grace & truth

GRACE & TRUTH a journal of catholic reflection for southern Africa

Volume 31 no 3 November 2014

Church Responses to Globalisation in Southern Africa Editor: Stuart C Bate OMI

GRACE & TRUTH (ISSN 2304-0084) is published three times a year by St. Joseph’s Theological Institute, Cedara. The editorial board comprises members of the Institute together with academics from other Catholic tertiary Institutions. MISSION STATEMENT: Grace & Truth is a journal of theological reflection, rooted in the Catholic tradition, set in the context of Southern Africa and beyond, in conversation with other Christian and religious traditions, in touch with current theological discussions. Articles in Grace and Truth are peer reviewed to ensure academic excellence yet expressed in accessible language. They are aimed at serving the local church by forming and informing Catholic theology, ministry and religious life. In addition they serve to promote a Catholic contribution to social debate.

MANAGING EDITOR: Chris Grzelak SCJ EDITORIAL COMMITTEE: South Africa:

International:

Stuart C Bate OMI; Sally Bamber; James Calder M.Afr.; Paul Decock OMI; Neil Frank OMI; Tendai Gandanzara CMM; Quinbert Kinunda M.Afr.; Clare Landon; Rosemary Kelly; Zaba Mbanjwa OMI; Emmanuel Ndlovu CMM; Susan Rakoczy IHM; Clifford Stokes (Cape Town); Judith Coyle IHM (St Augustine College of South Africa). Ramon Martinez De Pison OMI (St Pauls Ottawa, Canada); Aleta Dube SJI (St Augustine Seminary, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe); Jan Jans (University of Tilburg, Netherlands); Beaudoin Mubesala OMI (Theologate De Mazenod, Democratic Republic of Congo); Marek A Rostowski OMI (Pontifical Urban University, Rome, Italy).

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GRACE AND TRUTH Vol 31 No 3 – 2014

Church Responses to Globalisation in Southern Africa Editorial: Church Responses to Globalisation in Southern Africa... 4 Editor: Stuart C Bate OMI Globalisation: The Church as an Interlocutor in Public Discussion ........................................................................................... 6 Peter John Pearson From Begging by the Roadside to Self Sustainability: A Contextual Reading of Luke 18:35-43............................................ 16 Quinbert Kinunda M.Afr Enabled Rather Than (Dis)abled: Global Views of (Dis)ability..... 40 Gloria Marsay The Catholic Encounter with Muslims in South Africa in the Changing Socio-Political Situation and in Times of Globalization....52 Chris Grzelak SCJ Developing a Theology Curriculum in Southern Africa: Opportunities and Challenges......................................................... 69 Raymond M Mwangala OMI The Role of the Laity in the Post Conciliar Period: The Church in a Globalized World....................................................................... 86 Siphiwe F Mkhize Book Reviews..................................................................................... 98 Notice for Authors: Grace & Truth Style Sheet........................... 104 Contributors.................................................................................... 109 GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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Editorial: Church Responses to Globalisation in Southern Africa Editor: Stuart C Bate OMI The articles in this edition of Grace and Truth come from a conference held at St Joseph’s Theological Institute (SJTI) in April 2014. The Conference theme was Church Responses to Globalisation in Southern Africa. Some articles are the fruit of the 2013-4 round of the SJTI Collaborative Research Group established in 2012 to study specific themes of the Church in the world in Southern Africa and beyond. The group brings together interested academics from the departments of Theology, Philosophy and Development Studies at St Joseph’s Theological Institute with other interested colleagues from other institutions who choose to join. Collaborative research is becoming increasingly important. It brings researchers together to work on a common area of research. Each academic works on the theme from the perspective of their own academic discipline. This allows for multidisciplinary study of a research problem. Not all of the articles produced by the group are published here. Some, for a variety of reasons, choose to publish their texts elsewhere. Other experts and activists in the field were asked to present keynote and other papers at the conference and some of these are also published here. In addition, SJTI tries to partner with organisations active in the chosen field of study addressed at Conference. This year we were proud to partner with Southern Africa Trust whose purpose is to ‘support processes to deepen and widen engagement in policy dialogue with a regional impact on poverty so that the poor have a better say in shaping policies to overcome poverty in southern Africa.’ We would like to thank Southern Africa Trust for their support, especially in the publishing of this issue of Grace & Truth. In ‘Globalisation: The Church as an Interlocutor in Public Discussion’ Peter John Pearson, the director of the Catholic Parliamentary Liaison Office (CPLO) deals with the question of the public role of the Church in society. Such a role always has dimensions of the social, the political, the ethical, the cultural, the spiritual and the theological. The CPLO provides an avenue for the Church – as part of civil society – to contribute to debates on issues of public policy and to exert an influence for the common good in areas of political, economic and social concern. In this way it helps to shape legislative and policy developments. Pearson points out how the Church has an important role of advocacy in human affairs whether it is in the United Nations, where the Holy See is a permanent observer, or at the local level of community development and civic action. He also 4

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elucidates the special role of the CPLO in advocating for policy in the Parliament of South Africa and explains the theological motivation for this important ministry. In ‘From Begging by the Roadside to Self Sustainability: A Contextual Reading of Luke 18:35-43’, Quinbert Kinunda deals with the phenomenon of begging. He observes that as Africa globalizes, the number of beggars on the streets of African cities is growing rapidly. He links this with a wider aspect of begging asking ‘are African nations doomed to beg?’ The text of the blind beggar is eminently appropriate to this context and he uses it to construct a biblical theology of development based on the active agency of the poor themselves who construct contexts which allow them to be empowered and motivated to achieve their goals. The text unpacked in this way suggests directions, conditions and strategies for sustainability and self-empowerment. In ‘Enabled Rather Than (Dis)abled: Global Views of (Dis) Ability’, Gloria Marsay traces the history of the term ‘disabled’ pointing out how the term has reflected various levels of disempowerment of the humanity of such persons at different times. She also points out the importance of the social and cultural bases of such disempowerment. Historical advocacy for people in this circumstance has helped to fight this prejudice. Globalisation has significantly empowered narratives and strategies of empowerment which increasingly impinge on the lives of people who are in fact differently abled. In the ‘Catholic Encounter with Muslims in South Africa in the Changing Socio-political Situation and in Times of Globalization’, Chris Grzelak examines influences of globalization on Islam and the Catholic Church worldwide. In the South African context there has been increasing dialogue between these religions in some areas of the country. He examines the history of collaboration from the struggle against apartheid to some new areas in the current global context. He presents the theological dimensions of this collaboration and concludes by proposing ways for further collaboration in an increasingly globalised world. In ‘Developing a Theology Curriculum in Southern Africa: Opportunities and Challenges’, Raymond Mwangala discusses the challenge of developing theology programmes that respond to the needs of the times and which also prepare ministers to offer ethical leadership in a globalized world. Using the four characteristics of curriculum development: content, methods, objectives and evaluation, he examines the case of St Joseph’s Theological Institute, Cedara where he has been Academic Dean for the last few years. Siphiwe F. Mkhize discusses the role of the laity in the Post Conciliar period focussing on important changes empowering the role of lay people in the church in a globalised world. He provides examples of how the processes of globalisation have helped the Church to recognise the fundamental role of lay people in proclaiming its mission at the grass roots. GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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GLOBALISATION: THE CHURCH AS AN INTERLOCUTOR IN PUBLIC DISCUSSION Peter John Pearson In this paper I argue that the Southern African Catholic Bishops Conference Parliamentary Liaison Office is a response to the challenge of Pope Benedict XVI that the Church engage the political sphere through rational argument in the quest for constructing a just society. While accepting positive aspects of globalisation, I hold that it is undisputed that it also accentuates much negative social pathology which is often translated into public policies and legislation. By interrogating policies and legislation through the lens of Catholic Social Teaching, the Catholic Parliamentary Liaison Office seeks to implement values consistent with its teaching in the public domain. It seeks to create the spaces for the creation of public policy in which citizens are encouraged to participate. One of the consequences of doing so, is that it contests the socially troubling aspects of the globalisation discourse.

Introduction Yet at the same time the Church cannot and must not remain on the sidelines in the fight for justice. She has to play her part through rational argument and she has to waken the spiritual energy without which justice, which always demands sacrifices, cannot prevail and prosper. A just society must be the achievement of politics not the Church. Yet the promotion of justice through efforts to bring about openness of mind and will to the demands of the common good, is something which concerns the Church deeply. (Benedict XVI 2005)

A close reading of the last two sentences makes the important point that politics per se is a legitimate, separate activity in its own domain but indeed benefits from the interventions of civil society, including the Church, especially in promoting justice in the world. These sentences also indicate the location of the work of the SACBC Parliamentary Liaison Office as an interlocutor in public discussion with a bias towards justice. I want to speak today not so much about the workings or the ‘charms’ of the day to day life at the CPLO in the contested space of parliament nor even the processes by which ideas become policies, nor the enticing conspiracy theories which abound in the corridors of power: I want, simply, to posit the idea that the existence of such an office and its work in the policy arena ‘challenges’ some very deeply entrenched hegemonic discourse emerging around the benefits of globalisation which ultimately leads to comments such as “Globalisation leads 6


to centralisation of power in few hands and direct democracy is its antithesis’ (Behar 2014).

Does Globalisation Make the Poor Worse Off? Nobel Prize-winner and one-time chief economist of the World Bank, Joseph Stieglitz says: ‘The West has driven the globalisation agenda, ensuring that it garners a disproportionate share of the benefits at the expense of the developing world… The result is that some of the poorest countries in the world were actually made worse off’ (2002:7). Gustavo Gutierrez (2007:14) echoes the sentiment: To be against globalisation is like being against electricity. However this cannot lead one to resign ourselves to the present order of things because globalisation as it is now being carried out exacerbates the unjust inequalities among different sectors of humanity and the social, economic, political and cultural exclusion of a good portion of the world’s population.

A Wikipedia article on globalisation quotes Amartya Sen: [Antagonists] view one or more globalizing processes as detrimental to social well-being on a global or local scale. This includes those who question either the social or natural sustainability of long-term and continuous economic expansion, the social structural inequality caused by these processes, and the colonial, imperialistic, or hegemonic ethnocentrism, cultural assimilation and cultural appropriation that underlie such processes (Globalization 2014).

Globalisation in the Hands of the Few Elliot, Kar and Richardson hold that the anti-globalisation voices are ‘held together by a concern that the process by which globalization’s rules are being written and implemented is undermining democracy, at both the national and international levels’ (2002:Abstract). I want to suggest that if one takes a close reading of these criticisms, an informal kind of hermeneutic emerges around ‘being in the hands of a few.’ Tony Judt draws out some of the critical consequences for public life, suggesting that globalisation has impoverished a culture of debate and a search for alternative discourses and praxis. He says: Much of what appears ‘natural’ today dates back from the 1980’s: the obsession with wealth creation, the cult of privatisation and the private sector, the growing disparities of the rich and poor. Above all the rhetoric which accompanies this uncritical admiration for unfettered markets, disdain for the public sector, the delusion of endless growth. And yet we seem unable to conceive of alternatives. This too is something new. Until recently public life in liberal societies was GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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conducted in the shadow of a debate between defenders of capitalism and their critics (Judt 2010:2).

More pertinent, even, for purposes of our discussion, he quotes from correspondence with a colleague after the publication of an essay of his in the New York Review of Books in December 2009. She says: ‘What is most striking about what you say is not so much the substance but the form: you speak of being angry at our political quiescence, you write of the need to dissent from our economically driven way of thinking, the urgency of a return to an ethically informed public conversation’ (Judt 2010:9). Judt concludes that no one speaks in these terms any longer to democracy’s detriment.

CPLO: Strengthening Democracy through Participation It is here that I believe the value of an institution such as the CPLO is obvious since the core work of the CPLO is to strengthen democracy through participation in policy discussions. Its praxis includes reversing the political quiescence through encouraging ethically informed public conversations, to use Judt’s language. The work of the CPLO is obviously a theological task. It is rooted in the Catholic Social Teaching tradition. It seeks to bring faith values, rooted in Scripture and in the lived experiences of people into the domain of informed public conversations as a contribution towards keeping the democratic public space open and accountable. In terms of our discussion on globalisation, that implies, in the first place, an orientation in policy discussions that underlines this theological/Catholic Social Teaching direction, captured thus: Whatever else in the human society changes because of the whole process of globalisation, the moral vision of Catholic Social Teaching will continue to rest on the foundation of human dignity, solidarity and subsidiarity. Whatever else globalisation means to some parts of the world and in particular to some individuals who benefit from it, Catholic Social Teaching will continue to evaluate the results in terms of how the current structures of society help create a more just social order, how they help the poor, how they contribute to the international common good and how they foster genuine development. Whatever else emerges on the economic, social and political horizon, Catholic Social Teaching will continue to measure progress as a ‘globalisation without marginalisation’ or as John Paul II called it, a ‘globalisation of solidarity’ (Groody 2007:118-119).

These values, implicit in those critical discourses, form our distinctive mark in an environment often characterised by expediency and forces (greed) opposed to 8


a process of deepening democracy and the common good. It also constitutes the benchmark for judging policies which run the risk of following dominant global discourses. It is also the conscious cornerstone for creating a strong, public moral framework in public life. So I want to suggest that CPLO represents one theological and institutional response to reading the signs of the times with regard to globalisation’s darker side. The good that comes with globalisation, its ability to connect people, to share information, these aspects do not need our attention. Our response has to be about curbing those criticisms which Stieglitz and Gutierrez raise. It is also a response that is strongly weighted in favour of promoting a human rights agenda in the policy domain. Picking up from Judt’s comments it is also worth noting that the Catholic Parliamentary Liaison Office is also a testimony to the reversal of ‘political quiescence’ and an encouragement to practical participation in line with a Vatican injunction on the need for involvement in political life: [Today’s] democratic societies…call for new and fuller forms of participation in public life by Christian and non-Christians alike. Indeed, all can contribute, by voting in elections for lawmakers and government officials, and in other ways as well, to the development of political solutions and legislative choices which in their opinion will benefit the common good (Ratzinger 2002:1).

Political participation is thus seen as a responsibility; a responsibility to act in a way that reduces human suffering and alienation. This notion has taken on a significance and been strengthened in the teaching of Pope Francis. Pope Francis speaks of a globalisation of indifference where no one takes responsibility for either the pathologies of our times nor the task of shaping a different future, nor the despair of believing that things have always been like this and cannot be different. In his first visit outside of Rome, to Lampedusa, a receiving point for illegal immigrants, he spoke of a globalisation of indifference understood primarily as a lack of taking responsibility for the betterment of people’s lives. He says: In Spanish literature there is a play by Lope de Vega that tells how the inhabitants of the city of Fuente Ovejuna killed the Governor because he was a tyrant, and did it in such a way that no one knew who had carried out the execution. And when the judge of the king asked ‘Who killed the Governor?’ they all responded, ‘Fuente Ovejuna, sir.’ All and no one! Even today this question comes with force: Who is responsible for the blood of these brothers and sisters? No one! We all respond this way: not me, it has nothing to do with me, there are others, certainly not me. But God asks each one of us: ‘Where is the blood of your brother that cries out to me?’ In this world of globalization we have fallen into a globalization of indifference. We are accustomed to the suffering of others, it doesn’t concern us, it’s none of our business. Today no one in the world feels GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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responsible for this; we have lost the sense of fraternal responsibility; we have fallen into the hypocritical attitude of the priest and of the servant of the altar that Jesus speaks about in the parable of the Good Samaritan: We look upon the brother half dead by the roadside… (Bianchi 2013).

One way of exercising responsibility, as the Pope Francis’ Lampedusa speech suggests, is through engaging policy initiatives at the point at which they are formulated and later take final legislative shape (Bianchi 2013). We, in the Church, have the advantage of bringing basic assets to the public domain. We are a very diverse community with diverse perceptions and experiences. We have a long tradition and a variety of experiences in serving those in need and our theology supports a consistent moral framework. In the light of this, alone, we are well able to offer a unique vantage point for exercising our responsibility through public discussion. We bear in mind that our participation as a church does not undermine but enriches political processes and affirms genuine pluralism (United States Conference of Catholic Bishops 2011:11). The Note of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith makes the same point: ‘The Church does not wish to exercise political power or eliminate the freedom of opinion of Catholics in contingent questions. Instead,…its proper function is to instruct and illuminate the consciences of the faithful particularly those involved in political life’ (Ratzinger 2002:6). The move towards participation as illumination that can reverse the dark side necessitates the provision of spaces for discussion and debate. Globalisation, it is often asserted, closes spaces. It is true that at present, in South Africa and elsewhere there is a dearth of opportunities and places for public debate at a time when the need is enormous. In the context of globalisation there seems to be a serious, growing hegemony of ideas. It is our contention that we cannot underestimate the value of interpretive and analytical spaces where without guaranteeing unanimity there is a shared space, what Thomasma calls ‘a moral turf upon which we can agree to work out enormously important public policy issues’ (Himes and Himes 1993:94).

The Role of Religion to Open a Communal Space Bernstein says, in this regard, that religion’s role is not to be yet another interest group pressing a particular agenda on a pluralist society. Rather it is to open a communal space between the individual’s private life and the impersonal abstractions of society and state. He goes on and argues that we need for good public life, the cultivation of those types of spaces in which individuals can come together and debate; can encounter each other in the formation, clarification, and testing of opinions; 10


where judgement, deliberation and phronesis can flourish; where individuals can be aware of the creative power that springs up among them; where there is a tangible experience of overcoming privatisation, subjectivisation and the narcissistic tendencies that are so pervasive in our daily lives (Himes and Himes 1993:32-33).

Our Round Tables, public lectures and participation in civil society forums offer us the opportunity to keep public discussions alive. Drawing from our asset base they function as a space for exploring the moral law, the collective (moral) wisdom of people. These are not merely individuals but also groups as well, who search for what is possible and effective in civil domains, all of which can hopefully guide decision-making and action. We believe that they help shape a necessary moral vision in public life as opposed to the attempts to reduce participation in these areas and essentially privatise the business of politics. Put another way, at the heart of our conversations is the belief that religion can be a source of publicly accessible insight. That having been said, we have a commitment to work with other social institutions who are committed to shaping the common good of society. The post Vatican II Conciliar Catholic church was marked by a sense of respect for the many non- religious institutions that contribute to the common good. Our Round Tables are well known for bringing together politicians, academics, civil society groups, researchers, people working at the coal face of various issues, faith community congregants and activists around a table to hold conversations in which voices that are often marginalised and submerged are able to speak directly to those who shape policies, allowing for creative ideas and new insights to enrich various positions. It is one of our flagship projects and one of the key ways in which we influence policy and create spaces for multiple voices to be heard. In different, often influential ways, the results of these conversations get carried over into parliament. In all of this, we have drawn deeply in conceptualising these open spaces from Cardinal Bernardin who sought to bring Catholic resources and assets into the task of addressing the wide range of moral issues in a sustained and systematic way. He noted that one of the chief benefits of articulating a moral vision is that it ‘pushes the moral, legal and political debate beyond an ad hoc, single issue focus, setting our moral discussion in a broader context of concern for human life in diverse situations’ (Bernardin 1984:324). In CPLO, we do however move beyond the important work of building up the public life and participation of people in policy formulations. We take the task of responsibility also into the parliamentary discussions through our oral and written submissions and at other times through our observation of portfolio committees. In addition we help through accompaniment of individuals and through a service of distributing information and ideas in our various publications. GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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These publications, together with other modes of information sharing such as radio and the print media and the new technologies, ensure that our opinions have wide coverage. We have several times had the satisfaction of having our insights formulated into law. Ian Adams (2010:62-63) writes: Significant parts of the economy seem to be in the hands of people who make money by moving money, the worst of whose practises seem to have more in common with betting rather than with investment, fuelled by a dark and addictive cocktail of arrogance, ignorance and greed. Resources and opportunities and wealth seem to remain in the hands of the very powerful.

The point is made that decisions are the domain of a few and of the powerful in the present trajectory of globalisation. Our praxis keeps a window of opportunity open for public participation in public affairs. It further stimulates the agency of the most marginalised and allows them to find their voice in public discussions. Our training programs allow them to be equipped and skilled for participation in parliamentary committees and in other levels of government. This has made a significant contribution to civil society’s confidence and participation in public life. Linked with the above we run various training programs around advocacy for Episcopal Conferences in Africa each year and one for local South African organisations. In this way we spread the skill base across the continent and raise the bar for political participation. It is indeed one of the positive examples of critical and creative engagement with globalisation.

The Demand of Hard Won Human Rights for the Vulnerable One of the chief criticisms of the direction of globalisation, as noted above, is that it is often insensitive to the demands of hard won human rights, especially for the most vulnerable. CPLO, true to its Catholic Social Teaching orientation, engages policies from a fundamentally human rights perspective and in so doing is true to a strong trajectory in contemporary church teaching especially since Pacem in Terris (1963) which established the pursuit/implementation of human rights as the strategy for working for justice and critiquing injustice. In critiquing or supporting policies and legislation, we follow an axiom, not original to us, but useful for us, that suggests that ‘[d]ecisions must be judged in the light of what they do for the poor, what they do to the poor and what they enable the poor to do for themselves’ (Thompson 2010:63). Thus human rights is for us the normative framework for establishing the minimum acceptance of policies.

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There is for us a real value addition in the form in which the human rights tradition has taken root in the Catholic Church where its deepest sense is rooted in the image and likeness of a Trinitarian God. This Trinitarian image means that as a foundation church tradition lies neither in individualism nor in collectivism, but in an essentially communitarian perspective. This underlines the idea of persons flourishing through relationships and in communities. This thick reading of the human rights tradition with its expression in solidarity, the common good and the protection and promotion of human rights, allows us to make moral assessments within a coherent moral framework on issues of policy. It has gone a long way towards the CPLO office being identified as having a coherent, consistent analysis and outlook, and of complying with the accepted rules of argumentation. We are thus seen as reliable discussants in policy issues. Even more interestingly than the branding of CPLO as a discussant that speaks consistently out of a human rights framework, is the fact that in the policy domain itself a new synergy of custodians are emerging in the human rights discussions which have a profound bearing on policy issues. This is because there is a contestation around human rights and its applications in policy. Some commentators now talk of globalisation from above and globalisation from below and point to the fact that both have an impact on policy development or retardation, since both use the human rights framework. Both impetuses, Twiss argues, are the result of globalisation, since both benefit from globalised communication (2004:41). We saw this very clearly in a Round Table we hosted a few months ago around ‘fracking’ where a heated discussion on fracking, on the reading of scientific data, on interpretation of treaties and the definition of human rights itself and its implications for policies, showed that a different understanding of rights in the environmental sector emerged despite all sides using a human rights framework. In ‘Globalisation 101’ a project of the State University of New York’s Levin Institute, the point is made: Processes of globalization-from-below has spurred the growth of another type of human rights actor in the international scene in the form of a guarantor not envisioned at the time of the UDHR1 – large grass-roots social movements. These movements continue to gain increasing power to demand more human policies and practices from states and transnational corporations. The processes of economic globalization in particular have engendered transnational financial institutions and corporations whose economic power exceeds that of many nations. Barring discussion of the intentions of these corporations, the fact is that many of their policies have resulted in massive violations of human rights, particularly socio-economic rights. 1

Universal Declaration of Human Rights


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The policies of the World Bank and IMF – at least until very recently – stipulated changes in the economic and political structure of beneficiary underdeveloped states that led to internal problems of, for example, unemployment, worker abuse, adverse effects of industrial pollution on health, and redeployment of resources away from social programs that clearly work to the detriment of the socio-economic rights of many, while fattening the purses of political and corporate leaders. Recent developments in the management of transnational corporations have, however, raised the issue of corporate responsibility for protecting human rights. A few institutions now explicitly recognize this responsibility. While such conscious actions were and continue to be prompted in large part by outside advocacy groups, they also represent acknowledgement by the agents of globalization-from-above that with power comes responsibility (Globalisation 101.org).

I have dwelt on these points at length; partly because the CPLO is a witness to this evolving legacy of globalisation: the quest to define the human rights agenda in issues of policy and legislation. The church through many and varied advocacy groups, through the impact of magisterial teaching is however not a passive bystander. It brings its own wisdom to the table through organisations such as the CPLO and thereby contributes to the shape of the policy canvass for the foreseeable future. Parliament, but also the places we open up in the name of broadening participation, has thus become a new site of struggle in the contest for a human rights framework. So in the face of a process whose final stamp is as yet unknown and somewhat inscrutable at present, CPLO tries to hold a space which, over and above the vicissitudes of history, serves to promote the common good and entrench democracy within a human rights framework through the engagement with policies designed to serve those outcomes. In the meantime we keep the spaces open, try to be responsible to the most marginalized in the spirit of the Social Teachings of the Church knowing that there is a validity about which Pope Benedict XVI wrote tellingly: In today’s complex situation, not least because of the growth of a globalized economy, the church’s social doctrine has become a set of fundamental guidelines offering approaches that are valid beyond the confines of the church: in the face of ongoing development these guidelines need to be addressed in the context of dialogue with all those who are seriously concerned for humanity and for the world in which we live (2005:31).

References Adams, I. 2010. Cave, refectory, road. Norwich: Canterbury Press. 14


Behar, S.C. 2014. Direct Democracy is Antithesis of Globalisation. The Economic Times, 15 January 2014. Available at http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes. com/2014-01-12/news/46113020_1_direct-democracy-globalisation-aap, accessed 5 August 2014. Benedict XVI, 2005. God is love. Nairobi: Paulines Publications. Bernardin, J. 1984. Religion and politics: The future agenda. Origins 14(1984), 321-328. Bianchi, A. 2013. Pope Francis commemorates migrant dead at Lampedusa. Available at http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/08/us-pope-lampedusaidUSBRE9660 KH20130708, accessed 5 August 2014. Elliott, K.A., Debayani, K. and Richardson, J.D. 2004. Assessing globalization’s critics: “Talkers are no good doers?” in Challenges to globalization: Analyzing the economics, edited by R. Baldwin & A.L. Winters. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 17-62. Groody, D. 2007. Globalisation, spirituality and justice. New York. Orbis Books. Gutierrez, G. 2007. “Memory and Prophecy,” in The option for the poor in Christian theology, edited by D. Groody. Notre Dame, IN. University of Notre Dame Press. Globalization 101.org. Available at http://www.globalization101.org, accessed 5 August 2014. Globalization 2014. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Available at http:// en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Globalization&oldid=621662677, accessed 19 August 2014. Himes, M. and Himes K. 1993. Fullness of faith. New York: Paulist Press. Judt, T. 2010. Ill Fares the land. London: Penguin Books. PC. Pacem in Terris 1963. Encyclical Letter of Pope John XXIII, Vatican: Vatican Press. Ratzinger, J. 2002. Doctrinal Note on Some Questions Regarding the Participation of Catholics in Political Life. Vatican: Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. 24 November 2002. Stieglitz, J. 2002. Globalisation and its discontents. New York: W.W Norton. Thompson, J.M. 2010. Introducing Catholic social thought. New York: Orbis Books. Twiss, S.B. 2004. History, human rights, and globalization. The Journal of Religious Ethics 32(1), 39-70. United States Conference of Catholic Bishops 2011. Faithful Citizenship: A Catholic Call to Political Responsibility. Washington DC: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops Inc.


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From Begging by the Roadside to Self Sustainability: A Contextual Reading of Luke 18:35-43 Quinbert Kinunda M.Afr The effects of globalisation are real as we see the number of beggars increasing in our streets. In some countries, initiatives were taken to force beggars to return to their villages without success. Our nations too are not free from begging, thus the question: Are African nations doomed to beg? In a modest way, this paper takes the story of the blind man of whom we read in Lk 18:35-43 to initiate a serious inquiry concerning our situation as nations and use it as a spark to motivate a genuine search for the economic empowerment of our people. The situation of those who rely on begging impels us to analyse, avert and move on from a begging mentality to self-sustainability.

Introduction The effects of globalisation are real as we see the number of beggars increasing in our streets. Often, they are treated as filth and looked upon as lazy people. In some countries, initiatives have been taken, unsuccessfully, to force beggars to return to their home villages. The nations’ poor political and economic structures have created more beggars and forced them to stand by the roadside begging. For development ‘to be authentic, it must be well rounded; it must foster the development of each man (sic) and of the whole man (sic)’ (PP 14). The nations themselves are not free from begging. Most of their annual budgets rely heavily on foreign aid. Usually, this aid comes with several conditions which continue to keep them at the bottom of the pyramid. The ‘trickle down policies’ are put in place to make sure ‘that the recipient will return for more and that when he does, he will do so on terms set by the giver’ (Speckman 2007:15). If globalisation aims at creating bridges to connect people, why then does the gap between the rich and the poor keep widening? Even cultural values which tended to protect the blind, the crippled, widows and orphans now seem to have disappeared. ‘In many countries globalisation has meant a hastened deterioration of their own cultural roots and the invasion of ways of thinking and acting proper to other cultures which are economically advanced but ethically debilitated’ (EG 62). If one’s culture is undervalued, it is evident that even one’s economic policies will suffer subordination.

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Are African nations doomed to beg? This question is the enigma of this study. Thus, the paper takes the story of the blind man of whom we read in Luke 18:35-43 to initiate a serious inquiry concerning our situation as nations, and use it as a spark to motivate a genuine search for the economic empowerment of our people. As Christians, we follow Jesus Christ whose inaugural speech on mission is focused on ‘preaching good news to the poor, proclaiming release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, and setting at liberty those who are being oppressed’ (Lk 4:18-19). The situation of those who ‘beg by roadside’ (Lk 18:35) impels us to analyse, correct and move on from a begging mentality to self sustainability. It is not a good thing to be named a beggar (Lk 16:3).The healing of the blind beggar (Lk 18:43) and, of course, of any beggar, must lead to a restoration of their human dignity. The paper is divided into two parts. The first part briefly examines the delimitation and internal coherence of Lk 18:35-43 and interprets the text. A contextual reading of the pericope is done in part two which is the heart of this work.

Delimitation and Interpretation of Luke 18:35-43 (RSV) Delimitation and internal coherence As he drew near to Jericho, a blind man was sitting by the roadside begging;36 and hearing a multitude going by, he inquired what this meant.37 They told him, “Jesus of Nazareth is passing by.”38 And he cried, “Jesus, Son of David, have mercy on me!”39 And those who were in front rebuked him, telling him to be silent; but he cried out all the more, “Son of David, have mercy on me!”40 And Jesus stopped, and commanded him to be brought to him; and when he came near, he askedhim,41 “What do you want me to do for you?” He said, “Lord, let me receive my sight.”42 And Jesus said to him, “Receive your sight; your faith has made you well.”43 And immediately he received his sight and followed him, glorifying God; and all the people, when they saw it, gave praise to God.

The text we are dealing with Luke 18:35-43 is sandwiched between 18:34 and 19:1. It stands as part of the sequence Lk 9:51-19:27 which Karris (NJBC 43:10) and Brown (2009:226) name as ‘the journey of Jesus to Jerusalem.’ The healing of the blind man is one of the activities that Jesus will perform as he moves on towards Jerusalem. The link with the upper limit: Johnson (1991:286-287) and Marshall (1978:677) agree that the passage Lk 18:35-43 is connected to the preceding events, i.e., the unjust judge who grants justice to the widow (Lk 18:1-8); the prayer of a hypocrite (18:9-14), the kingdom of heaven is for people whose heart resembles that of a GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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child (18:15-17) and a ruler who fails to give away his wealth (18:18-27). The remark of Jesus, ‘[f]or it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God’ (18:25) shocked the disciples and prompted them to ask: ‘Then who can be saved?’ (v. 26). The story of the blind man seems to tell that it is to those who have faith in Jesus that salvation is granted (18:42). Eternal life is gained by those who surrender everything ‘for the sake of the kingdom of God’ (18:28-30). However, the recipients must first join Jesus on his way to Jerusalem where mocking and death will be his fate; but all this opens the way to resurrection (18:31-34). Often, those who sincerely seek Jesus end up being rebuked (18:15,39). The blind man’s persistent cry recalls the persistence of the widow in Lk 18:1-8. The lower limit begins with the story that still situates Jesus on his way to Jerusalem. The same thread is running here connecting the blind man (Lk 18:3543) near Jericho and the Zacchaeus episode in Jericho (Lk 19:1-10). ‘The two stories function as paradigms of what conversion entails’ (Talbert 1982:175). Again, this rich tax-collector is the opposite of the rich aristocrat mentioned in (Lk 18:18-23). His readiness to restore what he had acquired illegally expresses his genuine conversion. He seems to be ready to enter into the programme of allowing poor people to recover their dignity (19:8). By so doing, salvation arrives home (19:9) and he himself once again regains his status as one of Abraham’s children (19:10). Internal coherence: The text Lk 18:35-43 is coherent and it has a complete sense of its own. The protagonists of the narrative are: first, Jesus who is drawing near to Jericho (18:35a), second, the blind man seated by the roadside begging (18:35b), and third, the multitude that causes a commotion as it follows Jesus (18:36). However, some scholars like Meynet (2005:710-720) and Johnson (1991:283-288) treat Lk 18:35-43 and Lk 19:1-10 as one subsequence composed of two short stories. This is also the opinion of Evans (1990:278) who sees the healing of the blind man in Jericho (Lk 18:35-43) as having the intention of accommodating the Zacchaeus episode (19:1-10) ‘which also takes place in Jericho.’ The significant turning point in the life of the blind beggar takes place in v. 43 where it is reported that the beggar received his sight and followed Jesus. This is contrary to his former status, first, of being blind, and second, of sitting by the roadside begging (v. 35). Thus, there is a shift from sitting to following, and from begging to giving glory. The narrator’s aim has achieved its end – to invite all the people to see, follow and give praise to God (v. 43).

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Interpretation of Luke 18:35-43 A refusal to be silenced Blind men and women were perceived as outcasts and unfortunate people who caused shame in society; they were not allowed to mix with other people. Thus, excluded from social interaction, their survival depended on begging. It was, therefore, normal to find blind beggars sitting alone by the roadside begging where everyone was busy passing without paying much attention to them. Begging was their only means of survival. Referring to the blind beggar in Luke 18:35-43, Mullins (2005:283-284) describes his situation as follows: The blind beggar, without sight, status, position or possessions, sat stationary on the margins, not ‘on the way’ with Jesus, the disciples and the crowd heading for Jerusalem, sitting ‘beside the way’ he was stuck in the helplessness and poverty, a nobody in the eyes of the onlookers and an embarrassment on a public occasion with an important person ‘passing by.’

The beggar’s blindness must have caused tremendous pain for it created another evil – social exclusion. Those who accepted their condition and allowed themselves to be silenced died as poor people. If we link the story of the blind man to the preceding story of the rich ruler (Lk 18:18-27), we notice that ‘The blind man is begging where the other was very rich’ (Goulder 1989:673). By nature beggars refuse to remain invisible, they find their way to reach the passersby, sit and camp in public squares or near the homes of rich people (Lk 16:20). Luke reveals some resources that were present to the blind beggar, e.g., his persistent cry (v. 38) became an instrument of sight-recovery. The menace he received from the crowd (v. 39) had no control over his determination to seek healing. Miracles take place when those concerned are actively playing their role. The crowd rebuked him, perhaps, because he used a dangerous title ‘Son of David’ (Evans 1990:278). Looking at what happened to him, we know that he used it as an expression of his genuine faith in Jesus. ‘His persistence shows that he is asking more than alms: anyone might give him alms, but he wishes something specifically from the Son of David’ (Martin 2011:493-494). Those walking in front who tried to rebuke and silence the blind beggar (v. 39) could be any person especially those with authority who close their eyes and ears in order not to see and hear what was happening around them (Kodell 1982:93). They try to silence the poor, but like the blind man the poor continue to cry out wholeheartedly, thus using well the given opportunity (Morris 1988:276). What is unique in this person is that at his meeting with Jesus he does not ask for alms but sight. In fact, this was a dangerous request; he was taking a risk of losing


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his ‘employment.’ His recovery would not allow him to beg anymore (v. 35). Nevertheless, this is what the man wanted to achieve – to become independent and be liberated from the shame of begging. Jesus came for such people to help them achieve their aspirations. Their cry raises in us a motive for working in favour of the poor. However, in working with them paternalistic attitudes must be avoided (Byrns 1983:15-16).

The blind beggar’s faith widens the horizon of Jesus The blind beggar is saved by his faith in Jesus to whom he attributes the messianic titles: Jesus, Son of David and Lord. These titles cannot be associated with flattering words which beggars often used to attract alms givers (Meynet 2005:713). The crowd that followed Jesus identified him with a reference made to his hometown – Nazareth. He is given a title that could be used to identify any other person from Nazareth. ‘The blind man knows something about Jesus, for his cry stands in contrast to the crowd’s description of “Jesus of Nazareth.” Ironically, the blind man sees, in contrast to the disciples’ blindness’ (Lk 18:34) (Bock 1996:1507). His cry widens the horizon of Jesus; he is not only a man of Nazareth, but the Lord who saves humanity.

From crying to giving praise The blind beggar who has been ignored for years, has even been stopped and prevented from meeting Jesus (18:38) now is taking a lead in glorifying God (18:43) – a drastic shift. His healing has become a vivid example of the good news proclaimed in Lk 4:18. The aim of preaching good news, therefore, is to reawaken in people the potential they have, and use it as a catalyst of empowerment. The beggar has become a new creature. He ‘has progressed from begging to giving, from hearing to seeing, and from sitting to following’ (Hamm 1986:462). He is able to use his eyes, feet and mouth as tools for following Jesus and glorifying God (v. 43a).

Restoration of human dignity Most of the healings that took place in the Gospels, and in a special way in the Gospel of Luke aimed at restoring the dignity of a human being. By ordering the blind man to be brought to him (v. 40) this ends the reign of social exclusion, the beggar became ‘one of them’ (v. 43). The first gesture of Jesus in this healing narrative is to transform and heal the person. The whole person is saved (Brookins 2011:82).

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A Contextual Reading of Luke 18:35-43 There is no text without context. Each text reflects the context in which it was written. The reading of the biblical text is invalid if it is divorced from its religious, political, historical and socio-cultural contexts. Thus, according to Ukpong (2001:193), ‘[a] constant going back and forth from text to context finally pinpoints one context with which the text can be related.’ Speaking of contextual Bible study, West (1999:131) says that it ‘begins with the needs and concerns of poor and marginalised communities. The question or questions that shape the Bible reading emerge from below, not from above.’ We are, therefore, constantly called to go back to the pericope Lk 18:35-43 and ask questions such as: Why was the blind man sitting by the roadside begging (v. 35)? What was the significance of begging for the people of his time? Why did the multitude rebuke him when he cried for help (v. 39)? What were the socio-economic, religious and political conditions of his time? This catena of questions calls for a serious reflection concerning our begging mentality in Africa today. What does it mean to be a blind beggar seated by the roadside begging in the context of the southern African region? Do the cry and the healing of the blind man symbolise anything important for us as nations? It is observed that most of the African independent nations depend on begging as a way of dealing with their economic challenges – hence the question: Is Africa doomed to beg? The aim of this question is to help contextualise Lk 18:35-43 and allow it to effect both ‘individual and social transformation’ (West 1999:141). The contextual reading of this pericope will enrich our study in the sense that the text and its message become a powerful tool to influence our own life at microlevels. Below we read the story of the blind man, first, in his Jewish context and second, in the Southern African context where the pandemic of dependency is still a challenge.

Jewish Understanding of Begging Beggars and almsgiving Just like their neighbours in the Ancient Near East, Jewish scholars ‘developed a theology around almsgiving. They believed that by giving to the needy they were rendering a service to God’ (Speckman 2007:176). It was a way of bargaining with God. The more one gives to the poor, the more God repays them. Similar exhortations are found in the Mesopotamian Counsels of Wisdom as reported in Owczarek (2005:70):


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Do not insult the downtrodden with this a man’s God is angry. Show friendship to the weak. Do not abuse those who have fallen low. Do not torment them in a haughty manner. For the God who protects a human being is angered by such a thing. It displeases the sun [-God], who will revenge it with evil. Rather, give food to eat, and beer to drink; grant what is requested, attend to it and honour the one who asks. That will please the person’s protector God. It gives joy to the sun, who will reward it with favour.

Today in some cities of Southern Africa (Dar-Es-Salaam, Beira, Lilongwe, etc) we have an experience of seeing business people mainly of Arab origin who, every Friday, give coins as alms to the poor – the blind, the crippled and the elderly. In most cases, this is done as ‘a way to keep the poor masses quiet and to avoid a redistribution of property. Thus, almsgiving becomes a condescending giving from the rich to the poor; in reality upholding the basic inequality of society’ (Moxnes 1988:114). By so doing, writes (Owczarek 2005:71), the almsgivers seem to be dealing with ‘the symptoms and not the causes of poverty.’ In the Jewish context, criticisms against exploitation of the poor are widely inserted in the prophetic literature (Amos 5:12-27; Isaiah 1:23; Jer 7:1-19). Among the poor are included the widow, the fatherless, and the alien. Thus, collections as relief were organised and put at the disposal of the needy (Speckman 2007:179). Though the needy/beggars were given alms, there was no working system which tried to integrate and improve their living conditions. The situation was even worse for physically challenged persons because their disability qualified them as outcasts (Lev 21:18). Such people were found wandering and begging for money along the roadsides or gathering at the gates of various cities like Jericho and Jerusalem.

Absence of social infrastructures In Jesus’ time, Palestine was under Roman colonial rule. The aristocratic class was not interested in the situation of the poor. In fact, in many instances the poor were prejudicially looked at as ‘the “scum” or “filth” of the city’ (Cicero in Speckman 2007:164). To give alms to poor people was discouraged because it was a way of keeping them in streets, thus prolonging their disgraceful condition. The blind man (Lk 18:35-43) belonged to this group of poor individuals who relied on begging. Since the State had negative attitudes towards beggars, we may presume that viable structures to house people with physical disabilities were not put in place. In the rural areas of Palestine, probably minimum structures existed; however, we cannot be sure how these structures were administered. A shadow of doubt regarding such structures persists because of the existence of the laws of purity. Pilgrim (1981:74) describes with clarity the social status of beggars in Jesus’ time: 22


Furthermore, it is necessary to keep in mind the social and religious status of the ‘poor, maimed, blind, lame, lepers and possessed’ in Jesus’ day. At best, they existed on the edge of society. At Qumran, the cripples, blind, and physically blemished were excluded as from the community altogether...Also in the rabbinic literature of the time, illness and poverty stood under a cloud of suspicion. Within Palestinian society itself, lepers were outcasts and the blind, deaf, dumb, and beggars were forbidden from the Holy Place in the Temple. Thus we are envisioning here a segment of the populace that was religiously and socially apart and that lived in complete dependence on the goodness of others.

In the story of the blind man (Lk 18:35-43), we notice that the people’s concern was only to give alms and they did so essentially for their own benefit as they hoped to gain God’s favour. Apparently, the blind beggar became an object of their blessing. No concern is shown to look for lasting solutions. Since his society associated physical disability with sin, this in itself was a sufficient reason for furthering his exclusion. Such people were left ‘on the outskirts of the community. They were either temporarily or permanently put in a liminal situation’ (Moxnes 1988:52).The passers-by were free to give or not to give, thus, making the beggar’s survival very unpredictable. However, the persistence of a begging phenomenon in cities like Jericho and Jerusalem shows that beggars had their lucky moments as well. Nobody could think of disabled persons as having a potential for being employed while taking into account their physical condition. The attitude of the state towards such people was to regard them as unproductive individuals and, hence there was no need to offer them support. Today, we speak of the human rights of people with disabilities. This positive attitude towards disabled persons is well articulated in Laborem Exercens (no 22): The disabled person is one of us and participates fully in the same humanity that we possess. It would be radically unworthy of man, and a denial of our common humanity, to admit to the life of the community, and thus admit to work, only those who are fully functional. To do so would be to practise a serious form of discrimination, that of the strong and healthy against the weak and sick...The various bodies involved in the world of labour...should therefore by means of effective and appropriate measures foster the right of disabled people to professional training and work, so that they can be given a productive activity suited to them.

Various sections of the New Testament provide concrete examples of Jesus’ positive approach to the outcasts (Matthew 8:6-13; 8:14-15; Lk 4:18-19; 14:1624; John 9:1-41). ‘The significance of the poor, maimed, lame and blind in the parable of the Banquet (Lk 14:16-24) is that none are excluded from the kingdom except those who exclude themselves’ (Seccombe 1983:189). The early Christians


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were moved by the spirit of their Master; their concern was not only to perform charitable works to support beggars but also to find means of making them part of the Christian community.

Jericho as an ideal spot for begging The synoptic evangelists record the healing of the blind man/men near Jericho. He is named Bartimaeus by Mark (10:46-52), Matthew reports two blind men (20:29-34) and Luke presents an unnamed blind beggar (18:35-43). The beggar’s anonymity in Luke, ‘allows the story to become the story of every Christian’ (Hamm 1986:475), and, indeed, of every person who sits by the roadside begging. The Romans developed Jericho and it became an important city. The existence of business people in Jericho probably allowed tax collectors like Zacchaeus to make their fortune (Lk 19:1-10). The city also attracted poor people including lepers, blind and the destitute who came to earn a living by begging in its streets, especially from the pilgrims who used to travel via Jericho to Jerusalem. The presence of beggars was felt not only in Jericho but also in other cities including Jerusalem. Pilgrim (1981:44) illustrates how ‘Jerusalem was also filled with beggars who gathered at the gates of the old city or near the Temple precinct. They included the sick, blind, lepers and the destitute… Since almsgiving was encouraged, they often got something.’ The story of the blind beggar, therefore, becomes the story of every person whose life depends on almsgiving.

A blind beggar is led to Jesus In Lk 18:40, we read that Jesus commanded the blind beggar to be brought to him. This shows that the beggar’s movement literally relied on the generous gesture of his neighbours who probably daily used to bring him to the gate of Jericho. Without this support, certainly it would have been difficult for him to reach there. Dependency is what characterises his life (Lk 18:35). In Lk 18:3543, we identify two kinds of possible benefactors/benefactresses: first, those who facilitated his movement, guiding him to reach Jericho; and second, those who were willing to give alms. The day when such alms are not given, the person’s survival will come to an end. The lesson drawn from his encounter with Jesus is that the beggar is given an opportunity to express his concern. Without hesitation he declares that he wants to see again (Lk 18:41). Sight-recovery was his real concern and not alms. This is happening in our nations today; sometimes we are obliged to receive foreign aid to support projects which do not necessarily meet our real needs and aspirations. What Africa needs is to have economic structures which will encourage people to move ‘towards self-reliance’ (Byrns 1983:19).

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The Problem of Dependency Syndrome in Africa In this section, we intend to read Luke 18:35-43 in the context of some postcolonial nations of the Southern African region. After achieving independence, many people hoped to enjoy some sort of comfortable life. Unfortunately, to a large extent, one sees no immediate solutions to improving our living conditions.

Systematic creation of beggar nations The begging mentality, as a disease, has left many Africans in a state of psychological blindness to the point of believing that they cannot do things on their own unless foreign aid is given. A dependency syndrome kills creativity and creates dull policymakers. Like a blind beggar seated by the roadside begging (Lk 18:35), our policymakers and heads of states spend time flying from one country to another looking for foreign aid – mainly systematic aid (Moyo 2009:7). Literally they are begging. As a result, the destiny of our nations is determined by those who provide us with aid. Paternalistic policies take over. Politically speaking we are independent nations, but in reality our economic policies are still dictated by the so-called first world countries (Ela 1986:63-64). The more we trade with them the poorer we become – the more foreign aid is sought. A columnist recently in Daily News Tanzania (July 19th, 2014) wrote: ‘If there is one thing Africa is full of, it is the poverty of the mind of our leaders and policymakers’ (We suffer 2014).

Foreign aid as a sleeping pill Aid, to a large extent, has proved to be a sleeping pill that makes most African nations rely on false hopes of economic development. This resembles sick people who take medicine to make them sleep thus tentatively postponing their pain. When they are awake, they continue to confront the same suffering. We should first deal with the root causes of our poor economy and not just remain at the level of working on symptoms. Development does not grow like a baby quieting at its mother’s breast (Psalm 131:2) enjoying perfect protection and free nourishment. Development, says Speckman (2007:279) ‘is not something that happens on a passive individual or community. It is something that the individual or community does. Often, nothing happens because no one wants to do anything.’ We cheat ourselves if we keep on believing that foreign aid is going to give us development. There is no such a thing as receiving ready-made economic development. What is required of us, following the example of the blind beggar, is to start believing in ourselves, to start saying ‘Lord, let us recover our dignity’ (Lk 18:41). This also calls for our determination to get rid of negative elements such as passivity and insouciance (Moyo 2009:66).


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Aid can only work if it is given to promote economic growth. However, the main part of aid directed to the third world countries remains ‘politically driven and tied-aid…these types of aid flows do not promote development’ (Moyo 2009:76), but they weaken the process of economic growth. As a result, a dependency syndrome takes roots to prevent ‘creative thinking’ (Missiaen 2005:61). A change of mindset is the key element required to be inculcated in the process of dealing with our socio-political and economic problems (Lumumba 2014). We are urged to stop behaving as if we are lesser human beings ‘created from the leftover dust that God used to create other humans’ (Dandala 2014).

Aid promotes corruption There is a huge difference between the Marshall plan that was intended ‘to aid in the reconstruction of the post-Second World War Europe’ (Moyo 2009:35) and the systematic aid that goes to Africa every year. The Marshall plan gave positive effect, first because the affected countries were not ‘wholly dependent on aid’ (:36); second, the aid was not more than the countries’ GDP; third, the Marshall plan had a limited scope of time; and fourth, the recipient of aid had already a good number of functioning institutions, businesses and high levels of science and technology. The industrial revolution was already in existence. These favourable economic conditions enhanced the process of economic recovery in Europe and Japan. Such favourable conditions are widely absent in Africa where governments ‘view aid as a permanent, reliable, consistent source of income and have no reason to believe that the flows won’t continue into the indefinite future’ (Moyo 2009:36). Most of our nations are still underdeveloped, they need aid, not to restore their economies, but to initiate the process of economic development. And since we are short of committed leaders, aid has become an instrument that promotes corruption on the continent (Speckman 2007:13-20). In some extreme cases, aid is given even to dictators who are known for their notorious habits of devouring their own countries. Such selfish leaders shamelessly tend to use foreign aid to buy military equipment and cover their travel allowances. Sometimes they channel aid funds back to donor countries through extravagant overseas shopping. Meanwhile at home they continue to squeeze and ‘crush their peoples with internal and external debts’ (EA 120).

Aid as a form of addiction Since independence the situation of most African nations resembles that of a blind beggar who sits by the roadside begging (Lk 18:35). They are blind and addicted to aid. Just like any addiction, they have come to believe that they cannot run 26


their nations without foreign aid. Our begging mentality causes many foreigners to believe that nothing good can come out of Africa. However, ‘Africa is not a dark continent, as many would want us to believe, neither is it doomed to remain poor and underdeveloped. It is a continent endowed with enormous resources’ (Awori 2005:7). Getting rid of addiction must be our noble concern. ‘And like the challenges someone addicted to drugs might face, the withdrawal is bound to be painful’ (Moyo 2009:75). Shaking off the burden of aid will be our modern way of saying ‘Lord, let us receive our sight!’ (Lk 18:41).

Beggars in our streets One of the phenomena of globalisation is a massive movement of people from rural to urban areas. The majority of those who are abandoning their villages are the youth. Thus, the city of Jericho is a typical example of many cities in the Southern African region which have attracted many poor people to settle in urban centres with the hope of making a living. The majority of them are living in extremely inhuman conditions. Often, they are seen on streets or seated by the roadside begging (Lk 18:35). As a strategy to eliminate this shame, last year in Dar-Es-Salaam, the commercial city of Tanzania, a substantial number of street beggars were brought to the resident Magistrate’s court accused of ‘loitering,’ and of being found in the city centres and open grounds with the intention of ‘begging for money.’ The beggars were also accused of using ‘their children to get money from passers-by, which amounts to denying them their basic rights, including education.’ They ‘admitted to have committed the offence’ and over 200 beggars were ordered to ‘be sent back to their home villages’ (John 2013). Though the order had no success, it is inhuman to expatriate beggars by force without providing them with proper means of living. The beggar who is loitering and begging for money on streets is not subhuman or a nonperson (Moxnes 1999:117); he or she reflects the image of God (Genesis 1:26-27). Informal settlements are found in almost all our cities. Dismantling such settlements without replacing them with concrete solutions leads us nowhere. This is to resemble ‘those who were in front’ and tried to rebuke the blind beggar ‘telling him to be silent’ (Lk 18:39) and, hence, creating a vicious cycle of poverty. In general terms, most of the beggars are mistrusted and exposed to many dangers, and suspected of all sorts of immoral acts such as robbery, rape, murder and abuse of drugs. Some are killed. This is, indeed, endangering the image of God. In reality, beggars are a tabula rasa; if helped, they can become makers of their own destiny. The call here is to get closer to them, and with them, find a lasting solution (Shorter 1991:112-113).


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Crisis of leadership Most African politicians lack vision and have no sense of belonging. Often, they behave like those who were trying to silence the blind beggar (v. 39). They govern their countries as foreign experts. They steal and invest their fortune in foreign banks, thus enabling those developed countries to generate income that is needed for the creation of jobs. Though Moyo (2009:56-57) is completely against any kind of corruption, she believes that ‘positive corruption,’ to a certain extent, could have been of use if its perpetrators would invest the stolen money in their home countries. However, this is often not the case in Africa. Money leaves Africa for foreign destinations. Since such leaders get everything they need overseas, they do not see the need to improve education and health structures at home. When they fall ill, they fly overseas for treatment. Their children are sent abroad for studies. This shows that ‘the elite and African intelligentsia have no faith in their education system’ (Lumumba 2014).

Empowerment as a Catalyst of Self Sustainability Description of empowerment The verb empower from which the noun empowerment is derived means to ‘give authority or power, give strength and confidence’ (Soanes 2002:288). Thus, empowerment is described as ‘the method of engendering power, strength, etc. where it is latent or non-existent’ (Speckman 2007:227). One could say that the blind man (Lk 18:35-43) received sight that empowered him to see and change social structures that excluded certain classes of people. Without empowerment, he was doomed to beg by the roadside (v. 35). Wils (in Ngetwa 2013:33) extends the description of empowerment as follows: Whatever the case, empowerment aims at changing the situation of those who are poor by stressing the aspect of personal and community transformation. It cannot exist without transforming the person and society at large. This is only possible if empowerment is understood as the process by which the powerless become aware of the power dynamics at work in their life. In this way poor people can develop the skills and capacity to gain some reasonable control over their life.

Most of the healings which Jesus performed in one way or another aimed at giving strength and confidence to people who had physical disabilities or other health problems. The blind man (v. 43) therefore became one of the beneficiaries of such healing miracles.

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Components of empowerment As we read the story of the blind man (Lk 18:35-43), it becomes evident that for empowerment to have effect certain components must be incorporated in the process of engendering power, strength and confidence. Below I mention some of them.

a) Acquisition of correct information In Lk 18:35-43 it is reported that the beggar heard ‘a multitude passing by, he inquired what was happening, and they announced to him that Jesus of Nazareth was passing by’ (vv. 36-37). At this stage of inquiry correct information matters. The man cried out to Jesus because he had received correct information concerning his passing by. Information empowers people. ‘In most cases the poor are powerless because they are less informed of what is going on in their community and elsewhere. They are unaware of how other people, living in similar situations, overcome their problems’ (Ngetwa 2013:34). Science and technology have facilitated the process of globalisation. Communication is more developed today than it used to be some 30 years ago. Some people speak of the global village because people are interconnected and, within a few minutes are able to know what is happening in other parts of the world. I use the terms ‘correct information’ in order to distinguish it from false information (AM 143145). When dictators have control over means of communications, it is difficult for people to have access to truth.

b) Participation and social integration Another element, equally important in the process of empowerment, is participation and social integration. Above, I pointed out that the blind man did not suffer only from his blindness, but also from social rejection. The laws of purity determined who could be integrated and who could not. The blind beggar was rebuked and ordered to remain silent (v. 39) because as an outcast he had no right to socialise with others. Being excluded equals being oppressed, and this leads to disempowerment. ‘Since oppression is obviously a situation that is neither acceptable nor tolerable, a moment comes when the weight of it provokes unrestrained tears, cries of pain, and a call for quick liberation’ (Tamez 1982:15). No wonder we are told ‘he cried out all the more: “Son of David, have mercy on me”’ (v. 39). The man’s healing opened doors to social integration symbolised by his following of Jesus (v. 43). Globalisation will make sense if the Southern African region is allowed to play an active role in it. Unfortunately, the concept of the global village has, to


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a large extent, created more division than unity. In spite of its many positive effects, globalisation is in the process of creating a global culture that has no immediate positive influence at the micro-level. Many of our people today seem to be well informed about what is happening in China, Japan, America, etc., and less informed of serious events taking place in their own local contexts (Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o 1986:93). Speckman (2007:7) describes globalisation as a process of ‘bringing un-equals into one kraal’ where the powerful take advantage of the less powerful and use them ‘as ladders for the traditionally strong’ to ‘reach out for the top.’

c) The question of security In spite of threats and commotion provoked by the multitude, the blind man felt secure (v. 39). The multitude, especially those leading in front, is ordered by Jesus to lead the man to him (v. 40). We need to have leaders who are able to give correct orders in order to protect the marginalised. There is no empowerment without security. As nations, we need to create an atmosphere where citizens will feel secure and protected. The beggar ‘cried out all the more’ (v. 39) for help because he knew that Jesus was there to protect him.

d) Freedom of speech Though the blind beggar suffered social exclusion, he retained his freedom of speech. He was able to inquire (v. 36) about the state of affairs of that day when the multitude in great commotion was passing-by with Jesus. Although the primitive Jewish society was structured on a basis of the laws of purity, one thing needs to be appreciated, i.e., people had time to listen to his inquiry and provide him with correct information (v. 37). Their response was the beginning of his sight-recovery. In several African countries speech is still on hold controlled by tyrannical regimes. Because of fear, many people are forced ‘to submit to official conformism’ which ‘fosters a parrot mentality’ (Ela 1986:66). To deprive people of the word is, indeed, to do them a great harm. Beggars too have a word to communicate.

e) Good governance Jesus is the model of good governance (Lk 18:40-41). He is a just leader who knows how to listen and handle the crowd. He is the opposite of the unjust judge who delayed the widow’s justice (Lk 18:1-8). The judge in rural Palestine also played a ‘leadership role in the community’ (Moxnes 1988:58). As a good leader, Jesus never accused those who wanted to dismiss the blind man (v. 39),

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but he found peaceful ways of letting them get involved. Finally, they were the ones to lead him to Jesus for healing. Thus, his healing was a combination of several efforts coming from the blind beggar himself, the people and Jesus who healed him. Though it is painful to assert that Africa is flooded with dishonest and unpatriotic leaders, this is our reality that needs to be named, especially in those nations where rulers came to power by means of the gun. In order to maintain their power, they create a state of fear and panic among people. A good number of rulers are even tempted to change constitutions in order to create conditions which will allow them to recycle their leadership for decades. Nepotism is perceived in every state owned business and in almost all public sectors. The majority are not employed on merit but on the principle of ‘who knows who.’ Jesus in Lk 18:35-43 sets an example of how to avoid biased tendencies. The immediate reaction of the multitude is to rebuke the blind beggar (v. 39). On the one hand, this rebuke symbolises the mundane biased tendencies that marginalise the poor and overlook their cry for justice. On the other hand, it goes against Jesus’ plan of inclusive mission. Lack of good leadership is experienced in many African nations. As a result, we see that the suffering of Africa today is mainly caused by our own brothers and sisters who have decided to turn themselves to acts of nepotism, bribery and corruption (Dandala 2014). Ethical convictions are lacking in many of our leaders. We should avoid thinking that some leaders are born leaders. They are not. They need to be trained. The Church could be of help if she takes courage to engage herself ‘in the civic formation of citizens’ and in ‘awakening their consciences and their civic responsibility’ (AM 23).

f) Decentralisation of power In the process of empowering the marginalised, the local situation matters and takes an upper hand. The poor’s context has to be perceived as the engine of empowerment and change. This is the place where the marginalised or beggar nations could get involved in improving their living conditions. Jesus, if he wished, could have healed the blind beggar without bothering himself with the question (v. 41): ‘What do you want me to do for you?’ The beggar was first given opportunity to express his real needs; the healing is granted as a concrete gesture of empowerment to his request ‘Lord, let me receive my sight’ (v. 41). Universal responses which tend to overlook personal/local needs must be avoided.

Holistic empowerment Human life portrays a complex reality. It does not help to deal with one aspect of the human reality and ignore the rest. Our approach to empowering an GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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individual must take into consideration every element that constitutes human life including physical, psychological, economic, political, religious or sociocultural components.

a) At the physical level The blind beggar’s sight-recovery liberated him from physical disability (v. 43). This aspect of healing is as important as other aspects of our human reality. Without sight, the man was probably going to beg for years to come. Good health is a key to man’s social mobility. Liberation from physical bondage leads to liberation from a shameful experience of begging. Thus, the Church is called to make sure that she continues to obey the order of Christ - ‘to heal every disease and every infirmity’ (Mk 10:1; AM 139).

b) At the psychological level Begging by the roadside (Lk 18:35) caused humiliation, intimidation and desperation. He became nobody and belonged to nobody. People looked at him as a useless person who relied on the compassion of those who could support him with almsgiving. Lack of self-esteem destroyed his confidence. The healing he received boosted his self-image. He became one of them (v. 43). If healing does not touch the psychological part of the person, people may appear healed physically but lack courage to perform things on their own. People who do not believe in themselves cannot become role players in developing their nation. Even the way we use the word ‘poor’ needs to be regulated, otherwise we risk alienating them all the more.

c) At the religious and socio-cultural level As mentioned above, religiously speaking and according to a socio-cultural set of values, the blind man was an outcast and unfit to attend the ‘three festivals in the year’ at Jerusalem, i.e., ‘the Passover, the festival of Booths and the festival of Weeks’ (Bruce 2005:41). Though it is not told whether this man belonged to a priestly clan or not, his exclusion was decisively articulated and presented as the will of God in Leviticus 21:18-21. His sight-recovery, thus, became a means of recovering his socio-religious status (v. 43).

d) At the political level The blind man (Lk 18:35), because of his disability and social exclusion, had no political influence. His healing was a turning point for him to recover his political status. His right to participate and associate himself with any political body was 32


given back. Africa is in need of political strategies which will allow a greater participation of its citizens.

e) At the economic level In spite of being a shameful thing to do, begging was a means of survival for the blind man (v. 35). In other words, his apparent disempowerment reduced him to a lower level of social status. The recovery of sight for him became also a moment of economic empowerment. He was provided with an alternative means of living: life without begging. This is, indeed, what it means to be empowered. The Southern African region is rich in natural resources; what is lacking is the will to use them as a means of improving our living conditions. In some situations, these resources have become a curse, a commodity that devours human life through reckless civil war (Moyo 2009:59). Oftentimes, we tend to blame the superpowers for much of the social unrest and many civil wars in Africa, but we fail to acknowledge our own irresponsible acts. If they take part in any civil war, it is because we ourselves have allowed them to use us as instruments of impoverishing our brothers and sisters.

Moving towards self sustainability Empowerment is not an end in itself. It must lead us to self sustainability. The movement of the blind beggar from sitting by the road side (v. 35) to inquiring (v. 36) and following (v. 43); from crying out (v. 39) to receiving sight (v. 43), and from begging (v. 35) to glorifying God (v. 43) must become our own movement. We want to reach that moment of the peak hour where everyone is busy doing some meaningful work to improve their living conditions. Then, all the people, having seen their achievement, will rise to give praise to God (v. 43) – hence attaining a ‘globalisation of solidarity’ (AM 86). However, globalisation has created more inequality than equality. The poor, in spite of having all that they need for playing an active role, appear downcast, singing the tune of which they are less informed (Psalm 115:5-7). It is imperative that we start abandoning unhealthy elements which stop us from moving forward.

a) Rejection of negative accolades The crowd that tried to stop the blind beggar from approaching Jesus is active today in our midst as we visibly see some nations at work trying to disregard any effort shown by the African nations. Like the blind beggar, Africans should take courage to reject false definitions imposed on them by their donors. We must dare to challenge and ignore oppressive powers – people who command


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us to remain silent (v. 39). While we desire to affirm our identity and reject what Mbeki (in Speckman 2007:xxii-xxiii calls ‘negative accolades’ (corruption, wars, incompetence, non-reliability, lack of punctuality, etc.), it is good to begin with self-criticism. In most countries these negative elements are still visible. The continent has known many incompetent and corrupt leaders. The existence of civil wars and undemocratic constitutions is a clear sign that our journey to self-sustainability still has a long way to go. ‘Man (sic) is truly human only if he is the master of his own actions and the judge of their worth, only if he is the architect of his own progress’ (PP 34). If the same determination that motivated us during the liberation struggle were to be applied today in our fight against poverty, economic growth would have been a tangible reality in many countries.

b) Avoiding victim mentality If not all, a number of the Southern African nations continue to lament, point fingers and speak of slavery and colonialism as the main cause of their being underdeveloped. This victim mentality which does not help us to embrace selfdetermination and self sustainability is passed on from one generation to another. As a result, we find themselves swinging like a pendulum depending on who comes first to initiate the movement. The blind man had all reasons to justify his begging profession, but because of his God-given nature he refused to stay idle (v. 39). He did not waste time in pointing fingers at the passers-by accusing them of being responsible for his poor condition. We may keep on pointing fingers at our former colonial masters accusing them of plundering and grabbing our natural resources; however, this is not going to empower us. The various levels of empowerment discussed above should help us to determine our future. We have the capacity to change our situations. Not long ago several Asian nations were economically at the same level as most African nations today. We notice that many African nations have not moved forward and some have even ‘regressed’ (Moyo 2009:29).We seem to have chosen to sit by the roadside begging (v. 35).

c) Are we doomed to remain underdeveloped? There are a lot of positive signs of economic growth in the Southern African region. Initiatives such as the creation of the SADC and bilateral trade partnerships among the African countries, if well employed, will help to alleviate our poverty. It is also important to learn to trade at a horizontal level where the law of parity exists. Trade among equals has a better chance of growth than trade between the poor and the rich. The blind man, after recovering his sight, did not remain seated as a spectator idly looking at those who were heading towards Jerusalem with Jesus. He refused to entertain passivity. Instead, he followed Jesus and 34


glorified God (v. 43). We need to become active participants in economy and not just simple spectators.

d) Development without aid is possible In the Southern African region, aid has proved to be a failure. We have come to acknowledge that aid, to a large extent is not given to sustain our economic growth. Often, it serves to strengthen the political power and economic growth of donor countries. The former British Minister of Overseas Development is quoted as having said: ‘About two-thirds of our aid is spent on goods and services from Britain...trade follows. We equip overseas and later on we get orders for spare parts and replacements...aid is in our long-term interest’ (in Speckman 2007:12). As we receive aid, we enrich the first world. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (1986:28) writes: Africa actually enriches Europe: but Africa is made to believe that it needs Europe to rescue it from poverty. Africa’s natural and human resources continue to develop Europe and America: but Africa is made to feel grateful for aid from the same quarters that still sit on the back of the continent. Africa even produces intellectuals who now rationalise this upside-down way of looking at Africa.

Will Africa survive without aid? I am convinced that Africa can survive without aid, we might go through difficult periods, a bit like swallowing bitter pills, but at the end of the day healing is guaranteed. This is the way to go if we want to embrace self sustainability. The experience of Zimbabwe may sound a bit exaggerated, but in spite of aid being cut or reduced to a minimum, Zimbabwe can exist without aid. ‘Remember that just thirty years ago Malawi, Burundi and Burkina Faso were economically ahead of China on a per capita income basis. A dramatic turnaround is always possible’ Moyo (2009:145). What is required here is that our policymakers need to have economic strategies which aim at reducing the percentage of aid year after year.

Conclusion Our journey to self sustainability is long and endless. The following ingredients may hasten the movement: Embracing a sense of belonging: We need to review our ways of doing things. We must stop behaving as if we are foreign experts in our own nations. This is the mentality which we see in most of our politicians and civil servants. Their work, often, does not promote the common good but their own self interests. Promoting ethical values and convictions: Civil education is to be given to all as a means of helping people actively to engage in political and socio-economic


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affairs. Moral values could also be taught at all levels of education starting from early years of school. Learning to work with an altruistic mindset: True joy is achieved when people learn to wash each other’s feet and take care of the common good. In Gaudium et Spes (no 26), the common good is understood ‘as the sum total of social conditions which allow people, either as groups or as individuals, to reach their fulfilment more and more easily.’ If the common good is left in the hands of egoistic leaders, the social conditions of the majority in society will deteriorate. This has been perceived as a reality in most African countries where unpatriotic politicians, a bit like Judas Iscariot (Jn 12:6), are not ashamed to use the money of tax payers to buy private jets and to build palaces. ‘The plundering of the goods of the earth by a minority to the detriment of entire peoples is unacceptable, because it is immoral’ (AM 24). Our selfish tendencies must be challenged (Prior 1995:196). What about Christian Ethos? By a Christian ethos we mean all Christian values and ideals which aim at promoting the human dignity of every person. This will include elements such as love, respect, the Good Samaritan spirit, altruism, forgiveness, equity, impartiality, search for truth, sense of responsibility, compassion, and our deep desire to work for justice and peace. As Christians, we are called to use these values to influence all spheres of human life. Our influence must also touch government institutions, civil societies, political and economic segments which constitute the reality of each nation. Some of our leaders are Christians and were trained in Catholic educational institutions. How do they witness Christian values in their professionalism? ‘Faith or orthodoxy without joy is not only unattractive but it is also incapable of producing a genuine Christian life’ (Häring 1976:1). We have a sacred vocation to help people acquire an informed conscience (AM 22).The decline of moral consciousness is causing havoc on the continent. The Church is called to challenge and invite people to walk the path of justice and solidarity. The involvement of the Church must start with ‘the training of the lay faithful, so that they will fully exercise their role of inspiring the temporal order – political, cultural, economic and social – with Christian principles which is the specific task of the laity’s vocation in the world’ (EA 75). Thus, the laity must be ‘encouraged to enter politics’ ((EA 75) for this is one of the spheres where positive influence could lead to social and economic growth in many African nations.

Abbreviations Bib Biblica CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

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GDP JSNT NJBC RSV SADC SJTI

Gross Domestic Product Journal for the Study of the New Testament The New Jerome Biblical Commentary Revised Standard Version Southern African Development Community Saint Joseph’s Theological Institute

References Aland, B. (eds) 2001. The Greek New Testament. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. AM. Africae Munus. Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation of Pope Benedict XVI, 19 November 2011. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Awori, M. 2005. African Renaissance: A challenge for governments and religions, in Africa is not a dark continent, edited by F. Stenger. Nairobi: Pauline Publications Africa (Tangaza Occasional Papers no 17), 7-10. Bock, D.L. 1996. Luke 9:51-24:53, in Baker exegetical commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Books. Brookins, T.A. 2011. Luke’s use of Mark as para,frasij: Its effects on characterization in the “healing of blind Bartimaeus” pericope (Mark 10:46-52/Luke 18:35-43). Journal for the Study of the New Testament 34(1), 70-89. Brown, R.E. 2009. An introduction to the New Testament. Bangalore: Theological Publications in India. Bruce, P. 2005. John 5:1-18 the healing at the pool: Some narrative, socio-historical and ethical issues. Neotestamentica 39 (1):39-56. Byrns, T. 1983. Integral development: Development of the whole person. A handbook for Christians. Ndola: Mission Press. Dandala, M 2014. What Moral Power Should Pervade Africa? [Online article]. Available at http://www.sjti.ac.za/Current%20News/Keynote%20speech%20 by%20Dr%20Dandala%20-%20Moral%20Power%20for%20Africa.pdf EA. Ecclesia in Africa. Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation of Pope John-Paul II, 14 September 1995. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. EG. Evangelii Gaudium. Apostolic Exhortation of Pope Francis, 24 November 2013. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Ela, J-M. 1986. African cry. Maryknoll: Orbis Books. Evans, C.A. 1990. Luke, in New international biblical commentary. Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers (New Testament series). Goulder, M.D. 1989. Luke: A new paradigm II. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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GS. Gaudium et Spes 1965. Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, in Vatican II: The Conciliar and post-Conciliar documents, edited by A. Flannery OP. New revised edition. Collegeville, Indiana: The Liturgical Press. Hamm, D. 1986. Sight to the blind: Vision as metaphor in Luke. Biblica 67:457-477. Häring, B. 1976. The beatitudes: Their personal and social implications. Slough: St. Paul Publications. John, R. 2013. City Court Kicks 200 Beggars Out of Dar [Online article]. Dar-EsSalaam: The Citizen, 12 September 2013. Available at http://www.thecitizen.co.tz/ News/City-court-kicks-200-beggars-out-of-Dar/-/1840392/1990572/-/9r769n/-/ index.html, accessed 12 September 2013. Johnson, L T. 1991. The gospel of Luke. Sacra Pagina. Collegeville: The Liturgical Press. Kodell, J. 1982. The gospel according to Luke. Collegeville: The Liturgical Press. LE. Laborem Exercens. Encyclical of Pope John-Paul II, 14 September 1981. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Lumumba, P. 2014. African Problems Stem from Mindset [Online article]. Dar-EsSalaam: Daily News, 13 April 2014. Available at https://24tanzania.com/africanproblems-stem-from-mindset-says-don/, accessed 13 April 2014. Marshall I.H. 1978. The gospel according to Luke. A commentary on the Greek text. Grand Rapids: The Paternoster Press Ltd. Martin, G. 2011. Bringing the gospel of Luke to life. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division. Meynet, R. 2005. L’Evangile de Luc. Paris: Lethielleux Missiaen, V. 2005. Integrity of creation, justice, peace and development, in Africa is not a dark continent, edited by F. Stenger. Nairobi: Pauline Publications Africa (Tangaza Occasional Papers no 17), 58-67. Morris, L. 1988. Luke. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press (Tyndale New Testament Commentaries). Moxnes, H. 1988. The economy of the Kingdom. Social conflict and economic relations in Luke’s gospel. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Moyo, D. 2009. Dead aid: Why aid is not working and how there is another way for Africa. London: Penguin Books Mullins, M. 2005. The gospel of Mark: A commentary. Dublin: The Columba Press. Ngetwa, A.T. 2013. Commitment to the common good: The basis for empowerment and liberation of poor people. Saarbrücken: Lap Lambert Academic Publishing. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, 1986. Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African literature. Nairobi: Heinemann. 38


Owczarek, C. 2005. Empowering the poor: God’s word on human development, in Africa is not a Dark Continent, edited by F. Stenger. Nairobi: Pauline Publications Africa (Tangaza Occasional Papers no 17), 68-79. Pilgrim, W.E. 1981. Good News to the poor: Wealth and poverty in Luke-Acts. Minneapolis: Augusburg Publishing House. Prior, M. 1995. Jesus the liberator. Nazareth liberation theology (Lk 4:16-30). Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. PP. Populorum Progressio. Encyclical on the Development of Peoples of Pope Paul VI, 26 March 1967. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana Seccombe, D.P. 1983. Possessions and the poor in Luke-Acts. Linz: Studien zum Neuen Testament und Seiner Umwelt. Soanes, C. ed. 2002. South African pocket oxford dictionary. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd. Speckman, M.T. 2007. A biblical vision for Africa’s development? Pietermaritzburg: Cluster Publications. Shorter, A. 1991. The church in the African city. London: Geoffrey Chapman. Talbert, C.H. 1982. Reading Luke. A Literary and Theological Commentary on the Third Gospel. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company. Tamez, E. 1982. The Bible of the oppressed. Maryknoll: Orbis Books. Ukpong, J. 2001. Bible reading with a community of ordinary readers, in Interpreting the New Testament in Africa, edited by M.N. Getui. Nairobi: Acton Publishers, 188-212. West, G.O. 1999. The academy of the poor: Towards a dialogical reading of the Bible. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. We Suffer the Worst Kind of Poverty – of the Mind [Online article]. Dar-Es-Salaam: Daily News, 19 July 2014. Available at http://m.dailynews.co.tz/index.php/localnews/33874-we-suffer-the-worst-kind-of-poverty-of-the-mind via @dailynewstz, accessed 19 July 2014.


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Enabled Rather Than (Dis)abled: Global Views of (Dis)ability Gloria Marsay The intention of this article is to encourage a shift in thinking of people with (dis)abilities as people with unique abilities rather than disabled. The concept of disability will be discussed against a historical backdrop of global definitions and models. The article explores how some people with (dis)abilities have been enabled to achieve success in the world of work. Common themes extracted from their life experiences are resonated against themes that appear in the literature. An example of a programme which has assisted people with (dis)abilities internationally and is being adapted for use in the South African context will be discussed.

Introduction Global awareness of (dis)ability is increasing. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities of 2007 (CRPD) was ratified by 132 countries (including South Africa). The Convention specifically references the importance of international development in addressing the rights of people with (dis)abilities and promotes full integration of them in societies (World Bank 2014). However, there remain significant gaps in knowledge regarding the situation of people with (dis)abilities, their families and their environment. The adequacy of efforts by both government and non-government to fulfil the rights of people with (dis)abilities (DSD DWCPD & UNICEF 2012:9) is considered. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the problems people with (dis)abilities face globally as well as in the South African context. The author’s study regarding the experiences of people who have (dis)abilities, and who are successful in the world of work in the South African context, is reflected against international literature. Specific themes that emerged during the study are discussed and may be considered by church communities who wish to assist people with (dis)abilities. An example of how global ideas can be used in the South African context to assist people with (dis)abilities is explained. For the purposes of this article I use parenthesis for (dis)ability, because I do not necessarily agree with the notion of disability. I believe that most people have unique abilities.

Historical Views of (Dis)ability Until the 1950’s, people with (dis)abilities were considered to be dysfunctional, 40


and were often institutionalised. However, the view society takes of people with (dis)abilities has shifted during the last 70 years. The catalyst for this shift could be attributed to the droves of veterans injured in World War II, who returned to their homes in Europe with (dis)abilities after serving in the war. Since then, two major models have been developed and fiercely debated. The Medical Model is best summarised by referring to the International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps (ICIDH) developed by the World Health Organisation in 1980. This model promotes the view of a person with (dis)abilities as dependent and in need of care. Hence, they were systematically excluded from society. Eventually, people with (dis)abilities began to challenge the way they were treated by society. The Social Model, developed by the disabled people’s movements, argued that the ‘cure’ to the problem of (dis) ability lies in the restructuring of society, drawing attention to the social, physical, informational and institutional barriers that construct (dis)ability. The separation of ‘disability’ from ‘function’ is fundamental to the social model (Brueggemann 2013; Oliver 2009; Shogren 2013). In response to the recognition of the above-mentioned models, the World Health Organisation developed the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) in 2001. The ICF is used globally and provides a multidimensional framework incorporating the medical and rehabilitative interventions, as well as the environmental and social interventions, in an optimistic way. A major advantage of using the ICF framework is that all aspects of a person’s life, including medical (body function and structure), social (ability to participate) as well as contextual factors, including environmental factors (the person within his or her world), and personal factors (race, gender, age and education, etc.) are all taken into account, instead of focusing on only a pathological diagnosis. This change from focusing on (dis)ability as pathological, to focusing on each person within the context of the environment and social community has important implications for developing global policies pertaining to (dis)ability (Buntinx 2013; Eide and Ingstad 2013; Wehmeyer 2013; Oliver 2009; Watermeyer at al. 2006; Wilson and Lewiwcki-Wilson 2001). The (dis)ability agenda in South Africa is influenced by what has been learned elsewhere in the world. However, there is still much to be learned within the South African context (Priestley 2006).

The South African Context Albert Nolan (2006:31) explains globalisation as the ‘spreading of something around the globe.’ He highlights the dangers and benefits of globalisation, and explains how the spreading of a deadly disease would constitute a serious problem, GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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whereas, the globalisation of an effective vaccine to prevent a disease would be a distinct benefit. Ubiquitous global thought about (dis)ability is fraught with danger and presents some challenges. Caution needs to be exercised when the trend towards a ‘global culture,’ founded on the principles of Western societies (particularly American), is regarded as the best approach. It is not without good reason that many people are protesting against globalisation that diminishes culture and indigenous wisdom, making the rich richer and the poor poorer, and consequently, the enabled more enabled, and the (dis)abled, more (dis)abled (Eide and Ingstad 2013; Rispa 2013). Nolan draws our attention to the globalisation of compassion for all victims, which he refers to as ‘globalisation from below.’ He suggests that the ‘international groundswell of resistance’ in the name of peace, compassion and justice, will undermine and dismantle the structures of power and domination (Nolan 2006:35). Although competitive freedom is encouraged by globalisation, Roos (2008:101) warns that unhampered competitive freedom may lead to an attitude of ‘survival of the fittest,’ which is counterproductive for those who require special needs, and contrary to the ethic of the ‘common good.’ We cannot ignore the ‘gold’ that we have in this country in the form of ‘ubuntu.’ Nor can we ignore the power of compassion which is developing in response to the AIDS pandemic. Although the ICF model, which is globally accepted, attempts to be culturally neutral, the question is posed whether such neutrality is possible. Different kinds of impairments are understood differently, and have different consequences in different cultures (Eide and Ingstad 2013; Ingstad and Whyte 2007; Stone 2005; Watermeyer at al. 2006). South Africa is a rainbow nation, home to a plethora of different cultures and different perceptions. The perception of ‘disability’ is exacerbated in the South African context due to historical and political structures. Hansen and Sait (2011:93) explain two approaches to (dis)ability in the South African context: the broad definition (disability as discrimination) and the narrow definition (disability as impairment). These differences in perception interfere with accurate reporting and, thus, quality data on (dis)ability in the South African context is limited. Some people refuse to acknowledge they have a (dis)ability. Others fear stigmatisation, and consequently fail to report (dis)ability. (Dis)ability affects millions of families in developing countries because there is a link between poverty and (dis)ability (Eide and Ingstad 2013; Eide and Ingstad 2011; Hansen and Sait 2011; Moore, Beazley and Maelzer 1998; Watermeyer at al. 2006; World Bank 2014; Yeo and Moore 2003). According to Bach (2013) 80% of people with (dis)abilities live in developing countries. In the South African context, the number of people living with (dis)ability has increased due to, amongst other factors, poverty and illness (including Foetal

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Alcohol Syndrome and the effect of the AIDS pandemic) as well as injuries which result from violence and accidents. The history of South Africa is woven with tales of people in authority dictating to others. It is important to pay attention to the experiences and accounts of people with (dis)abilities so that we can deconstruct the disenabling policies and practices, and work towards constructing policies and practices that are enabling. Kevin Dowling (2014:62) quotes Muliyil ‘How can I understand a figure or a statistic unless I have held the hand that it represents?’ The sentiment echoes the slogan that Disabled People South Africa (DPSA) have adopted: ‘Nothing about us, without us.’ Both of these attitudes link with Albert Nolan’s notion of ‘Globalisation from below’ (discussed above) as well as the principles of Catholic Social Thought (CST) (discussed below).

Overview of Study In response to a need to improve my way of working with people with (dis) abilities, I engaged in a study (Marsay 2014) of people with (dis)abilities, who are successful in the world of work. The intention was to understand what helped them to enter and sustain successfully their position in the world of work, and what the main obstacles are that they have had to overcome. I used a narrative approach to gather stories of experiences of people with (dis)abilities in the world of work. Qualitative thematic content analysis was used to explore the themes that emerged from four open-ended questions that were posed to participants to initiate the telling of their experiences. The themes highlighted by this study follow in the discussion below and can be used by church communities to develop ways to assist people with (dis)abilities.

Discussion Policy has not yet influenced practice Themes exposed by the conversations I had with participants of the study confirm that policies recognising people’s rights do not automatically enable people to live easier lives. It would appear that despite the fact that South Africa has adopted some world class policies that have been implemented globally, the plan of action to implement these policies in the South African context is inadequate. People with (dis)abilities are not treated with sufficient knowledge and understanding, nor are they treated with sufficient respect for their unique talents. Furthermore, it would appear that employers do not always pay sufficient attention to the specific needs of each individual. Employers tend to make assumptions and implement GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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ubiquitous measures that do not always meet the specific needs of the employees with (dis)abilities. Perhaps organizations do not yet have the capacity and skills needed to action these policies. Furthermore, it is idealistic to expect government always to meet the needs of the vulnerable in society. This task should be the mandate of concerned individuals and community. Maybe the church and the private sector are better positioned to set an example of how this can be achieved.

Need for social support The responses of the participants in the study illustrate that every participant received support from family, friends and colleagues, contributing to their ability to become successful. Abundant sources in literature refer to the fact that people do not live in isolation (Buntinx 2013; Charlton 1998; Ingstad and Whyte 2007; Ingstad and Whyte 1995; Moore, Beazley and Maelzer 1998; Rocco 2011; Stone 2005; Watermeyer et al. 2006). The impact of (dis)ability on each individual is felt by the family and indeed the entire community. Thus, there is a need for social support. Buntinx (2013:13) defines support systems as ‘resources and strategies that aim to promote the development, education, interests and personal well-being of a person and enhance individual functioning’ – (my emphasis). The church is well positioned to offer this kind of support in its pastoral ministry.

Need for appropriate education and training All the participants of the study described how difficult the school situation had been for them. In South Africa, at present, as a result of the policy of inclusion, there are too few schools that cater for the special needs of learners who have (dis) abilities (Dalton, Mckenzie, & Kahonde 2012; Department of Higher Education and Training 2014). Despite commitments from National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS) to increase opportunities for training and skills development for people with (dis) abilities, South Africa is still far from achieving its goal in this regard (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2010). Blade Nzimande, speaking at the launch of a white paper on post school education and training in January 2014, stated that ‘the management of (dis)ability in post-school education remains fragmented.’ Furthermore, he stated that the Department of Higher Education and Training’s disability funding was under-utilised in 2010 and 2011 at levels of only 47% and 55% of available funding respectively (Department of Higher Education and Training 2014) 44


There is a need for rigorous thought and debate with regard to education policy and practice. According to the Catholic Institute of Education there are only 11 Catholic LSEN (Learners with Special Educational Needs) schools nationally. A great story of the success that can be achieved is illustrated by the fact that Lorenzo Daniels of the Grimley School for the Deaf came 2nd in the LSEN section of Matrics in 2013. Catholic Education can play a defining role if it begins to address the needs of learners with special needs by identifying the unique strengths of each learner, and providing appropriate skills training.

Change in attitude towards (dis)ability The responses of the participants who told me their experiences illustrated a lack of sensitive understanding in society regarding how people with (dis)abilities can be assisted. Many of the success stories of people with (dis)abilities who have become successfully engaged in the world of work, rely on their unique abilities and on their ability to offer resistance to a ‘disabilist’ attitude. Pope John Paul II reminds us in his encyclical Laborem Exercens No. 22 (1981) that people with (dis)abilities ‘should be helped to participate in the life of society in all its aspects and at the levels accessible to their capacities’ (in Krason 2011). The document calls for training and other opportunities so ‘that disabled people may be offered work according to their capabilities.’ Although I am not a theologian, I believe that it is necessary to engage in theological reflection when we are considering the way our society is constructed. Using Byron’s framework of the principles of Catholic Social Thought (Byron 1999:7-14), the following comments concerning people with (dis)abilities are made: ÓÓ The principle of human dignity encourages us to accept that every human being is created in God’s own image, and therefore every person, including those with (dis) abilities, has inherent dignity and is worthy of respect. ÓÓ The principle of association leads us to recognize that by association with others in families and other social institutions that foster growth, protect dignity and promote common good, people with (dis)abilities can be assisted to achieve fulfilment. ÓÓ The principle of participation lays the foundation for each person’s right to participate in doing productive work despite their (dis)ability. ÓÓ The principle of preferential protection for the poor and the vulnerable instructs us to prioritise the needs of the poor and the vulnerable. ÓÓ The principle of subsidiarity encourages us to allow individuals and groups who have (dis)abilities to develop efficient and effective ways of handling their own needs. This principle is reflected in Albert Nolan’s notion of ‘globalisation from below’ mentioned earlier in this article. GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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ÓÓ The principle of human equality is derived from the principle that human dignity and differences in personal talents are a part of God’s plan. Thus, those with ‘differences’ are entitled to fair treatment. ÓÓ The principle of common good encourages the development of full human potential within society.

Assisting people with adequate self-determination skills, including self-knowledge with regard to their strengths and limitations, and appropriate market related skills, training is a priority. For example, people who have limited eyesight, may have been blessed with exceptional ability to hear and feel; people who have hearing difficulties, may have been blessed with exceptional visual perception; people who display some autistic spectrum criteria, pay exceptional attention to detail and have exceptional memory, to mention only three of a myriad of examples. People need to be empowered to engage with their unique talents so that they can confidently offer resistance to the ‘disabilist’ attitude which Oliver (2009) describes as being particularly disempowering.

Self-determination Most of the participants commented on how the support they received in their environment, enabled them to become self-determined. Wehmeyer & Little (2013:125) state that ‘It is clear that the environment in which people with (dis) abilities live, learn, work and play impact self-determination.’ Self–determination is an essential part of success in the workplace for people with (dis)abilities (Bach 2007; Buntinx 2013; Oliver 2009; Wehmeyer and Little 2013). Self-determination in the sense that each person has the right and the duty to attend to his/her economic affairs, and that people should be provided with the resources that will enable them to lead their lives with dignity, is fundamental to Catholic Social Thought. The gift of ‘self’ lies at the heart of CST, and meaningful work is one of the ways we fulfill our ‘selves’ in the world. Therefore, in order for people with (dis) abilities to experience success in the workplace, they should be empowered to be autonomous within a supportive, enabling environment and be given appropriate opportunities for employment. What better way is there than providing support for families and within the communities created by the church? Ameliorating the difficulties faced by people with (dis)ability can become a community endeavour.

Enabling environment and the need for employment opportunities Most of the participants in the study described how it was difficult to find appropriate employment, and how they often had to create an environment which 46


supported their needs. Byron (2012) makes a bold statement that ‘job creation is a civic responsibility.’ Michael Bach, executive vice president of the Canadian Association for Community Living, speaks about the Ready, Willing & Able Project that assists people with (dis)abilities in Canada. He comments that, although people in his community have the necessary training and are equipped with necessary marketable skills, there are too few opportunities for employment. He emphasizes the need for community to provide employment opportunities (Bach 2011). Imagine the possibilities for success if, within the church community, a network of enterprises became actively engaged in providing employment opportunities for people with (dis)abilities so that they could actualise their potential and become self-fulfilled through gainful employment.

An example of how global initiatives can be applied locally Although there are several projects driven by the church, I believe that more innovative thought can be applied to assist people struggling with (dis)abilities to become enabled and self-determined. I would like to cite an example of how this can be done, by showcasing the work done by the people at Forest Farm who are beginning to implement the innovations created by Thrive, which is a national charity organisation in the United Kingdom. The development of Forest Farm began in 1968 with the purpose of creating a residential and training centre for adults suffering from cerebral palsy. During the following 19 years, vacant land was developed into a self-sufficient farm with residential cottages, workshop, and other facilities. Forest Farm Centre was officially opened in April 1977.1 The Centre is situated in Bryanston Johannesburg, and historically, Forest Farm was the natural progression for children from Forest Town School for the Cerebral Palsied. Subsequently, Forest Farm has fostered good relations with a number of schools in the area. Beneficiaries come from all areas including people from Soweto, Lenasia, Midrand and Diepsloot, in particular. During the past few years, the work done by Forest Farm lacked sufficient recognition, and the organization began to experience difficulties. However, under the direction of Deon Smith and his team, Forest Farm is undergoing a metamorphosis. The centre is beginning to adopt and adapt the model using horticultural therapy developed by Thrive. The Thrive project has brought about profound transformation in the lives of people living with (dis)ability or mental ill health in the United Kingdom. Forest Farm is adapting the Thrive model to meet South African needs. 1

http://www.forestfarmcentre.org/


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Final Thoughts This article illustrates how people with (dis)abilities can be competent members of the workforce, if they are enabled by positive practices, given the necessary support from society, and equipped with appropriate education and training. Furthermore, a change in attitude will enable people with (dis)abilities to become self-determined. Lastly, people with (dis)abilities need to be provided with an enabling environment and appropriate opportunities for employment. If we believe that the ‘cure’ to (dis)ability lies in exploring and making use of the strengths of the (dis)abled person as well as restructuring of society’s attitude towards (dis)ability, then all people need to be trained and given opportunities according to their abilities. It is the responsibility of the entire community to provide individualised support structures to enable people to become selfdetermined and to be able to actualise their full potential, giving purpose and meaning to their lives. I would like to suggest a four phase approach which may be useful in the South African context, based on the Buntinx & Schalock approach (Buntinx 2013:15): ÓÓ Assess individual strengths; ÓÓ Equip people with marketable skills; ÓÓ Align the person’s subjective expectations and personal goals with available resources and the person’s objective needs; ÓÓ Provide employment opportunities.

Pope Francis told an assembly of Bishops in Brazil recently: ‘We need a Church capable of walking at people’s side, of doing more than simply listening to them; a Church which accompanies them on their journey’ (Lowney 2013:63). We can walk beside people with (dis)abilities and make a difference for them and for society as a whole.

References Bach, M. 2007. Supported decision making under article 12 of the UN convention on the rights of persons with disabilities: Questions and challenges. Conference on Legal Capacity and Supported Decision Making Parents’ Committee of Inclusion. Ireland. __________2011. Canada. Available at http://www.mdac.info/en/interview-michaelbach- new-mdac-board-member, accessed September 2014. Brueggemann, B.J. 2013. Disability studies/disability culture, in The Oxford handbook of positive psychology and disability, edited by M.L. Wehmeyer & 48


M.L. Wehmeyer. New York: Oxford University Press, 279-302. Buntinx, W.H. 2013. Understanding disability: A strengths-based approach, in The Oxford handbook of positive psychology and disability, edited by M.L. Wehmeyer & M.L. Wehmeyer. New York: Oxford University Press, 1-18. Byron, W. 1999. Framing the principles of Catholic social thought. Catholic Education: A Journal of Inquiry and Practice 3(1), 7-14. __________2012. One faith, many faithful: Short takes on contemporary Catholic concerns. New Jersey: Paulist Press. Charlton, J.I. 1998. Nothing about us without us: disability oppression and empowerment. California: California University Press. Dalton, E.M., Mckenzie, J.A. and Kahonde, C. 2012. The implementation of inclusive education in South Africa: Reflections arising from a workshop for teachers and therapists to introduce Universal Design for Learning. African Journal of Disability 1(1). doi:doi:10.4102/ajod.v1i1.13. Department of Higher Education and Training 2010. National Skills Development Strategy. Republic of South Africa: Department of Higher Education and Training. Available at http://www.dhet.gov.za/Publications/National%20Skills%20 Development%20Strategy%20II.pdf, accessed March 2014. Department of Higher Education and Training 2014. Speech by Minister of Higher Education and Training Education, MP Dr B.E. Nzimande at the launch of the White Paper for post school and training, 16 January 2014. Pretoria. Available at http://www.gov.za/speech-minister-higher-education-and-training-educattionmp-dr-be-nzimande-launch-white-paper-post, accessed September 2014. Dowling, K. 2014. An HIV/AIDS programme in a rural context, in Catholic Responses to AIDS in Southern Africa, edited by S.C. Bate & A. Munro. Pretoria: Southern African Catholic Bishops’ Conference, 62-73. DSD, DWCPD, & UNICEF 2012. Children with Disabilities in South Africa: A Situation Analysis 2001-2011. Available at http://www.unicef.org/southafrica/ resources_14394.html, accessed March 20114. Eide, A. And Ingstad, B. 2011. Disability and poverty: A global challenge. Bristol: The Policy Press. Eide, A., & Ingstad, B. 2013. Disability and poverty: Reflections on research experiences in Africa and beyond. African Journal of Disability 2(1). Available at http://www.ajod.org/index.php/ajod/article/view/31/93, accessed September 2014. Forest Farm - Stand by Me (n.d.). Available at http://www.forestfarmcentre.org/ index.php, accessed September 2014


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Hansen, C. and Sait, W. 2011. “We too are disabled”: Disability grants and poverty politics in rural South Africa, in Disability and poverty: A global challenge, edited by A. Eide and B. Ingstad. Bristol: The Policy Press, 93-117. Ingstad, B. and & Whyte, S. 1995. Disability and culture. California: University of California Press. __________2007. Disability in local and global worlds. California: University of California Press. Krason, S. 2011. Disability Rights, Entitlement, Higher Education, and Catholic Social Teaching, 2 May 2011. Available at http://skrason.wordpress.com/2011/05/02/ disability-rights-entitlement-higher-education-and-catholic-social-teaching, accessed October 2014. Lowney, C. 2013. Pope Francis: Why he leads the way he leads. Chicago: Loyola Press. Marsay, G. 2014. Success in the workplace: From the voice of (dis)abled to the voice of enabled. African Journal of Disability 3(1), Art #99. Available at http://dx.doi. org/10.4102/ajod.v3i1.99, accessed October 2014. Moore, M., Beazley, S. and Maelzer, J. 1998. Researching disability issues. Buckingham: Open University Press. Nolan, A. 2006. Jesus today: A spirituality of radical freedom. Cape Town: Double Storey Books. Oliver, M. 2009. Understanding disability: From theory to practice. New York: St Martin’s Press. Priestley, M. 2006. Developing disability studies programmes: The international context, in Disability and social change: A South African agenda, edited by B. Watermeyer, L. Swartz, T. Lorenzo, M. Schneider, and M. Priestley. Cape Town: HSRC Press, 19-30. Rispa, A. 2013, March 1. How Globalisation Has Affected South Africa. Getanessay, 1 March, 2013. Available at http://getanessay.wordpress.com/how-globalizationhas-affected-south-africa/#comment-408 , accessed November 2014. Rocco, T.S. ed. 2011. Challenging aleism, understanding disability, including adults with disabilities in workplace and learning spaces. USA: Willey Periodicals. Roos, L. 2008. Catholic social doctrines, in Social market economy history: Principles and implementation - From A – Z, edited by R.H. Hasse, H. Schneider, and K. Weigelt. Johannesburg: Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, 100-103. Shogren, K. 2013. Positive psychology and disability: A historical analysis, in The Oxford handbook of positive psychology and disability, edited by M.L. Wehmeyer. New York: Oxford University Press, 19-33.

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Stone, J. H. 2005. Culture and disability: Providing culturally competent services (Multicultural aspects of counselling and psychotherapy). London: Sage Publications Inc. Thompson, J.R., Bryant, B.R., Campbell, E.M., Craig, E.M., Hughes, C.M., and Rotholz, D.A. 2004. Supports intensity scale: Users manual. Washington DC: American Association on Mental Retardation. Thrive Using Gardening to Change Lives (n.d.). Available at http://www.thrive.org. uk, accessed November 2014. Watermeyer, B., Swartz, L., Lorenzo, T., Schneider, M., and Priestley, M. 2006. Disability and social change: A South African agenda. Cape Town: HSRC Press. Wehmeyer, M.L. 2013. Beyond pathology: Positive psychology and disability, in The Oxford handbook of positive psychology and disability, edited by M.L. Wehmeyer. New York: Oxford University Press, 3-6. Wehmeyer, M.L. and Little, T.D. 2013. Self-determination, in The Oxford handbook of positive psychology and disability, edited by M.L. Wehmeyer. New York: Oxford University Press, 116-136. Wilson, J.C. and Lewiwcki-Wilson, C. 2001. Embodied rhetorics: Disability in language and culture. Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press. World Bank 2014. Disability Overview. Available at http://www.worldbank.org/ en/ topic/disability/overview#1, accessed 13 May 2014. World Health Organisation 1980. International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps. Available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/ publications/1980/ 9241541261_eng.pdf, accessed November 2014. __________2014. International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. Available at http://www.who.int/classifications/icf/en , accessed November 2014 Yeo R and Moore K. 2003. Including disabled people in poverty reduction work: Nothing about us, without us. World Development 31(3), 571-590.


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The Catholic Encounter with Muslims in South Africa in The Changing Socio-Political Situation and in Times of Globalization Chris Grzelak SCJ The author first examines those influences of globalization on Islam and the Catholic Church worldwide which have led to an intertwining of both religious communities and their believers’ destinies. This constitutes a challenge for Islam and Catholicism and carries both positive and negative costs including Muslim-Catholic dialogue. Next he focuses on the Catholic encounter with Islam in the context of political, economic and social transformation in South Africa and in the milieu of globalization. Here the analysis points to Muslim-Catholic relations from exclusion to dialogue, a theological basis for such dialogue and Catholic informal contacts with Muslims since the democratic change. The author concludes by offering several suggestions regarding the future of Muslim-Catholic responses to the ongoing process of transformation and the negative effects that globalization increasingly brings about in South Africa.

Introduction One of the most observable phenomena in current Muslim-Catholic dialogue is that good relations between Muslims and Catholics in one part of the world have a global effect and provide a path of dialogue and coexistence that others may follow. This is also the case of Muslim-Catholic encounter in South Africa where friendly contacts between the two groups of believers are an integral part of their mutual co-existence and have a positive impact on Muslim-Catholic coexistence elsewhere. However, this has not always been the case due to the history of colonial domination and apartheid. Yet despite this painful past and religious exclusion, there have been various contacts between South African Muslims and Catholics which have contributed to a gradual change of attitudes over the years. The transformation in the association between Muslims and Catholics intensified principally in the 1990s. Parallel to the socio-political change, theological change also took place in Catholic and Muslim communities. This allowed both religious groups to engage in a limited but genuine collaboration with each other in the context of experiencing the same challenges coming from the transition to democracy in South Africa and to a lesser extent from globalization. The study focuses mainly on the changing Catholic-Muslim relations in the context of political, economic and social transformation in South Africa and in 52


the age of globalization. Unfortunately, an investigation of all forms of relations between Muslims and all main-line Christian churches is too vast and beyond the scope of this research. Therefore the analysis has to be limited to the Roman Catholic perspective. The author is also aware that most of the phenomena discussed in the article are already known discretely, but treated unconnectedly they do not constitute a sufficiently comprehensive view of the Catholic-Muslim encounter in South Africa. By seeking a more extensive treatment of mutual encounter between the two religious groups in the mentioned contexts, this particular research can be regarded as innovative. To the author’s knowledge no similar analysis has been done in South Africa on the selected topic.

Global Islam in the Age of Globalization Before investigating the Catholic-Muslim encounter in South Africa under socio-political changes, it is important to have a broader view of the relationship between Islam and the Catholic Church in the context of globalization with its positive and negatives effects on both religious communities. This will allow us to see more clearly whether similar processes can be identified in the South African situation of religious plurality and how they possibly influence, if at all, dialogue between the two religious groups. While the primary object of globalization is the economy, one cannot forget about its unintended consequences for social, cultural, religious and political domains. In fact, most nations and religions, including Muslim communities and the Catholic Church, have been affected by the process at various levels; economic, social, cultural and religious. For instance, at the economic level, globalization has generally increased the marginalization of many Muslim and non-Muslim communities in Africa1 where the process ‘has often led to the virtual collapse of local economies and thrown basic social services (education, health care etc) into a state of severe crisis’ (Mazrui 2003:210). 1. The same cannot be said about South Africa where the marginalization of Muslim and other religious communities has been prevented due to the lesson learned from the history of colonialism and apartheid, from the contribution of Muslim and non-Muslim religious communities in the struggle against the Apartheid regime, and because of an emphasis on religious tolerance, respect and collaboration among religions already at the initial stage of democracy. In post-apartheid South Africa, all religions came into agreement on the nature of relations between themselves and on their relationship with the state. This has been expressed in the Declaration of Religious Rights and Responsibilities which secured not only separation between religion and the state but also secured religious freedom for the diverse religious traditions in the new constitution (Lubbe 1995:170; Haron 2006:455).


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In response, sub-Saharan Muslims have organized themselves into new community-based groups to address their needs of basic survival. In other cases, Muslims have gone beyond the local community to form NGOs with a wider Muslim population in mind. A number of these NGOs have become ‘pan-Islamic in their material, logistical and human resources’ (Mazrui 2003:210). The best example of such a Muslim NGO in South Africa is the ‘Gift of the Givers’ Foundation in Pietermaritzburg. This Muslim response should be regarded as a more positive impact of economic globalization on Muslim communities in Africa and in the world that has resulted in a greater Islamic solidarity and unity. At the social level, globalization has accelerated the disappearance of the Muslim traditional social order mainly observed by Muslim tribal groups. Thus, the patriarchal family has transformed into the nuclear one with all the consequences that come with it concerning the means of socializing of young people. This transformation has been viewed by many Muslims as an undesired negative consequence of social globalization which has replaced mechanical with organic solidarity and has generated conflicts and human dramas (Charfi 2012). Yet, social globalization has also had its positive dimension, especially when it comes to the role of women in Muslim society and religion. One of the major inconsistencies in Islam is the status of women. The perspective of Islamic doctrinal positions in the Muslim world has been decidedly patriarchal even to the present moment. The absolutist kind of Islamic fundamentalism in particular has been the most repressive of women. A prominent Muslim scholar, Alamin Mazrui argues that it is regrettable that, [while] prepared to go to any extent to ‘liberate’ the Muslim world from western imperialism, it has been busy consolidating structures of ‘enslavement’ of the Muslim woman – all in the name of ‘true Islam.’ The nation-wide oppression of women in Afghanistan under the Taliban is, tragically, being mirrored in the domestic spaces of some revivalist Muslims in parts of sub-Saharan Africa (2003:217).

In recent years, the situation of Muslim women in some Islamic countries has improved because social globalization has challenged one of the many fundamentals of Islam, that is, institutionalization which, for years, has been responsible for the low status of women (See explanation of Islamic institutionalization below). At the political level, the Muslim world has been perceived as the new evil force in the last two decades (Brooke 1995). During the Cold War era, the West and the Muslim world were partners against a common enemy – Communism. When the Cold War was over, it was the Muslim world that increasingly became demonized, partly because it seemed the most resistant to western cultural influences and to western neo-liberalism. Consequently, Islam and the West 54


parted ways but at the same time created ground for a new anti-western Islamic revivalism which produced the more extremist and suicidal type of Islam, based on the fundamentalism of blind faith and of advocating terror. The 9/11 tragedy was the fruit of it (Mazrui 2003:217-218). To balance this rather negative view, one must emphasize that in the age of globalization the victims of this Islamicist absolutism have also included Islamic reformers. Muslim religious fundamentalism, as well as the challenges of modernity, have led some Muslim thinkers to seek a new interpretation of the Islamic message concerning capital punishment and to provide new readings of Islamic teachings.2 Thus, those thinkers attempted to challenge the more orthodox and patriarchal interpretations of the Qur’an and tradition (Mazrui 2003:219). With respect to the cultural impact of globalization on Islam, the wave of secularization has affected contemporary Muslim societies as it did other modernized or modernizing societies, whatever their culture or religion might be. Generally, for Muslims cultural globalization is linked with the seeming ‘pollution’ of western values, western proselytizing culture, and western forms of domination. Even the fascinating novelties which modernity has introduced are seen as imposed by the West. In effect, for Muslims ‘ cultural globalization has come to mean cultural westernization’ (Mazrui 2003:217). Yet, Muslims have also begun to evaluate cultural globalization as an opportunity for social transformation. They hope that the new information and communication technology may bring about a momentous movement of Islamic Reformation. At the religious level, globalization challenges the Islamic institutionalization of the prophetic message which comprises confessionalization, ritualization and dogmatization. This institutionalization has allowed Muslims to resist ‘the accidents of history and the different conjunctures Muslims have experienced’ (Charfi 2012). For instance, in the past confessionalization was inevitable insofar as it permitted Muslims to distinguish themselves from non-Muslims, through clothing, food and general behaviour in countries they conquered. Thus confessionalization meant ‘not only the privileged status of Muslims but also the inferior status of women and non-Muslims, to say nothing of slaves’ (Charfi 2012). In modern times, some Muslims ask a question whether confessionalization is still valid in the current context of gender equality, plurality of cultures and religious liberty. Consequently, one can witness today a loosening of the grip of Islamic traditional ritualism and Muslims looking for an understanding of their beliefs which are freed from old-fashioned dogmas (Charfi 2012). 2. One of such Muslim thinkers in sub-Saharan Africa was Mahmoud Muhammad Taha, a Sudanese theologian who was charged with apostasy and excluded by the dictatorial regime of Jaafar Numeiry in 1984 for flirting with divine historical relativism (Mazrui 2003:219). GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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Taking into consideration the above effects of globalization on Islam in Africa and worldwide, can the same be said about the Muslim communities in South Africa? Although historically, geographically and sociologically Islam has never been monolithic, it is united by the creed which it professes. This is what unites Muslims worldwide, but being one and united also exposes them to the challenges of globalization in any and all contexts. For instance, religious intolerance and local conflicts are being interpreted as expressions of a global confrontation where Muslim communities feel threatened in their integrity and called upon to assist their affected brothers and sisters in their struggle for survival. This also applies in the South African context.

Challenges of Globalization on the Catholic Church Worldwide Like Islam, the Catholic Church sees globalization as a process with advantages and disadvantages both for humanity and the church. Yet despite certain similarities, there are major differences concerning the impact of globalization on the two religious groups. As its name signifies, the Catholic faith has never been a stranger to globalization. From the beginning the church’s mission has been to bring the Good News to every corner of the globe. In this sense, Catholicism has never been detached from ‘the world.’ On the contrary, the Catholic social doctrine has always been one which has encouraged and obliged Catholics to be active in working for justice, peace, common good, freedom, and respect for human dignity. Because of this emphasis on the Catholic responsibility to be in the life of the world, the church has played a significant role in times of global humanity (Glendon 2001). One of the positive outcomes of globalization concerning the Catholic Church is that it has become more of a world church. In the past, the church has been largely a church of the West (Europe and North America). The twentieth century revealed that this tight identification between the Catholic Church and the West has disintegrated. At the end of the past century, 65% (up from 25%) of the Catholic population was found in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the church’s missionary status was replaced by an indigenous church (Allen 2009:15,21). Moreover, the Catholic Church has always regarded globalization as an opportunity for humanity and the church but with its own risks. Exceptional and promising opportunities of globalization have been seen in its potential to enable humanity to become a single family, built on justice, equity and solidarity. Thus, globalization has been perceived by the church as ‘an opportunity to create a network of understanding and solidarity among peoples, without reducing 56


everything to merely commercial or pragmatic exchanges’ (Catholic News Agency 2006). The Catholic Church is, however, less enthusiastic regarding the economic and the cultural aspects of globalization. The main concern of the church is that the economic globalization has increased ‘the gap between rich and poor nations and peoples, even as it makes them more interdependent’ (Glendon 2001). The church’s concern is not only that a multitude of people is suffering severe material deprivation, but also that there is a danger that those on both sides of the gap can regard those on the other side as radically ‘other’ and reject their common humanity. In addition, globalization, combined with industrialization and urbanization, tended to accelerate the decline of the mediating structures of civil society, such as families and neighbourhoods. The cultural effects of globalization are of even greater concern because globalization is responsible for spreading a thin transnational culture that is not only resistant to Christian ethical perspectives, but also hostile towards respect for human dignity of all members of humanity. In this regard Mary Ann Glendon argues that A transnational popular culture [the fruit of globalization] seems to foster a popular ethos charged with materialism, hedonism and hyper-individualism. And these new values, combined with increased geographic mobility [have started to have] a destructive effect on the particular cultures where virtues and habits of solidarity are rooted and transmitted (2001).

Moreover, the resistance to Catholic traditional beliefs and moral codes has resulted in far-reaching secularization of Catholic communities in the West, particularly in Europe. This has been apparent in the decline in church-linked religiosity and participation in non-church forms of religious orientation, newage psycho-cults, the neo-sannyas groupings, the occult, energy training, Zen meditation and so forth (Joas 2007). A valid question remains: how has globalization affected the Catholic Church in South Africa? Does the Catholic Church in South Africa face the same challenges as elsewhere? It has already been said that one of the consequences of globalization concerning the faithful is that globalization intertwines their destinies. Because in the new millennium the Catholic Church has become a global church, the ecological, cultural and religious consequences of globalization in Europe, Asia or Latin America are also present in South Africa. Nevertheless, the church’s concerns in South Africa are different and relate to such issues as a breakdown of basic ethical norms and values, the population-threatening pandemic of HIV/AIDS, or the abuse of women (FE 8).


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Influences of Globalization on Muslim-Catholic Relations in the World In the realm of interfaith dialogue, the process of globalization has led to challenges but also to closer collaboration and mutual enrichment in MuslimCatholic relations. Catholics and Muslims have been in regular contacts with one another for centuries but the history of their contacts seems to be full of ambiguities and complexities; tolerance and tensions and can hardly be called a history of smooth relationships (Gaudeul 1990; Daniel 1980).3 Because of the means of communication, examples of religious intolerance and local conflicts are now being interpreted as expressions of a global confrontation where Christian and Muslim communities feel threatened in their integrity. Such events are translated to all parts of the globe and they often contribute to the worsening of unrelated situations. Misunderstandings, misconceptions and ‘lack of trust are then exploited by self-serving politicians and extremists to set the communities against each other’ (Raiser 2002). The roots of this tense relationship between Muslims and Christians can be seen in the events of the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center in New York, the war against Iraq, the war on terrorism, and the Palestine conflict. These are the main causes that have placed Muslims and Christians in a very uneasy relationship in recent decades. Especially, the climate of confrontation which has developed since 9/11 has brought to the surface ugly sides in both communities. Fortunately, Muslim and Christian religious leaders have called for internal dialogue within their own communities to confront the existing ambiguities in both religions (e.g. regarding the ethics of war and violence) (Raiser 2002). Although for some 9/11 started to be viewed as an obstacle to embracing Muslim-Catholic dialogue, for many others it represented an opportunity to move beyond stereotypes towards genuine understanding. Since that tragic event, the Muslim community has become more conscious of the worldwide negative perception of Islam. Previously, many Muslims had thought that perceiving Islam as a religion of peace was a self-evident fact and that it did not require any explanation or defence. 9/11 made Muslims see ‘a greater need than ever to picture Islam as a religion of peace and the duty of Muslims to work with others to build world peace’ (Michel 2004). That tragic event and the war on terrorism also convinced them of the need to work together with like-minded believers of 3. Jean-Marie Gaudeul’s Encounter and clashes (1990) gives a chronological overview of the main participants and texts on the Christian and Muslim side and Norman Daniel’s Islam and the West: The making of an image (1980) helps to understand many of the European colonial and missionary misconceptions of Islam than continue to prevail in many of African churches. 58


other religions if they wanted to counter the generally negative impression others had of Islam. When Muslims looked around to identify their natural allies in affirming divine values in the modern world, it was often Christians who came to the fore (Michael 2004). Today, Muslims and Catholics have engaged mainly in dialogue of life and of “praxis” working together to build peace and unity among peoples of all nations. In their collaborative projects, as their response to the negative side of globalization, they condemn together ‘economic injustice, materialism, excessive individualism, consumerism, sexual promiscuity, violence and selfish aggrandizement at the expense of the public good’ (Esposito 2008:6). What new concerns do Muslims and Catholics in South Africa bring to the roundtable of mutual collaborationin the era of globalization?The following sections examine various forms of relations between Muslim and Catholic communities in South Africa, discuss current developments in their mutual contacts, and identify main trends on the contemporary Muslim-Catholic agenda. The examination will reveal that the increasing progress in relations between Muslims and Catholic in South Africa is more a result of the changing political and social situation in the country than a real effect of globalization on their mutual relations. In other words, the developments in Muslim-Catholic encounter in South Africa are caused rather by internal factors than are direct results of globalization. This however does not mean that this encounter is not informed or conditioned by what is happening between Islam and the Catholic Church globally. The impact of globalization on Muslims and Catholics in Arab countries, in Europe, or in Asia is undoubtedly felt in their mutual relations in South Africa.

Muslim-Catholic Relations in the Changing Political and Social Situation in South Africa Muslim-Catholic relations in SA: from exclusion to dialogue Generally, the relationship between Christians and Muslims since their arrival in South Africa (17th century) until the end of the 19th century had been characterized by an attitude of exclusion and proselytism on the Christian part and of resistance on the Muslim side. This situation prevailed until the 1940sand later, when the racial policies and attitudes further increased the existing tension between the two. This unequal relationship between Muslim and Christian communities was further reinforced by many Christians through their support and justification of discriminatory acts and policies legalized by the constitution. To balance the


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picture, it must be added that to a certain extent Muslims themselves were to be blamed for the situation. Both during the colonial and apartheid times, Muslims behaved as a ‘hermetic group,’ closed to outsiders, as people ‘obsessed with the preservation of their own cultural and ethnic identities and [had] thus prevented outsiders from making meaningful contact’ (Lubbe 1995:33). In the 1950s and 1960s, the contacts between the Muslim and Christian communities remained uncompromising. This was due to religious exclusivism which continued to prevail in the main-line Christian churches, including the Catholic Church, which began to be more open towards other believers only after Vatican II. Strong exclusivist stands continued to prevail on both sides even in the 1970s, but generally this period witnessed more openness than previously in Muslim-Christian contacts (Moosa 1995:150-151). In the 1980s, the repressive atmosphere of apartheid became the culturally and religiously unifying factor of the many divided communities and religions (Moosa 1995:151). Consequently, if any meaningful encounter between Muslims and Catholics and other Christians took place during this time, it has to be seen at the political level where the same goal of liberation united all participants. It would be true to say, therefore, that until the end of the 20th century the main process that has impacted Catholic-Muslim relations in South Africa was not so much globalization as liberation from apartheid. In the democratic order in South Africa, which is parallel with the era of globalization, the agenda of Catholic-Muslim relations has undoubtedly changed from an emphasis on liberation and information about both religions to emphasis on the need for joint social action despite differences. In the last decades, the changing socio-political situation in the country has also forced South African Muslims and Catholics to acknowledge and appreciate the existing religious diversity in society and has led to improving their relations to face the challenges coming from both transformation and globalization. A valid question has emerged though: which form of dialogue could advance cooperation between Muslims and Catholics regarding the same social, political, and religious challenges? Is there any theological basis for mutual encounter of the two religious groups?

Theological basis and dispositions for Muslim-Catholic dialogue in South Africa A solid theological foundation for dialogue with other religions, including Islam, in South Africa has been laid by various official documents of the SACBC, particularly by Fruitful Encounter [FE] (1997). The document repeats the same theological basis and principles for interreligious dialogue which can be found in the documents of the Second Vatican Council. What is new in Fruitful 60


Encounter, and relates to the South African context, are two sections which speak of challenges posed to all religions in South Africa and the pastoral application of the guidelines. The document speaks only indirectly of dialogue with Islam in the context of dialogue with all religions (FE 7). In addition to Fruitful Encounter, there are other initiatives in South Africa which aim at advancing mutual relations and bringing believers of the two religions closer. For example, the Department for Ecumenism and Interreligious Dialogue of the SACBC also functions as a working committee for relations between Christians and Muslims.4 This Department is responsible for the practical implementation of Islamic-Christian dialogue and for helping the Christian communities to show openness towards Muslims. In addition, the Department has created a space for basic information about Islam in the Pastoral Plan of the Catholic Church in South Africa and has reserved time (twice a year) for considering interreligious issues (Grzelak 2010:254). Another positive sign that Muslim-Catholic relations are important for the church is the education program in Catholic institutions, such as major seminaries, which includes an introduction to Islam embodied in the introduction to world religions. This is certainly the case at the St Joseph’s Theological Institute at Cedara and was the case at St Francis Xavier Seminary in Cape Town (Grzelak 2010:254). Undoubtedly, the above official statements and dispositions illustrate that dialogue between Catholics and Muslims is possible and that such dialogue on the Catholic side can become genuine. The question remains whether such encounter between the two partners in South Africa exists at an official level. This research shows no evidence of any official Catholic dialogue with the Muslim community in South Africa. Such dialogue, in terms of organized meetings between religious leaders with a view to reaching a closer understanding on the essential tenets of our respective faiths, has not happened. The reason for this is the history of mutual relations between Muslims, Christians, and other believers in this country which was discussed earlier. Another reason is the lack of ‘representativeness’ on the Muslim side concerning dialogue ‘at the top’ which would make contacts easier and the meetings official. Islam sees itself as a religion without hierarchy or official magisterium. The Muslim partner in dialogue generally speaks only in his own name (Najran 2006:27-28). Furthermore, despite the peaceful coexistence of Muslims and Catholics in South Africa, mutual prejudices and misrepresentations continue to prevail. In this context one of the main obstacles is the socio-political factor which includes, for instance, majority-minority relations. The socio-political factor also involves 4. See SACBC, Department for Ecumenism and Inter-Religious Dialogue. Available at http://www.sacbc. org.za/about-us/departments/inter-religious, accessed 20 April 2014. GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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burdens of the past, namely the Crusades, colonialism, sanctioning of apartheid and so forth. These past ‘memories’ still have the potential to rankle Muslims, but equally the practice of slavery by Muslims, which contributed to negative feelings toward Islam, especially among many African nations, has the potential to make Catholics uneasy (Abdulaziz 1993:31-46).5 Dialogue between Catholics and Muslims in South Africa requires an awareness of another sensitive issue; that is, their missionary character. Generally Islam and Christianity claim the same God and each has a missionary aim. This explains the tendency which prevails on the Muslim side to think that Catholics enter into dialogue or charitable activities with the hidden agenda to convert Muslims to Christianity. The opposite is also true, Catholics are suspicious that Muslims enter into dialogue only to strengthen the position of Muslim minorities in Christian countries which might lead eventually to domination by Islam (Fitzgerald 2003:173). The above differences indicate that official dialogue between South African Catholics and Muslims can be difficult, not only because of doctrinal divergence but also because of some real obstacles, including the missionary character of both religions.

Catholic informal engagement with Muslims in South Africa Fortunately, in recent South African history many Catholics and Muslims have refused to accept that history’s sad record of conflict between the two communities is what God desires. They have put their convictions into concrete programs. The first example of mutual engagement between Muslims and Catholics after transformation was the formation in 1995 of an organization called People Against Gangsterism and Drugs [PAGAD] (Clohessy1996:78). The organization united Muslims, Catholics and other Christians. Although the majority of PAGAD members were Muslims, the group received the moral support of many grassroots Catholic communities, especially because the problem of gangsterism and drugs gravely affected both cultural and religious groups. With time PAGAD became strongly influenced by its growing radical leadership and became militant. This led to criticism by Catholic participants and the gradual withdrawal of Catholic supporters. Whichever way one evaluates the activities of PAGAD, one must 5. Slavery, in various forms, existed in Africa long before Islam. But in many places and varying degrees, depending on the circumstances, it was the Muslim traders who quite naturally made slaves into one of the most sought-after commodities of the trans-Saharan or coastal trade. Indeed the search for slaves sometime became the principal reason for their journeys and for their presence in Black Africa. For details see Mohamed Abdulaziz, History of the spread of Islam on the East African Coast, in Islam in Africa South of the Sahara (Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, Sankt Augustine, 1993), 31-46. 62


agree that the Catholic involvement in PAGAD was one example of how Muslims and Catholics ‘forged interreligious connections and fraternities without having to reject their own religious traditions’ (Haron 2006:458). Numerous commentators argue that the Truth and Reconciliation Commission [TRC] (1996-1998) also contributed to Muslim-Catholic cooperation in addressing the issue of reconciliation of post-apartheid society. Despite a great deal of criticism expressed towards the works of TRC and its structures, there were also people who praised the TRC for the way it was organized and conducted, and for its interfaith character. Without doubt, the TRC urged various groups from Muslim, Catholic, Christian and other faith communities to respect and respond to the findings of the Commission (Haron 2006:459). Moreover, the initiatives of the TRC inspired many individuals of Muslim and Catholic background to continue their search for truth, forgiveness and reconciliation and after the commission dissolved, to support the transformation (Kayser 1999). A more direct relationship with the Muslim community, the Catholic Church has established, through the activity of the Justice and Peace Department which, in collaboration with the Southern African Faith Communities Environment Institute [SAFCEI], has hosted multi-faith workshops on a ‘Just Energy Future,’ attended mainly by Catholics and Muslims (SACBC 2013). The activity of the Diakonia Council of Church’s is another instance of Catholic informal engagement with the Muslim community in the Durban area. Diakonia is an important ecumenical body which allows the Catholic Church, together with other Christians, to engage in meaningful informal dialogue with other believers, especially its Muslim neighbours. Diakonia certainly goes beyond religious differences, diverse cultures, races, and religious affiliations and its various projects contribute to the well-being of society. By concentrating on solving social problems, the organization indirectly helps to overcome religious prejudice and suspicion. This allows it to establish a ‘common ground’ for cooperation among Christian churches and religions. Despite being an ecumenical organization, Diakonia constitutes a positive sign of the Catholic Church’s involvement in the struggle for the transformation of South African society and for open relations with other believer, including Muslims (Diakonia Council of Churches 2011, 2012). Along the same lines, the Catholic Church in the Archdiocese of Durban has been able to establish closer relations with the Muslim community through the Denis Hurley Centre. This comes in the context of a relationship between the Cathedral and the neighbouring Juma Musjid (mosque) which goes back a number of years when Archbishop Hurley was ‘acting parish priest’ at the Cathedral. A significant milestone in the Catholic-Muslim journey together in Durban was during the xenophobic violence in 2008 when over 500 people came GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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to the Cathedral seeking refuge from the violence and the threat of violence (the Muslim community regularly brought food, clothing and blankets). The Denis Hurley Centre is a sign and a fruit of Catholic-Muslim existence alongside each other for over a century without any conflict (Interview with Paddy Kearney 2014). An important illustration of mutual collaboration between Catholics and Muslims is a project run by the Franciscan Capuchins known as the Damietta Initiative. The project concentrates on direct dialogue with Muslim communities at grassroots level, on building peace and introducing non-violence across the entire African continent, including South Africa. The aim of the Initiative is to respond in a practical way to the above challenges. The project aims to reach out to Muslims, to establish friendship, to show appreciation for the active presence of God in the human family, and together to promote dialogue of life. The Damietta Initiative operates through organizing Pan-African Conciliation Teams [PACTs] at the grassroots level. The PACTs are formed of local people of diverse gender, ethnic and religious background (especially Muslim background) who receive professional training in mediation, arbitration and conciliation. Through the presence and work of the PACTs in local neighbourhoods, the project shows that ethnic and religious disagreements can be overcome, that mutual peaceful cohabitation is possible, and that such cohabitation is important for the process of social change (Damietta Initiative 2014). A different example of Muslims seeking contacts with Catholic communities in South Africa, is the Turquoise Harmony Institute [THI]. The Institute was originally established in 2006 as the Interfaith Foundation of South Africa [IFSA] with the aim of fostering relations among different faith and cultural traditions and contributing to the well-being of society. The Institute’s funding comes from Turkish people living in South Africa, mainly Sufi Muslims. On a regular basis the THI organizes Iftar dinners, interfaith dialogue and peace awards, conferences, seminars and public lectures.6 The Institute has also been successful in establishing informal cooperation with the Catholic Church. For instance, in 2013 in cooperation with St. Augustine College, the THI conducted interfaith seminars on essential aspects of Catholicism. It also introduced an interesting project ‘Sufi for a month’ (living as a Sufi for a certain period of time) to offer a learning opportunity to Catholics who were interested in Sufism and Sufi spirituality. Mutual relations between the Institute and the Catholic Church have been reinforced through annual interfaith dialogue awards of prominent Catholic religious leaders (Abp G. Daniel, Fr. D. O’Machony, Fr. G M Michelson, and 6. See Turquoise Harmony Institute. Interfaith Activities. Available at http://www. turquoise.org.za/ activities/regular-events/seminar-series.html, accessed 11 November 2014.

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Cardinal W. Napier) who contributed to establishment and progress of peace, dialogue and social cohesion in society.7 Finally, one cannot forget to mention an Islamic religious practice that influences Muslims and their relations with non-Muslim neighbours both globally and in South Africa: the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). This religious travel has always been the most powerful expression of Islamic unity and egalitarianism, and today its unprecedented size and diversity make it more important than ever. The hajj reflects an extraordinary degree of intercontinental cooperation among constantly crossing Muslim groups which resembles a web of intertwining and autonomous networks which connect Muslims in every part of the world and helps to create a universal Islamic identity that transcends nationality, race, gender, and class. The hajj exposes Muslims from all classes and cultures to multiple expressions of a common faith and to exchange of views on their nonMuslim neighbours (Nigosian 2004:111). In this sense, the pilgrimage to Mecca is one of the linchpins that unites and rejuvenates Islam globally and regionally and one of the most important religious activities which influences, for better or worse, Muslim relations with other believers both globally and locally, including Muslim-Catholic relations in South Africa.

Evaluation and the Way Forward The article has provided a general overview of some of the Muslim and Catholic responses to economic, political, cultural and religious aspects of globalization. It has become apparent that both religious groups view globalization as an ambivalent phenomenon, which harbours both risks and possibilities. Yet, for all its risks, both communities perceive globalization as a process that offers exceptional and promising opportunities to religions and nations to become a single family built on the values of justice, equity and solidarity. In South Africa, in recent times, Muslims and Catholics have accepted the existing religious diversity as part of the South African reality, and endeavour, through interreligious collaborate on, to work towards the betterment of society as a whole. The works of the Turquoise Harmony Institute, the Damietta Initiative and others prove once again that in South Africa interfaith relations, including Muslim-Catholic relations, cannot be programmed at the table but are the result of a positive response to the real challenges which society faces. 7. For more information on the interfaith dialogue awards see Turquoise Harmony Institute. Ubuntu Lecture and Dialogue Awards. Available at http://www.turquoise. org.za/activities/regular-events/ubuntu-lecture-and-dialogue-awards.html, accessed 11 November 2014. GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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With regard to the future, it remains imperative that each of these two great religions respond equally to the South African process of transformation with its successes and challenges. It is also important that Muslims and Catholics establish closer collaboration in addressing the negative effects which globalization increasingly brings about in South Africa. There are at least three ways in which they might do so. First, the possibility of interconnectedness, which globalization holds out, should lead towards creating a greater sense of belonging, of inclusion, of standing together in solidarity not only in Catholic or Muslim communities, but in society as a whole. The force and speed with which globalization moves becomes disruptive of local social relations. Migration to urban areas for economic reasons disorganizes family life. Sudden unemployment created by economic shifts pushes some to the very edge of survival. Both religious groups are not able to mount social programs of their own to address these issues but need to work together toward achieving a greater communion and solidarity in society. Second, Muslims and Catholics can work toward unmasking the ideological values which drive globalization, and the idolatrous patterns which sustain it. Globalization really has no vision or goal of its own, other than its own selfreplication; that is to say, the goal of globalization is more globalization. As globalization enters South Africa ever more deeply, with all its temptations, one thing Muslim and Catholic communities can do is to help identify the implicit values (both positive and negative) that the products of globalization carry with them. They must identify especially the new ‘religious absolutes’ of globalization, and uncover their destructive tendencies for social life. They can help to show how these provide initial temptation, but over time will not satisfy. Third, Islam and the Catholic Church can be in service to South African society by providing a coherent spiritual path for living in a rapidly changing world. People looking for other possibilities can find such a message in the sacred texts and in the assembled communities of prayer which both Muslims and Catholics can offer.

References Abdulaziz, M.H. 1993. History of the spread of Islam on the East Africa Coast, in Islam in Africa south of the Sahara. Kondrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, Sankt Augustin, 31-46. Allen, J.L. 2009. The future church: How ten trends are revolutionizing the Catholic Church. New York: Image.

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Brooke, J. 1995. Attacks on U.S. Muslims Surge Even as Their Faith Takes Hold. The New York Times, August 28. Available at http://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/28/ us/attacks-on-us-muslims-surge-even-as-their-faith-takes-hold.html, accessed 10 March 2014. Catholic News Agency 2006. Pope Considers Benefits and Challenges of Globalization, 30 June 2006. Available at http://www.catholicewsagency.com/ news/pope_considers_benefits_and_challenges_of_globalization/, accessed 8 March 2014. Charifi, A. 2012. Islam: The Test of Globalization. Available at http://www.resetdoc. org/story/00000022040, accessed 12 March 2014. Clohessy, C. 1996. Thoughts on PAGAD, in Drugs, gangs, people’s power: Exploring the Pagad phenomenon, edited by R. Galant and F. Gamieldien. Cape Town: Claremont Main Road Masjid, 69-75. Damietta Initiative 2014. Available at http://www.damiettapeace.org.za, accessed 6 April 2014. Daniel, N. 1980. Islam and the West: The making of an image. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Diakonia Council of Churches 2011. Documents: Inselelo, March-December. Available at http://www.diakonia.org.za/DocumentLibraryPublic.aspx,pdf, accessed 20 April 2014. __________2012. Documents: Inselelo, January-December. Available at http:// www.diakonia.org.za/DocumentLibraryPublic.aspx,pdf, accessed 20 April 2014. Esposito, J.L. 2008. Pluralism in Muslim-Christian relations. Georgetown: ACMCU Georgetown University Press. FE. Fruitful Encounter. Catholic Guidelines and Theological Basis for Dialogue and Cooperation with Other Religious Traditions, 2007. Pretoria: SACBC. Fitzgerald, M.L. 2003. “Dialogue and Proclamation”: A reading in the perspective of Christian-Muslim relations, in In many and diverse ways: In honor of Jacques Dupuis, edited by D. Kendall and G. O’Collins. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 181-193. Gaudeul, J.M. 1990. Encounters and clashes: Islam and Christianity in history. Rome: PISAI. Glendon, M.A. 2001. Globalization and the church’s new challenges. Zenit (May 19). Grzelak, C. 2010. The “inclusive pluralism” of Jacque Dupuis. Lublin: Sakowicz & Sakowicz. Haron, M. 2006. The dynamics of Christian-Muslim relations in South Africa (circa 1960-2000): From exclusivism to pluralism. The Muslim World 96/3, 423-468. GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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Interview with Paddy Kearney, Head of the Denis Hurley Centre in Durban. Conducted on 20 April 2014 via Internet. Joas, H. 2007. The Future of Christianity: Renaissance of the Religion? Available at http://www.goethe.de/ges/phi/dos/her/ren/en3273313.htm, accessed 10 February 2014. Kayser, U. 1999. What do we tell our children? The work of the centre for ubuntu in Cape Town. Johannesburg: CSVR. Lubbe, G. 1995. The role of religion in the process of nation-building: from plurality to pluralism. Religion and Theology 2/2, 159-170. Mazrui, A. 2003. Globalization and the Muslim world: Sub-Saharan Africa in a comparative context in Die Rolle der Zivilgesellschaft und der Religion bei der Demokratisierung Afrikas. Loccumer Protokolle 55/00, edited by E.L. Imunde. Rehburg-Loccum (Germany): Loccum Akademie, 209-228. Michel, T. 2004. Developments in Interreligious Dialogue with Muslims. Available at http://groups.creighton.edu/sjdialogue/documents/articles/michel/developments. htm, accessed 20 April 2014. Moosa E, 1995. Islam in South Africa, in Living faiths in South Africa, edited by M. Prozesky and J. De Gruchy. Cape Town and Johannesburg: David Philip, New York: St. Martin’s Press, London: Hurst & Company, 129-154. Najran 2006. A Muslim speaks to Christians. (First published in Encounter, no. 297, September 2003). Grace and Truth 23/2, 22-32. Nigosian, S.A. 2004. Islam: Its history, teaching and practices. Indiana: Indiana University Press. Raiser, K. 2002. Reflections on the state of Muslim-Christians relations: Perspectives from the WCC. Current Dialogue, no. 40, December 2002. Available at http:// www.wcccoe.org/wcc/what/interreligious/cd40-05.html, accessed 23 April 2014. SACBC Department for Ecumenism and Inter-Religious Dialogue. Available at http:// www.sacbc.org.za/about-us/departments/inter-religious/, accessed 20 April 2014. __________2013. Department for Justice and Peace. Newsletter, 1-8. Available at http://www.sacbc.org.za/?s=Justice-and-Peace-Newsletter-2013+pdf, accessed 20 March 2014. Turquoise Harmony Institute. Interfaith Activities. Available at http://www.turquoise. org.za/activities/regular-events/seminar-series.html, accessed 11 November 2014. __________Ubuntu Lecture and Dialogue Awards. Available at http://www. turquoise.org.za/activities/regular-events/ubuntu-lecture-and-dialogue-awards. html, accessed 11 November 2014.

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Developing a Theology Curriculum in Southern Africa: Opportunities and Challenges Raymond M Mwangala OMI Globalization presents both great opportunities and significant challenges for theological education today. Among others, academic institutions, such as St. Joseph’s Theological Institute (SJTI), are faced with the challenge of developing programmes that respond to the needs of the times and which also prepare ministers who offer ethical leadership in a globalized world. This essay examines the theology curricula of SJTI using the four characteristics of curriculum development, namely; content, methods, objectives and evaluation. It highlights various strengths and weaknesses in the curricula as they are at present, such as the absence of an African core of teachers. It concludes by calling for a serious investment of resources, including personnel, in the development of the curricula. This is necessary if the institution is going adequately to respond to the challenges posed by globalization.

Introduction Africa’s contribution to the area of theological education has grown considerably during the last 50 to 60 years.1 With the demographic shift in global Christianity experienced during the last century theological institutions in Latin America, Asia and Africa will be expected to play a much greater role in determining the nature of theological education in the future.2 But, are theological institutions in the global South sufficiently equipped and ready to take on this responsibility? This essay reviews the theology curricula of one Catholic theological institution in Africa, namely St. Joseph’s Theological Institute (SJTI), located at Cedara, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, using the four elements of the curriculum, 1. The Handbook of Theological Education in Africa (2013) provides an extensive and up-to-date treatment of theological education in Africa. The challenges and opportunities described in the volume are mostly true of St. Joseph’s also. 2. According to Daughrity (2013:61), ‘Africa has half a billion Christians, within a generation or two, will have more Christians than any other cultural block in the world, surpassing Latin America and the Caribbean.’ Other scholars of Christianity, such as Andrew Walls (1998) have also confirmed this trend. A 2013 research report by researchers from the Gordon Conwell Theological Seminary, USA, also confirms the demographical shift in global Christianity over the last century. The full report is available at http://wwwgordonconwell.com/netcommunity/CSGCResources/ ChristianityinitsGlobalContext.pdf, accessed 22 April 2014. GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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that is, objectives, content, methods and evaluation.3 Using these four elements it examines how the theology programmes offered by the institution measure up to the challenges presented by globalization, in general, and global Christianity, in particular. In doing this, the essay argues that the African context, which is the local context in which the theological education is taking place, should play a greater role in determining the content of the programmes, the syllabus, and also the methods used in teaching and learning. If the institution is to offer anything unique and meaningful to the common pot of theological education, this must come from the unique situation and experience of the institution. However, although the institution is located in southern Africa, it receives students and lecturers from different parts of the world and is also part of the Roman Catholic Church. The institution is at the service of the church and society and so its education programmes must be aligned to the needs of the church and of society. This means that it cannot ignore global realities and trends in the universal Church; a challenge posed by globalization. Thus, the tension between local needs and concerns must be balanced with global needs, traditions and Catholic unity. The present situation offers both challenges and opportunities. The essay concludes on an optimistic note. Although there are challenges to be faced, history shows that for close to 70 years SJTI has been able to respond and adapt appropriately and in a prophetic manner when the need has arisen in the past. And so, there is hope that the institution will once again courageously meet the challenges presented by globalization. ‘For if this endeavour or this activity is of human origin, it will destroy itself. But if it comes from God, you will not be able to destroy them; you may even find yourselves fighting against God’ (Acts 5:38b-39).

Curriculum Development In education language, curriculum development refers to the dynamic and everchanging series of planned learning activities and experiences. In other words, curriculum development is the planning of learning opportunities which are intended to bring about certain changes in learners and the assessment of the extent to which these changes take place as a result of the planned activities 3. The area of curriculum design is contested territory in education theory. It impinges on other areas of education such as the syllabus, outcomes, issues of breath and depth, progression and sequencing, time allocated to teaching and learning, pacing, coherence of the programme, integration and alignment etc. Important as these topics are, the aim of this essay is not to discuss any of them but rather to use the four element of curriculum development to evaluate the theology curricula of SJTI. Some of these topics are discussed in passing in evaluating the theology programmes of SJTI. 70


and experiences (Nicholls and Nicholls 1983:14).The process of designing a curriculum includes various elements such as particular standards, long-range planning, goal-setting, sequence of performance, content, methodology and assessment. Although content and methodology are central to any curriculum, two other elements play a crucial role in the development of an education curriculum: that is, the objectives or the why of a teaching and learning programme, and the assessment or evaluation of whether the objectives, as stated, are achieved by the content and methods employed. Education theorists disagree as to which of these areas has primacy in curriculum design. These four elements are taken together in reviewing the theology curricula of St. Joseph’s Theological Institute. Another important factor that has been taken into account in the review is the context, both immediate and remote, in which the theological education is taking place. The institution is located in southern Africa, a context which has experienced major social and political changes in the last two decades, changes that have created new opportunities for growth and development, but which also present new challenges to the institution.4 Responding to the new challenges requires discernment and creativity; it calls for prophetic witness and courage.

Historical Background The history of Catholic higher education institutions in Africa is a relatively short one. In a study published in 2003, Henry C. Hoeben traces these origins in southern African to the mid-1940s when Pius XII college, was opened at Roma, in present-day Lesotho, in 1945. A later study, by Susan Rakoczy (2005), links the formal teaching of Catholic theology in South Africa to the training of priests and sets the date of its beginnings at 1925 with the opening of St. Mary’s Seminary, at Mariathal near Ixopo, in South Africa. St. Joseph’s Scholasticate was opened by the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate at Prestbury, Pietermaritzburg, in 1943. Among the reasons which 4. For example, with the passing of the Higher Education Act, No 101, of 1997, the higher education sector in South Africa has been reorganized to bring it into line with the new prevailing dispensation in the country. One immediate consequence of this, for SJTI, was the disaffiliation with the Pontifical Urban University of Rome, to which the institution had been affiliated and which previously granted the degrees to students who attended SJTI, and the subsequent registration of SJTI as a private higher education institution (registration number 2003/HE08/003), with programmes accredited by the Council on Higher Education of the Department of Higher Education and Training. This allows SJTI to grant academic qualifications recognized by the education sector locally and abroad. GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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necessitated this move was the outbreak of the Second World War, which made it difficult for candidates for the priesthood to travel to Europe and elsewhere for their education and training. In 1953 the scholasticate was moved to its present location at Cedara, after a short spell at Cleland. Thus, historically, St. Joseph’s is among the oldest Catholic higher education institutions on the continent. Existing Apartheid legislation at the time meant that non-white students were initially not admitted at St. Joseph’s. However, already in the early 1970s, against existing legislation, there was a mixed-race community living and studying at St. Joseph’s. In 1990, the scholasticate was re-structured into two components: the scholasticate as the formation institution for Oblate students and St. Joseph’s Theological Institute (SJTI), the academic institution, with its own Board of Directors and Administration (Rakoczy 2005:88). Since its foundation as a higher education institution, the theological institute has grown into one of the leading pan-African, ecumenical, academic, spiritual and pastoral institutions on the continent. Apart from continuing with its traditional mandate of training candidates for ministerial priesthood according to Roman Catholic tradition and principles, the institute now has both male and female students drawn from a variety of religious orders and congregations, some diocesan seminarians and also lay students. These come from a variety of cultural and national backgrounds, a real sign of globalization. The 2014 SJTI General Prospectus (2014:19) describes the vision of the institute as follows: PG 2.1 St. Joseph’s Theological Institute, centred on the Gospel of Jesus Christ, and situated in the African context, seeks to: • Empower people through philosophical, theological and social enquiry and learning based in the Catholic tradition, yet always in a living and creative dialogue with other religious and cultural traditions. • Provide men and women with the philosophical, theological and social education necessary for both ordination and a variety of other ministries in church and society. • Advance the philosophical, theological and social endeavour through researching issues of faith and culture, experience and tradition, and other contemporary questions, so that the Word of God may be more effectively proclaimed. • Foster co-operation with the Pietermaritzburg Cluster of Theological Institutions as well as with other theological institutions both national and international.

The institute seeks to achieve these aims through the academic programmes and learning activities offered. At present, the institute has three academic departments: theology, philosophy and development studies. The Theology 72


Department offers two qualifications: the Bachelor of Arts in Theology degree, a three-year academic qualification, and the Bachelor of Theology degree, a fouryear qualification for those preparing for ordained ministry in the Church. The Philosophy Department offers three qualifications: a one-year Higher Certificate in General Philosophy, a one-year Advanced Certificate in General Philosophy and a three-year Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy degree. The Department of Developments Studies offers two one-year certificate qualifications: the Higher Certificate in Human and Social Development and the Advanced Certificate in Human and Social Development. All the above programmes are accredited with the Council on Higher Education (CHE) of the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET).5 The institute also offers post-graduate study programmes in the areas of Catholic Theology, Christian Spirituality and Missiology. The degrees are granted by the University of KwaZulu-Natal. According to the SJTI 2014 Year Book, the theological institute has a student enrolment of 212students, from 24 different countries, representing 14 religious congregations of men, 11of women, 4 Catholic dioceses and 16 lay students. The institution has an academic staff of 36, among them priests, Religious Brothers and Sisters and some Lay people. About 50% of the staff is composed of Black Africans either originally from South Africa or from some other African country.6 St. John Vianney Seminary, the national diocesan seminary located at Pretoria, has a similar mission to that of SJTI, though the main focus of the seminary is the training of diocesan clergy. St. Augustine College of South Africa (established in 1999), at Johannesburg, is another higher education institution in the country which is involved in higher education in the Roman Catholic tradition. The national seminary offers four academic programmes, namely the Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy, the Bachelor of Ministry, the Bachelor of Theology and the Bachelor of Theology (Honours). St Augustine offers two doctorates, in philosophy and in theology, five degrees of Master of Philosophy, two degrees of Bachelor, a postgraduate diploma, an undergraduate certificate, Bachelor of Education (Honours) and an Advanced Certificate. 5. Although existing legislation requires private institutions offering higher education to be registered with the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) and to have their programmes accredited with the Council on Higher Education (CHE), institutions remain free to determine their objectives and to design programmes in line with these. Such programmes, however, must meet the standards for higher education as set by the DHET. 6. Similar statistical results are noticeable in the composition of the hierarchy of the Church in the country and also at another Catholic college.


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A Review of the Theology Curriculum As indicated above the theology curriculum of SJTI was reviewed using the four elements of curriculum development: objectives, content, methods and assessment.

Objectives Bachelor of Arts in Theology degree (BATh) The Theology Department of SJTI offers two academic qualifications, namely the Bachelor of Arts in Theology degree (BATh) and the Bachelor of Theology degree (BTh). The rationale of the BATh degree, as described in the 2014 SJTI General Prospectus, is as follows: The Bachelor of Arts in Theology is aimed at those needing an undergraduate qualification in Catholic Theology which is not aimed to fulfil the specific requirements for ordained ministry according to the norms of the Roman Catholic Church. This qualification seeks to provide a contemporary and contextual understanding of the Christian faith, ethics and moral regeneration in a rapidly changing and pluralistic society (:109).

Two points from the above are worth noting. First, the qualification is aimed at those seeking a theological education, but not ministerial ordination. Religious Brothers and Sisters and Lay people are the primary target of this qualification. Secondly, the description makes specific mention of several factors that inform the teaching and learning in the programme, that is, ‘contemporary and contextual’ and ‘rapidly changing and pluralistic society.’ These factors are reflected also in the chosen methodological approach. It is an approach which gives preference to the present-day situations as the starting point for theological education. The present situation in which the theological education is taking place is one that is characterised by the legacy of Apartheid, with its manifestation of poverty, underdevelopment and the lack of basic service delivery. Surely, the theology done at SJTI cannot be unaffected by these factors. From this situation the institution is strategically positioned to make a meaningful contribution to theology from which people in other situations can meaningful learn. The exit-level outcomes (goals) of the BATh programme are described as follows (2014 SJTI General Prospectus 2014:109-110): ÓÓ Understanding of Christian Roman Catholic Theology ÓÓ Understanding of the principles and theory of theological hermeneutics ÓÓ Understanding the principles of interpretation of Scripture

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ÓÓ ÓÓ ÓÓ ÓÓ ÓÓ

Understanding of the unique nature and functioning of the church Understanding of the unique context of pastoral ministry Understanding the role of ministry in the Christian community Understanding of Christian liturgy as found in the Roman Catholic Church The acquisition of skills for the communication of the Gospel

The goals of this theology programme, as stated, correspond to the first three aims of the institution: ‘empower,’ ‘educate’ and ‘research.’ However, nothing is said in the programme objectives about ecumenical co-operation. Also worth noting is the emphasis placed on understanding or intellectual learning. It would seem that the programme is biased in favour of cognitive learning.7 Also significant from the above is how little is said about the local context. In fact, nothing specific is mentioned about competence in African issues. As it were, the above outcomes take very little notice of the local context. It would seem that the competences aimed at are more at the level of the acquisition of intellectual knowledge that is universally valid. One can detect a certain philosophy of education in which education is understood as the filling of the student or learner with a certain kind of knowledge.8

Bachelor of Theology degree (BTh) How does the curriculum of the Bachelor of Theology degree (BTh) fare? First, some preliminary remarks on the qualification as a whole. The degree is designed to meet the minimum ecclesiastical requirements for ordained ministry in the Catholic Church. Thus, it is aimed at those preparing for ordination to the priesthood. The exit level outcomes of this qualification are described as follows (2014 SJTI General Prospectus 2014:121): A thorough understanding of Christian Roman Catholic Theology and the ability to synthesize and articulate Catholic doctrine using a multi-disciplinary approach ÓÓ A thorough understanding of the principles and theory of theological hermeneutics and the ability apply such principles in new and unpredictable situations ÓÓ A thorough understanding of the principles of interpretation of Scripture, and the ability to apply such principles in a variety of ways and in a variety of media 7. Apart from cognitive learning, understanding could also be taken to mean displaying sympathetic awareness or tolerance. Thus, in this case, one could argue that it is more a question of emphasis. 8. This is the kind of philosophy of education criticized by Paulo Freire, in his much acclaimed Pedagogy of the oppressed. GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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ÓÓ ÓÓ ÓÓ ÓÓ ÓÓ ÓÓ

Understanding of the unique nature and functioning of the church Understanding of the unique context of pastoral ministry Understanding of the role of ministry in the Christian community Understanding of the Christian liturgy as found in the Roman Catholic Church The acquisition of skills for the communication of the Gospel Understanding of Canon Law which will enable the learner to function within various juridical bodies of the Roman Catholic Church if caledl upon to do so.

Once again, as with the BATh degree, there is here very little in the stated outcomes that points to an awareness or desire to educate learners capable of responding to specific African issues. The education aimed at is theoretical and universalistic, with minimal consideration paid to specific African context. Also significant is the fact that there is no specific mention of personal transformation as being one of the intended outcomes of the education. One would expect that theological education would be directed not only at intellectual formation, but rather at the formation of the whole person. I concur with Moonjang Lee’s (2011) conclusion that Christian theological education must lead to the embodiment of Jesus Christ. Lee makes other relevant observations. For example, Lee notes that Christian scholarship (referred to here as theological education) as developed in the West has ‘focused mostly on the cognitive understanding (orthodoxy) of the Christian truth based on scientific, rational, and historical studies’ (Lee 2011:81-82). Lee argues that beyond orthodoxy and orthopraxis, theological education ‘should help students to achieve personal religious/spiritual transformation’ (:82). Luke G. Mlilo notes (2003:71), it would seem that ‘[s]tudents are equipped for a particular examination, without being equipped for life’. Emphasis is placed on content rather than on developing a theology relevant for the African context or equipping learners with skills to engage local situations. The methodology used in the education process has also been criticised because it takes the learner as an object to be filled with knowledge in the process of education. One of the main reasons why the necessary change has not taken place is because of ‘the prevalence of non-African members of staff who have found it either difficult or altogether unnecessary to make the cultural and mental shift from their own cultures to the African experience’ (2003:71).

Content Bachelor of Arts in Theology degree (BATh) In order to achieve the stated outcomes the qualification offers 36 modules, which 76


are to be covered in a minimum period of three years. Six of the modules are listed as optional or elective while the rest are compulsory. Some of the modules are composed of two sub-modules. For the purpose of analysis, I comment on both modules and sub-modules because the combination of sub-modules into modules does not always follow content. Of the 30 compulsory modules/submodules, only 3, all of which are sub-modules, have a specifically African or contextual title: African Church History, African Theology and Inculturation. Among the optional modules only Current Issues in African Theology clearly carries in its title an African identity. Other modules and sub-modules such as Introduction to Theology/Faith and Revelation, Introduction to Sacraments, God for Us, Ecclesiology, Missiology, Introduction to world Religions, Method in Interpretation and Inter-religious Dialogue make specific mention of the African context in the description of the content of the module. What emerges from a review of the module names and descriptions is that not much in terms of contextualised theology is happening in the Bachelor of Arts in Theology degree programme. The programme offers more of a classical or western theology which pretends to be universal. The list of modules is comparable to a list one would expect to find at a pontifical university in Rome or somewhere in Europe or North America. This raises the question of relevance of this theology for the local context. Also significant is the number of modules covered, 36! One wonders at the depth of understanding achieved.

Bachelor of Theology degree What about the modules offered in the BTh programme, what do they reveal? Apart from the modules/sub-modules described above which form part of the BATh qualification, the BTh degree has at least a dozen other modules/submodules that are specific to this qualification. Comments in this section will be limited to these specific modules. This set of modules/sub-modules has two important characteristics: they are mostly of a pastoral orientation and they are integrative in nature. They aim at the immediate preparation of candidates for ministerial ordination. Most of them are context sensitive as their titles indicate: Pastoral Administration, South African Labour Law, Pastoral Liturgy, Special Moral Theology I (Marriage and African Traditions), Pastoral Canon Law, The Priesthood Today, Worship Environment, Canon Law on Marriage, Special Moral Theology (Sacramentals and Other Forms of Healing in Africa), Integrity in Ministry, Pastoral Ministry Seminar and Faculties Examination and Integration Seminar and Exit Level Oral Examination. Compared to the curriculum of the Bachelor of Arts in Theology degree, the curriculum of the Bachelor of Theology degree has more opportunities for developing a contextual theology.


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Methods Content and method are closely related in the process of education. Nothing specific is stated in official documents concerning the teaching methodology at the institution. From my experience of teaching at the institution, however, I have come to conclude that most of the teaching at SJTI is done through lectures. Group work, individual reading and research and tutorials are also used, but to a lesser degree. Field work or internship has also been used. I am not aware of any study that has been done on the suitability of the methodology currently in use at the institution.

Evaluation The main purpose of evaluation is to assess the progress made by learners in achieving the stated goals. Progress, however, is difficult to measure. The instruments used to measure the progress must be appropriate. Various assignments and examinations are often used to measure progress, but often these fail to measure the extent to which the stated objectives have been achieved. This could be because, as stated, the objectives are too vague or difficult to measure. Sometimes the instruments measure only some aspect of the learning process, such as cognitive learning, without taking into account other aspects of learning. Commenting on the common forms of evaluations (examinations), Nicholls and Nicholls (1983:70) note that, It suggests that the school is concerned very largely with the acquisition of certain knowledge and skills, mainly in the form of recall of facts and some principles, and comprehension with some application of these and that some little and almost casual attention is given to the development of certain attitudes and to pupils’ physical and social development. It is a well-known fact that those aspects of the curriculum which receive the focus of attention in examinations, whether internal or external, also receive the focus of attention in teaching and learning.

The two authors conclude: For whatever purpose or purposes assessment is being carried out it is essentially a matter of looking at pupils for evidence of progress towards objectives. This suggests that assessment needs to be undertaken on more than one occasion and a comparison made between the scores. For most purposes assessment of each objective at the beginning of a course and again at the end would be appropriate, but with regard to objectives concerned with relationships with others it might be felt that further occasions would provide a fairer assessment (1983:80).

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Some Implications of Non-Context Sensitive Theological Education The most obvious implication of continuing to do theological education in a manner that does not take sufficient account of the context is that the learning is ultimately rendered irrelevant. A theology that does not respond to the questions and needs of the people becomes meaningless. And so, theological education must begin by listening to the questions and concerns of the people before attempting to speak to them the word of God. As will be seen later most of the contemporary concerns and questions of Africa are almost absent from the content of the theology done at SJTI. One wonders to whom staff and students at St. Joseph’s have been listening. During the Apartheid era churches and theologians in South Africa played an important public role on both sides of the divide. In the mid 1980s several students from St. Joseph’s were arrested for taking a principled stand against the regime. Since then, however, this prophetic witness of theology has become less visible. This is not because there is no longer room for theologians and people of faith at the table of common engagement, but rather because theologians are no longer speaking the language of ordinary people. To make a meaningful contribution in a democratic dialogue theologians have to speak in a language that is accessible to their dialogue partners. Dialogue as a two way process involves both respectful listening and honest communication. In the past, ecclesial functionaries spoke to, and at times, at, people and were not accustomed to being spoken to, or to listening. In a democratic environment, such as the globalized world has become, theologians and their students must learn to listen even when their dialogue partners do not agree with them. Theologians need to listen to what people are saying. For instance, in developing a realistic theology of AIDS, theologians cannot ignore what those living with the disease are saying. It is their struggles, fears, experiences of joy and hope which must form the context in which theological reflection and education takes place. Social analysis, using the tools of other sciences to understand what is being said, is a necessary tool in the process of listening. An important consideration raised by the foregoing discussion is the need for people who can speak from within the context. Africans who received their formal education and training in Europe or America or elsewhere outside the Continent need to re-connect with their African roots and to transmit their knowledge in African terms of reference (Mlilo 2003:72). In a sense, only Africans can develop an authentic African theology. One possible remedy for this would be to introduce some kind of staff development programme which would identify from among the students possible teachers to train for this role. GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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The challenges facing SJTI were being discussed already more than two decades ago. In 1993, on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the foundation of the Oblate Scholasticate, Paul Decock, president of SJTI and Marcello Zago, Superior General of the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate, made important comments concerning the theology curriculum of SJTI. In his comments Decock (1993:2) pointed out that attempts to renew the curriculum were made in the 1970s. He noted that ‘[b]esides the theological subjects greater attention was given to various aspects of anthropology (psychology, social sciences, philosophy), communications, and pastoral training’ (1993:2). He concludes by making it clear that ‘[a] definite effort was made to relate studies to our contemporary, Southern African context’ (:2). Zago (1993:6), on the other hand, referred to the curriculum by means of four challenges he posed to the institution. The first challenge he highlights concerns the mission of the Church with all the problems of evangelization, inculturation and ecumenism connected thereto. He notes that the Congregations present at St. Joseph’s Theological Institute are missionary by tradition and have been responsible for the foundation of the dioceses of South Africa. Therefore, he asks, would it not be possible in the theological education to focus on mission in the local context by establishing a faculty or centre of missiology? Secondly, Zago notes that most of the students at the institution are religious. Therefore, he asks, would it not be possible to ‘develop a Centre for Religious Life which would benefit the religious themselves and the local Church?’ (1993:6). Zago raises two other challenges, namely, the need for teachers and formators, ‘particularly black people’ since most of the candidates are black, ‘so as to have a more natural understanding of the students’ (1993:6). He concludes by calling on Oblates and other religious to work together in developing the institute. Sadly, these challenges remain unaddressed more than a decade after they were raised. Failure to develop a relevant African theology in a globalized world will mean Africa missing out on its opportunity to bring its specific contribution to the common pot of global knowledge. This will have further implications. Africa and Africans will be alienated from the rest of the human family as they will find themselves forced to live by rules and standards set by others. A negative consequence of this will be the rise of negative fundamentalism in various forms and sectarian violence as is already experienced in some countries. Before proceeding to proposal of a way forward, a discussion on what is meant by globalization and its impact is necessary.

Globalization and Theological Education Writing in the context of the ethics surrounding the HIV/AIDS pandemic, Kenneth 80


R. Overberg discusses the nature and impact of globalization on countries and communities. He begins with the observation that although globalization has become a powerful economic, political, social and cultural force it is remains a contentious phenomenon. It is praised and promoted by some and challenged and condemned by others. Also, a precise definition of the phenomenon still remains elusive (Overberg 2006:114). However, Those who see it as a positive process describe it as a growing integration of economies and societies around the world that is integral to sustainable development and has the potential to improve significantly the lives of all. Those suspicious about globalization, while recognizing its potential, see it as the domination of the powerful over the weak and so stress more the negative results: marginalization, environmental damage, loss of cultural diversity, and the widening gap between rich and poor (2006:115).

Globalization, he concludes, is about the increasing networks of global interdependence which impact on the lives of communities and countries at the level of economy and labour, culture and politics, poverty, the environment, and human dignity and the common good (Overberg 2006:115). China and India have emerged as the new global leaders in technology and commerce over the last two decades with Africa continuing to remain on the periphery. Globalization, Overberg further observes, has also changed political systems, with sovereign nations having to deal with global financial institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which although they were created to fight poverty and promote a healthy world economy, have actually had a harsh impact on many poor people in the developing world, for example, by demanding production for export rather than for local needs (Overberg 2006:116). This has implications for the development of a theology curriculum as can be seen in the content taught in many theology schools in Africa. The content has largely been determined by the West. For Overberg, a central concern with globalization is poverty: will the market economy really lead to prosperity for all or will poverty actually increase? Foundational to all the issues of globalization is the question of human dignity and the common good or in three questions asked by Overberg: what does globalization do for people? What does it do to people? How do people participate in it? These are the deeper questions which need to be asked about globalization, questions about the meaning and value of life, questions which are at the heart of theology. Evidence of globalization is present at SJTI, with staff and students coming from all corners of the globe. The disparity between those who have succeeded under globalization and those who have been forced deeper into the abyss of poverty should be the concern of any theology worth its name.


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A Way Forward? While it is not possible nor indeed desirable at this stage to work out a completely revised theology curriculum, some indications of what should be taken into account in designing such a curriculum needs to be sketched out. These are based on the four elements of curriculum development as identified and discussed by Nicholls and Nicholls (1983) in their practical guide to developing a curriculum. The aims and objectives of the institution and of the curriculum must be developed in response to some perceived need in both the church and society. What are the perceived needs to which the theology programmes of SJTI are responding? These should be expressed in the vision statement of the institute. The real challenge is to develop a curriculum that will achieve the aims and objectives of the institute. A starting point for revision in this area should include a survey of the various stakeholders on the needs of the church and society and what kind of training would be appropriate for people being prepared for ministry today.

Situational analysis The process of developing a curriculum must take into account the abilities and limitations of those responsible for the teaching, the teachers and also of the learners. Here it needs to be asked, who is involved in theological education at SJTI? What gifts and limitations do they possess as individuals and collectively? Are the teachers equipped to meet the stated aims and objectives of the institute? A quick glance at the staff profile of the institution reveals that while SJTI is blessed with an international staff, it is still heavily reliant on teachers from the West and not producing enough of its own academics who are able to take forward the vision of the institute. Fewer than half of the present staff are former students or from the majority group represented by the student body. As indicated earlier, a staff identification and development programme might help to remedy this weakness. A current difficulty which would have to be confronted is that of ownership of the institution and the obligation of various stakeholders to provide teachers. The type of learners, their experiences and backgrounds, motivation and other factors associated with them also must play a role in the development of the curriculum. Serious questions need to be asked about the learners if the curriculum is to respond to their needs. It would seem that for some ordination is the primary reason for being at SJTI. Academic formation is only a means to the desired end. The poor primary and secondary education experienced by many students makes teaching and learning at a tertiary level practically impossible. Curriculum development needs to take this into account. Those responsible for the management of the institution have either to adhere to a strict minimum entry level standard or provide remedial assistance to those accepted into the programmes, 82


but who do not have the required academic foundation. This will impact on the sequential progression of learners and the assessment of their performance. Other factors that need to be considered in the situational analysis include the immediate and remote environment in which the teaching and learning is taking place, that is, both the local and global facts impacting the situation. Education does not take place in a vacuum. In short, for the theology curriculum to be relevant, those involved in designing it must have ‘large ears’ which can hear what is being said both inside and beyond the institution. While SJTI is located in South Africa, its student population is made up more and more of students coming from other African countries who do not necessarily share the history of South Africans and who, to a large degree, will apply their learning outside the borders of this country. As an institution teaching in the Roman Catholic tradition the programmes must be in line with church requirements as well. The fact that the theology programmes lack a serious pastoral insertion programme is a weakness that needs to be addressed.

Objectives Setting objectives should be the next stage. Here the main question should be, what should we be trying to get the students to achieve? Objectives must be formulated with an eye to the aims of the institution and also the content and methods to be utilised. For example, one objective of St. Joseph’s Theological Institute could read, to provide the minimum theological education for ordination to the Catholic priesthood as prescribed by the Canon Law of the Church. Such an objective does two things: it is clear about what is aimed at, minimum theological education for ordination to the priesthood, and secondly, it is measurable and can be evaluated. But this seems too narrow. Often the objectives are either too vague, cannot be measured or are not related to the stated aims of the institute. As Nicholls and Nicholls (1983:46-47) observe, Many of us have perhaps been guilty of planning a course of work for our pupils and have started by stating our objectives and we might even have written these down at the top of the page. Having done this, however, we have proceeded to plan the content, materials and methods we intended to use without further reference to objectives. The objectives are there to guide the selection of content, materials and methods and must be referred to constantly when decisions about these are being made.

Content What must be the content of a theology curriculum? It is acknowledged in education theory that a variety of content may be used to attain the same objective. ‘Content might be described as the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to be GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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learned’ (Nicholls and Nicholls 1983:48). What is taught must correspond to the objectives of the programme and must also be in keeping with the methods used. Not everything can be taught. Nicholls and Nicholls (1983:51-55), propose four criteria that may be used in deciding on the content of a curriculum: validity, significance, interest and learn ability. Basically, their argument is that material to be taught must be authentic and true in the specific field. It must also be meaningful in the context in which it is taught. This must link breadth and depth. Basic ideas, concepts and principles should form the basis of teaching and learning, with sufficient time allocated for their understanding so that they can be related to each other and applied in new situations. Thirdly, the material must be of interest to the stakeholders, that is, learners and society at large. However, material should not be included merely because it is of interest. Finally, the material must be learnable. That is, it must be material that is appropriate to the learners. The number of modules taught needs to be reduced if learners are expected to attain depth in the subjects taught. Also, there must be coherence between the subjects taught and the objects of the programmes as a whole. In this regard, the Office of the Academic Dean plays a crucial role in ensuring the quality and integrity of the programmes offered.

Conclusion Curriculum development is an integrative process. It brings together knowledge from various disciplines in the field of education. Further, it provides the opportunity for linking theory to practice. Thus, it provides both opportunities and challenges. Among the opportunities identified include the development of a relevant programme that trains learners to identify and respond in a meaningful way to perceived needs. The challenges include relating the various components of the curriculum to each other in ways that make the whole process meaningful. Since contexts and situations are constantly changing, curriculum development has to attempt to maintain a balance among various contending forces. One such set of forces is the local and the global. These remain some of the challenges to which SJTI must respond if its theology programmes are to remain relevant and credible in the globalized world such as we are now experiencing. Hopefully, this review provides a stimulus which will lead to a more detailed study of the theology programmes at the institution.

References Daughrity, D. 2013. Bishop Stephen Neill, the IMC and the state of African theological education in 1950, in Handbook of theological education in Africa, 84


edited by I.A. Phiri & D. Werner. Pietermaritzburg: Cluster Publications, 47-63. Decock, P. 1993. Cedara: The constant is change. We give thanks Ukwanda Kwaliwa Umthakathi: St. Joseph’s Scholasticate – Theological Institute 1943-1993. Pietermaritzburg: St. Joseph’s Theological Institute, 2. Freire, P. 1970. Pedagogy of the oppressed. Translated by Myra Bergman Ramos. London: Penguin Books. Hoeben, H.C. 2003. Catholic theological faculties in Africa: Mandate and reality!, in Doing Theology and Philosophy in the African context: Faire la theologie et la philosophie en context African, edited by L.G. Mlilo & N. Soede. Frankfurt and London: IKO-Verlag Fur Interkulturelle Kommunikation, 25-48. Lee, M 2011. Theological Education as Embodiment of Jesus, in Understanding world Christianity: The vision and work of Andrew F. Walls, edited by W.R. Burrow, M.R. Gornik & J.A. McLean. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 79-88. Mlilo, L G 2003. Towards the contextualization of philosophy and theology curricula in the context of Southern Africa, in Doing theology and philosophy in the African context: Faire la theologie et la philosophie en context African, edited by L.G. Mlilo & N. Soede. Frankfurt and London: IKO-Verlag Fur Interkulturelle Kommunikation, 63-79. Nicholls, A. and Nicholls, S.H. 1983. Developing a curriculum: A practical guide. New edition. London, Boston and Sydney: George Allen & Unwin. Overberg, K.R. 2006. Ethics and AIDS: Compassion, and justice in a global crisis. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Phiri, I.A. & Werner, D. eds. 2013. Handbook of theological education in Africa. Pietermaritzburg: Cluster Publication. Rakoczy, S. 2005. Catholic theology in South Africa: An evolving tapestry. Journal of Theology in Southern Africa 122 (July), 84-106. The Academic Council 2014. 2014 SJTI General Prospectus. Pietermaritzburg: St. Joseph’s Theological Institute. Walls, A. 1998. Afterword: Christian mission in a five-hundred-year context, in Mission in the 21st century: Exploring the five marks of global mission, edited by A. Walls & C. Ross. London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 193-219. Zago, M 1993. Message from the Oblate Superior General for the Golden Jubilee of St. Joseph’s Theological Institute, Cedara. We give thanks Ukwanda Kwaliwa Umthakathi: St. Joseph’s Scholasticate – Theological Institute 1943-1993. Pietermaritzburg: St. Joseph’s Theological Institute, 5-6.


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The Role of the Laity in the Post Conciliar Period: The Church in a Globalized World Siphiwe F Mkhize The Second Vatican Council outlined and clarified the role of the laity in the Church. The main conciliar and post-conciliar documents such as Gaudium et Spes, Lumen Gentium, Apostolicam Actuositatem, and Christifidelis Laici, make a clear and serious connection between the laity’s life as Catholics, their eternal destiny and their apostolate in the modern world. The article discusses two common errors in this regard. The first error is the shirking of responsibilities by those who would focus on their heavenly home at the expense of their earthly duties, and those who, due to a legalistic understanding of their faith, divorce it from their everyday life. The second error is ‘the temptation of being so strongly interested in Church services and tasks, that some fail to become actively engaged in their responsibilities in the professional, social, cultural and political world; and the temptation of legitimizing the unwarranted separation of faith from life, that is, a separation of the Gospel’s acceptance from the actual living of the Gospel in various situations in the world.’ The article also elaborates on the unbalanced focus by the laity on ‘Church services and tasks.’ Finally, it revisits the main task of New Evangelisation.

The Second Vatican Council became the first Ecumenical Council of the Church in a long and varied history to deal explicitly with the subject of the Laity – the vast majority of its members. We note that this decree was part of a suite of constitutions and decrees of particular significance for Laity along with Lumen Gentium (the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church), and Gaudium et Spes (the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World). However, the promulgation of the specific laity decree Apostolicam Actuositatem (the Decree on Apostolate of the Laity) in 1965 by Pope Paul VI, by its very singularity, begs a question as to why the Laity was never expressly considered before 1962? It gave to the Laity a new mandate to be the Church, to be the spirit-filled bearers of the mission to create the Kingdom of God, by transforming the world. It represented a return to traditional teaching, and in some local Churches, it is what was actually happening. We have experiences of the Laity sharing fully and actively in the mission of the Church, as well as some unfortunate experiences of the subjectivist approach of earlier centuries. Presenting some elements indicative of the transition in the grip of which we are currently moving painfully forward, and some questions which may draw us onwards. The Council repeatedly outlined and clarified the role of the laity. But one hears very little, if anything, about it at a parish level. The average lay person, 86


it appears, vaguely perceives Vatican II as a Council which opened the doors of the Church to the spirit of the modern world, especially in the areas of liturgy and ecumenism. While there is some truth to this, the Council did much more. But first it is instructive to read the warnings of the Council Fathers and St. John Paul II regarding an essential element at stake in this matter of the role of the laity viz: our salvation. Gaudium et Spes makes a clear and serious connection between the laity’s life as Catholics in the world and their eternal destination: ‘The Christian who neglects his temporal duties, neglects his duties toward his neighbour and even God, and jeopardises his eternal salvation’ (GS 43). Two common errors are highlighted and discussed here: the shirking of responsibilities by those who would focus on their heavenly home at the expense of earthly duties, and those who, due to a legalistic understanding of their faith, divorce it from their everyday life. Another serious concern was addressed by St. John Paul II, when he stated: At the same time, the Synod has pointed out that the post-conciliar path of the lay faithful has not been without its difficulties and dangers. In particular, two temptations can be cited which they have not always known how to avoid: the temptation of being so strongly interested in Church services and tasks that some fail to become actively engaged in their responsibilities in the professional, social, cultural and political world; and the temptation of legitimizing the unwarranted separation of faith from life, that is, a separation of the Gospel’s acceptance from the actual living of the Gospel in various situations in the world (CL 2).

The reference to an unbalanced focus by the laity on ‘Church services and tasks’ is directed, at least in part, at the often hotly contested issue of ‘ministry.’ While the Council encouraged the laity to participate in ministry, the misuse and abuse of the term meant that a serious admonition and clarification was in order: In the same Synod Assembly, however, a critical judgment was voiced along with these positive elements, about a too-indiscriminate use of the word ‘ministry,’ the confusion and the equating of the common priesthood and the ministerial priesthood, the lack of observance of ecclesiastical laws and norms, the arbitrary interpretation of the concept of ‘supply,’ the tendency towards a ‘clericalisation’ of the lay faithful and the risk of creating, in reality, an ecclesial structure of parallel service to that founded on the Sacrament of Orders (CL 23).

And while the Council and Canon 910 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law allowed, in cases of serious need, lay involvement in such acts as distributing Holy Communion, such involvement instead became the norm and, in some parishes, a seemingly sacred right. Unfortunately, many Catholics who desire somehow to be involved in their local parish immediately single out ‘ministries’ that are visible and ‘up front,’ perceiving them to be the singular means of involvement available GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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in their parish. In light of this it is of little surprise to hear of small parishes where the number of extraordinary Eucharist ministers is quite disproportionate to the number of people in the pews. Meanwhile, those who remain outside of a ‘ministry’ are left with the impression that there exist only a certain number of such positions and since those are filled, they are out of luck. Resigned to not having such a position and commitment, they incorrectly believe that weekly attendance of Mass is ‘good enough.’ But this is not the case at all, according to the Holy Father, since a ‘new state of affairs today both in the Church and in social, economic, political and cultural life, calls with a particular urgency for the action of the lay faithful. If lack of commitment is always unacceptable, the present time renders it even more so. It is not permissible for anyone to remain idle’ (CL 3).

The Necessary Context If the laity is called to be active, but there exist only so many positions within a parish, what are they to do? What is their role? In order to answer this question the identity of the laity must first be seen within the contexts of four important realities: the Eschaton, the Church, the true nature of ministry, and vocations.

The Eschatological Principle When we step back and view history and eternity from the perspective given by divine revelation and the Church, we see that there exist two cities, or kingdoms: the kingdom of man and the kingdom of God. The Christian is a citizen of both and as such has responsibilities to both. He is a member of the Church, which is ‘on earth the seed and the beginning of that kingdom’ (CCC 541), that is, the kingdom of God. And he is also a human being, born into time and space and living in the kingdom of man. So the Christian lives in a certain tension, knowing his final end is with God but strongly aware of how real and serious life is in the temporal order. But this temporal order will eventually pass away at the eschaton, the end of time, when the kingdom of God will at last be fully revealed. The relationship between the temporal order and the eschatological character of the Church is one of tension, but not of conflict. Because Christians are citizens of both kingdoms their actions in the temporal order have results and meaning for the eschatological end of the Church. Thus Lumen Gentium asserts the importance of the laity’s life and work within the temporal order in relation to eternity: But by reason of their special vocation it belongs to the laity to seek the kingdom of God by engaging in temporal affairs and directing them according to God’s 88


will. .... It pertains to them in a special way so to illuminate and order all temporal things with which they are so closely associated that these may be affected and grow according to Christ and may be to the glory of the Redeemer (LG 31).

The laity are called to work in the temporal order in a specific manner befitting their ‘secular character.’ The word ‘secular’ is used by the Church to recognize that the laity are ‘in the world’ and have a specific and unique role in the kingdom of man, as St. John Paul II explained: To understand properly the lay faithful’s position in the Church in a complete, adequate and specific manner it is necessary to come to a deeper theological understanding of their secular character in light of God’s plan of salvation and in the context of the mystery of the Church. Pope Paul VI said the Church ‘has an authentic secular dimension, inherent to her inner life and mission, which is deeply rooted in the mystery of the Word Incarnate, and which is realised in different forms through her members.’ The Church, in fact, lives in the world, even if she is not of the world (cf. Jn 17:16). She is sent to continue the redemptive work of Jesus Christ, which ‘by its very nature concerns the salvation of humanity, and also involves the renewal of the whole temporal order.’ Certainly all members of the Church are shares in this secular dimension but in different ways. In particular the sharing of the lay faithful has its own manner of realisation and function, which, according to Council, is ‘properly and particularly’ theirs. Such a manner is designated with the expression ‘secular character’ (CL 15).

The distinction between the two kingdoms is essential for a proper understanding of the unique nature of the ordained priesthood and the ministry of priests. Priests, by virtue of their ordination, are a living witness to the sacramental realm and the reality of the Incarnation. In addition, priests and religious give witness to the eschatological character of the Church, as St. John Paul II also discussed: In turn, the ministerial priesthood represents in different times and places, the permanent guarantee of the sacramental presence of Christ, the Redeemer. The religious state bears witness to the eschatological character of the Church, that is, the straining towards the Kingdom of God that is prefigured and in some way anticipated and experienced even now through the vows of chastity, poverty and obedience (CL 55).

So while the ministerial priesthood is focused upon the sacraments and, together with the religious, shows forth the eschatological, or supernatural, character of the Church, the laity is to be focused on the temporal order in keeping with their ‘secular character.’ But doesn’t this threaten the laity’s status in the Church? How can the laity be important to the Church if their work is supposed to be mostly outside of it?


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The Context of the Church Seeing the Church as ‘the universal sacrament of salvation’ (a reference to Lumen Gentium 48) and those in the Church as participants in the salvation of the world should cause us to consider the implications. Does this mean that being the ‘People of God’ might not be quite as comfortable as we would like? Could it be that attending Mass once a week might not be enough? St. John Paul II noted that this fact about the Church carries great responsibilities, for all the members of the People of God – clergy, men and women religious, the lay faithful - are labourers in the vineyard. At one and the same time they all are the goal and subjects of Church communion as well as of participation in the mission of salvation. Every one of us possessing charisms and ministries, diverse yet complementary, works in one and the same vineyard of the Lord (CL 55).

It is understandable that people lose sight of the bigger picture in the midst of their daily lives. It is easy for us to set aside this evangelistic mission of the Catholic Church because we have a difficult time relating it to our particular parish. But St. John Paul II stated that for ‘an adequate participation in ecclesial life the lay faithful absolutely need to have a clear and precise vision of the particular Church with its primordial bond to the universal Church’ (CL 25). The parish is not some fragment of the universal Church, nor is the universal Church the sum of all the parishes added together. Rather, the Church - at both the parish and universal level - is a communion with Christ and each member of the Body whose totality can never be seen in the sum of its parts. And it is this mystery which must be encountered and entered into in order for the role of the laity to be further clarified: ‘Only from inside the Church’s mystery of communion is the “identity” of the lay faithful made known, and their fundamental dignity revealed. Only within the context of this dignity can their vocation and mission in the Church and in the world be defined’ (CL 8). This mystery of the Church is rich dynamic, demanding full and active participation. As Apostolicam Actuositatem, explains ‘the organic union in this body and the structure of the members are so compact that the member who fails to make his proper contribution to the development of the Church must be said to be useful neither to the Church nor to himself’ (AA 2).

The Meaning of Ministry What of the term ‘ministry’? We have already seen that the 1987 Synod of Bishops was concerned with the sloppy and ambiguous manner the term was (and is) being used, often due to a specific agenda (CL 23). It is apparent the bishops recognised

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that there exists a lacking of comprehension of the eschatological principle and the difference between the priesthood common to all believers – realised in the sacrament of baptism – and the ministerial priesthood found only in ordained men rooted in the sacrament of holy orders. Whether due to lack of knowledge, this blurring of lines leads to disorder since a false structure of authority is found in the hierarchical structure of the Church. Some of those involved in opposition incorrectly see everything with the context of ‘power,’ again demonstrating their skewed understanding of the Church, and her authority. This ‘structure of parallel service’ usually shows itself in abuses centred on the Mass, with lay people acting the part of the priest in a variety of ways, often with the permission or encouragement of the priest! Most lay people who do such things have little understanding or interest in the Church’s ‘single intention’ of salvation for all humanity (GS 45). They see, in their local parish, a certain number of actual or potential positions (including that of priest) and believe they have as much of a right to such positions as any other person. Because they do not appreciate the difference between the sacramental and secular realms they miss how those in the ordained priesthood and those in the common priesthood complement one another in their respective states and should be working together towards the common goal. This complementarity is not a side effect, but is an imperative for the Church: In Church Communion the states of life, by being ordered one to the other, are thus bound together among themselves. They all share in a deeply basic meaning: that of being the manner of living out the commonly shared Christian dignity and the universal call to holiness in perfection of love. They are different yet complementary, in the sense that each of them has a basic and unmistakable character which sets each apart, while at the same time each of them is seen in relation to the other and placed at each other’s service (CL 55).

In his critique of the situation, John Paul II took both the laity and clergy to task, demanding care, attention and wariness in the difficult but necessary task of rightly defining ministry and how particular ministry should be exercised: Precisely to overcome these dangers the Synod Fathers have insisted on the necessity to express with greater clarity, and with a more precise terminology, both the unity of the Church’s mission in which all the baptised participate, and substantial diversity of the ministry of Pastors which is rooted in the Sacrament of Orders, ... It is also necessary that Pastors guard against a facile yet abusive recourse to a presumed ‘situation of emergency’ or to ‘supply by necessity,’ where objectively this does not exist or where alternative possibilities could exist through better pastoral planning. (CL 23).


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The Vocation Crisis isn’t Just for Priests! We often hear about the ‘vocation crisis’ and how it could potentially be solved in a number of ways: ordaining women, allowing priests in the Roman Rite to marry, or allowing lay people do even more, such as actually presiding over Mass. Although there is a real crisis in regard to the number of priests, there is an equally grave – and related – crisis in the area of lay vocations. The very fact that many Catholics do not know they have a vocation (or if they do know, they have no idea how to find out what it is) is proof of the problem. A teaching and emphasis of Vatican II often ignored or pushed to the side is the call – the vocation – to holiness. A continual emphasis on holiness as the essential basis for the Christian life permeates the writings of the Council and is summed up well by the Holy Father: We come to a full sense of the dignity of the lay faithful if we consider the prime and fundamental vocation that the Father assigns to each of them in Jesus Christ through the Holy Spirit: the vocation to holiness, that is, the perfection of charity. The Vatican II has significantly spoken on the universal call to holiness. It is possible to say that this call to holiness is precisely the basic charge entrusted to all the sons and daughters of the Church by a Council which intended to bring a renewal of Christian life based on the gospel (CL 16).

This vocation to holiness orients the laity towards their proper role: working in the temporal order for the kingdom of God. It is their duty to engage in a sort of sacred subversion by which they, grounded in holiness and filled with the Holy Spirit, change the world from the inside, permeating it with truth and light, just as Lumen Gentium indicates: But by reason of their special vocation it belongs to the laity to seek the kingdom of God by engaging in temporal affairs and directing them according to God’s will. It pertains to them in a special way so to illuminate and order all temporal things with which they are so closely associated that these may be effected and grow according to Christ and may be to the glory of the Creator and Redeemer (LG 31).

Again, this engagement of the laity with the temporal order is not an option, but an appointment given by God, who desires all men (sic) to come to salvation. It is also the way in which the laity fully realizes their true place and role in the Church. By bringing the Church to the world, the laity brings the world into contact with the Church, the Body of Christ. In light of this, one does not have to look far to see that matters are often not as they should be. Almost inevitably, the person who states ‘I want to do something for the Church’ will look to do something in the local parish – not out in the daily grind of work, home and family. Certainly there is nothing wrong with being involved in the life of the 92


parish. But the common assumption is that by being involved in various parish activities lay persons have done their duty and have, perhaps, even gone beyond the call of duty. But have they? Has the laity endeavoured to do what St. John Paul II exhorted them to do? It is no exaggeration to say that the entire existence of the lay faithful has as its purpose to lead a person to a knowledge of the radical newness of the Christian life that comes from Baptism, the sacrament of faith, so that this knowledge can help that person live the responsibilities which arise from that vocation received from God. In arriving at a basic description of the lay faithful we now more explicitly and directly consider among others the following three fundamental aspects: ‘Baptism regenerates us in the life of the Son of God; unites us to Christ and to his Body, the Church; and anoints us in the Holy Spirit, making us spiritual temples’ (CL 10). The laity also need to recognise that ignoring the call to holiness and the specific, personal vocation which comes from it contributes to the crisis in vocations to the priesthood. Growth in holiness means aligning and ordering one’s whole being to the divine life given to us at baptism. Without such an ordering of the heart, soul and mind, one cannot begin to discern the will of God or be open to his call, including the call to the priesthood or the religious life. Holiness leads to wholeness, and true vocations are based in the wholeness of recognizing who we are and whose we are: Above all, each member of the lay faithful should always be fully aware of being a ‘member of the Church’ yet entrusted with a unique task which cannot be done by another and which is to be fulfilled for the good of all… Such an individual form of apostolate can contribute greatly to a more extensive spreading of the Gospel, indeed it can reach as many places as there are daily lives of individual members of the lay faithful (CL 28).

Called to the Vocation of Holiness Vatican II consistently emphasized holiness, as noted above. At the heart of the Church’s encounters with modernity, with other religions, and with her own identity is the reality of holiness – and the call of everyone in the Church to the vocation of holiness: ‘Therefore all in the Church, whether they belong to the hierarchy or are cared for by it, are called to holiness, according to the apostle’s saying: “for this is the will of God, your sanctification”’ (LG 39). It is in holiness that the members of the Church become who they are called to be, and it is in holiness that all are equals: Everyone in the Church, precisely because they are members, receives and thereby shares in the common vocation to holiness. In the fullness of this title GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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and on equal par with all other members of the Church, the lay faithful are called to holiness: ‘All the faithful of Christ of whatever rank or status are called to the fullness of Christian life and to the perfection of charity’ (LG 43). All Christ’s followers are invited and bound to pursue holiness and the perfect fulfilment of their own state of life (CL 16).

Holiness is the building block fashioned in the waters of baptism and meant for the good of the Body of Christ. The Church, in baptism, works as the ‘sacrament of salvation’ and makes the sinner holy: the newly born child of God is called by that same baptism to build up the Church. This gift and response is at the heart of true community, rooted as it is in the divine life given to us by Christ in the power of the Holy Spirit. And the laity, as part of this community of saints, are called to build the Kingdom of God in time and space: The vocation to holiness must be recognized and lived by the lay faithful, first of all as an undeniable and demanding obligation and as a shining example of the infinite love of the Father that has regenerated them in his own life of holiness. ...In fact, that same holiness which is derived simply from their participation in the Church’s holiness represents their first and fundamental contribution to the building of the Church herself, who is the ‘Communion of Saints’ (CL 17).

For the Renewal of the Temporal Order Some Catholics saw Vatican II as an updating of the Church that supposedly resulted in changes to the Church’s goals and focus. This is a drastic misreading. The Council was a renewal meant to aid Catholics in re-appropriating and rediscovering the Church’s goals and focus in a world that had changed dramatically in a short period of time. The mission of the Church never changes, but our understanding of how best to live it in a specific culture does develop and change. That mission, according to Apostolicam Actuositatem, is to proclaim Christ and to fill the temporal order with the light and salt of the Gospel; the laity has an essential role in this task. We cannot overstate the importance and centrality of the laity in this most pressing mission. According to Lumen Gentium, it is the laity’s special vocation… to seek the kingdom of God by engaging in temporal affairs and directing them according to God’s will… It pertains to them in a special way so to illuminate and order all temporal things with which they are so closely associated that these may be effected and grow according to Christ and may be to the glory of the Creator and Redeemer (LG 31).

The Council Fathers taught that ‘the laity must take up the renewal of the temporal order as their own special obligation,’ being led by the ‘light of the Gospel and the mind of the Church and motivated by Christian charity.’ This involves a 94


permeation of culture, of society and of all aspects of the kingdom of man with the ‘higher principles of the Christian life’ (AA 7). St John Paul II wrote that ‘in particular the lay faithful are called to restore to creation all its original value’ (CL 14). This task is not the priority of priests or religious; in fact, they are not qualified for, or capable of, such activity! Only the laity, because of their skills in the marketplace, in the institutions of society and in the everyday activities of men, can properly perform this crucial activity: ‘The apostolate in the social milieu, that is, the effort to infuse a Christian spirit into the mentality, customs, laws, and structures of the community in which one lives, is so much the duty and responsibility of the laity that it can never be performed properly by others’ (AA 13). In fact the laity has to realise that they have important work to do, and the time to start that work is now!

By Means of Evangelization Building upon what has been examined so far, the role of the laity can be summarized in a three-part statement: The laity are called to the vocation of holiness for the purpose of renewing the temporal order by means of new evangelization. Many Catholic readily admit their reticence in sharing their faith and being a witness to non-Catholics - or even to their own Catholic family and friends. But St. John Paul II stressed repeatedly the need to evangelize, writing that ‘The entire mission of the Church, then, is concentrated and manifested in evangelization’ and ‘The lay faithful, precisely because they are members of the Church, have the vocation and mission of proclaiming the Gospel: they are prepared for this work by the sacraments of Christian initiation and by the gifts of the Holy Spirit’ (CL 33). The Holy Father’s consistent call to evangelization did not come out of a vacuum - it is a reiteration of the Council’s repeated call for the same. Lumen Gentium states that the laity ‘have the exalted duty of working for the ever greater spread of the divine plan of salvation to all men, of every epoch and all over the earth. Therefore may the way be clear for them to share diligently in the salvific work of the Church according to their ability and the needs of the times’ (LG 33). Baptized into Christ, we are filled with his life and are called to be little Christ’s – ‘anointed ones’ – who, being fed by the Eucharist, go into the world and make the Church visible. However an apostolate of this kind does not consists only in the witness of one’s way of life; a true apostle looks to non-believers with a view to leading them to faith, and encouraging them to a more a more fervent life. ‘For the charity of Christ impels us’ (2 Cor. 5:14). The words of the Apostle should echo in all hearts, ‘Woe to me if I do not preach the Gospel’ (cf. 1 Cor. 9:16) (AA 6). GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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This work of new evangelisation requires formation and training, time and effort: ‘[T]he laity must be specially formed to engage in conversation with others, believers, or non-believers, in order to manifest Christ’s message to all men (sic)’ (AA 31). It takes many forms, from the silent witness of one’s actions to the use of modern media to the ordinary conversations of daily living. Whatever the means, lay people are to ‘announce Christ, explain and spread His teaching in accordance with one’s status and ability, and faithfully profess it’ (AA 16).

The Lived Faith Brings Life to the World We can see, in looking at the documents of the Vatican II and the writings of St. John Paul II (especially Christifideles Laici) that the laity possesses a specific and unique vocation that they must pursue and fulfil in order for the Church to grow and to permeate the world. This vocation is rooted in the holiness infused into us at baptism and nourished in the Eucharist; it shows us that we are members of the Body of Christ, the Church, and that we belong to the Head of the Body, Jesus Christ. And so, while the laity are often called to help the ordained in various ways within the Church, the central focus of the laity must be the temporal world, the culture and society they live in, of which they are an integral part. If the laity are not changing the kingdom of man, they are failing the kingdom of God: ‘Therefore, I have maintained that a faith that does not affect a person’s culture is a faith not fully embraced, not entirely thought out, not faithfully lived’ (CL 59). In conclusion, every baptised person has a share in the total mission of the Church. Every Christian is called to evangelise, according to the person’s state of life. Clerics and laity should cooperate in inner – Church affairs; in the secular area, the laity are to take on full responsibility; the laity receives the strength given by the sacraments and by dynamic exposition of Church doctrine from clerics. The laity are not pastors in the Church but they have their responsibility of temporal orders. When we say ‘Church,’ we mean all the baptised. Jesus Christ is our Master! All of us are servants, brothers and sisters in the service of Christ and our neighbour. Finally, we can see, in looking at the documents of the Council and the writings of St John Paul that the laity possess a specific and unique vocation that they must pursue and fulfil in order for the Church to grow and to permeate the world. This vocation is rooted in the holiness infused into us at baptism and nourished in the Eucharist; it shows us that we are members of the Body of Christ, the Church, and that we belong to the Head of the Body, Jesus Christ. And so while the laity is often called to help the ordained in various ways within the Church, the central focus of the laity must be the temporal world, the culture and society they live in, of which they are an integral part. If the laity is not changing the kingdom 96


of man, they are failing the kingdom of God: ‘Therefore, I have maintained that a faith that does not affect a person’s culture is a faith not fully embraced, not entirely thought out, not faithfully lived’ (CL 59).

References AA. Apostolicam Actuositatem 1965. The Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity, in Vatican II: The Conciliar and post-Conciliar documents, edited by A. Flannery OP. New revised edition. Collegeville, Indiana: The Liturgical Press. CCC. Catechism of the Catholic Church, second edition, copyright 2000, Libreria Editrice, Vaticana. CCL. Code of Canon Law: Latin – English Edition, New English Translation, Canon Law Society of America, Washington DC USA. CL. Christifideles Laici, the Lay Members of Christ’s Faithful People, Pope John Paul II, 1987. Available at http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_ exhortations/documents/hf_jp-ii_exh_30121988_christifideles-laici_en.html, accessed 12 November 2014. GS. Gaudium et Spes 1965. The Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, in Vatican II: The Conciliar and post-Conciliar documents, edited by A. Flannery OP. New revised edition. Collegeville, Indiana: The Liturgical Press. Letter of the Holy Father John Paul II to Priests for Holy Thursday 1988. Available at http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_ 25031988_priests_en.html, accessed 12 November 2014. LG. Lumen Gentium 1965. The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, in Vatican II: The Conciliar and post-Conciliar documents, edited by A. Flannery OP. New revised edition. Collegeville, Indiana: The Liturgical Press. Scripture Text used is from the New American Bible 1991. Washington DC: Confraternity of Christian Doctrine.


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Book Reviews Peppard, Christiana Z 2014. Just Water: Theology, Ethics, and the Global Water Crisis. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, ISBN

978-1-626998-056-3. Notes, further resources, and index, x + 230 pp. US$28. This is a book about the nature of water. It is refreshing to read an important subject like fresh water being addressed in a theological manner that is also contextual. In a context of economic globalization and environmental degradation, fresh water’s availability is determined by a number of factors – ‘including but not limited to geography and hydrography, hydraulic technology and infrastructure, social status, culture, gender, and political economy’ (p 35). This leads inevitably to the debate as to whether water should be regarded as a human right or an economic commodity. And one needs to question whether the free market can really provide equitable access to fresh water. An opening chapter ‘theology and ethics’ lays the groundwork to respond to these and other debates about the nature of water. Throughout the book Peppard highlights the positive role of the Catholic Church. Drawing on its teaching, and especially Catholic social teaching, the author concludes that ‘the Catholic Church stands for clean, fresh water for all people’ (p 54). Water is regarded not only as a human rights issue but a ‘rightto-life issue.’ In an early chapter the helpful distinction is made between different types of water usage. The use of water that is of greatest concern is that which is ‘consumptive,’ which means that the water ‘does not return to the watershed in any useable or recognizable form once it has been withdrawn’ (p 23). Agricultural use of water accounts for nearly 90% of global fresh water consumption (it is withdrawn but not returned to the system). Peppard provides a devastating critique of the multi-billion US dollar bottled water industry (‘a fetishized commodity’), describing this industry as the ‘the single greatest marketing achievement in the history of civilization’ (p 41). Directly relevant to water are important chapters on climate change and hydraulic fracturing (or fracking), whose introduction is now being considered in South Africa. The urgency of action being taken by all sectors of the world community, leading to the reconfiguring of systems of energy production and economic relationships, is stressed. The potential benefits of fracking are considered but ‘six substantial concerns’ are also set out. While there is 98


uncertainty about the value of this technology, the author certainly sounds a strong cautionary note on its use. In a chapter which offers a fresh reading (using a ‘hydrological hermeneutic’) of the story of Jesus and the woman at the well (John 4), a gendered perspective on water is offered. The author observes that ‘[w]ithout women, there is no water: from past to present, it remains the case that, worldwide, gathering water is predominantly women’s work’ (p179). In some contexts, particularly where women have to walk long distances to collect water, there is the danger of sexual assault. If the reader has not got the message of the book its first nine chapters, a further chapter is provided which gives a summary of the main ideas presented. And for those wanting to explore further some of the topics raised there is a section at the end called ‘Further Resources.’ Here relevant book and journal articles are given under each of the thirteen themes listed. This book certainly lives up to its claim of being ‘[a]imed at the educated non specialist as well as scholars who work across disciplinary boundaries’ (pix). It is informative and succinctly and well written. While a book of this nature could easily present a depressingly gloomy picture of the future of water, the emphasis here is on its fair access, distribution and use. In this respect it is empowering for the reader and sustains a hope that its future is in our hands. Andrew Warmback Diocese of Natal

Cawley Bolt 2013. Reluctant or Radical Revolutionaries? Evangelical Missionaries and Afro-Jamaican Character, 18341870. UK, Oxford: Regnum Books International, ISBN: 978-1-90835518-8. 287 pp (with bibliography) This important religio-cultural text on Evangelical Missionaries and AfroJamaican Character is located within the wider Anglo-Caribbean missional discourse on Church and culture. Based upon extensive qualitative research work, the author has employed authentic scholarship to postulate an insightful thesis. He examined in depth the evangelical missionaries in general, but especially, the Baptist missionaries that served in Jamaica during a critical period of the Island’s socio-political development from 1834-1870 and their impact on the development of the ‘Negro Character.’ This well-researched book embodies his passion for Caribbean history through his creative use of narratives from the actors of that era to provide critical insights to re-examine an era of mission history. GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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The study focuses on a brief historical period that covered emancipation of the enslaved Afro-Jamaican people up to their uprising in the Morant Bay rebellion. There are two main actors on this historical stage: The evangelical missionaries and the Afro-Jamaicans. Bolt interrogates the traditional interpretation of the missionary character and calls for a reassessment because of the misinformed perception that the missionaries were part of the racist colonial order in their relationship with Afro-Jamaicans. This seminal text is centred on issues of religion, politics, mission, culture and ethnicity. The issues raised surround access to political and economic power and identity formation. Bolt argues that the accusation that the missionaries were fundamentally racist in their approach concerning the ‘nature of the Negro Character’ is fallacious and do not correctly describe the nature of their relationship with Afro-Jamaicans. Although the author has offered remarkable coherence to his thought and consistency in his argument, at times, the passion in his arguments appears to be apologetic. The hybridity and contradiction that shaped the missio-cultural environment during colonialism would suggest that any assessment on attitudes of missionaries on the ‘nature of the Negro Character’ should be provisional. However, even though the missionaries believed that they ‘could reach a high level of civilization’ their Euro-centric worldview of that era did not consider the possibility that their human dignity could become equal to that of Europeans. Therefore, even with those missionaries who practiced social justice with the emancipated Afro-Jamaicans, the psychological damage to their corporate identity from years of systemic abuse was not significantly altered. The church and its missional agents remain a complex missiological and sociological reality in which the missional agents took sides for and against the abolition of slavery and the human dignity of the Afro-Jamaican socio-economic aspirations. The book is organized into six sections that examine different phases of the ‘Negro Character’ and the role played by evangelical missionaries. Although Bolt is careful to give clarity on the use of key term such as ‘Negro’ and ‘Black’ as term used in the sources of his research, I do take issue with his use of ‘AfroJamaican.’ This concept which is meant to indicate ‘black consciousness, black pride and black self-affirmation represents much more a 1960’s terminology influenced by North American ‘Black Power.’ However, the indigenous religiopolitical discourse of the Rastafari movement of Jamaica, through the teachings of Marcus Garvey, suggests that the use of ‘African-Jamaican’ constitute a more authentic description of the peoples’ identity. In his discourse on the Afro-Jamaican Character – The Making of a Stereotype, Bolt argues the making of Evangelical missionary societies and their evangelical ideology were shaped by diverse influences of the industrial and French revolutions that informed missionary identity and vocation of being 100


divinely called and sent to ‘preach gospel’ and ‘socialize ex-slaves’ who were in a state of ‘spiritual, moral and cultural infancy.’ It was this paternalistic attitude of ‘parent to child’ that influenced their attitude to the ‘Negro Character’ that Bolt argues was misconstrued as racism. His scholarly mapping of the ‘Black Character’ and the Emancipation process from the 1831 Slave action for freedom through to the Apprenticeship period and the role of education in the shaping of the Afro-Jamaican Character demonstrates the deep quest for political and economic freedom rooted in human dignity that informed the Black struggle. In the section of ‘Full free: Afro-Jamaican Character and the Great Experiment of Emancipation,’ Bolt’s critique of the Free Village movement and how it facilitated development of the Afro-Jamaica character, embodies the qualitative value of this book. His mapping of the interplay of culture and racism and diverse ecclesio-culture and missio-cultural dynamics on the formation of the Afro-Jamaican Character sets the stage for his next focus on ‘The Morant Bay Massacre – The Final Verdict on Afro-Jamaican Character.’ This uprising brought the nexus of religion and politics, church and state into confrontation over the people’s struggle for justice. In his conclusion, Bolt reiterates that the missionaries were not ‘racists but cultural imperialists’ who were products of their times. It is only at the end of the text that he makes a case for the missionaries being reluctant revolutionaries because ‘they believed themselves to be under the demand of the gospel to evangelize the blacks’ and ‘they brought dissonance to a white dominated society.’ I find this to be ‘too little’ and ‘too late’ because the title of: ‘Reluctant Revolutionaries was used as the key signpost to invite readers. However, apart from this weakness, Bolt offers an excellent scholarship on Jamaican Church history and his insights into religio-cultural and missio-cultural dynamics of the society constitute a valuable contribution to academic discourse. Roderick Hewitt School of Religion, Philosophy and Classics UKZN, Pietermaritzburg

Lienemann-Perrin, Christine and Cochrane, R James (eds) 2013. The Church and the Public Sphere in Societies in Transition. Pietermaritzburg: Cluster Publications. ISBN 978-1920620-04-2. xvi +278 pp.

The volume is a collection of essays that intelligibly captures the history of Christian churches in public life in several countries. It provides a complex GRACE & TRUTH 2014/3

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but accurate examination of the church in relation to the public sphere in contemporary times. The book begins with a theoretical introduction by exploring the meaning of the notion ‘civil society’ for transformation processes. The authors of the introductory essay trace back the history of the use of the term, point out how it has changed, and build a theoretical model to address the question of the importance of churches for developing the structures of civil society. The main part of the volume contains four case studies about churches in societies in transition: South Africa, Mozambique, Brazil and South Korea. For many of these societies the historic ‘turning point’ was the 1990s that marked the downfall of apartheid, the end of the Cold War and the end of ‘real socialism,’ but also the beginning of the “neo-liberal” globalization with all its positive and negative forces. Since then many new democratic and constitutional states have emerged, some of them greatly controlled or deformed by global economic and political conditions and hegemonic powers. The case studies clearly reveal that churches and religions have frequently been significant, if not the key, players in the periods of resistance and struggle that preceded many of these transformation processes to democracy. During the time of transition, they were a great help in defining the nature of the new social order which involved defining such important elements of public life as justice and constitutionality, education and health systems, the place and work of women and the weight of the past. There were cases however when churches found themselves on the defensive: unable easily to shift their rhetoric and those practices which had been highly valued in times of resistance, to fit the new conditions without losing their sense of identity and social influence. This is the picture which emerges from the main papers of the collection. At the heart of the final essay is a consideration of the condition of public theology in our time. The analysis wraps up the case studies, and draws out important comparative and conceptual insights about the role which churches and religions can play in the public sphere in the future. Questions of statehood, citizenship, civil society, ecumenical social ethics, gender relations, democratization, liberation theology utopias, and theologies of reconstruction all find their place in this final analysis. Perhaps some readers will find it difficult to understand the choice of the case studies in this book. Indeed, there are cross influences between South Africa and Mozambique, and because Portuguese is the lingua franca of the latter, there is a natural bridge with Brazil. However, a jump to the case study on South Korea seems unfortunate. One can only guess that the choice of the South Korean case is valuable for comparative purposes and that South Korean

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liberation theology can be paralleled with Latin American theology and Black Theology in South Africa. Yet, the collection should be valued for a number of important contributions. By using recent research in political science on societies in transition, and turning to the field of human rights and their interrelation, the book builds an interesting comparative framework for a better understanding of the role of churches in times of upheaval. The purpose here is to show how members of various churches and religions have engaged in the struggle for the common wellbeing of all when it was most needed. At the same time, it gives clear evidence that churches, religions, and people inspired by faith are often underplayed in political science or historical studies, even if they have often been the key contributors for the organization of civil society. Moreover, the volume in many ways counters the secularist claim based on the deep prejudice of the latter half of the twentieth century that religion would inevitably become weak and be replaced by a secular order. The various analyses prove the opposite, giving evidence for the vitality of religion in public life under conditions of social transformation in the last few decades. Thus, the various papers have the power to convince the reader that religion has an undeniable impact on social change and that its influence needs to be rethought in our contemporary world which is often agnostic, escapist or hostile towards religious belief. Finally, by using studies of Christianity in contexts of rapid political transition, the book provides complete and encouraging evidence of precisely why “religion”, especially Christian theology and praxis, has preserved a profound public presence. Certainly the work belongs in any library of Christian theological education centres that could be borrowed for a stimulating read, but it can also be placed on one’s bookshelf as a book to be periodically consulted. Chris Grzelak SCJ Saint Joseph’s Theological Institute, Cedara


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NOTICE FOR AUTHORS Grace & Truth Style Sheet 1. Grace & Truth follows the ‘name-date’ (or Harvard system) method for citations in the text. 2. A publication is cited or referred to in the text by inserting the author’s last name, year and page number(s) in parentheses, for example (Ncube 2003:109). 3. Graphics (e.g. graphs, tables, photographs) are normally only be included in an article if they are important for understanding the text. If possible include them in the text submitted electronically. 4. Footnotes should be reserved for content notes only. Bibliographical information is cited in the text according to the Harvard method (see 2 above). Full citations should appear in the References at the end of the article (see below). 5. References should be listed in alphabetical order of authors under the heading References at the end of the text. Do not include a complete bibliography of all works consulted, only a list of references actually used in the text.

REFERENCES Book with one author Sim, S. 2006. Empires of belief. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. In Text: (Sim 2006:73)

Book – edition Castells, M. 2000. The information age: Economy, society and culture. Vol. 1: The rise of the network society. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell. In Text: (Castells 2000:72)

Book – two or three authors – Initials only for author’s names Bamat, T. and Wiest, J. 1999. Popular Catholicism in a world church. Seven case Studies in inculturation. NY: Orbis Books. In Text: (Bamat and Wiest 1999:121) 104


Edited work (when referring to a collected work) Horsley, R. ed. 2008. In the shadow of empire. Louisville Kentucky: Westminster: John Knox. In Text: (Horsley 2008)

Book – two editors Kirk, J. and Vanhoozer, K. eds. 1999. To stake a claim: Mission and the Western crisis of knowledge. NY: Orbis Books. In Text: (Kirk and Vanhoozer 1999)

Book – sub title Hope, A. and Timmel, S. 1987. Training for transformation: A handbook for community workers. Gweru: Mambo Press. In Text: (Hope and Timmel 1987:90)

Book in series Bate, S.C. 1999. Inculturation of the Christian mission to heal in the South African context. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen (Studies in the History of Missions Vol. 17). In Text (Bate 1999:275)

Multi-volume book Stackhouse, M. and Paris, P. eds. 2009. God and globalization Vol. 1: Religion and the powers of the common life. NY: T & T Clark International. In Text: (Stackhouse and Paris 2009) Stackhouse, M. and Obenchain, D. eds. 2009. God and globalization Vol. 3: Christ and the dominions of civilization. NY: Continuum. In Text: (Stackhouse and Obenchain 2009) Stackhouse, M. 2010. God and globalization Vol. 4: Globalization and grace. NY: Continuum. In Text: (Stackhouse 2010)


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Chapter in book Bujo, B. 2007. Community ethics, in Aids in Africa: Theological reflections, edited by B. Bujo & M. Czerny. Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 63-78. In Text: (Bujo 2007:72)

Journal Delkeskamp-Hayes, C. 2007. Resisting the therapeutic reduction: On the significance of sin. Christian Bioethics 13:105-127. In Text: (Delkeskamp-Hayes 2007:125)

Journal – with month in date Kasomo, D. 2009. An investigation of sin and evil in African cosmology. International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology 1(8) December, 145155. In Text: (Kasomo 2009:150)

Study guide Lopez Gay, J. 1988. Lo Spirito Santo e la missione. Ad use degli studenti. Roma: Editrice Pontificia University Gregoriana. In Text: (Lopez Gay 1988:47)

Periodical – daily or weekly with date Smith, J. 26 April 2012. Still a nation of rapists 18 years on. The Star. Johannesburg: 9. In Text: (Smith 2012:9)

Unpublished material Nolan, A. 2008. Hope-giving spirituality. Paper presented during 2008 SAMS Congress in Potchefstroom, 23-25 January 2008. Unpublished document. In Text: (Nolan 2008)

Thesis Wilke, M. 2012. Models of care for antiretroviral treatment delivery: A faithbased organization’s response. Ph.D. thesis, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein. In Text: (Wilke 2012:76) 106


Several works by same author in one year Russell, L. 1974a. Christian education in mission. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. In Text: (Russell 1974a:324) Russell, L. 1974b. Human liberation in a feminist perspective: A theology. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. In Text: (Russell 1974b:27)

Internet references These require the author, the year of publication (if available), the title of the document, other relevant information concerning the document if available and the place of publication if available, and the data of access to the document (day, month and year). The following serve as guidelines: Henriot, P. J. 2006. Populorum Progressio: Challenge and Guidance for the Church Today. Paper Presented at CIDSE Forum, The Church Speaking Out On Social Justice Today, 11-12 January 2006, Soesterberg, The Netherlands. Available at http://www.acpp.org/jpc/fyi/Henriot-Populorum_Progressio.pdf, accessed 7 February 2011. In Text: (Henriot 2006) International Theological Commission (ITC). 2004. Communion and Stewardship: Human Persons Created in the Image of God. Vatican. Available at: http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/ rc_con_cfaith_doc_20040723_communion-stewardship_en.html, accessed 7 July 2013. In Text: (ITC 2004)

Catholic Church Documents of the Magisterium General Magisterium Documents are usually referenced by the initials of the first two words of the official title followed by the title of the official document (which is usually but not always in Latin) and the year of publication. This is followed by the title of the document in the language used for the article, if this differs from the original. For our authors this will usually be English. This is followed by the place of publication which is usually the Vatican and the publisher which is usually Vatican Publishing House. The in text reference uses the initials in italics followed by the section number(s).


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Document from official publisher EA. Ecclesia in Africa. Apostolic Exhortation of Pope John Paul II, September 14 1995. Vatican: Vatican Publishing House. In Text: (EA 25).

Document in a book AA. Apostolicam Actuositatem 1965. Decree on the apostolate of lay people, in Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and post-Conciliar documents, edited by Austin Flannery O.P. New revised edition. Collegeville, Indiana: The Liturgical Press, 766-798. In Text: (AA 12-13)

Document on website RM. Redemptoris Missio. Encyclical Letter of Pope John Paul II, on the Permanent Validity of the Church’s Missionary Mandate, December 8 1990. Vatican. Available at http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/_john_paul_ii/ encyclicals/documents/hf_jpii_ enc_07121990_redemptoris-missio_en.html, accessed 19 February 2013. In Text: (RM 33).

Local Magisterium documents Local Magisterium documents are normally referenced by the name of issuing body: e.g. SACBC Southern African Catholic Bishops’ Conference or SECAM (Symposium of Episcopal Conferences in Africa and Madagascar) or the name of the local Ordinary. SACBC. 1952. Minutes of the 1952 Plenary Sessions of the Southern African Catholic Bishops’ Conference. Pretoria: Southern African Catholic Bishops Conference. In Text: (SACBC 1952:23) SECAM. 2003. The Church in Africa in Face of the HIV/AIDS Pandemic: “Our Prayer Is Always Full Of Hope.” Dakar: Symposium of Episcopal Conferences in Africa and Madagascar. In Text: (SECAM 2003:2) George, F. 2004. Ad Limina Address of Cardinal-Archbishop of Chicago: “In faith to her Lord.” 28 May 2004, Vatican. Available at http://www.ewtn.com/ library/BISHOPS/GEOJP2AL.HTM, accessed 25 August 2013. In Text: (George 2004) 108


Contributors w

Peter-John Pearson serves as Director of the Southern African Catholic Bishops Conference Parliamentary Liaison Office and as Vicar General of the Archdiocese of Cape Town. He also teaches at St Francis Xavier Seminary. He holds a law degree from the University of Cape Town and an M.Phil. from St Augustine College of South Africa. He is active in a number of organisations engaged in issues of public theology and advocacy.

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Quinbert Kinunda is a priest of the Missionaries of Africa. He has a Licentiate in Biblical Theology (STL). He teaches biblical studies at St. Joseph’s Theological Institute, Cedara, KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. He is also interested in reading and making the Bible become a text that raises a serious reflection on social issues. He is from Tanzania.

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Dr Gloria Marsay is a registered Educational Psychologist working in private practice. She has worked with children and adults who have learning difficulties, assisting them to position themselves successfully in the world of work. She was an adjunct member of staff at St Augustine College for a period of ten years, where she developed and lectured the module on Pastoral Care and Community Building. She has presented and published several papers in the area of enablement of the disabled nationally and internationally.

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Dr Chris Grzelak is lecturer of systematic theology at St. Joseph’s Theological Institute in Cedara. He is a member of the Congregation of the Priests of the Scared Heart. He has published in the area of theology of religions and interreligious dialogue.

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Raymond M. Mwangala is a Missionary Oblate of Mary Immaculate from the Delegation of Zambia. Since 2006, he has been involved in ministry at the Oblate Scholasticate and St Joseph’s Theological Institute, both at Cedara, South Africa. He has just completed four years as the Academic Dean at St. Joseph’s Theological Institute.

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Dr Siphiwe Felix M. Mkhize was born in Pietermaritzburg. He received his early education from Catholic Schools. He obtained his higher education in Italy, BSc in (Agronomy) from Iowa State University in the USA, MSc in (Soils) from University of Reading, England, MPhil


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in Applied Ethics from Stellenbosch and a PhD from University of Pretoria. He previously represented South African Agriculture as a senior representative in North America, and currently works as an Executive in the Department of Agriculture in Pretoria.

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