fifty years since the establishment of Israel, the Arabic spoken by Palestinians who became citizens of the State Israel started absorbing many items from Hebrew ...
Ivrit Loanwords in Arabic Muhammad Amara, Beit berl Academic College 1. Introduction Whereas, historically, Hebrew was extensively influenced by Arabic, especially during the Middle Ages, with the result that many lexical items from Arabic entered Hebrew, during the last fifty years since the establishment of Israel, the Arabic spoken by Palestinians who became citizens of the State Israel started absorbing many items from Hebrew.
2. Knowledge and Use of Hebrew Though the Palestinian-Arabs in Palestine began their contact with the Jews even before the establishment of Israel, the extensive contact started following the establishment of Israel in 1948. Between 1948 and 1966 the encounter was limited to young Palestinian-Arab men coming in contact Israeli Jews at work. The military government which was in place over the Palestinian-Arabs limited direct contact with the Israeli Jewish population not just in work places but also in other areas. Today, however, in Israel, there is intensive contact with Jews almost daily in all areas of life: at work, in institutions of higher education, in government offices, in health institutions, and even, though minimally, in social relations. Without taking into account age, gender or education, most of the Palestinians in Israel know and use Hebrew. Modern Israeli Hebrew has become an important language in the linguistic repertoire of the Palestinian-Arabs in Israel. While the purpose of teaching Hebrew to Jewish immigrants is to replace their original languages with Hebrew, the purpose of teaching Hebrew to Palestinian-Arabs is additive, teaching Hebrew as an additional language.
For most Palestinian-Arabs, Hebrew is considered the most important second language, even more than English, and at times and in some domains more so than Arabic (Shohamy & Donitsa-Schmidt 1998; Amara and Mar'i 2002). Not knowing Hebrew handicaps a PalestinianArab in Israel, especially in contact with government offices, in employment and in higher education. Hebrew is learned formally and informally. Since Hebrew is one Israel's two official languages, the Palestinian-Arabs in Israel learn it as the language of the state (Winter 1981; Hallel & Spolsky 1993). Indeed, Hebrew is studied in Arabic-medium schools from the third grade- and in many schools even from the second grade- but the influences of the non-formal studies and the external contacts are much greater (Reves 1983) thanks to the continuous contact with the Israeli Jews. All age groups maintain contact with the Israeli Jews at different levels and degrees. Therefore, the use of Hebrew words, phrases and even expressions is common among Palestinian-Arabs in Israel. The extent of this use reflects the level of familiarity of the Palestinian in Israel with Israeli Jewish culture (Amara 1986, 1995; Amara & Spolsky 1986). The degree of proficiency in speaking is the result of the extent and efficacy of the connection with the Jewish society. For example, Palestinian-Arabs in the cities (such as Haifa, Jaffa, Ramla, and Lydda) and also Druze Arabs and the Bedouins who serve in the army use more Hebrew lexical items in their Arabic more than other Palestinian-Arabs. (Abu Rabi’a 1996: 7) Hebrew for the Palestinian-Arabs in Israel is getting stronger and stronger both at the qualitative level– higher levels of knowledge of the various varieties of Hebrew– and the quantitative level – the number of speakers and the frequency of speaking it. 3. Hebrew loanwords
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Palestinian-Arabs in Israel come in daily contact with the Hebrew language and Israeli Jewish culture, not only in speech, but also with the written varieties of the language, such as the literary, the scientific and journalistic. Consequently, the spoken Arabic, in Israel absorbs words constantly from the various varieties of Hebrew in different domains of life (Mar'i, 1998). Among the Palestinian-Arab population there is an increasing trend to borrow words from Hebrew and integrate them into their native language, Arabic. This phenomenon is not specific to a particular level in the Palestinian-Arab society, but is spread throughout all levels and ages. It is especially salient among academics. Integrating Hebrew words into Arabic is not considered alien but constitutes an integral part of the spoken language. Based on various studies carried out by Amara (1986, 1991, 1995, 1999a, 1999b), BenRafael (1994), Badeir (1990), and Koplewitz (1990), on Hebrew lexical integration, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. Hebrew is now the main source of innovation, not just for Hebrew words but also for original English words. 2. The level of diffusion and integration of Hebrew items differs according to domain: In the traditional domains (such as kinship and animal names) there is little influence from Hebrew. In modern domains (such as transport and electricity) there is extensive borrowing from Hebrew. Mixed domains (such as construction and health services), which existed before contact with Hebrew, but in which change has occurred as a result of this contact, show appropriate intermediate levels of integration of Hebrew items. 3. The levels of diffusion and integration of Hebrew items differ according to the social characteristics of the individual: education and the opportunity for outside contact are the main sources of borrowing. The brokers of Hebrew diffusion are those who work outside their places
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of residence and their children, and those who go to school and especially those who pursue higher education in Israeli Jewish institutions. Though Palestinians in Israel code-switch frequently from Arabic to Hebrew in many topics (e.g. shopping, construction, electricity, health care, transportation, schooling),
the
reported items in this lemma are cases of borrowing. The borrowing from Hebrew is from all speech categories. Most of the studies show (though there are no comprehensive studies showing the frequency of the various types used) that nouns are the most frequent words borrowed. How are items borrowed from Hebrew into Arabic? 1. There are many words borrowed from Hebrew into Arabic without any change, preserving their Hebrew phonological form and meaning. Examples: deši (grass), širutīm (toilets), eisik (business), m alit (elevator), bagrūt (matriculation examination), šalat (remote control), otomāt (automatic), originally borrowed into Hebrew from English. Notice that the Hebrew form is borrowed into Arabic and not the English one. In the West Bank and Gaza Strip, they use the form otomātīc, revealing a direct borrowing from English 2. The are many borrowed words that were modified to fit Arabic phonology and morphology, but preserve the original Hebrew meaning. Examples:
The modified form- Arabic jit`t`abbal ijšaxbel jimra
The original word-Hebrew
Gloss
jitapel jišaxpel jimrā
To take care To duplicate To smear
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Notice that the borrowed words are verbs. 3. There are borrowed words from Hebrew that may be used with both Hebrew and Arabic suffixes. The use of one suffix or another depends on the social characteristic of the speaker and context. Highly educated people, for instance, tend to use the Hebrew suffix in most contexts and words. Examples: Borrowed word Borrowed word + Borrowed word + Gloss Arabic Suffix Hebrew suffix tlūš\ ?itlūš ?itluš+āt tlūš+īm Coupon Roadblock ma som ma som+āt or ma som+īm mā asīm
4. Not only single words are borrowed but also phrases. Examples: ta anāt delek (gasoline station), bank diskont (Discount Bank),
i:r ta tīt (Downtown),
5. There are many loan-translations borrowed from Hebrew into both the spoken and the written varieties of Arabic. Examples: Hebrew
Arabicloan translation avar et hab inah abar ilimti ān sagar et ha iskāh sakkar iskāh gijūs iksafīm taģnīd amwāl
The accepted use in Arabic naģa fi ilimti ān i mil iskāh istiqtāb amwāl
Gloss He passed the test He has made a deal Recruiting money
6. There are words that did not exist in Arabic and were borrowed from Hebrew as loantranslations. These are mainly academic or scientific terms. Hebrew has originally borrowed many of these words from English and Arabic in Israel borrowed them from Hebrew. I assume in other Arab dialects these words were originally borrowed from either English or French. Examples: Hebrew tahli:x
Arabic: loan-translation sajrūra
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Gloss Process
mašov mipūj
Feedback test surveying
imti ān ?al-mardūd mas
7. It is important to note that many of the words borrowed from Hebrew and preserving Hebrew forms, are also used in the written varieties of Arabic in Israel, mainly in newspapers. Frequently used words: bagrūt (matriculation exam), ramzor (traffic light), histadrūt (federal organization of workers) kupāt olīm (clinic). 8. There is also the expansion of the meaning of existing words in Arabic by borrowing new meanings from Hebrew. Examples: ) نقال (נייד, )عتبة (בחינת סף Hebrew najad bi inat sāf
Arabic Nakkāl imti ān il- atabah
Gloss Cello phone Placement test
9. Borrowing items not familiar in the Arab world. Examples: Hebrew
Arabic in Israel
mufattiš mudīr madrasah ibtidā ijjah bēt-sefer jisodi bēt-sefer tixon Madrasah i dādijjah lou lō misrād ha inūx wizārat altarbijjah wa- altalim vihatarbūt mifakē menahēl
Arabic in the Arab World muwaģģih fanni nāđir madrasah asāsijjah
Gloss
madrasah muţawasiţah sabbourah wizārat altarbijjah waalta līm
High school
Inspector Headmaster Elementary school
Blackboard Ministery of Education
4. Conclusion Hebrew is now the main source of innovation, not just for Hebrew words but also for original English words. The various linguistic aspects borrowed from Hebrew into Arabic in Israel reveal that borrowing is not only motivated by need-filling, but it is also motivated by taboo and
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prestige related-words. We have also shown various types of loanwords: loanwords preserving original Hebrew form and meaning in Arabic, loan translations, borrowing of both single words and also phrases and expressions. However, in spite of the increasing use of Hebrew features in the Palestinian Arabic in Israel, the existing tension between the Israeli and Palestinian identities among the PalestinianArabs (because of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the definition and perception of Israel as a Jewish state, and the physical separation of Palestinians and Jews in patterns of settlement) has limited the convergence to the Hebrew language and the language of the dominant Jewish culture in Israel. The Palestinian-Arabs in Israel opted for the strategy of linguistic integration rather than linguistic assimilation. On the one hand, they attempt to acquire high socio-linguistic competency in Hebrew in order to be connected to and easily function in the wider social network mainly shaped by the majority culture, but on the other hand they preserve their Palestinian-Arab identity by maintaining their Arabic mother tongue (Amara 2002). The nature of loanwords and their types from Hebrew in Palestinian-Arabic in Israel give support to the conclusion that: most of the borrowed items are lexical items, mainly nouns, and the borrowing of Hebrew morphemes is minimal, and so far no influences on Arabic syntax have been documented.
References Abu-Rabi’a, Salim. 1996. "Learning Hebrew in Israel: The relationship of attitudes, cultural background, and interest of material to reading comprehension in a second language". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 17 (5). 1-12. Amara, Muhammad Hasan. 1986. The Integration of Hebrew and English Lexical Items into the Arabic Spoken in an Arab Village in Israel. MA Thesis, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan.
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Amara, Muhammad Hasan .1991. Sociolinguistic Aspects of Variation and Change: A Study of the Languages Spoken in an Arab Village in Israel. Ph.D. Dissertation, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan. Amara, Muhammad Hasan. 1995. "Hebrew and English lexical reflections of socio-political changes in Palestinian Arabic". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 15, (6). 165-172. Amara, Muhammad Hasan. 1999a. "Hebrew and English borrowings in Palestinian Arabic in Israel: A sociolinguistic study in lexical integration and diffusion". Language and Society in the Middle East and North Africa, ed. by Yasir Suleiman, 81-103. London: Curzon Press. Amara, Muhammad Hasan. 1999b. Politics and Sociolinguistic Reflexes: Border Palestinian Villages. Amsterdam-Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Amara, Muhammad Hasan. 2002. "Hebrew among the Arabs in Israel: Sociolinguistic aspects". Teuda 18. 85-105. (In Hebrew) Amara, Muhammad H. and Mari, Abd Al-Rahman. 2002. Language Education Policy: The Arab Minority in Israel. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishing. Amara, Muhammad Hasan and Spolsky, Bernard .1986. "The diffusion and integration of Hebrew and English lexical items in spoken Arabic in an Israeli village". Anthropological Linguistics 28 (1). 43-58. Badeir, Salih. 1990. Positions and Exposure to the Target Language and the Connection between these and Success in Learning a Second Language. MA thesis, Tel Aviv University (Hebrew). Ben-Rafael, Eliezer. 1994. Language, Identity and Social Division: The Case of Israel. Oxford Studies in Language Contact. Hallel, Michael and Spolsky, Bernard. 1993. “The teaching of additional languages in Israel.” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13. 37-49. Koplewitz, Immanuel. 1990. "The use and integration of Hebrew lexemes in Israel spoken Arabic". Multilingual Matters 71. 181-95. Mar’i, ‘Abd Al-Rahman. 1998. "The status of Arabic and Hebrew in the past and the present". Al-Risala 7. 257-276. (Arabic)
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Reves, Thea .1983. What makes a good language learner? Personal characteristics contributing to successful language acquisition. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Shohamy, Elana and Donitsa-Schmidt, Smadar. 1998. Jews vs. Arabs: Language Attitudes and Stereotypes. Tel Aviv: The Tami Steinmetz Center for Peace Research, Tel Aviv University. Winter, Michael. 1981. "Basic Problems in the Educational System". The Arabs in Israel: Continuity and Change, ed. by Ahron Lish, 168-79. Jerusalem: Magnes Press. (Hebrew)
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