developers of this framework believe that adaptation will be improved if the economy is stimulated through new sources of growth and jobs (e.g. improving building structures) (EESCCR, 2011). A review of public policies regarding minerals, land, water, and biomass will be conducted to initiate this process and ensure that all industries have been included. Ultimately, this type of growth could increase prosperity while promoting resource usage improvement through the coherent response to current resource constraints and adaption strategies surrounding these barriers (EESCCR, 2011). EU Action Plan for the Circular Economy This policy action plan revolves around creating a more circular economy, wherein the value of products, materials, and resources is increased, while the generation of waste is minimized (EC, 2017). The ultimate goal of this proposal and policy measure is to develop a long-term competitive economy and be cognizant of resource usage and carbon output levels (EC, 2017). Unlike many countries and action measures that are merely trying to decrease negative effects of climate change, this strategy suggests that the circular economy will actually boost the EU’s competitiveness in the business world by having more opportunities through innovation production and consumption techniques. This plan can  be implemented all while encouraging biodiversity, improving air standards, increasing access to clean water and improved sanitation, and lowering current carbon emissions (EC, 2017). Specific ideas for change could be (1) designing products that are easier to repair, upgrade, or remanufacture; (2) using raw and renewable materials in production while promoting best practices in each industry (e.g. industrial symbiosis); (3) shaping and labeling products that will allow consumers to make well-informed choices on products purchases; and (4) encouraging waste recycling and improved waste management (e.g. plastic recycling) (EC, 2017). Ultimately, this policy has set out to decrease outcomes of climate change through economic improvements from all individuals, governments, and stakeholders involved.

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Country-Specific Strategies National Adaptation Strategies are facilitated by EU Member States to encourage, facilitate, and coordinate climate change resiliency within countries. The structure and baseline for each strategy is country-specific, but they are often similar in their comprehensive approach to understanding and addressing vulnerabilities in the country and developing measures to counteract and prevent these impacts (Biesbroek et al., 2010). As mentioned, these unique strategies focus on the vulnerabilities that a country may face. For example, drought is projected for southern Europe, so Greece or Italy would likely emphasize preventing this outcome, instead of putting efforts toward floods or other outcomes. Countries that have taken this approach include Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Romania, Spain, and the United Kingdom. For example, Finland’s National Adaptation Strategy is entitled ‘Finland’s National Strategy for Adaption to Climate Change’ and was adopted in 2005 by the National Observatory on  the Effects of Global Warming (ONERC), which is responsible for the development of the strategy (Swart et al., 2009). These strategies are mostly bottom-up approaches that are context dependent in each cultural setting, involving both public and private sectors (Hulme, 2008). However, because these measures are so inwardly focused, many countries may have failed to include the role of the EU in climate change adaptation efforts (Biesbroek et al., 2010). This may affect streamlined approaches to change, but will hopefully overlap and integrate relevant policies to enhance effective policy making. Ultimately, National Adaptation Strategies were formed to disseminate information and raise awareness on climate change resiliency and adaption; the goal is to reduce negative outcomes and enhance the adaptive capacity of society and find ways in the future that allow people to flourish (Kabat et al., 2005). Changes may occur mostly as a reaction to climate change. For instance, past experiences with climate change or outcomes of climate change (e.g. floods) impact the perception of risk (Grothmann & Patt, 2005). Risk level can be a predictor of future efforts and adaptive capacity development (Grothmann & Patt, 2005). This may be a main component regarding the development of National Adaptation Strategies, but because the effects are felt by local populations, efforts may be more easily implemented.

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Adaptation in Industry While many benefits will likely arise out of these strategies and policy measures, implementation of some adaptation measures is still fairly undeveloped and at an early stage of development. That said, progress has been made for freshwater management, natural resource management, and agriculture (EEA, 2017a). For example, because Europe is one of the largest producers of food in the world—19% of global meat production and 20% of global cereal production worldwide—farming systems have been sensitive to climate change outcomes (Olesen et al., 2011). Thus, farmers have adapted and been compensated by changing management in crop systems; though based off location, there were likely considerable differences in the types of changes that needed to occur (e.g. semi-arid areas are expected to be more affected than cooler areas and will be more severely affected) (Chloupek et  al., 2004; Olesen & Bindi, 2002). Another example of change and adaptation is occurring with aquaculture management. Fishing in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea has been affected by the increased inflow of warm, highly saline water from the North Atlantic into these seas; these conditions are unfavorable for cod, arguably the world’s most important fish species. Thus, a long-term management strategy for fisheries on species must be implemented and include improved management of fisheries and marine ecosystems (Engelhard et al., 2014). In response to these salinity changes and decreased cod production output in the North and Baltic Seas, the EC developed a biodiversity action plan, which sought to integrate biodiversity into conservation of natural resources, fisheries, and aquaculture (EEA, 2017b). These actions were recognized by many EU Member States, whose active collaboration seeks positive change. Other collaborations included other focused efforts  or agreements such as the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas, the Trilateral Wadden Sea Cooperation, Natura 2000, and the Bern Convention, an EU birds and habitats directive (EEA, 2017b). Nationally, many countries remain on track regarding implemented  adaptation actions, but transnationally adaptation action is the result of shared natural resources and is more  difficult to achieve. Thankfully, transnational cooperation is typically supported by European funding instruments and through European regional conventions (EEA, 2017a). Transnational cooperation may rely on high adaptation potential, which may occur due to socioeconomic systems because of the high gross national products, stable growth and populations, and strong political,

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institutional, and technical support systems (IPCC, 2001). Together, these strategies and policies seek to curb outcomes from climate change on more of a macro-scale. That said, collective individual measures must also be taken to curb the effects of climate change through resiliency efforts. Motivation and perceived capacity are primary factors that encourage a positive human response to climate change (Grothmann & Patt, 2005). For example, a survey was conducted in a city in Germany that questioned community member’s experiences with flooding of the Rhine River, including efforts to reduce negative outcomes, and it was determined that property ownership—not education or household net income—was the only significant predictor of adaptation (Grothmann & Reusswig, 2006). Factors like this need to be taken into account when developing appropriate response measures that must ultimately be implemented by individuals. These behavioral aspects need to be included in the response to climate change in Europe.

Conclusion The effects of climate change will impact Europe. The most affected areas will be eastern and northern parts of Europe, with increased flooding, and southern Europe, which will suffer from more drought. That said, Europe refuses to wait for negative effects to occur; the EU has positioned itself to uphold European standards and become a worldwide agenda setter when it comes to adaptation and resiliency efforts regarding climate change. As a result, the EU as well as individual Member States have created and adopted many policies and programs that seek to curb negative outcomes resulting from climate change. Some of these programs are more broad-­ based and focus on general economy and resource improvement, while others are focused more specifically on the problem at hand, like drought. Before these programs were developed though, the first goal of the EU was to reduce carbon emissions; then, after the realization that more would be needed to be done to curb the effects of climate change, other programs were developed. That said, it is notable that the carbon emissions standards in the EU were the first of their kind, with the first international carbon emission trading system enacted (Schreurs & ­ Tiberghien, 2007). Subsequent policy measures have  included the EU strategy on adaptation to climate change, the Roadmap to a ResourceEfficient Europe, and EU Action Plan for a Circular Economy. Each policy measure presents a framework or idea that can be used to target climate

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change. For example, the EU strategy on adaptation to climate change is a comprehensive program that has focused mostly on prevention and providing information through knowledge dissemination. The Roadmap to a Resource-Efficient Europe and the EU Action Plan for a Circular Economy have focused more on promoting the economy and using resources efficiently in hopes that these types of programs will be more well-adapted to society, as the economy would be stimulated and people would benefit from them. While all of these ideas are good, it is important to remember that adaptation depends on a variety of factors, such as transnational collaboration or behavior change in humans. Thus, change may be slow, but even more so and even through possible failure, it could be argued that the EU has fulfilled its mission through policy change and innovative efforts (e.g. energy taxes, efficiency, and improvement) (Schreurs & Tiberghien, 2007). While the EU may stand alone as a success against climate change, it is well-known that to really make a difference, a collective worldwide effort must take place.

References Biesbroek, G. R., Swart, R. J., Carter, T. R., Cowan, C., Henrichs, T., Mela, H., et al. (2010). Europe adapts to climate change: Comparing national adaptation strategies. Global Environmental Change, 20(3), 440–450. Chloupek, O., Hrstkova, P., & Schweigert, P. (2004). Yield and its stability, crop diversity, adaptability and response to climate change, weather and fertilisation over 75 years in the Czech Republic in comparison to some European countries. Field Crops Research, 85, 167–190. Encyclopedia Britannica. (2018). Europe. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe Engelhard, G. H., Righton, D. A., & Pinnegar, J. K. (2014). Climate change and fishing: A century of shifting distribution in North Sea cod. Global Change Biology, 20(8), 2473–2483. European Commission [EC]. (2013, April 16). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Region—An EU strategy on adaptation to climate change, COM(2013) 216 final, Brussels. European Commission [EC]. (2017). Social challenges. Retrieved from https:// ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/adaptation/how/social_en European Environment Agency [EEA]. (2017a). The North Sea. Retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/report_2002_0524_154909/ regional-seas-around-europe/page131.html

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European Environment Agency [EEA]. (2017b). Climate change impacts and adaptation. Retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/soer-2015/europe/ climate-change-impacts-and-adaptation Grothmann, T., & Patt, A. (2005). Adaptive capacity and human cognition: The process of individual adaptation to climate change. Global Environmental Change, 15(3), 199–213. Grothmann, T., & Reusswig, F. (2006). People at risk of flooding: Why some residents take precautionary action while others don’t. Natural Hazards, 38, 1–2. Hulme, M. (2008). Geographical work at the boundaries of climate change. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 33(1), 5–11. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC]. (2001). Climate change 2001: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Retrieved from http://hcl.harvard.edu/collections/ipcc/docs/27_WGIITAR_FINAL.pdf Kabat, P., Van Vierssen, W., Veraart, J., Vellinga, P., & Aerts, J. (2005). Climate proofing the Netherlands. Nature, 438(7066), 283–284. Olesen, J. E., & Bindi, M. (2002). Consequences of climate change for European agricultural productivity, land use and policy. European Journal of Agronomy, 16, 239–262. Olesen, J. E., Trnka, M., Kersebaum, K. C., Skjelvåg, A. O., Seguin, B., Peltonen-­ Sainio, P., et al. (2011). Impacts and adaptation of European crop production systems to climate change. European Journal of Agronomy, 34(2), 96–112. Schreurs, M. A., & Tiberghien, Y. (2007). Multi-level reinforcement: Explaining European Union leadership in climate change mitigation. Global Environmental Politics, 7(4), 19–46. Swart, R. J., Biesbroek, G. R., Binnerup, S., Carter, T. R., Henrichs, T., Loquen, S., et al. (2009). Europe adapts to climate change: Comparing national adaptation strategies (No. 01/2009). Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Helsinki. The European Economic and Social Committee and The Committee of the Regions [EESCCR]. (2011). Roadmap to a resource efficient Europe 2011. Retrieved from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CEL EX:52011DC0571

North America Tara Rava Zolnikov

Abstract  North America is in an interesting position, between being one of the largest consumers of energy in the world and contributors to climate change, while also being a high-income country that can deal with the challenges of climate change. Innovative strategies and research are happening throughout North America. Keywords  Climate change • North America • Resiliency and adaptation • Policy • Innovation

Introduction North America is the third largest continent in the world, as it extends more than 5000 miles both east to west and north to south (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018). The continent is set in the Western Hemisphere, bound by the Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and the Pacific Ocean. There are 23 countries that make up North America, including all of the Caribbean and Central America, Bermuda, Canada, Mexico, the United States, and the largest island in the world, Greenland. T. R. Zolnikov (*) Department of Community Health, National University, San Diego, CA, USA School of Behavioral Sciences, California Southern University, Costa Mesa, CA, USA © The Author(s) 2019 T. R. Zolnikov (ed.), Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change, Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01213-7_7

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The continent has many natural resources (e.g. minerals, fresh water, ­forests), contributing to its success at being one of the most economically developed regions in the world (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018). In fact, despite that fact that North America is home to only 10% of the world’s population, it has the highest average income and one of the highest average food intakes, and consumes four times the average amount of energy per person compared to the rest of the world (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018). It is likely that these consumption patterns have contributed to climate change outcomes, but that financial stability has also contributed to its mitigation and adaptation strategies.

Climate Change in North America While North America may be one of the most well-equipped countries to cope with climate change outcomes, indubitably, there are still areas that will suffer as result of the shifting climate. Overall trends in North America will include increased severe hot weather, decreased frost days, and increased heavy precipitation (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2014). Forecasts have predicted that regions will experience both direct effects (e.g. temperature shifts) and indirect effects (e.g. species migration) (Chen, 2011). North America and the Caribbean will most likely be affected by extreme weather patterns, such as droughts and floods (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2013). Droughts will strike the western United States and Canada, while the eastern half of the continent will be more prone to floods and the rising sea level. Alongside a more significant 4-degree temperature shift come more substantial changes, such as extreme daily precipitation (e.g. snow accumulation, runoff) (IPCC, 2014). These hazards will cause stressors in the following areas: water, agriculture, economic activities, and rural and urban settlements (IPCC). Productivity of agriculture, forestry, and tourism industries will all be affected as well (Chen, 2011); other vulnerable areas include populations living near waterfront properties as well as aging populations (Chen, 2011). Everyone will be affected, but to different degrees based on residence and occupation. That said, there are some areas that will suffer more. For example, large cities in the United States—especially Miami, Washington, DC, New  York, and Boston—will have severe effects because of the large populations that reside in these areas (IPCC, 2013). These urban areas will experience greater structural damage from disasters (e.g. hurricanes). People living in coastal communities will also

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be affected by climate change through impacted ecosystems, increased coastal destruction, storm surges, increased sediment in runoff, and rising sea level (Chen, 2011). Alongside these negative outcomes, economic decline will likely affect both urban and rural cities and populations, as tourism will be affected as well as other industries, like fishing, hunting, whaling, and other recreational activities (CCME, 2003; Chen, 2011; NAST, 2001). In addition to the population effects from the changing climate, anthropogenic changes in response to climate change will occur and affect other areas of life. These types of modifications can affect the ecosystem and include shifted land use, increased invasive or non-native species life, more pollution, increased wildfires and droughts, and increased infestations (IPCC, 2013). While temperature and precipitation will certainly affect normal crop output, outcomes on the ecosystem can also affect farming. Agricultural output models—though there may be benefits in the north through increased growth and output—typically show that crop yields will decline (IPCC, 2013). This is especially important because these outcomes may hinder global food security with declines in crop production, in general, and because of decreased output specifically in North America. Other final possible effects on the populations affected by climate change in North America are human health-related; extreme heat events will likely increase mortality and morbidity resulting from exposure to waterborne, foodborne, and vector-borne diseases, as well as air pollutants and pollens (IPCC, 2013).

Individual-Centric Strategies There are practices that can be taken by individuals or communities to decrease climate change outcomes. Mitigation strategies focus on reducing the likelihood of adverse conditions, while adaptation is viewed as reducing the severity of outcomes resulting from the changing climate (Easterling, Hurd, & Smith, 2004). Without implementing either of these techniques, population health may be affected, as climate change can contribute to adverse health effects. But these types of outcomes can be reduced by every person. Because North America is quite progressive, there are actions taken today that aim to both adapt and mitigate outcomes of climate change. Here are a few methods that individuals in North America have implemented to curb climate change outcomes: using

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electric cars, plant-derived plastics, biodiesel, and wind power energy; moving closer to work and decreasing driving time, eating vegetarian food; and using home efficiency practices (e.g. decreasing electric use, unplugging electronics or gadgets, using LED lightbulbs) (Biello, 2007). Individually, these types of strategies may not mitigate negative outcomes from climate change, but collectively these actions may have positive effects. Here are a few specific examples of these novel changes taking place in North America that select individuals contribute to: • By mid-2017, there were 90,302 electric vehicles sold in the United States, with approximately 1% of the market share. Cars most sold included: Tesla Model S, Chevrolet Vold, Toyota Prius, Tesla Model X, Nissan Leaf, Ford Fusion, Ford C-Max, Fiat 500e, and BMW i3 (Klippenstein, 2017). Electric cars reduce greenhouse gas emissions. • Dasani—an American brand of bottled water from the Coca-Cola Company—created a “plant bottle”, which is made up of 30% recyclable plant material (Washam, 2010), while another brand uses only recycled paper boxes to hold water (BoxedWater.Org). Both novel water bottles are available throughout North America. Using less plastic decreases energy output and harmful greenhouse gas emissions. • The United States is the world’s largest producer of biofuel in the world, which is primarily made into ethanol from corn, though it is also used to create biodiesel (e.g. grain stock) and other algae-based fuels (Biofuel.Org, 2018). Options for biofuel allow decreased use of fossil fuels for energy and therefore lead to less greenhouse gas emissions. • The Global Wind Energy Council reported that in 2016 the United States and Canada acquired 5.5 and 6% of total power from wind, respectively. Wind power continues to increase worldwide (Global Wind Energy Council, 2018). Using wind for energy is considered “clean energy” because coal and natural gas are not used and therefore less greenhouse gas emissions are produced with its use. • Food Each type of food has a different  global health gas output. There are large emissions up to 30 kg CO2 equivalents/kg of product for ruminants (e.g. beef, cheese, and pork), while for vegetables and fruits, emissions are low (e.g. 2.5 kg CO2 equivalents/kg of product). This information suggests that changes in diet toward more plant-based food, meat from animals with less enteric f­ermentation,

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and food that is processed in an energy-efficient manner may help mitigate climate change outcomes (Carlsson-Kanyama & González, 2009). Approximately 4% of Canadians and 3.3% of people in the United States identify as vegetarians (American Dietetic Association; Dietitians of Canada, 2003; Vegetarian Resource Group, 2018). Most solutions focus on decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. That said, there are alternative ways in which people in North America are trying to relieve the earth of climate change. For example, a group in the Southwest United States has gathered together after experiencing ecological transformation through continued fires, droughts, and insect infestations. Together, the community created a call to revise conservation goals to maintain the rapidly changing environment due to climate change (Poiani, Goldman, Hobson, Hoekstra, & Nelson, 2011). Another movement, called Rising Tide, works to engage grassroots organizations to promote unity regarding climate change and solutions to it; Rising Tide North America has local contacts in more than 50 cities in Mexico, the United States, and Canada (RisingTideNorthAmerica.Org, 2018). Earth Justice is the largest nonprofit environmental law organization, with more than 100 members representing over 400 cases fighting for the environment. The nonprofit provides free legal representation on the following major issues: clean air, clean water, endangered species, national forest management, and national environmental policy. Many of these issues intersect with climate change (e.g. deforestation, increased oil production) (EarthJustice.Org, 2018). Then, there are nonspecific and very inclusive groups, such as the Natural Resource Defense Council, which has over three million members and over 500 scientists, lawyers, and policy advocates that focus on environment-related issues, such as pollution from fossil fuels. This group accomplishes this through legal action that supports government limits on carbon pollution from cars and industry, creating clean energy solutions, and fighting against oil and gas projects (NaturalResourceDefenseCouncil.Org, 2018). And then, on the opposite spectrum, there are individuals that condemn climate change and make it their life purpose to provide awareness; Al Gore, a former presidential candidate of the United States was one person who used climate change as a political platform, made a movie—An Inconvenient Truth—about it to raise awareness, and created a nonprofit, called the Climate Reality Project, devoted to empowering others through social networking to stand up for the climate crises (ClimateRealityProject.Org, 2018).

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From buying an energy-efficient car to joining a nonprofit that advocates for climate change awareness, there are many ways that individuals in North America are actively trying to mitigate the consequences of climate change.

Policy-Based Adaptation Strategies Climate change policy has expanded significantly over the last 20 years in North America. Policy-based strategies are focused more on change, regulations, or laws that can be applied in larger settings and affect more people. Some current ideas that have been implemented to decrease climate change and adverse health effects include improved warning and response systems for natural disasters, enhanced pollution control measures, and better urban planning and building materials (IPCC, 2013). Many of those ideas have been implemented in North American countries. These changes typically take place on many levels: country-wide, regionally, state-wide, and in cities. The United States has been very involved in climate change policy. There is a lot of collaboration between states and the federal government to work against climate change, mostly centered on reducing emissions. The Environmental Protection Agency is the primary pollution control agency in the United States that has typically always upheld standards that govern allowable pollution levels and create regulations to ensure these standards (Davies & Mazurek, 2014). However, it should be noted that outcomes are based on some contingencies, including technology, population growth, energy policy, agriculture policy, transportation policy, and other sectorial actions (Davies & Mazurek, 2014). Many other agencies are working on various issues related to climate change as well. The National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration created the National Incident Management System, which uses the National Weather Service to support decisional support services in collaboration with the Federal Emergency Management Agency, state and local emergency management agencies, and non-governmental organizations (e.g. the Red Cross) to raise public awareness and provide the framework for incident management in the event of an emergency (Maximuk, 2012). Another initiative included the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, which was the first mandatory program used to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (RGGI.Org, 2018). This initiative was implemented by states in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic and focused on having states sell their emission allowances

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through auctions, wherein funds were then used to invest in renewable and clean energy economy (RGGI.Org, 2018). Another notable agency is the United States Global Change Research Program, which was established in 1989 and has worked toward using knowledge to respond accordingly to climate change. The group comprises 13 federal agencies that create working groups that use research on climate change to support policy (GlobalChange.Gov, 2018). For example, the Adaptation Science Interagency Working Group coordinated agencies and used input, research, and case studies to produce science and policy development on adaptation, which was then implemented into the Climate Change Adaption Plans (GlobalChange.Gov, 2018). In Canada, pollution control is managed by the Canadian Environmental Protection Act and the Environment and Climate Change Canada. The Canadian Environmental Protection Act focuses on institutionalizing pollution prevention across all federal legislation, ensuring national pollution prevention efforts, implementing pollution prevention in all industrial activities, providing all Canadians with access to information to control pollution, and participating in international pollution prevention initiatives (Government of Canada, 2018). Additionally, the Environment and Climate Change Canada informs Canadians about protecting nature and ensuring a safe environment for the future (Government of Canada, 2018). Mexico has been quite progressive in reacting against climate change; in fact, it was the first country to develop a comprehensive law addressing climate change in 2012 (World Resources Institute, 2015). In Mexico, there are collaborations and multiple partnerships that support political action related to climate change. These agencies include various branches of the Mexican Government, such as the Ministry of Environment and National Resources, the Commission for Natural Protected Areas, and the National Institute of Ecology and Forestry Commission (The World Bank, 2013). Implementing agencies include the Water Commission, Forest Commission, Institute of Ecology and Climate Change, Commission for Biodiversity Knowledge and Use, and Commission of Natural Protected Areas (The World Bank, 2013). The goals of these agencies are to increase social resiliency related to climate change, approve and publish special programs for climate change, and submit final reports on action and improvement in the country based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (The World Bank, 2013). In fact, Mexico is so progressive that the distribution of 22.9 million free energy-saving light bulbs

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was recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records (The World Bank, 2012). Other countries in North America have also made positive changes against climate change, working across sectors of the economy, including agriculture, fisheries, energy, and infrastructure, to prepare populations for climate variability. Costa Rica has shifted from using fossil fuels to more renewable energy; in fact, Costa Rica is close to becoming the first 100% renewable energy-powered country in Latin America, with 87% of electricity from clean energy sources (Ministerio del Ambiente y Energia, 2014). Guatemala implemented various laws addressing climate through both mitigation and adaption efforts, including laws reducing vulnerability, decreasing greenhouse gas emissions, combating deforestation, and increasing new energy  sources; Guatemala has one of the largest solar plants in all Central America (Caceres & Nunez, 2010). And in the Bahamas, the Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre is a working group that coordinates the Caribbean response to climate change by advising on policy measures for all Caribbean Community Member States (CaribbeanClimate.BZ, 2018).

Innovation in Climate Change Resiliency Fortunately, the preparedness level for North America, in general, is high. Areas in North America are supported by high availability of technology, financing, “know-how”, documentation (e.g. materials available to guide adaptation initiatives), and governance to engage and support change in the face of climate change (Leal Filho, 2013). The government has taken a large role in providing this support through many initiatives by agencies, including the US Department of Agriculture and the US Forest Service, the Wildlife Conservation Society, Conservation Biology Institute, and the Nature Conservancy. For example, the Nature Conservancy has created climate adaptation case studies which explain how climate change will affect regions and how projects can strengthen and advance overall conservation investments. Additionally, the Wildlife Conservation Society created the Adaptation for Conservation Targets framework, which is trying to create a scientifically based framework for planning through conceptual modeling via scenarios and adaption management (Leal Filho, 2013). From this perspective, the North American continent may be able to use these innovative science-based strategies as an example that other areas of the world could implement and benefit from in order to reduce climate

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risks and increase resiliency (Leal Filho, 2013). The following are novel studies or ideas that have taken place in various areas to improve upon resiliency strategies: • The Rural Climate Dialogues program was created by the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy along with the Jefferson Center to help rural areas understand climate change and adapt to it through public engagement. Instead of using education or “one-sided knowledge”, this debate platform sought to understand what barriers or questions arose regarding climate change from citizens and then directly answered and provided recommendations to them. The idea was to directly involve citizens in the adaptation planning process to encourage its implementation (Myers, Ritter, & Rockway, 2017). • The New Brunswick Climate Action Plan and the New Brunswick Flood Reduction Strategy were created to use policy to include adaption strategies in relevant sectors to encourage adaptation in communities and infrastructure (Province of New Brunswick, 2014). This plan was focused more on urban planning on a regional level. This novel governance approach used multi-scale government arrangements to draw in stakeholders, enabling regional collaboration to apply knowledge to policy and practice (Klenk, Flueraru, & MacLellan, 2017). • Participatory action research has been implemented worldwide to curb negative outcomes of climate change. This type of research is heterogeneous regarding practices, and instead it focuses heavily on conducting research centered around action with people or communities (Chouinard, Plante, Weissenberger, Noblet, & Guillemot, 2017). Atlantic Canadian coastal communities used this strategy to ask questions regarding coastal erosion, flood risk, and climate change related to fisheries. Projects in this area have led to empowered communities, which in turn resulted in adaptation action through stimulated social change (Chouinard et al., 2017).

Conclusion Outcomes related to climate change will affect North America. These outcomes will include heavy precipitation and increased natural disasters (e.g. floods from increased precipitation, droughts and fires, hurricanes). These scenarios will affect human populations (e.g. increased morbidity and

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mortality due to heat-related events) and will have industry-wide effects (e.g. agricultural production) as well. Thus, action against climate change in North America has been quite extensive. These measures ultimately contribute to mitigation strategies and adaption techniques. Strategies range from individual actions, like driving electric cars, to more comprehensive or regulated laws, like emissions standards. Laws and regulations have also been enacted and implemented throughout North America and have contributed to novel working groups and collaborations fighting against climate change. Novel research has also been conducted throughout North America to understand how best to adapt to climate change. These advances in science create new questions to ask how populations can better adapt or mitigate consequences. Overall, while there is much progress in North America, there are still many questions and concerns regarding the changing climate and many long-term solutions that need to be determined.

References American Dietetic Association; Dietitians of Canada. (2003). Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 64(2), 62–81. https:// doi.org/10.3148/64.2.2003.62. PMID12826028 Biello, D. (2007). 10 solutions for climate change. Retrieved from https://www. scientificamerican.com/article/10-solutions-for-climate-change/ Biofuel.Org. (2018). Biofuels – The fuels of the future. Retrieved from http:// biofuel.org.uk/north-america.html Caceres, L., & Nunez, A. M. (2010). Segunda comunicaciones nacional: Sobre cambio llimatico. Retrieved from http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/ ecunc2.pdf Carlsson-Kanyama, A., & González, A. D. (2009). Potential contributions of food consumption patterns to climate change. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1704S–1709S. CarribeanClimate.BZ. (2018). About us. Retrieved from http://www.caribbeanclimate.bz/about-us/ CCME. (2003). Climate, nature, people: Indicators of Canada’s changing climate. Climate Change Indicators Task Group of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Inc., Winnipeg, Canada, 51 pp. Chouinard, O., Plante, S., Weissenberger, S., Noblet, M., & Guillemot, J. (2017). The participative action research approach to climate change adaptation in

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Atlantic Canadian coastal communities. In W.  Leal Filho & J.  M. Keenan (Eds.), Climate change adaptation in North America (pp. 67–76). New York: Springer. Chen, R.  J. (2011). Effects of climate change in North America: An overview. Journal of Sustainable Development, 4(3), 32. ClimateRealityProject.Org. (2018). Climate 101. Retrieved from https://www. climaterealityproject.org/climate-101 Davies, J. C., & Mazurek, J. (2014). Pollution control in United States: Evaluating the system. London: Routledge. EarthJustice.Org. (2018). How we work. Retrieved from https://earthjustice. org/about/how_we_work Easterling, W. E., III, Hurd, B. H., & Smith, J. B. (2004). Coping with global climate change: The role of adaptation in the United States. Pew Center on Global Climate Change. Retrieved from http://www.cakex.org/virtuallibrary/coping-global-climate-change-role-adaptation-united-state Encyclopedia Britannica. (2018). North America. Retrieved from https://www. britannica.com/place/North-America Global Wind Energy Council. (2018). Global statistics. Retrieved from http:// gwec.net/global-figures/graphs/ GlobalChange.Gov. (2018). About. Retrieved from https://www.globalchange. gov/about Government of Canada. (2018). Pollution prevention federal action plan. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/ services/pollution-prevention/publications/federal-action-strategy.html Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC]. (2013). Summary for policymakers. In T. F. Stocker, et al. (Eds.), Climate change 2013: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC]. (2014). Fifth Assessment Report (AR-5). Retrieved from https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/ Klenk, N., Flueraru, D., & MacLellan, J. I. (2017). Experimentalist regional governance for climate change adaptation: A Canadian case study. In W. Leal Filho & J.  M. Keenan (Eds.), Climate change adaptation in North America (pp. 51–53). New York: Springer. Klippenstein, M. (2017). Electric vehicle sales in the United States: 2017 half-year update. Retrieved from https://www.fleetcarma.com/electric-vehicle-salescanada-q1-2017/ Leal Filho, W. (2013). Climate change and disaster risk management (pp. 1–20). Berlin, Germany: Springer.

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Maximuk, L. (2012). United States multi-hazard early warning system. Retrieved from https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/drr/projects/Thematic/MHEWS/ GoodPractices/USA/UnitedStates.pdf Ministerio del Ambiente y Energía. (2014). Instituto Meteorológico Nacional. Tercera comunicación nacional a la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre cambio climático. Retrieved from http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/ natc/crinc3.pdf Myers, D. C., Ritter, T., & Rockway, A. (2017). Community deliberation to build local capacity for climate change adaptation: The rural climate dialogues program. In W. Lead Filho & J. M. Keenan (Eds.), Climate change adaptation in North America (pp. 9–12). New York: Springer. NAST. (2001). Climate change impacts on the United States: The potential consequences of climate variability and change. Foundation Report for the US Global Change Research Program. U.S.  National Assessment Synthesis Team. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 620 pp. Retrieved October 2, 2009, from http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/Library/nationalassessment/foundation.htm NaturalResourceDefenseCouncil.Org. (2018). Climate change. Retrieved from https://www.nrdc.org/issues/climate-change Poiani, K.  A., Goldman, R.  L., Hobson, J., Hoekstra, J.  M., & Nelson, K.  S. (2011). Redesigning biodiversity conservation projects for climate change: Examples from the field. Biodiversity and Conservation, 20(1), 185–201. Province of New Brunswick. (2014). New Brunswick climate change action plan. Retrieved from www.gnba.ca Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative. (2018). Welcome. Retrieved from https:// www.rggi.org/ RisingTideNorthAmerica.Org. (2018). Our story. Retrieved from https://risingtidenorthamerica.org/about-rising-tide-north-america/our-history/ The World Bank. (2012). One light bulb at a time. Retrieved from http://www. worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2012/08/01/foco-a-foco-mexico-consigue-record-guinness The World Bank. (2013). Mexico seeks to adapt to climate change and mitigate its effects. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/04/17/ mexico-seeks-to-adapt-to-climate-change-and-mitigate-its-effects Vegetarian Resource Group. (2018). How many adults in the U.S. are vegetarian and vegan? Retrieved from http://www.vrg.org/nutshell/Polls/2016_adults_ veg.htm Washam, C. (2010). Plastics go green. Retrieved from https://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/videos/ chemmatters-april2010-bioplastics.pdf World Resources Institute. (2015). Mexico becomes first developing country to release new climate plan. Retrieved from http://www.wri.org/blog/2015/03/ mexico-becomes-first-developing-country-release-new-climate-plan-indc

South America Daisy Ramirez-Ortiz

Abstract  South American countries are developing adaptation strategies, policies, and programs to sustain national economies and local livelihoods in the face of climate changes. However, major challenges exist that are limiting their adaptive capacity. This chapter discusses current adaptation strategies and new approaches required to minimize the social impacts of climate change across South America. Keywords  Climate change • South America • Vulnerability • Social adaptation

Introduction The continent of South America (SA) comprises 12 independent countries: Colombia, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Brazil, Paraguay, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and Ecuador. The region exhibits diverse weather and climate patterns, fluctuating from tropical to subtropical to extratropical (Garreaud, Vuille, Compagnucci, & Marengo, 2009). Due to this diverse climate, the region has one of the highest levels of biodiversity in the D. Ramirez-Ortiz (*) Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2019 T. R. Zolnikov (ed.), Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change, Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01213-7_8

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world and very unique ecosystems, such as the world’s driest desert, the Atacama, and largest rainforest, the Amazon (Garreaud, 2009; Keller, Medeiros, Echeverría, & Parry, 2011; Magrin et  al., 2014). Two other important ecosystems in the region are the Andes cordillera and the Pampas lowlands (Keller et al., 2011). This diversity of natural resources is the foundation for the economies of South American countries (Keller et al., 2011). Development levels in the region are relatively high, with all 12 countries  classified as at least a middle income country (Keller et  al., 2011). Bolivia, Guyana, Paraguay, and Suriname have been ranked as having achieved a medium level of human development, whereas Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay have achieved a higher level of economic development (Keller et al., 2011). In addition, SA is considered to play a major role in the future world economy because many countries in the region are experiencing rapid economic growth (e.g. Brazil), particularly in food and bioenergy production (Magrin et al., 2014). Regardless of this rapid economic growth, millions of South Americans continue to live in poverty, increasing their vulnerability to climate hazards such as heavy rainfall, floods, and droughts, which are threatening the development of national economies and local livelihoods (Keller et al., 2011). Besides, the region is expected to experience higher pressures in regard to land use, industrialization, and environmental emissions (Magrin et al., 2014).

Climate Change Trends Climate change in SA, as in other areas of the world, has been attributed to natural climate variability and anthropogenic activities. Land use is the key anthropogenic driver of environmental degradation in the region (Magrin et al., 2014). Agriculture, deforestation, cattle ranching, and gold mining are severely affecting areas of the Amazon forest in Peru, Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador, and the Andes, exacerbating the negative impacts of climate change (Magrin et al., 2014). SA’s climate is also highly influenced by a large-scale climatological phenomenon, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (Garreaud et al., 2009). This has resulted in excessive rainfall, temperature changes, and flooding and drought events throughout the region (Eichler & Londoño, 2013; Garreaud et al., 2009). Temperature and precipitation patterns have been changing in SA. During 1950–2008, southeastern SA experienced increases in annual rainfall which led to landslides and flash floods (0.6 mm day−1 50 yr.−1)

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(Magrin et al., 2014), whereas central-southern Chile had decreasing rainfall during this period (−1  mm  day−1 50  yr.−1) (Magrin et  al., 2014). Higher temperatures have been detected throughout SA since the mid-­ 1970s (near 0.7 °C to 1 °C 40 yr.−1), except for the Chilean coast, which has been cooling off (about −1 °C 40 yr.−1) (Magrin et al., 2014). It is expected that temperatures in SA will increase by an average of 4 °C by 2100 (range: 2.0 °C to 5.0 °C), with increases in warm days and nights in most of the region (Magrin et al., 2014). Consequently, glaciers in the region will continue their retreat and are even expected to disappear during the next 20 to 50 years (e.g. Colombia and Peru) (Keller et al., 2011; Magrin et al., 2014). In the Andean countries including Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, glacier retreat and melting has intensified (Magrin et al., 2014). Particularly, the Andean glaciers in Peru have lost up to 80% of their surface (Keller et al., 2011). The rate of sea level rise has accelerated, ranging from 2 to 7 mm yr.−1 in SA and Central America (Magrin et al., 2014). It is also very probable that the length, frequency, and intensity of heat waves will increase throughout SA (Magrin et  al., 2014). There will be rainfall reduction up to 15% in tropical areas east of the Andes, and an increase of 15 to 20% in southeastern SA and other areas of the region (Magrin et al., 2014). Drought is likely to intensify in the Amazon and Northern Brazil due to reduced precipitation and/or increased evapotranspiration in these areas; rainfall reduction of −22% is expected for northeast Brazil (Magrin et al., 2014). Some uncertainty exists in projections of climate change for the tropical areas of SA (Magrin et al., 2014), though extreme climatic events are expected to occur more frequently (Magrin et al., 2014).

Regional Vulnerability to Climate Change Climate changes threaten four key sectors in the region: freshwater resources, agriculture, coastal and marine ecosystems, and public health. In parts of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, changes in water availability and increases in streamflow have been observed (Climate and Development Knowledge Network (CDKN), 2014; Magrin et  al., 2014). The melting and retreat of the Andean glaciers is affecting the seasonal distribution of streamflows and causing changes in surface water run-off (CDKN, 2014; Magrin et al., 2014). Water supply shortages will increase in the region causing a reduction in water availability for

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i­ndividuals (for drinking water and sanitation), agriculture, and hydropower generation (Magrin et  al., 2014). However, increased rainfall in some areas of SA will cause an expansion in agricultural activities, and thereby deforestation and land degradation will intensify in these areas (Magrin et al., 2014). Climate changes also threaten food production and food security, particularly in the poorest areas. Specifically, in Argentina, fruit and vegetable growing could be reduced by water limitation because of reduced rainfall (Magrin et al., 2014). In Central Chile, increases in temperature and water shortages may decrease winter crops, fruits, vines, and radiata pine (Magrin et al., 2014). Brazilian potato production could be restricted and coffee crops could be completely unfeasible (Magrin et al., 2014). Also, maize, bean, and rice production will be the most affected in SA due to increases in temperatures (Magrin et al., 2014). However, in southeastern SA where increases in rainfall are expected, agricultural productivity will be sustained or increased (CDKN, 2014; Magrin et al., 2014). Extreme flooding events and beach erosion are expected to increase in the coastal zones of SA due to sea level rise (Magrin et al., 2014). Ocean warming and acidification are causing a massive decline in coral reef cover, particularly in the Brazilian reefs (Magrin et al., 2014). Climate change is also degrading mangrove ecosystems in the region, causing a reduction in fisheries and livelihoods (Magrin et al., 2014). Specifically, fisheries production systems in Peru and Colombia are among the most vulnerable to climate change impact in the region, causing a decline in productivity and a shift in species (Magrin et al., 2014). All these collateral effects of climate change will have a significant impact in recreation and tourism, and will affect the reliability of sea ports and coastal structures in SA (Magrin et al., 2014). Climate changes in SA are also affecting human health by increasing morbidity, mortality, and disabilities. There has been an increase in the incidence of water- and vector-borne diseases including malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis, cholera, and other diarrheal diseases (Magrin et al., 2014; Pinto et al., 2008). In addition, higher temperatures and changes in air quality are increasing the incidence of chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, morbidity from asthma and rhinitis, negative pregnancy-­related outcomes, cancer, cognitive deficit, otitis, and diabetes (Magrin et al., 2014). Also, heat waves are causing an increase in dehydration cases and chronic kidney diseases (Magrin et al.,

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2014). Lastly, extreme climate events are causing psychological trauma (Magrin et al., 2014). All these negative effects of climate change will pose significant challenges to South American societies and will result in major losses and costs if adaptation measures are not timely implemented. However, in some cases climate changes will imply new environmental conditions, and thus it is up to South American countries to adapt and take advantage of these new conditions.

Adaptation Strategies Social and ecological systems in South American countries are clearly sensitive and vulnerable to climate changes due to their dependency on natural resources, their deficit in infrastructure development, and their high poverty levels (Magrin et al., 2014). As a result, the region will face major challenges in terms of social and environmental adaptability to climate changes, which will have strong implications for individuals, local livelihoods, and the progress of national economies in the region (Keller et al., 2011; Magrin et  al., 2014). Countries in SA have identified adaptation needs and priorities to sustain livelihoods and quality of life in the face of climate changes. The highest priorities identified by all South American countries are related to agriculture, forestry, freshwater, biodiversity, coastal resources, human health, and disaster risk management (Keller et al., 2011). Agriculture is a key sector for adaptation to climate change in SA, because it represents a large percentage of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for many countries in the region (Keller et al., 2011). For example, 32% of Argentina’s and 33% of Guyana’s GDP is attributed to the agricultural sector (Keller et al., 2011). In addition, many countries in SA are the main exporters of agricultural products in the world, including Uruguay, Paraguay, and Brazil (Keller et  al., 2011). Thus, the effects of climate change on the agricultural sector have strong socioeconomic implications for South American populations. A key adaptation measure is the use of agro-climatic risk management systems and climatic forecasts (Barrios et al., 2015; Keller et al., 2011). These tools use data on historic climatic events to provide real-time monitoring and seasonal climate forecasts to manage extreme climatic events (Barrios et al., 2015). For example, the South Atlantic Sea Surface Temperature and the Southern Oscillation Index have been found to be effective indicators of annual crop yield

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v­ ariability for soybean, sunflower, and maize in Argentina (Magrin et al., 2014). Providing climate forecast information enhances the ability of farmers to make informed decisions, and support the development of public policies (Barrios et al., 2015). Another adaptation measure is the use of an index-based forecast insurance that helps agricultural populations to recover economically from extreme climate events, thereby increasing financial resilience for local farmers in the face of climate change impact (Mimura et al., 2014). Moreover, incorporating local and indigenous knowledge and the use of participatory research also enhance the development of effective agricultural solutions to climate change (Magrin et al., 2014). For example, traditional practices in Peru such as the use of agricultural terraces facilitate adaptation to climate change by optimizing water use for growing rice, potatoes, and corn crops (Evidence and Lessons from Latin America Network (ELLA), 2012). In semi-arid zones of Bolivia, some adaptation measures that have been proven to be effective include moving crops to different areas to take advantage of new climatic conditions (e.g. higher precipitation) and the use of hazard-resistant crops (Keller et  al., 2011; Magrin et al., 2014). In Argentina, shifting in agricultural zoning has also been proven to be an effective strategy (Keller et al., 2011; Magrin et al., 2014). Another adaptation strategy is agroforestry; this technique has been found to be effective in protecting Arabica coffee production from extreme temperatures in Brazil (Camargo, 2010; Lin, 2007). Other practices include genetic modification, deficit irrigation, and crop sequencing (Da Cunha, Coelho, & Féres, 2015; Keller et  al., 2011; Magrin et  al. 2014). Freshwater resources are also another priority sector for most of South American countries, due to their importance for agriculture, hydroelectric power, and human health, and their link to climate change impacts in these sectors (Keller et al., 2011). Several policies have been developed in countries such as Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Uruguay, and Bolivia, to improve the efficiency of water resources management and coordination (Magrin et al., 2014). For example, Brazil instituted the National Water Resources Policy and created the National Water Resources Management System. This regulation promotes the decentralization of water resources management and the participation of community stakeholders (i.e. government, users, and communities) through the National Council of Water Resources (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2016; Magrin et al., 2014). Another important adaptation measure is the use of

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early warning systems. This tool provides important information on drought and flood events that helps to implement timely and appropriate mitigation responses (Keller et  al., 2011). Also, streamflow forecast has been proposed to improve water risk management (Magrin et al., 2014; Sankarasubramanian et al., 2009). Both of these tools have the potential to manage water resources, and improve decision making and practices to reduce water-related risks. Other adaptation measures to reduce the impact of climate change on the water sector include increasing water availability through groundwater pumping, reservoirs, and irrigation infrastructure, fog interception, and the use of less water-­intensive crops (Magrin et al., 2014). Another sector of particular concern for South American countries is hydropower generation. SA is highly dependent on hydropower energy generation, with Brazil, Colombia, and Costa Rica having close to 80% of the electricity generated through hydropower facilities (Magrin et  al., 2014). To mitigate the potential reduction in hydropower generation due to climate changes, many South American countries have identified other alternatives including natural gas and sugarcane bagasse electricity generation, and coal-fired power plants (Magrin et al., 2014). Coastal resources are another important sector for adaptation to climate change in SA.  Coastal communities, particularly fishermen, are expected to experience many challenges from sea level rise and other climate-­related threats due to their reliance on marine resources for their livelihood (Magrin et al., 2014; Santos & Schiavetti, 2014). A key adaptation strategy to protect coastal communities and marine ecosystems is marine protected areas (Magrin et al., 2014). For example, Brazil has protected areas known as “Marine Extractive Reserves” that ensure sustainable use of coastal resources and protect the livelihoods of approximately 60,000 small-scale fishermen (Magrin et al., 2014; Santos & Schiavetti, 2014). In addition, Brazil is using a participatory approach to co-manage fisheries involving local communities, government agencies, and academic and non-governmental institutions to promote the conservation of marine biodiversity, improve the livelihood of coastal populations, and favor cultural survival of traditional fishing practices (Magrin et al., 2014). Moreover, reef-based industries are of particular concern for South American countries. Some proven adaptation strategies in SA for the protection and management of reefs include the designation of marine reserves, management of watershed, and protection and replanting of coastal mangroves (Magrin et  al., 2014). To address sea level rise and

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coastal erosion, particularly in low-elevation coastal zones and poor coastal communities, the establishment of appropriate infrastructure such as buffer zones, dikes, dams, and breakwaters has been proposed (Keller et al., 2011; Magrin et al., 2014). Other adaptation measures to protect coastal zones in SA include sanitation and drainage systems and infrastructure, biological reforestation, and integrated coastal zone management (Keller et al., 2011). Aquaculture and payment for ecosystem services (PES; or “fishing agreements”) are also proposed adaptation measures for the fisheries sector (Keller et al., 2011). For example, a fishing agreement in Brazil known as defeso provides financial compensation to fishermen during periods of forbidden fishing in both marine and freshwater fisheries (Magrin et al., 2014). The development and implementation of adaptation strategies for the impact of climate change on human health is also a priority for most of the South American countries (Keller et al., 2011). Epidemiological monitoring and control, and disease projection and preventive/responsive systems are proposed to further adaptive capacity to deal with emerging diseases (Keller et  al., 2011; Magrin et  al., 2014). For example, Colombia has established a pilot adaptation program to manage changes in malaria transmission and exposure, and Brazil has implemented local pollution control measures to reduce greenhouse emissions (Magrin et al., 2014). Also, community health services and prevention programs should be enhanced for a more effective public health response (Magrin et al., 2014). Multidisciplinary cooperation and research are also proposed to provide more evidence on the impact of climate change on populations and health systems, and to design tailored adaptation and mitigation strategies (Magrin et al., 2014).

Policy Actions There are large differences in adaptation strategies and development of policies and programs to address climate change between countries. This is because no one single adaptation strategy will meet the needs of all South American countries. Governments across SA have prepared National Communications to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (CDKN, 2014; Keller et al., 2011). In addition, they have also developed national strategies, action plans, and policies focusing exclusively on adaptation strategies to address the highest needs and priorities identified by each country (Keller et  al., 2011).

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Countries such as Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, and Peru are the most advanced in terms of development of policies and programs (Keller et al., 2011). These countries have developed appropriate institutions and policies to support research, capacity building, awareness raising and education campaigns, and the effective implementation of country-specific adaptation actions (Keller et al., 2011). For instance, Peru has developed two National Communications to the UNFCCC, one development strategy called the Plan Bicentenario, and a National Climate Change Strategy, all addressing climate change vulnerabilities within the identified priority sectors (Keller et al., 2011). In addition, Peru is taking part in two global initiatives: (1) the UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) Climate Risk Management Technical Assistance Support Project (CRM TASP) that aims to increase the country’s capacity to manage climate risks and (2) the Adaptation for Smallholders to Climate Change (AdapCC), whose goal is to help farmers deal with the impacts of climate change (Keller et al., 2011). To date, the SA region has not established a regional adaptation policy or strategy to address the current and future impacts of climate change (Keller et al., 2011). However, several countries are participating in intergovernmental networks that are strengthening their capacity to manage climate change. For example, all South American countries, except for Suriname and Guyana, are part of the Ibero-American Network of Climate Change Offices (RIOCC) (CDKN, 2014; Keller et al., 2011). The RIOCC developed the Ibero-American Programme on Adaptation to Climate Change (PIACC); this program aims to provide a regional platform for the exchange of knowledge, tools, and methods between countries, build capacity, and promote regional adaptation projects focusing on transborder and multisectoral actions (CDKN, 2014; Keller et  al., 2011). Also, South American countries are participating in several networks that engage local stakeholders in building knowledge on adaptation to climate change. These include Program for Local Adaptation, Regional Policy Dialogue: Water and Climate Change Adaptation, Latin American Platform on Climate, and Red Temática sobre Adaptación al Cambio Climático y el Rol de Servicios Ecosistématicos (Keller et al., 2011). Furthermore, several programs have been implemented in which at least two South American countries are participating. Some examples include (1) Design and Implementation of Climate Change Adaptation Measures in the Andean Region—that aims at implementing actions to address glacier retreat-related impacts, (2) the Regional Gateway for

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Technology Transfer and Climate Change Action (REGATTA)—an initiative funded by Spain which mainly focuses on improving knowledge management and information exchange between countries, and (3) EUROCLIMA—a regional cooperation program between the European Union and Latin America which provides better knowledge on climate change to the scientific community to improve decision making in SA (Keller et al., 2011). These initiatives demonstrate progress and growing awareness among South American countries of the need to integrate actions and policies to address current and future climate change impacts.

Conclusion South American countries are already facing the risks and impacts of climate change, including increased rainfall, floods, and droughts, higher temperatures, glacial retreat, and sea level rise. These climatic events are having negative effects on South American societies, particularly on poorer populations, through the impact on water supply, food production, and security, hydropower generation, recreation, tourism, and human health, thereby challenging the adaptive capacity of countries to address their vulnerability to climatic events. All South American countries have identified agriculture, water resources, coastal zones, and human health as the highest priorities for adaptation actions (Keller et al., 2011). However, most countries have predominantly focused on the agricultural and water sectors (Keller et  al., 2011). Many countries in the region have developed adaptation strategies, policies, and programs to address their highest priorities; however, many of these efforts are primarily focused on research, vulnerability assessment, capacity building, and knowledge communication (Keller et al., 2011). Intergovernmental collaboration slightly exists, thus limiting the exchange of effective responses to climate change impact between countries (Keller et al., 2011). Also, only a few countries have been able to translate adaptation strategies into tangible actions; this could be due to lack of political leadership and commitment, financial and human resources, and support to implement adaptation strategies (Keller et al., 2011). Some countries also face the challenges of limited information, particularly on the social dimensions of climate change, which limit the development of effective responses (Keller et al., 2011). It is crucial to close the gap between needs and actions to address the impact of climate change across South American countries. Some approaches to achieve this include (1) implement more integrated

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v­ ulnerability, impact, and adaptation assessments; (2) complement scientific knowledge with indigenous and traditional knowledge; (3) promote active participation of local communities in the adaptation process; (4) promote national, international, and multisectoral collaborations to support research and actions on climate change and the associated social impacts; (5) shift from general efforts to more specific efforts to promote adaptation responses tailored to local communities; (6) link findings from climate science to socioeconomic vulnerability assessment; and (7) improve the incorporation of socioeconomic aspects on national communications, action plans, and policies (Keller et al., 2011; Metternicht et al., 2014; United Nations Task Team on Social Dimensions of Climate Change, 2011). In some areas of SA, addressing the social and economic impacts of climate change to populations will not only entail highlighting the negative effects but also taking advantage of new climatic conditions and technologies. For example, cell phone applications such as Agrisupport and WISE are a great opportunity to assist farmers in adapting their traditional farming practices to new climatic patterns by predicting crop failure, and to improve irrigation practices (Bartlett et al., 2015; Pontes, 2016). Also, as adaptation is a dynamic process, studies have to be sustained to effectively modify adaptation strategies to the continuous climatic change (Keller et al., 2011; Magrin et al., 2014). South American countries will have to maximize opportunities and adapt to become resilient to climate changes, and therefore minimize the social, cultural, and economic impacts on populations, especially poorer communities. Enhancing research, policy, and practice with the collaboration of local stakeholders will be vital to facilitate decision making and to develop effective and sustainable adaptation strategies. Lastly, all populations throughout South America will have to work collectively to address the impacts of climate change.

References Barrios, C., Mendez, G., Diana, C. C., Llanos, L., Obando, D., Espinoza, J., et al. (2015). Agro-climatic risk management for better agricultural decision making in Latin America. In ASABE 1st climate change symposium: Adaptation and mitigation conference proceedings (pp. 1–3). Chicago, IL: American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE) Publication.

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Bartlett, A. C., Andales, A. A., Arabi, M., & Bauder, T. A. (2015). A smartphone app to extend use of a cloud-based irrigation scheduling tool. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 111, 127–130. Camargo, M.  B. P.  D. (2010). The impact of climatic variability and climate change on Arabic coffee crop in Brazil. Bragantia, 69(1), 239–247. Climate and Development Knowledge Network (CDKN). (2014). The IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report: What’s in it for Latin America? Executive Summary. Retrieved February 12, 2018, from https://cdkn.org/wp-content/ uploads/2014/11/IPCC-­AR5-­Whats-in-it-for-Latin-America.pdf Da Cunha, D. A., Coelho, A. B., & Féres, J. G. (2015). Irrigation as an adaptive strategy to climate change: An economic perspective on Brazilian agriculture. Environment and Development Economics, 20(1), 57–79. Eichler, T. P., & Londoño, A. C. (2013). South American climatology and impacts of El Niño in NCEP’s CFSR data. Advances in Meteorology, 15, 1–15. Evidence and Lessons from Latin America Network (ELLA). (2012). Key advances in water management and climate change adaptation in Latin America’s mountains. Retrieved February 12, 2018, from http://ella.practicalaction.org/ knowledge-brief/key-advances-in-water-management-and-climate-changeadaptation-in-latin-america-s-mountains/ FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). (2016). Brasil: Water management, policies and legislation related to water use in agriculture. Retrieved February 16, 2018, from http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/ countries_regions/Profile_segments/BRA-Inst_esp.stm Garreaud, R. D. (2009). The Andes climate and weather. Advances in Geosciences, 22, 3–11. https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-22-3-2009 Garreaud, R. D., Vuille, M., Compagnucci, R., & Marengo, J. (2009). Presentday South American climate. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 281(3), 180–195. Keller, M., Medeiros, D., Echeverría, D., & Parry, J. (2011). Review of current and planned adaptation action: South America. Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela. Adaptation Partnership and International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), Adaptation Partnership, Washington, DC and IISD Winnipeg, MB, Canada, 190 pp. Lin, B. B. (2007). Agroforestry management as an adaptive strategy against potential microclimate extremes in coffee agriculture. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 144(1–2), 85–94. Magrin, G. O., Marengo, J. A., Boulanger, J.-P., Buckeridge, M. S., Castellanos, E., Poveda, G., et al. (2014). Central and South America. In V. R. Barros, et al. (Eds.), Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part B: Regional aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp.  1499–1566). Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

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Metternicht, G., Sabelli, A., & Spensley, J. (2014). Climate change vulnerability, impact and adaptation assessment: Lessons from Latin America. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 6(4), 442–476. Mimura, N., Pulwarty, R. S., Duc, D. M., Elshinnawy, I., Redsteer, M. H., Huang, H. Q., et al. (2014). Adaptation planning and implementation. In C. B. Field, et al. (Eds.), Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: Global and sectoral aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp. 869–898). Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Pinto, J., Bonacic, C., Hamilton-West, C., Romero, J., & Lubroth, J.  (2008). Climate change and animal diseases in South America. Revue Scientifique et Technique, 27(2), 599–613. Pontes, N. (2016). Phone app to forecast risk of crop failure in Brazil. Business Insider. Retrieved February 24, 2018, from http://www.businessinsider. com/r-phone-app-to-forecast-risk-of-crop-failure-in-brazil-2016-2 Sankarasubramanian, A., Lall, U., Souza Filho, F.  A., & Sharma, A. (2009). Improved water allocation utilizing probabilistic climate forecasts: Short-term water contracts in a risk management framework. Water Resources Research, 45(11). https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR007821 Santos, C. Z., & Schiavetti, A. (2014). Assessment of the management in Brazilian marine extractive reserves. Ocean & Coastal Management, 93, 26–36. United Nations Task Team on Social Dimensions of Climate Change. (2011). The social dimensions of climate change: Discussion draft. Retrieved February 12, 2018, from http://www.who.int/globalchange/mediacentre/events/2011/ social-dimensions-­of-climate-change.pdf?ua=1

The World Adapting to Climate Change Tara Rava Zolnikov

Abstract  This chapter reviews how climate change affects each part of the world differently and how each continent must work within its capacity to eliminate these potentially hazardous outcomes. The chapter ultimately provides evidence of how a ‘one size fits all’ approach does not work to promote climate change resiliency. Keywords  Climate change • World • Adaptation • Mitigation • Policy

Introduction The earth’s climate has significantly increased in the last couple of decades. Most of this increase comes from ocean warming, which has absorbed 90% of the energy that accumulated between 1971 and 2010 (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2014). This has caused the earth’s temperature to increase and continues to gradually do so. This temperature shift contributes to changes experienced by people worldwide. As evidenced by this book, climate change will occur directly and indirectly everywhere in the world. The effects of climate change will be T. R. Zolnikov (*) Department of Community Health, National University, San Diego, CA, USA School of Behavioral Sciences, California Southern University, Costa Mesa, CA, USA © The Author(s) 2019 T. R. Zolnikov (ed.), Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change, Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01213-7_9

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unevenly distributed, with some areas suffering more than others. That said, actual outcomes experienced by various areas  in the world will be somewhat similar: heavy precipitation, increased natural disasters, sea level rise, drought, floods, and so on. Because these effects will be experienced worldwide, the world will need to adapt to these consequences and must continue to decrease outcomes through mitigation efforts. The content in this final chapter is a summary of the book. Each chapter reviewed outcomes due to climate change and found ideas or solutions currently employed to decrease negative effects related to the changes. This chapter represents an overview of these changes. More information, specific details, or referred information can be found in the designated chapter related to the continent. By comparing information, challenges and best practices surfaced; as a result, ideas on how  best to implement positive changes or improve upon areas (e.g. sectors) can be further explored.

Climate Change Trends Around the World Trends vary around the world, but every single continent will experience  changes and possible hardships that result from climate change. Africa will experience outcomes such as increased sea levels, heat waves, drought, increased precipitation, bleached coral reefs, and increased air pollution. These outcomes will affect recreation, tourism, life expectancy, agriculture, fishing, and human health. The most affected areas will be coastlines, and there will be droughts in Northern Africa and South Africa and floods in the Ethiopian highlands. Antarctica will suffer from changes in sea ice, with reduced ice and snow cover, which will significantly alter biodiversity in the region. Climate change effects in Asia will include rising sea level, severe bleaching of coral reefs, air pollution, and heavy rainfall. These outcomes will contribute to deforestation of mangroves, mass population displacement, decreased coastal protection, and increased morbidity and mortality in humans. The areas that will be most affected are coastal regions, and flooding will occur in Southeast Asia. Some outcomes in Australia will include floods, droughts, and increased fire risks. These outcomes will cause coastal ecosystem degradation, the displacement of populations, damaged infrastructure, affected agriculture, and morbidity and mortality. Main areas that will suffer are Northern, Southern, and Eastern Australia. Europe will suffer from outcomes like floods, droughts, extreme weather events, air pollution, and water shortages. These consequences will affect agriculture, cause increased morbidity and mortality

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rates, and decrease agricultural output. Main effects will be flooding in Northern Europe and droughts in Southern Europe. North America will suffer the effects of severe hot weather, fewer frost days, heavy precipitation and extreme weather patterns, and rising sea level. These outcomes will contribute to increased morbidity and mortality rates, lower harvest and agriculture yields, more insects, and affected recreation, tourism, and housing. Main effects will be droughts in the Western United States and Canada and flooding near coastal regions. South America will suffer from consequences such as excessive rainfall, floods, drought, heat waves, and sea level rise. This will cause decreased agriculture productivity, reduced water, increased morbidity and mortality, water run-off and altered stream flows, and affected recreation, tourism, fisheries, and coastal structures. Main effects will be flooding in the southern cone of South America and drought in Central and Southern Chile, east Andes, Amazon, and Northern Brazil. Because of these widespread and drastic changes, strategies will need to be employed to deal with these. Changes made to curb climate change, mostly through decreasing greenhouse gas emissions, are called mitigation strategies. Changes made as a result of climate change are called adaptation strategies. Both of these techniques are applied as a result of climate change, but one action happens to try to decrease or stop it, while the other action happens as a result of it. These strategies have been employed worldwide. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies According to Pelling (2011), mitigation is not necessarily a separate domain of adaptation, but more so a subset of it. Mitigation focuses on the causes of climate change and seeks to reduce or reverse contributing anthropogenic factors that contribute to it (Action on Climate [ACT], 2018). These greenhouse gas-producing activities can include fossil fuel burning, deforestation, and livestock farming (ACT, 2018). Lifestyle changes and using technology to reduce carbon are adaptation measures that seek to support mitigation (Pelling, 2011). Some more specific examples of change addressing these contributors include using clean or renewable energy, driving electric cars, using early warning systems and climate forecast information, and using more fuel-efficient or clean cookstoves. In addition to decreasing greenhouse gases, there are many benefits to these types of actions, like better air quality, decreased health costs and adverse

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health effects, increased energy efficiency, and improved energy security (ACT, 2018). Adaptation strategies help sustain livelihoods and quality of life by preparing for climate change, although these strategies will need to be catered to the specific environment affected, as impacts are likely to vary depending on the population, community dynamics, environmental context, and present industry (Marshall, 2010). Adaptation ultimately involves actions used to reduce the vulnerability of future environmental changes or challenges. The efforts can counteract outcomes related to climate change and work more to anticipate events and responses to it (ACT, 2018). Adaptation strategies can include designing hurricane-proof buildings, building houses away from coastal zones, planting drought- or flood-­ resistant crops, and managing aquaculture. Many of these strategies relate to specific risks involved in a certain area or sector and focus on steps that can reduce risks, thus confirming the flexibility and fluid nature of adaptation, in general (ACT, 2018). Each continent is employing various mitigation and adaptation strategies. Some strategies employed around the world can be found in Table 1. South America has not necessarily designated adaptation and mitigation strategies in specific regions but has implemented many throughout the continent. These strategies occur in various sectors or specific areas, such as agriculture, water, coastal, fisheries, energy, and public health. Actions range from providing climate forecasts to using alternatives for energy. The most unique course of action involved using epidemiological monitoring and control for disease projection and prevention. Asia has implemented some adaptation and mitigation strategies, though changes have originated mostly in China. Sectors or areas for change include coastal areas, households, and agriculture. Actions for change include managing fishing and aquaculture, upgrading cookstoves, and adjusting agriculture. Reducing meat consumption in Asia is an interesting action used to reduce climate change outcomes. Interestingly, Australia, Europe, and North America do not have many adaptation and mitigation strategies because  it appears that these continents have focused more so on policy changes to encourage shifts in change or adaptation continent-wide. The strategies that have been adapted focus mostly on energy and agriculture, probably due to high production of agriculture in these areas. Actions for change include carbon taxes or carbon emission trading systems and agriculture management.

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Table 1  Examples of mitigation and adaptation strategies by continent Continent Priority sector

Action

Area

South America

Providing climate forecast information; agroforestry; agricultural zoning, index-based forecast insurance Using reservoirs and irrigation infrastructure to optimize water use, early warning systems Appropriate infrastructure (e.g. buffer zones, dikes, dams, breakwaters), sanitation and drainage systems, management of watershed, marine protected areas Aquaculture and biological reforestation, payment of ecosystem services Alternatives Epidemiological monitoring and control, disease projection and preventive/responsive systems Translocation of shrimp culture; mangrove restoration; assisting fishermen with occupational strategies Changing traditional cookstoves to cleaner, more efficient fuels Reducing meat consumption to decrease greenhouse gas emissions, Adjusting sowing and harvesting time, using drought-tolerant crops, shifting to new crops, inter-­cropping, investing in irrigation and agroforestry

Not region-specific

Agriculture

Water resources Coastal zones

Fisheries

Energy Public health

Asia

Coastal regions Households Agriculture

Not region-specific

Not region-specific

Not region-specific

Not region-specific Not region-specific

Not region-specific

Bangladesh, China, India China

(continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Continent Priority sector

Action

Area

Antarctica Engineering and strategic planning

Building of sea walls and use of flood-warning systems in low-lying areas along coasts and deltas

Low-elevation coastal and deltaic zones globally; small islands of Pacific and Indian Oceans, the Caribbean, Micronesia, and Asia; Africa; parts of Asia; low-lying coastal areas of Europe Global

Research

Research

Fisheries

Australia

Energy

Tourism Agriculture

Coastal zone Public health Europe

Energy Agriculture Fishing

Defining the global reach of how the Antarctic atmosphere and Southern Ocean affect the planet Coordinated international efforts as an interdisciplinary scientific body with expanded joint projects and sharing of knowledge Sustainable fishery models balancing krill catches and consequences of climate change Carbon tax, enhanced energy efficiency, reducing emissions in government buildings Recreation and ski-industry improvements (e.g. snow-making) Low-carbon farming, incentivizing farmers to be self-reliant in drought conditions, efficient use of water Online tools to help adapt to coastal climate risks Creating additional emergency and health services Carbon emission trading system Changing management of crop systems Aquaculture management

Global scientific community

Antarctica; Patagonia; global fishing industry Australia, New South Wales New Zealand, New South Wales New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria Australia New South Wales, Queensland Not region-specific Not region-specific North and Baltic Seas (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Continent Priority sector

Action

Area

North America

Natural resources Transport

Biodiversity action plan

Agriculture

Farming practices, for example, ancient farming practices, using indigenous knowledge, crop diversification, and information coping systems; National Climate-­ Smart Agriculture Program Habitat and wildlife conservation by use of ancient cultural practices (e.g. taboos, totemic affiliation with localities and wild flora and fauna species, reducing poaching)

North and Baltic Seas United States and Canada Nigeria, Benin, Sudan Mali Zambia Morocco Algeria Tanzania, Mauritania, Mozambique, Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, Niger, Malawi, Kenya Coastal zones in Africa Egypt, Tunisia, Tanzania, Libya, Senegal Kenya, Ethiopia, Nigeria

Africa

Biodiversity

Electric car usage

Coastal regions

Improving the coastal vegetation reduces soil erosion; introducing coastal forest buffer zones

Forestry

Soil and water conservation technologies Cost reduction of maintaining forest ecosystems; Commercial forestry

Antarctica is also similar in that they do not have many adaptation or mitigation changes and have focused more on policy, since there is only a small scientific population that lives there. Africa has many adaptation and mitigation strategies happening all over the continent. These techniques are being used in many coastal countries (e.g. Kenya, Northern Africa, and Tanzania). Sectors or areas for change range from agriculture, biodiversity, and agriculture to coastal regions and forestry. Actions include changing farming practices, using climate-smart agricultural programs, and using soil and water conservation technologies, as well as habitat and wildlife conservation. Perhaps the most interesting thing about adaptation in Africa is the focus on the natural environment and maintenance of it.

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Policy Many policy measures have focused specifically on climate change. Many of these strategies are all-encompassing, focusing on both mitigation and adaptation techniques. Policy strategies often cross-collaborate between various agencies. That said, successful implementation and practice of policy against climate change is dependent on several factors: technology available, population growth, energy availability, agriculture, transportation, and other sectorial actions (Davies, 2014). Policy changes have been implemented worldwide, as displayed in Table 2. There are many policy measures that focus on adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change. These have been implemented in each continent. Policies regarding climate change are extremely varied. Some are wide-ranging and include entire continents or regions of the world agreeing on and supporting the clause, while others are extremely narrow in focus and used in  only one country. For example, the Kyoto Protocol focuses on government affiliation that will enhance climate change adaptation and mitigation programs. This is actually an international agreement that many countries in the world have adopted and uphold. Alternatively, there are other policies that are completely country specific. For example, the Climate Resilient Green Economy in Ethiopia focuses on achieving middle-income threshold by 2025 all while maintaining  carbon-neutral growth. Both are effective ways to curb climate change outcomes. In Europe, most actions seeking to mitigate climate change are displayed in policies developed and upheld by EU Member States. These include frameworks and strategies for change, focusing on key items such as economic growth while decreasing waste, resources, and carbon; coordinating awareness on climate change; and outlining strategies to improve and increase productivity while upholding environmental awareness. Europe is very collaborative regarding climate change. Alternatively, North America is not as uniform in policy action. For example, even within the United States, policies have been created for specific states only, like the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, which was a program used to sell emission allowances that was implemented in the Northeast and Mid-­ Atlantic states. Australia is similar to North America in that many policies have been developed and implemented only in certain states. New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, and the Australian Capital Territory all have specific policies in response to climate change.

Asia

The ‘2% law’

Sustainable Singapore Blueprint 2015 ICLEI—Local Governments for Sustainability UN-HABITAT’s Sustainable Cities Program ASEAN Cooperation on Climate Change

Agriculture and Forestry Strategy Water and Energy Strategy Kyoto Protocol

Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE)

Assists local governments to design, promote, and draw external resources to support programs and campaigns that develop and aid sustainability Provides support for urban development and sustainability challenges Enhances regional cooperation and action to address adverse impacts of climate change on socioeconomic development; Formulates the region’s interests, concerns, and priorities; serves as a consultative forum to promote coordination and collaboration The law requires companies with annual revenue over 10 billion rupees (US $156 million) to donate a minimum of 2% net profits to charities involved in hunger, education, and the environment

Kenya

Controls operations in Kenya, setting up of legal, regulatory, and institutional frameworks for carbon trade for sustainable development Promotes Ethiopia in achieving the middle-income threshold by 2025 while maintaining carbon- neutral growth and focusing on sector Focuses on agricultural crops, livestock, forestry, food security, and disaster prevention Focuses on protecting all vital sectors International treaty to show commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions Outlines strategies and plans to increase sustainable living

(continued)

66 cities in 10 Asian countries Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Brunei India

Southeast Asia, South Asia, East Asia

Singapore

Ethiopia All countries

Ethiopia

Ethiopia

All African countries except Cape Verde, Swaziland, Reunion, and Congo

Government affiliation with existing institutions and policies, hence generating new policies that will enhance climate change adaptation and mitigation programs

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol REDD+

Africa

Countries included

Objective

Continent Policy name

Table 2  Policy focused on climate change in each continent

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Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom are seven of the signatories; 53 total nations have acceded the Treaty International

Countries included

The Montreal Protocol (1987) High Seas Marine Protected A ‘general protection zone’ where no commercial fishing may Areas take place, a ‘special research zone,’ and a ‘krill research zone’ (focused on krill research fishing) where limited commercial fishing for research can be done Convention on the Limits commercial activities (e.g.exploitation of natural Conservation of Antarctic resources, industry, fishery) and protects ecosystem; part of Marine Living Resources the Antarctic Treaty System (1982) Convention for the Protect stocks of Antarctic seals; part of the Antarctic Treaty Conservation of Antarctic System Seals (1972)

(continued)

Antarctica and those countries that operated there for research or commercial purposes Antarctica and those countries that operated there for research or commercial purposes

International; Ross Sea granted protection in 2016

A national reserve; establishes environmental principles for all activities conducted, prohibits mining and extractive activities, subjects all activities to assessment of their environmental impacts prior to action, establishes the Committee for Environmental Protection, sets forth environmental emergency response contingency plans, and provides for liability for environmental damage; part of the Antarctic Treaty System Phases out ozone- depleting substances International

part of the Antarctic Treaty System; uphold peace

Antarctica Antarctic Treaty (1959)

The Protocol on Environmental Protection of the Antarctic Treaty (the Madrid Protocol) (1991)

Objective

Continent Policy name

Table 2 (continued)

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Europe

National adaptation strategies

EU action plan for the Circular Economy

EU strategy on adaptation to climate change

Outlines strategies to improve and increase resource productivity through policy measures for resources, economic growth, and the environment Framework to help people get prepared for climate change: adopt resiliency strategies, support environment projects, access information, provide awareness, invest and improve industry standards Directives to increase and improve economy to improve value of products, materials, and resources while decreasing waste, resource usage, and carbon output levels Facilitates and coordinates awareness of climate change, reduces negative outcomes, and enhances adaptive capacity of society; bottom-up approaches depending on cultural setting, involving both public and private sectors

The strategy aims for a coordinated approach to climate adaptation that recognizes the state’s exposure to a variety of climate hazards and the diversity of its communities, regions, natural environments, and industries Helps the community, city, and natural environment adapt to climate change and be more resilient to projected impacts

Articulates how Australia is managing climatic risks for the benefit of the community, the economy, and the environment Aims to maximize the well-being of the state by achieving net-zero emissions and being resilient to climate change Sets out the government’s strategic priorities, measures, and responses for adaptation

Australia

National Climate Resilience and Adaptation Strategy New South Wales Climate Policy Framework Victoria’s Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2017–2020 Pathways to a Climate Resilient Queensland: Queensland Climate Adaptation Strategy Climate Change Adaptation Strategy: Living with a warming environment Roadmap to a ResourceEfficient Europe

Objective

Continent Policy name

Table 2 (continued)

(continued)

Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Romania, Spain, the United Kingdom

EU

EU Member States

EU

Australian Capital Territory

Queensland

Victoria

New South Wales

Australia

Countries included

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Environment and Climate Change Canada Caribbean Community Climate Change Adaptation for Conservation Targets New Brunswick Climate Action Plan

Canada

Canada

United States

Northeast and Mid-Atlantic

United States

Countries included

Framework for planning through conceptual modeling through scenarios and adaption management Urban planning using multi-scale government arrangements to draw stakeholders and enable regional collaboration to apply knowledge to policy and practice

(continued)

New Brunswick, Canada

United States

Working group advises on climate change and policy measures Bahamas

Raises public awareness and provides incident management in the event of an emergency First program to sell emission allowances through auctions, where funds were used to invest in clean energy Uses knowledge to respond accordingly to climate change, using 13 federal agencies to support policy Institutionalizes pollution prevention across all federal legislation, ensures national pollution prevention and initiatives Protects nature and ensures safe environment for future

North America

National Incident Management System Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative United States Global Change Research Program Canadian Environmental Protection Act

Objective

Continent Policy name

Table 2 (continued)

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Provides an assessment of climate change effects and the basis for national action to mitigate and adapt to climate change impacts

To improve knowledge management and information exchange between countries

National Communications to the UNFCCC

Regional Gateway for Technology Transfer and Climate Change Action (REGATTA) EUROCLIMA

South America

Regional cooperation program between the European Union and Latin America which provides better knowledge on climate change to the scientific community to improve decision making in SA Ibero-American Programme Regional platform for the exchange of knowledge, tools, and on Adaptation to Climate methods between countries, to build capacity and promote Change (PIACC) regional adaptation projects focusing on trans-border and multi-sectoral actions Design and Implementation To implement actions that address anticipated consequences of Climate Change of glacier retreat induced by climate change Adaptation Measures in the Andean Region National Water Resources Regulation to promote the decentralization of water resources Policy management and the participation of community stakeholders (i.e. government, users, and communities) through the National Council of Water Resources National Climate Change Strategy to provide guidance and information on the effects of Strategy climate change through integrated studies of vulnerability and adaptation Plan Bicentenario Plan that recognizes the threat of climate change on economic development and governance and the need for adaptation strategies

Objective

Continent Policy name

Table 2 (continued)

Peru

Peru

Brazil

Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela

All South American countries, except for Suriname and Guyana

Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela Argentina, Chile, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Uruguay, Brazil, Paraguay, Venezuela All South American countries

Countries included

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Though part of the Kyoto Protocol, Africa and Asia appear to be light on developing policy regarding climate change. They have more specific policies, like in Kenya setting up regulatory institutions to deal with carbon trade, and in India, the ‘2% law’ requires companies with annual revenue over 156 million USD to donate at least 2% of profits to charities involved in hunger, education, and environmental awareness. South America appears to have a healthy mix of policy throughout the continent, with climate change policies like EUROCLIMA and the ­Ibero-­American Programme on Adaptation to Climate Change, accepted in all South American countries. These policies focus on regional cooperation to provide knowledge on climate change, and other knowledge exchange platforms that unify and promote trans-border adaptation projects. Specific countries have developed policies as well, like the National Water Resources Policy in Brazil, which seeks to establish water management practices for mindfulness of water resources. Antarctica is an interesting continent because its government is formed by a myriad of other countries. Together, these countries reside under the Antarctica Treaty System, which focuses on peace within the continent. Because climate change has significantly affected Antarctica, these countries have also created policies such as the Madrid Protocol, the Montreal Protocol, and the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine and Living Resources, which focuses on reducing exploitation of natural resources, phasing out ozone-depleting substances, and protecting the ecosystem.

Conclusion The world must adapt to climate change. This is because the effects of climate change are affecting everyday life, through sea level rise, increased precipitation, extreme weather events, more air pollution, droughts, and so on. As displayed in Table 1, adaptive capacity differs worldwide. This is likely because the capacity to adapt and change is linked to both social and economic development (e.g. natural and man-made economic drivers, social networks, human capital, governance, national income, health, technological abilities), wherein some regions in the world may not be sufficiently equipped and thus may not be able to mitigate or adapt to changes (IPCC, 2007). Alternatively, some countries may be wealthier or better governed and thus are individually able to create policies—or a subset of legal standards, rules, or regulations—specific to climate change.

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The result of these differences is displayed in the uneven distribution of adaption measures to climate change across the world (IPCC, 2007). For example, in Africa, some countries were able to implement measures to curb climate change effects or at least adapt to them, though these strategies did not occur continent-wide. In other areas, adaptation to climate change was more likely to be implemented because of available resources (Marshall, 2010). Such was the case in Australia, Europe, and North and South America, where ­economic resources are more available, and the general culture of climate change appeared to be more developed through various policies. However, there were also differences in these continents. While South America appeared to be more united on continent-wide policy development and implementation, North America seemed to be divided and relied on policy measures or changes in certain areas or countries. Europe also appeared to be very united in encouraging an upstream and downstream approach to climate change. Antarctica is also an interesting case because the continent resides under a treaty formed by many countries that—despite the climate change policies in their own country—created policies to protect the snow-covered continent. These types of changes show how diverse climate change action is worldwide. Ultimately, all these influences and factors need to be accounted for and explored. While mitigation and adaptation strategies can offer some element of relief and resiliency, it is more likely that policy measures contribute to greater changes. This is because these are well-developed written documents that provide clear procedures to follow by people, businesses, and industries. These types of standards can elevate expectations for change, largely because of accountability and possible negative repercussions if failing to abide by the policies. For example, standards were created to mitigate climate change by decreasing greenhouse gas emissions in vehicles in the United States. The Environmental Protection Agency and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration set standards for emissions that sought to reduce carbon dioxide from vehicles. The standards were upheld by vehicle manufacturers through fuel-efficient technology improvements and are projected to reduce America’s dependence on oil by using less than 2  million barrels per day (Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2012). These actions, changes, and differences are ultimately why this book was written, in hopes of understanding changing dynamics in the world to review what has worked, how people have changed, and who has become

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resilient and why. These types of solutions need to be employed worldwide, so that people will be able to not only survive but thrive in this new environment. Flexibility and responsiveness are needed to encounter these potential benefits. Resilient communities will be able to minimize the social and economic impacts of climate change and capitalize on their potential gains, while inadvertently relieving the already stressed environment. But in order to actionize these changes, correct information must first be identified and evaluated for each specific population worldwide, as it is known that every community worldwide does not have the same experiences and outcomes resulting from climate change. We can see these changes based on how each continent is dealing with climate change. Thus, this book hoped to identify changes regarding climate change adaptation, mitigation, and policy differences in each continent to help deliver progress in the new world set forth by climate change. Without unity, barriers  will continue to exist regarding climate change, and ultimately, these barriers will limit implementation and effectiveness of measures, as well as the capacity for populations to adapt.

References Action to Climate. (2018). Mitigation, adaptation, and resilience: Climate terminology explained. Retrieved from http://www.actiononclimate.today/act-oninformation/mitigation-adaptation-and-resilience-climateterminologyexplained/ Davies, J. C., & Mazurek, J. (2014). Pollution control in United States: Evaluating the system. London: Routledge. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. (2012). EPA and NHTSA set standards to reduce greenhouse gases and improve fuel economy for model years 2017–2025 cars and light trucks. Retrieved from https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ ZyPDF.cgi/P100EZ7C.PDF?Dockey=P100EZ7C.PDF IPCC. (2007). Adaptation and mitigation options. Retrieved from https://www. ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms4.html IPCC. (2014). Climate change 2014: Synthesis report. In Core Writing Team, R. K. Pachauri, & L. A. Meyer (Eds.), Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp. Marshall, N.  A., Marshall, P.  A., Tamelander, J., Obura, D., Malleret-King, D., & Cinner, J. E. (2010). A framework for social adaptation to climate change. Retrieved from https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/2010-022.pdf Pelling, M. (2011). Adaptation to climate change: From resilience to transformation. New York, NY: Routledge.

Index

A Adaptation, 1–8, 13, 14, 18–23, 27, 28, 39–47, 52, 53, 67–77, 81–88, 92, 93, 96–99, 107–113, 119–125, 127, 129–131 Africa, 11–28, 40–42, 118, 122, 123, 125, 130, 131 Air quality, 3, 55, 57, 106, 119 air pollution, 13, 52, 54–55, 70, 80, 93, 118, 130 Antarctica, 118, 122, 123, 126, 130, 131 Asia, 40, 42, 79, 118, 120–122, 125, 130 Australia, 32, 65–77, 118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 127, 131 C Climate change, 1–8, 12–28, 33–40, 46, 47, 51–59, 66–77, 80–88, 92–100, 104–113, 117–132

patterns, 19, 20, 26, 27, 55, 92, 103, 104, 113, 119 Coast coastal ecosystem, 118 erosion, 17, 67, 99, 110, 123 reefs, 8, 106, 109, 118 sea level rise, 37, 39, 40, 106, 109, 119 Collaboration, 6, 27, 47, 59, 86, 88, 96, 97, 99, 100, 112, 113, 125, 128 D Deforestation, 2, 3, 17, 26, 53, 95, 98, 104, 106, 118, 119 E Environment, 2, 6, 8, 13, 33–35, 39, 43, 44, 47, 51, 57–59, 66, 69, 71–74, 76, 80, 82, 95, 97, 120, 123, 125, 127, 128, 132 Europe, 40, 42, 79–88, 118, 120, 122, 124, 127, 131

© The Author(s) 2019 T. R. Zolnikov (ed.), Global Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change, Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01213-7

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F Food, 13–20, 22–26, 28, 34, 35, 37, 52–54, 86, 92–95, 104, 106, 112, 125 H Human health morbidity, 56, 57, 93, 106, 118 mortality, 56, 57, 93, 106 M Management systems evaluation, 75, 132 monitoring, 22, 28, 44, 75, 120, 121 Mitigation, 3–8, 13, 22, 38–40, 47, 52, 68, 69, 75, 76, 92, 93, 98, 100, 109, 110, 119–125, 131, 132 N North America, 33, 91–100, 119, 120, 123, 124, 128, 131 O Outcomes effects, 7, 80, 81, 93, 118, 119, 124 impacts, 6, 8, 37, 85 P Policy, 3–5, 14, 21–25, 27, 40, 42, 46, 66–72, 80–82, 84–88, 95–99, 113, 120, 123–132 Pollution control, 96, 97, 110 Public health, 4, 71, 105, 110, 120–122 epidemiology, 110, 120, 121

R Research, 3, 18, 20, 22, 23, 32, 33, 35, 37–40, 42, 44–46, 67–68, 81, 97, 99, 100, 108, 110–113, 122, 126 Resiliency, 1–8, 13–18, 20, 28, 72–74, 81–83, 85, 87, 97–99, 131 S Sectors agriculture, 4, 21, 72, 82, 98, 105, 107, 120, 123 freshwater, 4, 7, 75, 105, 109, 110, 112, 120 marine, 105, 110 South America, 32, 103–113, 119–121, 129–131 T Temperature, 52 W Water, 2, 4, 6, 7, 12, 14–17, 21, 24–26, 28, 32, 34–38, 40, 53–57, 66, 67, 70–72, 74–76, 81, 83, 84, 86, 92, 94, 95, 105–109, 112, 118, 119, 121–123, 129, 130 Weather drought, 2, 7, 12, 15–17, 19, 21, 22, 24–26, 28, 53, 54, 66, 72, 73, 76, 85, 87, 92, 93, 95, 99, 104, 105, 109, 112, 118, 119, 130 floods, 2, 7, 12, 15–17, 24–26, 37, 53, 71, 85, 92, 99, 104, 109, 112, 118, 119 forecast, 14, 20, 22, 72, 92, 107–109, 119–121

 INDEX 

heat waves, 2, 12, 25, 57, 81, 105, 106, 118, 119 natural disasters, 2, 7, 24, 25, 27, 81, 83, 96, 99, 118 precipitation, 7, 12, 33, 54, 66, 80, 92, 93, 99, 104, 105, 108, 118, 119, 130

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rainfall, 12, 18, 19, 21, 24, 25, 27, 52, 53, 56, 66, 104–106, 112, 118, 119 temperature, 1, 2, 12, 18, 20, 27, 33, 35, 37, 38, 40, 53, 54, 56, 57, 66, 80, 92, 93, 104–106, 108, 112, 117