ACT BESTC GRAMMAR REVIEW C-3. I. COMMON GRAMMATICAL ERRORS. A.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT. One common grammatical enor is lack of ...
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ACT BESTCGRAMMAR REVIEW C-3
I. COMMON GRAMMATICAL ERRORS A.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
One commongrammaticalenor is lack of agreement betweensubjectandverb. The simplestsubject-verb disagreements are usuallyhighly evident,as in the followingexamples: Examples: The books is on the shelf. The teacheradmonishthe classto calm down. The first sentenceshould rcad: The booksare. . . . The secondshould read: The teacheradmonished.. . , In orderto makeexam questionsa bit more subtle,a questionwriter who wantsto testyour ability to spotsuch errorsmight useone of threetricks:
TRICKS FOR OBSCURING SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
I.
I.
Insertionof materialbetweensubjectand verb.
2.
Use of compoundsubjects.
3.
Inversionof sentence structure.
MATERIAL
INSERTED BETWEEN SUBJECT AND VERB
The first techniqueusedto obscuretheconnectionbetweenthe subjectand the verb is the insertionof material betweenthe two. If you are not careful,by the time you reachthe verb,you will haveforgottenthe subjectand will haveno way of knowingwhetherthe verbdoesor doesnot agreewith the subject.Considerthe following examples: Examples; Starperformersin the moviesor on televisionusuallyearnssubstantial incomefrom royalties. One schoolof thoughtmaintainsthatthe federaldeficit,not exorbitantcorporateprofitsand excessively high wages,causemostof the inflationwe arenow experiencing. A recentsurveyshowsthata householdin which both the wife lnd the husbantlarepursuingcareers standa betterchanceof survivingintactthanone in which only the husbandworks. In eachof the threesentences thereis a failureof agreement betweensubjectand verb: performers. . . earns,deficit. . . cause,andhousehold. . . stand. The errorsmay not be immediatelyevident,however,because oi the intervcning nraterial.In the first sentence phrases.In the second,the subject the subjectis separated from the verb by prepositional and verbareseparated by a parenthetical betweenthe subjectand verb. expression.ln the third,a clauseintervenes 1'heplausibilityof the incorrectverbchoice,and thereforethe chancethattheerror will go unnoticed,is strengthened by placinga word or phrasenearthe verbthatmight be mistakenfor the subject: television. . . eants, profits and wages. . . couse,andcareers. . . stand. If the first word of eachof the pairs had beenthe sub.;ect,then there w o u l dh a v eb e e nn o f a i l u r eo f a s r e e n i c n t .
ACT BASIC GRAMMAR REVIEW C-3
I. COMMON GRAMMATICAL ERRORS A.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Onecommongrammaticalerroris lack of agreement betweensubjectandverb. The simplestsubject-verb disagreements are usuallyhighly evident,as in the followingexamples: Exantples: The books is on the shelf. Tbe teacber admonish
the class to calm down.
T h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e s h o u l d r e aTdh: eb o o k s a r e . . . . T h e s e c o n d s h o u l d r e a T d :h el e o c h e r a d m o n i s h e d . . . . In order to make exam questionsa bit more subtle,a questionwriter r"ho wants to test your abi\rty to spot such errorsmisht useone of threetricks:
TRICKS
1.
FOR OBSCURING SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
l.
insertionof materialbetweensubjectand verb.
2.
Use of compoundsubjects.
3.
Inversionof sentence structure.
MATERIAL
INSERTED BETWEEN SUBJECT AND VERB
The first techniqueusedto obscurethe connectionbetweenthe subjectand the verb is the insertionof material b e t w e e n t h e t w oI.f y o u a r e n o t c a r e f u l , b y t h e t i m e y o u r e a c h t h e v e r b , y o uhwai vl l e f o r g o t t e n t h e s u b j e c t a n d w i l l haveno way of knowingwhethcrthe verbdoesor doesnot agreewith the subject.Considerthe followingexamples: Exttmples: Starperformersin the moviesor on televisionusuallyearnssubstantial incomefrom royalties. One schoolof thoughtmaintainsthatthe federaldeficit,not exorbitantcorporateprofitsand excessively high wages,causemostof the inflationwe arenow experiencing. A recentsurveyshowsthata householdin which both the wife ind the husbandarepursuingcareers standa betterchanccof survivingintactthanone in which only the husbandworks. I n e a c h o f t h e t h r e e s e n t e n c e s t h e r e i s a f a i l u r e o f a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n s u b j e cpt ea rnfdovr m e rebr:s . . . e a r n s , d e f i c i t . . . cause,andhousehold. . . stand. The errorsmay not be immediatelyevident,however,because of the intervening material. In the first sentence the subjectis separated phrases.In the second,the subject from the verbby prepositional and verbareseparated by a parenthetical betweenthe subjectand verb. expression.In the third,a clauseintervenes The plausibilityof the incorrectverbchoice,and thereforethe chancethatthe error will go unnoticed,is strengthened by placinga word or phrasenearthe verbthatmight be mistakenfor the subject: teLevision.. . earns, p r o f i t s a n d w a g e s . . . c a u s e , a n d c a r e e r s . . . s t aInf dt h. e f i r s t w o r d o f e a c h ot fh e p a i r s h a d b e e n t h e s u b j e c t , t h e n t h e r e w o u l dh a v eb e e nn o f a i l u r eo l a q r e e m e n t .
C-4
ACT Besrc GRAMMAR Revmw
2.
INVERTED
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
A secondcommonproblemof subject-verb agreement is invertedsentence structures.An invertedsentence hasthe subjectprecededby the verb. You shouldpay carefulattentionto the connectionbetweensubiectand verb.no maner horvthoseelementsarepresented. Exantples: Although the first amendmentto the Constitutiondoesguaranteefreedomof speech,the Suprenre Court haslong recognizedthat thereftasto be somerestrictionson the exerciseof this righi. Jennifermust havebeendoublypleasedthatday,for seatedin the galleryto watchher receivethe awardryasher brother,her parents,and her husband. In bothof thesesentences we havea failureof agreement betweensubjectand verb. The relationshipsareobscuredby the orderin which the elementsappearin the sentence-verbscomebeforethe subiects.
WATCH
FOR INVERTED SENTENCE STRUCTURES
Regardlessof the orderof the sentence-subject-verbor verb-subject-the verb must always agreewith the subjectto which it refers. It oftenhelosto isolateeachelementto make sure thatthe neededagreement is there.
3.
COMPOUND SUBJECTS
Finally' be alertfor compoundsubjects.Usuallywhenthe subjcctof a sentenceconsistsof two or more elernents j o i n e d b y t h e c o n j u n c t i o n c t n d t h e s u b j e c t i s c o n s i d e r e d p l u r a l a n d r e q u ivr e un r asli d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g : e sr ba.pCl o Example: Of the sevencandidates, only John,Bill, andhe yvaspastofhce holders. 'fhe
subject,John,Bill, and he, is compound$oinedby and)and requiresa plural verb--,eventhoughfte itselfis s in s u l a r .
WATCH
FOR COMPOUND SUBJECTS
Compr-rund subjects,typicallytwo or moresubjectjoined by and we plural and necda plural verD.
Be carefulnot to confusethe compoundsubjectwith the disjunctivesubject.When elementsof the subjectare . l o i n e db y o r , t h e v e r bm u s ta g r e ew i t h t h ee l c m e n n t e a r e st to i t . R c p l a c i n g o r iw d i t h o r c h a n g e so u r p r e v i o u se x a m p l e E x a n p l e : O f t h es e v e nc a n d i d a r eJso, h n ,B i l l , o r h e i s l i k e l y t o w i n . N o w t h e e l e m e n t s a r e j o i n e d b y o r , s o t h e v e r b m u s t awgirteheh e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e v e r b i s c o r r e c t l y a g r e e s w i t h t h ed i s j u n c t i v e s u b j e c th, e . Additionally'watchout for subjectsthataredesignedto look like tlreyarecompoundsubjecrsbur areactually s i n g u l a r .T y p i c a l l y r, h e s ea r ed i s g u i s e u d s i n gp r o n o u n s . E*ample, Neitherone of thosefools evenknow how ro changea light bulb. The subjectaboveis nol thosefools, but the singularsubjectneirherone. Therefore,the singularverb knowsis requred.
- ACT BASICGReuua.nRevnW C-5
WATCH
FOR DISJUNCTIVE AND SINGULAR
SUBJECTS
l.
If the elementsof the subjectarejoined by or the subjectis disjunctive.The verb should be singularand agreewith the closestelementof the subject.
2.
Be alertfor singularsubjectsthatappearto be plurai(typicallypronouns).
B. PRONOUN USAGE The rulesfor pronounusagearesummarized as follows:
PRONOUN USAGE RULES
I.
I.
A pronounmust have an antecedent(referent)to which it refers.
2.
The pronounmustreferclearlyto the antecedent.
3.
The pronounandantecedenlmusL agree.
4.
The pronounmust havethe appropriate case.
PRONOUN MUST HAVE AN ANTECEDENT
A pronounis usedas a substitutefor a noun. Thc nounit replacesis calledits antecedent or its referent.With tire e x c e p t i o no f c c r t a i ni d i o m ss u c ha s " 1 ti s r a i n i n g , "a p r o n o u nt h a td o e sn o t h a v ea n a n t e c e d e ni st u s e di n c o r r e c t l y . Exanrples: AlthoughGlen is presidentof the studentbody,he hasnot yet passedhis Englishcxanr,and because of it, he will not graduatewith the restof his class. 'I'he d a m a g ed o n eb y S e n a t oS t o t h ep o l i c yo f e q u a le m p l o y m e n t . iusn d e n i a b l eb,u t r m i t h ' so p p o s i t i o n t/ratis exactlywhat he atrempted to do in his speechThursday. In the first example,what is the antecedent of it? It is not he has not yet pas.sedhis Etrglishexant,becausethat is a cornplete t h o u g h t( c l a u s ea) n d n o l j u s t a n o u n . 1 l i s n o t a p r o n o u ns u b s t i t u tfeo r ' t h a te n t i r et h o u g h t .Y o u w o u l dd o betterby respondingthat ir refersto Clen's/ailareto passtheexam-thereby providingir with the requiredantecedent. This rnoveftrils,however,because/ailuredoesnot appearin nounform in the sentence.In otherwords,the It wantsto refer to a noun,but thereis no noun to functionas its pointof ref'erence. The sentencemustbe rewrittcn:becauseof thatfact, he will ttc)tgraduate. . . . In the secondexample,l/ral functionsas a relativepronoun-it relatessomethingin the first clauseto the second clause. But to what doesthat refer? Test possibilitiesby substitutingthem for that in the secondclause.After all, if t h es e n t e n cm e a k e ss e n s eu s i n gt h e p r o n o u n/ f t d t ,i t s h o u l da l s om a k es e n s ew h e ny o u s u b s t i t u tteh e p r o n o u n ' s for the pronoun.Is the antecedent antecedent damage?This attemptfaiis: but the dannge is exactlywhat he attemptedto do . . . . is oppositionor undeniable'. Perhaps,then,the antecedent but the oppositionis exactlywhat he attemptedto do . . . . but the undeniableis exactlywhat he attemptedto do . . . .
C-6 ACT BASriGnnulren Revrcw T h e r e a r e n o o t h e r c a n d i d a t e s f o r a n t e c e d e n t , s o w e m u s t c o n c l u d e t h a t t htehuastei soi fn c o r r e c tW . ecouldrewritethe sentence:but he did attemptto deny . . . .
PRONOUNS MUST HAVE
ANTECEDENTS
Except for a few idiomatic expressions-lt is gettitrg late-all pronouns must have an antecedent.An antecedent must be a noun, not a thought or phrase. When inserting antecedents, substitutethe proposedantecedentfor the pronounand verify that the sentenceis corTect.
2.
ANTECEDENTS MUST BE CLEAR
Secondly,the antecedent of a pronounmustbe clearfrom the structureof the sentence.Considertheseexamples: Examples: Edward'sfatherdied beforehe reachedhis 20th birthday,so fte neverfinishedhis education. In 1980,the UniversityCouncilvotedto rescindprovision3 which madeit easieribr somestudents to graduate. In the hrst example,it is not clear whetherthe fatherdied beforehe reachedthe ageof 20 or beforeEdwardreachcdthe ageof 20. Furthermore,it is not entirelyclearwhoseeducationremainedunfinished. Similarly,in the secondexample,the antecedent of which is not made clear. Whichmay refer to the provisionor it may refer to antecedents of the pronouns.
WATCH FOR UNCLBAR ANTECEDENTS Theantecedent of a pronoun mustbeclearlyidentified by thestructure of thesentence.
3.
PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
The third rule for pronounusageis that the pronounmustagreewith its antecedent.Considerthe following example: , E x a m p l e : H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h e d e a n oafc o l l e g e w a s a l s o a p r o f e s s o r , b u t t o dt h ae y y a r eu s u a l l y p r o f e s s i o n a l administrators. I n t h e e x a m p l e , t h emyu s t r e f e r t o d e a n , b u t d e a n i s s i n g u l a r a n d t h e y i s p l u r a l - a n e T rhreosr .e n t e n c e c a n b e c o r r c c t e d i n e i t h e ro f t w o w a y s : b y c h a n g i n gt h ef i r s t c l a u s et o t h ep l u r a lo r b y c h a n g i n gt h es e c o n dc l a u s et o t h es i n g u l a r : Historically,collegedeanswerealsoprofessors, .... . . . the deanis usuallya professional administrator.
WATCH
FOR PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT AND SHIFTING SUBJECT
If the antecedent is plural, the is singular,the pronounmust be singular;if the antecedent pronounmust be plural. Additionally,watchfor errorof shifting subject:a correctsentence doesnot containany shiftsof pronounperson.
, ACT Bestc GRetnrueRREViEw C-7 4 . P R O N O U N SM U S T H A V E P R O P E R C A S E A pronounhascase,number,person,andgender,andmust agreewith its antecedent in these.The pronoun's functionin a sentence determineswhich caseshouldbe used. Therearefour typesof pronouncase: subjective, objective,possessive, and interrogative.
TYPES OF PRONOUN CASE l.
Subjective(nominative)casepronounsare usedas subjectsof sentences.
2.
Objectivecasepronounsare usedas objects (directobjects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions).If a prepositionalphraseendswith a pronoun, then it must be an objectivepronoun.
3.
Possessivecasepronounsare used to show possession.Use a possessivepronoun precedinga gerund. A gerundis the -ing form of a verb.
4.
Interrogative casepronounsareusedwhenaskingquestions.
The following examplesillustratethe conect useof pronouncase: ExampLes: Subjective: / thoughtlie would like the gift we bought. Objective: The choicefor the promotionis betweenBob and me. (The object pronounnre follows the prepositionbetween.) Possessive:Do you mind riryusingyour computer? (The possessivepronounrny precedesthe gerundusing.) Interrogative: Whosediny dishesare these?
EXAMPLES SUBJECTIVECASE Singular Plural lst Person: I we 2nd Person: you 3 r d P e r s o n :h e , s h e ,i t they Interrogative: who who
OF PRONOUN CASE OBJECTIVECASE Plural Singular
me you him,her,it
us you them
whom
whom
POSSESSIVECASE Singular Plura! our my t your his,her,its their whose whose
Somepronounsare singularor plural,while otherscan be both. The structureand intendedmeaningof the sentence indicatewhetherthe pronounis singularor plural.
AND/OR PLURAL PRONOUNS -another, Singular: anybody, everybody,everything, somebody, something, nobody,one,anyone,everyone,someone,no one,each,every,neither, either.much. SINGULAR
Plural: both, few, many,most,several Singular& Plural: all, any, half, more,none,some
C-8 ACT Basrc GRerravaR Revmw Technically,pronounsaredividedinto the followingeightformalcategories:
FORMAL
CATEGORIES OF PRONOUNS
P e r s o n a l :I , w e , m y , m i n e , o u r , o u r s , m e , u s , y o u , y o u r , y o u r s , h e , s h e , i t , t h e y ,h i s , h e r s ,i t s , t h e i r ,t h e i r s ,h i m , h e r , i t , t h e m Demonstrative: this, these,that,those Indefinite: all, any, anything, both, each, eirher, one, everyone, everybody, somebody,everything,sometlring,few, many, more, neither,none, someone Relative: who, whose,whom, which, of which, that,of that, what, of what Interrogative: who, whose,whom, which,of which, what, of what Nunterical: one,two, three,first, second,third Reflexive/[ntensive:myself, ourselves,yourself, yourselves,himself, herself, itself, themselves Reciprocal: eachother,one,another
While it is nof necessary for testpurposesthatyou know the namesof tlreindividualcategoriesiind which pronouns bclongin which categories.However,throughyour expericnce in conversation and writing, you shouldbe ableto colrectlyuseeachtype ofpronoun andyou shouldhavethe ability to spotwheneachtype of pronounis incorrectly used. Example: Many of the studentswhichwereparticipatingin the spellingbec had beenfinalistslastyear. In the aboveexatnple,the pronounwhich rcfersto Many of the studentsand is the incorrectpronounchoice. Instead, the sentenceshouldread Many . . . who werepa,rticipating ....
C . AD J EC T IV E S V E R S U SA D VERBS Adjectivesare usedto modify nouns,while adverbsareusedto modify verbsor adjectives. Example: No matterhow quick he played,fuch neverbeatJuliewhen playing"speed." l n t h e a b o v e e x a m p lqeu i c k i s i n t e n d e d t o m o d i f y t h e s p e e d w i r h w h i c h R i c h p l a y e JHc oa r vdes v. e r , q u i c k i s a n a d j e c t i v e a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t b e u s e d t o m o d i f y aBvyeardbd. i n g - / y t o t h e e n d oqf u i c k w e c a n t r a n s f o r m i t i n t o . a n adverband the sentencereads:No motterhow quicklyheplayed. . . .
WATCH FOR ADJECTIVE-ADVERB SWITCHING Be alertfor adjectivesposing in placeof adverbsand vice versa. Adjectivescan usually be transformed into adverbsby adding-/y to theend ofthe adjective.
D . D O U B L E N E GA T IV E S It is true that we all hearand sometimessaydoublenegativesin daily conversation.However,doublenegatives arenot acceptable in standardwrittenEnglish. Example: I hadn'thardlybegunto understand Spanishwheni had to move again.
ACT BASIC GBaVUaR REVIEW C_9 The phrasehadn't hardly is a double negative.The sentenceshould read:I had hardly begunto understand. . . .
WATCH FOR DOUBLE NEGATIVES (notbarely,hardlynothing)-theyarealwaysincorrect Be alertfor doublenegatives
E . N O U N S A N D N OU N C L A USES N o u n s a r e n a m e s o f p e o p l e , p l a c e s , t h i n g s , o rti h d e yaas r; e u s e d t o i n d i c a t e w h a t t h e s e n t e n c e i s aLbiokuet . nounshavecase. Dronouns.
TYPES OF NOUN CASE l.
Objectivecaseis usedwhen the nounis an indirector directobject or is the object of a preposition.
2.
Nominativecaseis usedwhen the noun is the subjectof the sentence.
3.
Possessive caseis usedwhen nounsareintendedto show oossessiorr.
Sometimesthe placeof the nounin a sentenceis filled by a nounclauseinsteadof a singlenoun. Exarnple: That Judy was chosenfor the promotior is not surprising. The failureto properlyintroducea nounclauseis an errorof sentencestructure.That by itself is not the noun,nor is Judyvta.schosenforthepromotionanH o uonw. e v e r , t h e t w o c o m b i n e d c r e a t e a n o u n c l a u s c a n d f u n c t i o n a s t t r e n o u n .
RULB FOR INTRODUCING NOUN CLAUSES . Thatshouldbe A noun clauseis a groupof wordsthat functionsas the subjectof a sentence usedto introducenounclauses.
E-ramples: Why Americancar manufacturersdid not reducethe size of their cars earlierthan they did is a Inystery to most marketexperts. timbreofthe saxophonecan The reasonthe saxophone is a popularjazzinstrumentisbecause-the approxintatethat of the humanvoice. a noun clauseis Theseexamplesmake the error of introducinga nounclausewith Why andbecause.In both sentences, required.so that shouldhavebeenusedin bothcases.
WATCH FOR BECAUSE,WHY, AND WHERE AS INTRODUCTIONS TO NOUN CLAUSES why,or where. Nounclauses mustbeintroduced by that,notbecause,
C-10 ACT Bnsrc GRqvrrreR Rpvrpw
II. ANALYZING SENTENCESTRUCTURE When analyzingthe structureof a sentence, ask yourselffour things;
CHECKLIST
FOR ANALYZING
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
L
Are the elementsof the sentenceparaliel?
2.
Are thereany incompletesplit constructions?
3.
Do the verb tensescorrectlyreflectthe sequenceofevents?
4.
Doesthe sentence containa commaspliceor fusedsentence?
A. FAULTY PARALLELISM Faultyparallelismis a grammaticalerrorquitecommonfor writers. Wheneverelementsof a sentence perfonn similaror equalfunctions,they shouldhavethe sameform. Considerthe following incorrectexamples: Examples: At most colleges,the dominantattitudeamongstudentsis that gainingadmissionto professional graduateschool is more impor'rantthan to obtain a well-roundededucation. To demandthat additionalseasonings be placedon the tableis insultingthe chet-sjudgment on the properbalanceof ingredients. The review was very criticalof the film, citing the poor photography, the weak plot, and the dialogue was stilted. In the first example,gaining adnrissiottandto obtainmustboth have the sarneform. Either both must be in the infinitive fonn or both must bc in the gerundform. For example:gaining atlmission. . . is nroreimportantthun obtaining.... In the secondexample,the subject(to demand)and thepredicated complement(insulting)mustbothhavethe same f o r m : T o d e n r u n d .. . i s t o i n s u l t . . . . In the third example,eachelementin the seriesof badfeaturesshouldhavettiesameform: thepoor photography, the weakplot, and the stilteddialogue.
ALL
ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE MUST BE PARALLEL
Check that all elementsof a sentence are parallel;including verb forms, noun forms, and word pairssuch as this . . . that,either. . . or. andneither. . . nor.
REvTEwC-11 ACT BesTCGRAMMAR B . INCONIPLETE SPLIT CONSTRUCTIONS Split constructions referto phrasesin which a thought,interruptedby interveningmaterial,is to be completed laterin the sentence. ExampLe: The officialswerenot only awareof, but actuallyencouraged, the misreportingof scores. T h i s s e n t e n c e c o n t a i n s a p e r f e c t l y a c c e p t a b l e s p l i t c o n s t r uOcrtdi oi nna. r i l y , t h e o b j e c t o f a p r e p o s i t i o n c l o s e l y f o l l o w s . . . aware of the misreporting.Here,the objectof the prepositionis separated the preposition'. from the prepositionby the phrasebut actuallyencouraged.This is unobjectionable as long as the thoughtis properlycompleted.Thereis a danger,hor.r,ever, that the interveningmaterialwill throw somethingoff.
SPLIT CONSTRUCTIONS MUST BE COMPLETED A split constructionis a sentence structurein which two otherwiseseparate ideasarejoined togetherby a later element. Be alert for split constructionsand check that any intemrpted thoughtis correctlycompleted.
Considerthe followingfauLtysenlences-theyaremissingnecessary commas: Exantples: Opponentsof the President's foreignpolicy disclosedyesterdaythat the CIA not only knew but tacitly encouraged terroristactivitiesin CentralAmerica. Her colleagues alwaysspeakof ProfessorCollinsas a personwho hasand will alwaysbc sensitiveto the needsof youngerstudents. Judgingfrom the pricingpoliciesof many largecorporations, maintaininga stableshareof the nrarket is as important,if not more importantthan,makinga largeprofit. I n e a c h o f t h e s e e x a m p l e s t h e r e i s a n e r r o r o f s p l i t c o n s t r uTcht ieorne.i s a m i s s i n g p r e p o s i t i o n i n t h e f i r s t s c n t e n c e . The CIA did not know the terroristactivities,ratherit knew o/the activities. I n t h e s e c o n d s e n t e n c e , t h e e r r o r i s i n t h e vTehr b e .a u x i l i a r y v e r b f t a s n e e d s t h e v e r b b e e n , b u l b e e n d o c s n o t appearin the sentence.The sentence could be correctedby completingtheconstruction: . . . l'Las beettand vvillalways be.... In the third sentence, the error is an incompletecomparison.The sentcnceshouldread. . . as intportatttas, if not ntr.sre inrportantIhail . - . .
CHECKING
FOR SPLIT CONSTRUCTIONS
It is the interveningmaterial that makes errors of split constructiondifficult to spot. Therefore,when checkingsplit constructions,read the sentencewithout the intervening material-it shouldmakesense,be grammaticallycorrect,and be a completesentence.
C-Iz ACT.Be.sIcGRAMMAR Revmw
:
C. SBQUENCEAND VERB TENSE T h e c h o i c e o f v e r b t e n s e i n a c o n e c t l y w r i t t e n s e n t e n c e r e f l e c t s t h e s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s d eTshcerfi ob lel od w . ing examplescontainverb tenseerrors: Examples: As soon as Linda finished writing her dissertation,she wil/ take a well-earnedvacationin paris. A recentstudy showsthat many mothersreenterthe labor force after their children left home. In the first example,both the writing and the vacationmustbe placedin the sametime frame. As written, the sentence placesthe two actionsin different,unconnectedtime frames. Dependingon whetherLinda has alreadycompletedthe dissertation,the sentencecould be correctedin eitherof two wayi: As soonas Linda finisheswriting herdissertation, shewill takea well-earnedvacationin Paris. As soon as Linda finished writing her dissertation,she took a well-earnedvacationin Paris. The first sentencestatesihat neithereventhasyet occurredand that the writing will precedevacation. The second sentencestatesthat the eventsare completedand that the writing precededthe vacation. In the secondexample,the verb /e/ is inconect. The verbreenteris describinga present,ongoing action. The sentence can be correctedby makingit clearthatchildrenleavinghomeis alsoa preienfphenomenon: A recentstudy showsthat many mothersreenterthe labor force after their children leavehome. A recentstudy showsthat many mothersreenterthe labor force after their children have left home. Eithersentenceis acceptable sinceboth make it clearthatthe leavinghomeis not a completedpastactionbut an o n g o t n gp n e n o m e n o n .
WATCH
FOR SHIFTING VERB TENSE
Make surethat verb tensesproperlyreflectthe sequence, as well as theduration,of any acrion describedin the sentence.
.
:.
ACT BASICGRAMMARREVIEW C- i 3
III. PROBLEMSOF LOGICAL EXPRESSION Ask yourself the following five questionswhen checkingthe logical expressionof a sentence:
CHECKLIST
FOR LOGICAL
EXPRESSION ERRORS
l.
Does the sentencecontaina faulty or illogical comparison?
2.
Does the sentencemaintainconsistentverb tenses?
3.
Does the sentencecontainany misplacedmodifiers?
4.
Does the sentenceactuallyconveythe intendedmeaning?
5.
Is the sentenceclearandconcise?
A. FAULTY OR ILLOGICAL COMPARISONS One problemof logicalexpressionis faulty or illogicalcomparisons.A faulty comparisonis the atremptto comparetwo things that cannot logically be compared. Considerthe following faulty examples Exantples: Today, life expectancies of both men and women are much higher comparedto the turn of the century when living conditionsweremuch harsher. The averagesalaryof a professional playeris higherthanthe top-levelmanagement basketball of most corporatrons. A comparisoncan only be madebetweenlike items. Yet, in the first sentence we seean attemptto comparelife expectancieswith the turn of the century-two dissimilarconcepts.The sentenceis conectedby simply adding the phrasethoseol Now we have life expectancies comparedto life expectancies, and that is a logical comparison. We find the sameerror in the secondsentence.There,an attemptis made to compareaveragesalaryto 'I-he managelnent. error can be correctedin the sameway as in the first example: . . . is higher than thoseof the toplevelmanagement....
WATCH
FOR ILLOGICAL
COMPARISONS
Be alertfor sentences which attemptto makean illogicalcomparisonbetween wo dissimilar items.
B. VERB TENSE A secondfairly common problemof logic-alexpressionis poor choice of verb tense.
WATCH FOR INCONSISTENTVERB TENSES Makesurethatverbtenses properlyreflecttheorderanddurationof actiondescribed.
C-14 ACT BaSTCGRAMMAR REVTEw
C . U N I N TE N D E D ME A N IN GS Another problemin the categoryof logicalexpression actuallysayswhat it intendsto say. is whetherthe sentence Often, sentenceswill intend to say one thing but actuallysay another: Examples: A childlesscharwoman'sdaughter,Dr. Robertswas a self-madewoman. If the presentinterestratesfall drastically,the dollar will losemuch of its valueon the foreign exchanse. Both of thesesentencesmay seemat first plausible,but a closerreadingwill show that eachcontainsan error of logical expression.The first exampleis actuallyself-contradictory.As written, it assertsthat Dr. Robertswas the daughterof a childlesscharwoman. In that case,Dr. Robertswould indeedhavebeena self-madewomanl What the sentence intendsto say aboutDr. Robertsis thatshewas bothchildlessandthe daughterof a charwoman. The secondsentence is a bit more subtle. It suggests that presentinterestratescan change,but that is internally inconsistent,for if the interestratechanges,the result is a new interestrate-not a changedpresentrate. The sentence can easilybe correctedby deletingthe wordpresent. In this category,thereare as many possibleexamplesas therearepossibleerrorsin humanreasoning.Therefore, when checkingfor intendedmeaning,just askyourselfwhat the logic of the sentence implies.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE MAY
OBSCURE INTENDED
MEANING
From the logical structureo[ the sentence,determinewhether the sentenceassertswhat it i n t e n d st o s a v .
D. CONCISENESS Thereareendless possibilities for conciseness errors.Several examples areillustrated below. 1 . A V O I D A W K W A R D S E N T E N C E SA N D P A S S I V E V E R B S A sentence may be grammatically and logicallycorrectandyet be in needof correctionbecauseit is awkward. Examples: The giantcondoris ableto spreadits wings up to 25 feet.(Poor) The giantcondorhasa wingspanof up to 25 feet.(Better) Althoughmoststudentswould benefitfrom furtherstudyof the sciences, doing so is frighteningto most of them in thatsciencecoursesaremoredifficult thanliberalartscourses.(Poor) Althoughmost studentswould benefitfrom furtherstudyof the sciences, mostof them areafraidto take suchcoursesbecausethey aremore difficult than liberalartscourses.(Better) Giventhat the Incaslackedthe wheel,the buildingsat MachuPicchuaremore astonishingthanany Greektemplesthat arecomparableas an achievement.(Poor) Giventhat the Incaslackedthe wheel,the buildingsat Machu Picchuaremore astonishingthanany comparableGreektemple.(Befter) In eachcase,the secondsentenceis lessawkwardand clearlyrendersthe intendedthought. A common erroramongwritersis the useof the passiveverb. Eachof the following examplescontainingthe use of the weak passiveverb is then followed by a suggestedcorrectionthat rendersthe sentenceboth clear and concise. Examples: The unemploymentratebeing 4Vo,thereare as many openjobs as therearejob seekers.(Awkward) When the unemployment rateis 4Vo,thereareas manyopenjobs as therearejob seekers.(Better)
ACT BASIC GRAMMAR REVIEW C- 15 Aliens,unlikecitizens,beingunableto vote,havelittle voice in Americanpolitics.(Awkward) Becausealiens,unlike citizens,arenot ableto vote,they havelittle voice in Americanpolitics.(Better) One-fourthof the marketwas capturedby the new computerfirm. (Awkward) The new computerfirm capturedone-fourthof the market.(Better)
AVOID
PASSIVE VERBS
Any verb constructionusing a form of the verb be in addition the active verb is called a passiveverb. Use of the passiveverb is unacceptable and shouldbe avoided.
2.
AVOID
NEEDLESSLY
WORDY
SENTENCES
Occasionally, an originalsentence will be incorrectsimplybecause wordy. it is needlessly Exantples: The protracteddiscussionover which route to takecontinuedfor a long time. (Wordy) The discussionover which routeto takecontinuedfor a long time. (Better) A aim of the proposalis chieflyto ensureandguarantce the academicfreedomof students.(Wordy) A aim of the proposalis to guaranteethe academicfreedomof students.(Better) To be protractedis to be continuedover a long period;to be a principleaim is to be a chief aim, and to ensurcis to guarantee.Thereforeeachoriginal is needlesslywordy.
E. MISPLACED MODIFIERS Anothererrorof logicalexpression is the infamousmisplacedmodifier. Generally,a modifiershouldbe placedas closeto what it modifiesas possible.A modifier which is too t-arfrom what it is intendedto modify or too closeto someotherimportantelementwill seemto modify the wrongpart of the sentence.Considerthe following faulty sentences: ExampLes: Stuffedwith herbdressing,trussedneatly,andbakedto a goldenhue,Aunt Fannieproudlyservedher famoushoiidayturkey. The doctorsaidgentlyto the patientthattherewas nothingwrong with a smile. At the tailgateparty,Fredservedcold beerto his thirstygueslsin papercups. (hat As for the first example,poor Aunt Fannie! The proximityof the introductorymodifier to Aunt Fanniesuggests Aunt Fanniewas stuffed,trussed,and baked.The sentence canbe correctedby relocatingthe modifyingphrase: Aunt Fannieproudlyservedher famousholidayturkey,stuffedwith herbdressing,trussedneatly,and bakedto a goldenhue. The secondexampleis ambiguousandcould meaneitherthat thereis nothingwrong with smiling or that the doctorsaid with a smile that nothingwas wrong with the patient. phrasein paper cupsimpliesthat it is the guests Finally, in the third example,the locationof the prepositional who are in the papercups,not the beer. The sentence can be correctedby repositioningthe modifyingphraseso that it is closerto what it is intendedto modify: At the tailgateparty,Fredservedcold beerin papercupsto his thirstyguests.
WATCH
FOR MISPLACE MODIFIERS
Be alert for sentenceswith ambiguousor incorrectmodification. Correctmisplacedmodifiers by placingthem as closeas possibleto whatthe modifiermodifies.
_
ACT BASrcGR+MMan_\evmw C-17
IV. IDIOMS AND CLARITY OF EXPRESSION An expressionthat is not idiomaticis one that is not acceptable Englishfor any of severalreasons.
CHECKLIST FOR IDIOMATIC EXPRESSION ERRORS l. WrongPrepositions 2. Diction 3. GerundversusInfinitive 4. Ambiguityin Scope 5. Low-levelUsage
A. W R ON G P R E P OS IT ION S In standardwrittenEnglish,only certainprepositions can be usedwith certainverbs. Knowledgeof which prepositionsto use with which verbs shouldbe familiar to studentsdue to daily conversationand writing in standard w r i t t e nE n g l i s h . Exantple:
I askedhim repeatedlyif he was from abouthere,but he neveransweredme.
The phrasewasfrom about here is not correct. ,/ou shouldknow from habit that the correctphrasingis: he wasfront arotrndhere....
B. DICTION The secondcategoryof idiomaticexpression will errorsinvolvesdiction,i.e.,word choice. Sometimesa sentence be incorrectbecausea word is usedinconectly. This occurswhen a constructionis simply not idiomatic: the phraseis not acceptableaccordingto standardusage. Example: The techniquesof empiricalobservationin the social sciences are different fhan those in the physicai sciences. This exampleis improvedby replacingthanwithfron. Rewritten,the sentencereads:Thetechniquesof empirical observationin the social sciencesare differentfront thosein the physical sciences. A variation on this theme usespairsof words that are often inconectly used: Examples: Johnexpressed his intentionto makethe trip, but f he will actuallygo is doubtful. (Wrong) Johnexpressed his intentionto makethe trip, but whetherhe will actuallygo is doubtful. (Conect) Social sciencediffers from physicalsciencebecausesocialeventsare not able to be measured.(Wrong) S o c i a l s c i e n c e d i f f e r s f r o m p h y s isccai e l n c e b e c a u s e s o c i a l e v e n t s a r e n o t c a p a b l e o f m e a s u r(eCnot rernelc. t ) Herbertdivided the cakeamongMay and Sally. (Wrong) Herbertdivided the cakebetweenMay and Sally. (Conect) Herbertdivided the cakebetweenMary, Sally, and himself. (Wrong) Herbertdivided the cakeamongMary, Sally, and himself. (Conect)
C-18 ACTBasrc GnauueR REVIEW The amountof studentsin the classdeclinedas the semesterprogressed.(Wrong) The numberof studentsin the classdeclinedas the semesterprogressed.(Better) Therearelessstudentsin ProfessorSmith'sclassthantherearein ProfessorJones'class. (Wrong) There are fewer studentsin ProfessorSmith's classthan thereare in ProfessorJones'class. (Better) Somesentences areincorrectbecausetheyusea word thatdoesnot meanwhat is intended.The confusionis understandable becauseof the similarity betweenthe correctand thechosenword.
WATCH
FOR INAPPROPRIATE DICTION
Be alert for inappropriateword choiceincluding non-idiomaticusageand commonly misused words.
C . G ER U N D S V E R S U S IN F IN ITIVBS The infinitive is the ro form of a verb and the gerundthe-ing form of a verb. Both may be usedas nouns. In s o m ec i r c u m s t a n c oy so u c a n u s ee i t h e r : ExantpLe: Adding an extra room to the houseis the next project. To add an extra room to the houseis the next project In this example,eachsentence gerundand infinitive arenot is co "ect. However,in somecircumstances, i nterchan seable.
WATCH
FOR GERUND.INFINITIVE
SWITCHING
Be alert for situationsin which the infinitive form of the verb has beenswitchedwith the gerundform, or vice versa,whenit is not appropriate usagein standardwrittenEnglish.
D . AM B I GU IT Y IN S C OP E Watch for ambiguityin scope.T'hisoccurswhen thereis no cleardivisionbetrween two ideas,so that the ideas seemto merge. Considerthe following incorrectsentences: Exarnples: After the anest,the accusedwas chargedwith resistingarrestand criminal fraud. The recentchangesin the tax law will affectprimarily workerswho wait tablesin restaurants, operateconcessions in publicplaces,anddrive taxis. In the first example,the scopeof resistingis not clear. The sentence can be read(o assefithat the accusedwas charged w i t h r e s i s t i n g c r i m i n a l f r a uTdh.e i n t e n d e d s c o p e c a n b e m a d e c l e a r b y i n s e r t i n g a w i t h ' . . . . c h a r g e d w i t h r e s i s t i n g arrest and with criminalfraud. This indicatesthat thereare two separateideas,not one. In the secondexample,the useof and seemsto tie threeseparate ideastogether;that is, it is thoservorkerswho do all threejobs who will be aff'ected---
