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Refereed Articles
Graduate Students' Perspectives on Effective Teaching Lilian H. Hill,
have experienced. This article can serve as a way to Abstract: This study employed data collected introduce information about effective teaching that over an 8-year period in which graduate students' emanates from a source with which students can perspectives on effective teaching were collected easily identify and serve as a platform to engage during a class exercise. The data were organized students in the study of teaching. into three categories: (a) teaching competence (knowledge of content and teaching), (b) Keywords: teaching and learning, learning and relationships with students (having the best interests scholarship, adult education, graduate students, of students at heart), and (c) teacher attitudes postsecondary education (with respect to teaching and learning). Students appear to concur with the literature in adult and higher education that effective y the time a student is in teaching involves far more than GRADUATE graduate school, they have presenting content and the STUDENTS VIEWED amassed considerable methods used to convey that experience with teachers and content to students. Equally EDUCATORS AS EEFECTIVE teaching, both positive and important are the affective or WHEN THEY EXHIBITED negative. Graduate students often emotional processes involved in HUMOR, ENTHUSIASM, have teaching responsibilities, and learning, forming a relationship they may be "most qualified to with students, and caring about COMPASSION, EMPATHY comment on teaching and its students' learning and ability AND WERE INTERESTED IN impact on learning because they to integrate and apply new can draw from recent and current AND CONCERNED FOR information. Therefore, adult experience" (Saroyan, Dangenais, and higher education courses STUDENTS OUTSIDE THE & Zhou, 2009, p. 580). While that address teaching need to go CLASSROOM." extensive literature exists about further than merely addressing students' perceptions of teaching course design and techniques. effectiveness in K-12 education, not as much has been Unless students have direct instruction in teaching written about graduate students' perspectives on the and an opportunity to practice, they will often subject (Fuhrman, Fuhrman, & DeLay, 2010; Saroyan uncritically reproduce the teaching models they
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DOI:10.1177/1045159514522433. From ^The University of Southern Mississippi. Address correspondence to: Lilian H. Hill, Educational Studies and Research, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, 5093, Hattiesburg, MS 39406-0001, USA; email:
[email protected]. For reprints and permissions queries, please visit SAGE's Web site at http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav. Copyright © 2014 The Author(s) 57
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et al., 2009). Given the complex task of learning to teach, identifying traits indicative of effective teaching can be a constaictive first step in helping students learn to teach. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the perspectives of graduate students in adult and higher education regarding the characteristics of effective teaching. The research questions asked were in regard to the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors graduate students identify with effective teaching. This study employed constructivist perspectives of learning (Bain, 2004) in which learners construct meaning based on their previous experiences and knowledge. Individuals continually structure and restructure the meaning of their experience through self-regulated mental activity. Learning occurs by matching new information against existing knowledge and establishing meaningful connections. Learners select and process new information to fit with, connect to, or challenge their existing knowledge. Learning is affected by the context as well as the beliefs and attitudes of the learner and, therefore, effective ' teaching occurs by stimulating students to ask their own questions.
Literature Review Not surprisingly, graduate student' perspectives echo the literature regarding effective teaching practice. Themes present in the literature regarding effective teaching in adult and higher education involve a focus on and mastery of disciplinaiy knowledge, being able to convey that information, forming a relationship with students, and caring about students' learning. Conceptions of teaching and learning differ in the details; however, there is general agreement that effective teaching involves far more than presenting content and the methods used to convey that content. Equally important are the affective or emotional processes involved in learning, the integration and application of new information, and the social processes that take place between individuals and their environments (iUeris, 2002). Although some mastery of the how, or teaching methods and techniques, is helpful to people invested in becoming effective teachers, what is most important seems to be forming a relationship with students and caring about their learning.
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Authors writing about teaching have focused on various themes, including method and technique (Davis, 2009; Galbraith, 2004; Svinicki & McKeachie, 2010), caring for and support of student learning (Kasworm, 2008), the relationship of learning and human emotions (Dirkx, 2008), and the meaning of learning for the student (Weimer, 2002). Other authors have gone a step further and discussed the sacred nature of the teaching profession and the importance of nurturing students' souls (hooks, 1994; O'Reilly, 1998; Palmer, 2008). Yet, other authors have chosen to integrate these ideas (Bain, 2004; Fink, 2003; Illeris, 2002; Palmer, 2008; Vella, 2008). According to Hyland (2010), learning involves "the development of knowledge, values, emotions, understanding, reason, skill, experience and insight" (p. 525). Learning involves not only knowledge acquisition but also guiding students so they may understand how their learning fits into their lives, how it is applicable to their roles and responsibilities, and, ultimately, how it is relevant to their life experiences (hooks, 1994; Kanuka, 2010; Kasworm, 2008). Vella (2002) articulated the importance of creating a relationship between teachers and learners that involves respect, safety, open communication, afflrmation, listening, and humility. Her concept of safety consistently resonates with the graduate students I teach. Specifically, classroom safety involves trust in the knowledge and competency of the instructor; trust in the design of the course including the sequencing of activities, feasibility and relevance of course objectives, and maintenance of a non-judgmental environment. According to O'Reilly (1998), graduate students have learned some pedagogical practices are uplifting, while others can be damaging and "crush the soul" (p. 3). She cautioned us to be selective of the metaphors we choose to embody in the classroom. Eurthermore, she recommended teachers avoid commercial marketplace ideas that position students as consumers and instead focus on creating a hospitable space in which students can come to understand and learn what they each need to know. In addition to O'Reilly, Schoeberlein (2009) advocated for the use of silence, mindful listening, humility, and presence. Teachers can nourish students' inner lives and encourage them to create their own learning rather than simply filling them with the teacher's knowledge.
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students appreciate the relevance of information to their own context. Sprinkle (2009) tested hypotheses regarding graduate students' perceptions of effective teaching, including teachers' age, gender, personality traits, and teaching style. Students tended to prefer teachers similar in age and gender to themselves, but did not necessarily favor teachers whose teaching was compatible with the students' learning styles. Instead, they valued a variety of teaching styles and the presentation of real-world applications. Graduate students "viewed educators as effective when they exhibited humor, enthusiasm, compassion, empathy and were interested in and concerned for students outside the classroom" (p. 1351). In another study, Pietrzak, Duncan, and Korcuska (2008) found graduate students in a counseling program ranked teachers' degree of knowledge and delivery style to be most important, but also considered organization and the amount of assigned homework. They found students While some studies have explored graduate students' valued faculty they perceived as friendly and found conceptions of effective teaching, the literature remains them to be effective when they expressed compassion, limited particularly in regard to students engaged in the enthusiasm, empathy, and concern for students' learning. study of adult and higher education. In a study of graduate students enrolled in a course on curriculum Methodology design and teaching methods, Saroyan et al. (2009) This study explored the perspectives of graduate found the students expressed four ideas about effective teachers' actions. Specifically, effective teachers convey students in adult and higher education regarding the characteristics of effective teaching, as students knowledge, prepare and manage instruction, promote engaged in formal study of how to develop their learning, and help students grow so they can learn knowledge and skills of effective teaching. This was an independently. At the conclusion of the course, the exploratory qualitative study that used a basic, students were inclined to place more emphasis on the interpretive design (Merriam, 2009). Constructivism promotion of learning and student growth. In a underlies qualitative research as researchers are longitudinal study of the teaching beliefs of graduate interested in how participants construct meaning from students in adult education, Taylor (2002) learned their experiences, in this case students' experiences 2 years of instruction did not greatly alter ideas about with teachers and teaching. teaching. Speciflcally the adult education graduate students remained teacher-centered, believed The 107 study participants were graduate students knowledge existed externally and was to be transferred enrolled in adult and higher education courses to students, and thought the teacher was responsible to addressing the development of teaching skills at a create a comfortable learning environment. However, mid-size, southeast U.S. university during an 8-year during the program they developed a better period. Speciflcally, the two courses addressing the appreciation for the experiences students bring to the development of teaching skills included (a) Methods classroom. and Materials in Adult Education in Spring 2005, Fall 2006, Spring 2006, Spring 2008, Fall 2008, Summer Fuhrman et al. (2010) found graduate teaching assistants believed effective teachers exhibit passion for 2009, Spring 2010, and Summer 2012 and (b) Teaching in Higher Education during Fall 2010, Fall 2011, and their subjects, are knowledgeable about and care for Spring 2013. students, use a variety of teaching strategies, and help
In her discussion of authenticity in teaching, Cranton (2006) did not focus on content or methods. Instead, she described authentic teachers as those who create a meaningful relationship with students in which both learners and teachers are able to be open and genuine, have an awareness of who students are as learners, are cognizant of the institutional and social constraints affecting the teaching/learning process, and engage in critical self-reflection on their teaching practices. A central concern for the teachers she studied is fostering the relationship with students while also learning about the individual differences among learners. Depending on an individual's teaching philosophy, context, and preferences, these relationships may be formed based on a "respectful distance, coUegiality, or closeness" (pp. 9-10). No matter their style, these teachers' relationships with students are authentic when they involve caring for students as individuals and fostering both the teachers' and the students' learning and growth.
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The majority, or 73%, of students were enrolled in doctoral programs and the remaining 27% were in master's degree programs. Participants were 34% male and 66% female. The mean age was 35 and ages ranged from 24 to 77. Consistent with enrollment at the university, 65% of the students were Caucasian, 31% were African American, and 2% were Asian American. Only 8% of the participants were international students, from countries in Asia and South America. Twenty-nine percent of students had teaching experience in community colleges, universities, adult education settings, or K-12 schools, while others were new to the study of teaching. Forty-two percent of students had a disciplinary background in the topics they taught or intended to teach, such as communications, criminal justice, English, foreign language, kinesiology, nursing, and physical therapy. Almost one third of students, 29%, expressed hopes of becoming, or advancing as, a teacher or faculty member, while the remaining 71% had administrative aspirations in adult or higher education settings.
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were reflected back to students so they could determine the accuracy with which I rendered their descriptions of the characteristics of effective teachers; any requested corrections were made. Each subsequent class was presented with their own list and a list from the previous class so they could ascertain how their responses compared. From the outset, I chose to document students' responses but not record their names; therefore, the recorded results are anonymous. The Institutional Review Board granted permission to use the information presented in this article. As described, the data consisted of lists of students' opinions from each of the 11 courses offered from 2005 to 2012. In 2013, a combined list of ideas from all the classes was formed and the data detached from specific classes. The author reviewed this comprehensive list to inductively identify repeating themes within the data. As a form of peer review, three graduate students enrolled in other classes were consulted about whether the themes made sense with their experiences of teaching.
This study's data were collected during an introductory class exercise in which students expressed Findings their opinions about the characteristics of effective The students' descriptions of characteristics of teachers. The exercise was designed as a 90-minute effective teachers are organized into three categories: warm-up activity to demonstrate to students that they (a) teacher competencies (knowledge of content and already possessed knowledge of teaching. Beginning teaching), (b) teachers' relationships with students with a presentation based on the work of Jerrold Apps (having the best interests of students at heart), and (n.d.) describing several teacher types in a humorous (c) teachers' attitudes (with respect to teaching and way (e.g., "Boring Betty," "Rigid Richard," and "Willy learning). See Table 1 for characteristics organized by Wing-It; pp. 2, 6), students were asked to suggest the three categories. The table's first column under learners' reactions to the various teacher types. Before each category indicates the frequency of mention of the presentation, I told students they have likely the characteristics of effective teaching across different experienced all these types. Following the presentation, groups at different times. I asked them to divide into small groups and discuss In regard to teacher competencies, having relevant their ideas about characteristics of effective teachers. practice knowledge was mentioned slighdy more often Students easily became engaged in discussion and than having theoretical knowledge of the suhject area. rightfully had opinions about teachers they have Examples of practical knowledge included "providing experienced. As they discussed ideas with each other, relevant, real time information" and "teaching practice they examined and refined their ideas. Once the class applications as well as theory." Being able to relate regrouped, students presented the discussion results. information to their personal and professional lives enabled students to understand how they could retain The author, as course instructor, documented the and apply new knowledge. The students seemed students' comments in the form of brief statements confident of their ability to assess the extent of their distilled from longer conversations among students. teacher's knowledge and expected teachers would have Each time the class exercise was conducted, the instructor typed students' comments and presented the the ability to convey disciplinary knowledge. Therefore, list to students at the next class meeting. The comments they preferred teachers who are "prepared and
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Table 1. Graduate Students' Perspectives on the Characteristics of Effective Teachers and Frequency of Mention. Frequency of mention
Teaching competence: Knowledge of content and teaching
Relationships with students: Having the best interests of students at heart
Teacher attitudes: With respect 1 to teaching and learning 1 Has enthusiasm Is fun and energetic
7
Have relevant practice experience, shares experiences Provides relevant, real time information Down to earth, makes connections Provides examples—helps students move from easier to more complex topics Teaches practice as well as theory Knowledgeable about their subject matter: Prepared and up-to-date Presents evidence-based information
Approachable, accessible to students outside class hours Provides contact information Has adequate office hours and is available during promised office hours Answers e-mail in a timely manner Answers their phone
5
Utilizes a variety of techniques with class Uses humor appropriately Needs to be tactful
Values/validates students' experience
4
Motivating to students Has the skills to facilitate movement of students through material Knows how to engage students Able to stimulate discussion and enhance communication Good time management skiils and organized Uses classroom time effectively Foilows syllabus and if changes are necessary, negotiates them with students
Demonstrates fairness Provides timely feedback Completes grading in a timeiy manner Is flexible Knows when to bend rules, be flexible about class activities Flexibie about demands in adult learners' lives
3
Culturally adaptive Knowledgeable of students' cultural backgrounds Can work with all groups (race, class. gender, nationalities) yet sees the individual understands the nature of adult learners
2
Can communicate, get information across Uses up-to-date technology
Interested in his/her students Listens to students
Respects students, has positive regard for students Values learners' experiences Sees students as having knowledge Does not treat them like blank slates Has compassion, is empathetic Able/willing to say, "1 don't know, but I'll find out." Does not fake answers and follows through on promise to bring back relevant information Knows, understands their audience Mentors students Challenging, encourages students to do their best
Honors learning processes
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Tablet (continued)
Frequency of mention 1
Teaching competence: Knowledge of content and teaching Has interpersonal skills Has faith in students/students have confidence in instructor Speaks at a good pace and is audible Uses appropriate language for level of learner Uses a mulfidisciplinary approach. Brings in different ideas from different disciplines, holistic
Relationships with students: Having the best interests of students at heart
Teacher attitudes: With respect to teaching and learning
Creates safe, non-threatening environment Provides warmth, inviting welcome Articulates clear expectations for students Serves as a resource to students Acts like a servant to the learner, not a dictator Favors interaction Develops rapport Sees students as individuals Takes time with individuals Helps students build self-esteem Keeps promises that they make Does not look for specific answers Can accept and affirm a variety of responses
Understands and knows him/ herself Creative Believes in what they are talking about Open-minded tJnderstanding and patient Lets their personality show Is personable Likes teaching, passionate about what they teach Maintains appropriate personal boundaries
up-to-date" and provide "evidence-based information." They were appreciative of teachers who knew how to "stimulate discussion," structure classroom learning, and implement a "variety of teaching techniques." Students indicated they carefully read course syllabi and expected teachers to follow the syllabus. A necessary component of good teaching is the ability to motivate students to do well. The students valued teachers who are "able to engage and motivate students" and had the "skills to facilitate movement of students through [the] material." Mentioned less often were understanding "the nature of adult learners" and adapting the teacher's communication style to students' level of understanding. The graduate students were fully aware of our increasingly diverse society and realized teaching about race, class, gender, and culture is both critically important and risky. They thought teachers who are "culturally adaptive" and "knowledgeable of [students'] cultural backgrounds" would be able to work with diverse "race, class, gender, nationalities" and "yet see the individual." "Developing rapport" with students involved helping "students develop self-esteem." They appreciated the need to use "humor tactfully and appropriately" and were cognizant of how it can be
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used to injure and demean others. The graduate students consistently resonated with Vella's (2002) concept of safety in the classroom and believed a safe learning environment evolves when teachers "have faith in students" and "students have confidence in [the] instructor." Using up-to-date instructional technology, having "good time management skills," and drawing from multiple disciplines in instaiction were other skills of effective teachers described by students. Regarding teachers' relationship with students, the most frequently mentioned characteristic was "being approachable" and available, including providing contact information and maintaining "adequate office hours," being "available during [the] promised office hours," and answering e-mails and phone calls. These seemingly simple teacher actions were highly valued by the students, probably because their needs as nontraditional students are not easily met in the way higher education institutions are often structured. Not surprisingly, being "flexible," particularly in regard to deadlines and the "demands in adult learners' lives" was important to the students. They also considered knowing "when to bend the rules" and be "flexible about class activities" to be a trait of effective teaching. The majority of the students bring knowledge gained in
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their work, community, and family responsibilities to the classroom. The students thought it was important for teachers to value and "validate students' experience." They also thought it was important teachers demonstrate "fairness" and provide "timely feedback." The students had little patience with illprepared teachers or those who were not engaged in learning themselves. Teachers who say, "I don't know but I'll find out" and who would not "fake answers" were valued especially if they followed "through on [a] promise to bring back relevant information." Although busy, students were not looking for the easy path. They preferred teachers who can sei^ve as a mentor and "were challenging [and] encourage[d] students to do their best." Students appreciated teachers who are able to serve "as a resource for students" and act "like a servant to the student, not a dictator." Einally, regarding teacher attitudes, the most frequently mentioned characteristic of effective teaching involves the teacher being "fun and enthusiastic." Given that most of the students arrive for evening classes after a full workday this is not surprising. Next in frequency was being interested in and "listening to students." A teacher who "values learners' experiences," views "saidents as having knowledge," and "does not treat them like blank slates" was considered effective. Learning can be both a cognitive and emotional event, especially when it involves students' sense of identity and competence. The students understood learning sometimes involves unlearning and often involves risk and change. Teachers who are caring and express respect and "positive regard for students" and "honor the learning process" were therefore, considered successful teachers. Students thought both compassion for students and passion for the subject are important elements of teaching. When the instructor's excitement is contagious, it is much easier to learn a subject. Therefore, they valued a teacher who "likes teaching, being passionate about what they teach." Finally, "allowing one's personality to show" and being "creative" were mentioned.
Discussion and Reflections When asked about the characteristics of effective teachers, the students spoke about knowledge of the subject matter, mastery of teaching methods, class preparation, and time management. These ideas were
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expected and represent characteristics most often measured in teaching evaluations. However, students also spoke about the relationship between the teacher and students and the need for teachers to create a safe environment for learning, demonstrate respect for students and for the subject matter, be flexible regarding the competing demands on adult students' time, and value what students bring to the learning environment. Teachers who are able to support students in their learning process develop strong relationships with them (Carusetta & Cranton, 2009; O'Reilly, 1998). Although few students mentioned safety by name, their articulated traits of effective teaching paralleled what Vella (2002) described in her description of safety in the classroom: trust in the knowledge and competency of the instructor; trust in the design of the course including the sequencing of activities, the feasibility and relevance of course objectives; and maintenance of a non-judgmental environment. Graduate students in this study did not dismiss the importance of content knowledge; they appreciated the practical experience of effective teachers and their ability to engage students in learning. They also valued the development of a caring relationship among teachers and students in which the learning process is honored and students are supported while undertaking the risks and benefits of learning and integrating that learning into their life (Bain, 2004; Cranton, 2006; O'Reilly, 1998). This kind of teaching engages students in enlarging and transforming their perspectives (Cranton, 2006; Kasworm, 2008). For graduate students considering becoming faculty members, trainers, or teachers in other settings, the characteristics identified by this study's students represent a large body of skills, attitudes, and behavioral characteristics to develop and strengthen. Therefore, adult and higher education courses that address teaching need to go beyond addressing course design and teaching methods. Unless students have direct instruction in teaching and an opportunity to practice, they will often uncritically reproduce the teaching models they have experienced. This article can serve as a tool to introduce information about effective teaching that emanates from a source with which students can easily identify and serve as a platform to engage students in the study of teaching.
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Having knowledge validated and related to the literature is a powerful experience for students. Beginning class with an exercise eliciting students' opinions about effective teaching can serve as a benchmark of students' knowledge and interest. Following such an introduction, the learning activities need to reinforce the ideas expressed by students and experts in the fleld: Teaching involves not only requisite content knowledge but also skills to convey the content, the ability to organize and manage teaching, personal empathy to make connections with students, and ability to care about students' learning. Presenting this compilation of graduate students' perspectives about effective teaching to students engaged in learning to teach can verify their ideas about effective teaching and assist students with selecting what they most want to learn during their teaching journey. Learning activities that support student learning include (a) reading literature about effective teaching and writing critically reflective reviews, (b) performing a structured teaching observation, (c) interviewing teachers about their teaching philosophy and how they implement it, (d) experimenting with instructional technologies, (e) watching and discussing videos about teaching, (0 preparing their own lessons and being critiqued in their delivery, and (g) articulating their own beliefs about effective teaching. Experiences of this kind add layers to students' understanding of effective teaching and the knowledge, skills, and attitudes they may desire to further develop. By revisiting initial perspectives of effective teaching near the end of a course, students may realize their knowledge of how to become an effective teacher has become more complex and nuanced. Students with teaching experience beneflt by describing and reflecting on their work, while those with little teaching experience can learn from others. Adult and higher education courses that address teaching can go further than merely addressing course design and teaching methods. Students may need foundational knowledge regarding these issues. However, they will also benefit from (a) reading about and developing understanding of how students learn theoretically and practically, (b) identifying and reflecting about their beliefs about teaching, (c) thinking about how to create a safe, caring
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environment for learning, and (d) developing attitudes and practices that foster effective teaching. Students can beneflt from exploring what effective teaching practice consists of and developing their abilities to accomplish it. Even those students with goals to become administrators in education settings can gain from developing an appreciation of the skills entailed in effective teaching and the caring and commitment involved in becoming an effective teacher.
Conclusion Our graduates will enter the teaching profession in a changing world. In a culture preoccupied with the funding of educational institutions and measurement of learning, teachers are mandated to accommodate strident calls for assessment. Our graduates will encounter increasing demands to demonstrate their effectiveness and respond to administrative stipulations for assessment of student learning outcomes with the expectation of continuous improvement. Trust in the judgment of teachers has diminished and less time will be available to invest thought and creativity in teaching. Nevertheless, the world needs good teachers who are equipped not only with knowledge but also with courage and compassion. Learning should not be merely a measurable experience in which students are expected to acquire new knowledge. Learning can be a transformative experience that changes people, enriches their lives, and enlarges their perspectives. Classrooms can be spaces that allow students to think new thoughts and create new visions. Individuals who have had the opportunity to explore what effective teaching consists of and to develop their capabilities to accomplish it will be better equipped to form relationships with students and meet the challenges inherent in teaching.
Conflict of Interest The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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Author Biography Lilian H. Hill is associate professor of adult education at the University of Southern Mississippi. She has taught teachers about teaching for more than 25 years. Her research interests center in health literacy and health education, professional development and practice, and environmental education for adults.
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