Heinemann Biology Preliminary Teacher Edition - Pearson Australia

Learning outcomes This is a practical chapter with a focus on increasing students’ understanding of the practical applications of environmental biology and the study of ecosystems. Students learn to collect and analyse data and to work in teams. Discussion of environmental issues should be based on scientific principles and contribute to the development of caring and ethical behaviours towards the environment.

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This chapter increases students’ understanding of the nature, practice and applications of biology.

Resources Teacher support

An ecosystem is any environment containing living organisms that interact with each other and with the non-living parts of the environment.

A syllabus mapping document that provides an overview of how the syllabus is covered in the Heinemann Biology Third Edition Preliminary student book is available on the Teacher Lounge and on Pearson Reader at www.pearsonplaces.com.au.

The size of a population of organisms does not remain constant in an ecosystem. Populations can increase or decline dramatically. The contributing factors for this variation include disease, predation, competition, availability of resources, and increasing human activity and interference. Humans often disturb natural ecosystems to meet their own needs. The clearing of vast areas of forests and woodlands for agriculture is one example.

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Not all schools commence the Preliminary Biology course with this syllabus topic. While most of the work in this chapter forms a discrete unit, the introduction to respiration and photosynthesis on page 19 should be covered prior to starting work on Unit 2.3. This chapter will involve a lot of practical work. If your school has equipment such as quadrats, air and soil thermometers, hygrometers, pH kits and light meters you may be able to organise the practical work within your school. However, an alternative is to organise a field trip to a rock platform or to a national park where park rangers facilitate the study of abiotic and biotic factors in their local ecosystem. Ideally, the excursion should take place in weeks two or three of this chapter, to allow time for students to write up a scientific report of their findings. This chapter will take approximately five to six weeks to complete depending on whether the experiments are run individually or during a field trip. Some schools organise longer excursions, often in conjunction with other departments. In this case all the practical aspects of this chapter can be covered during the time away.

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Preparation

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Ecosystems are largely self-sustaining, because materials and energy are exchanged between the organisms and their environment. Energy from sunlight enters the system through photosynthesis in plants, and then flows through other living organisms via food webs. Materials such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and water cycle through an ecosystem, and can also pass from one ecosystem to another.

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The interactions between organisms and their environment are often complex and not immediately obvious. The study of ecology enables us to understand these interactions. Studying a local ecosystem can give an insight into how other ecosystems function.

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What is your local ecosystem? Carefully analysing the biotic and abiotic factors operating in your local area will allow you to identify and understand important biological concepts. You are encouraged to analyse and report on aspects of the local environment that have been affected by people, and suggest solutions to the problems that exist.

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Support notes

Teacher support

A checklist of the syllabus dot points that correspond to the relevant pages of the student book is available on the Exam Café CD. It may be helpful to your students to check off the content when covered.

Two assessment tasks with teacher support notes, answers and a marking rubric to assess student outcomes covered in this chapter are available on the teacher version of Pearson Reader at www.pearsonplaces.com.au.

Heinemann Biology Preliminary Teacher Edition

CHAPTER Pre-quiz

Assumed knowledge Refer to the Board of Studies NSW Science Years 7–10 Syllabus. • Distinguish between biotic and abiotic features of the local environment (5.10a). • Describe the importance of cycles of materials in ecosystems (5.10b). • Describe some impact of human activities on ecosystems (5.10c). • Relate pollution to contamination by unwanted substances (5.11.2a). • Discuss strategies used to balance human activities and needs in ecosystems with conserving, protecting and maintaining the quality and sustainability of the environment (5.11.2c).

Preliminary Course Outcomes

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Values and attitudes P16 Demonstrates positive values about and attitudes towards both the living and non-living components of the environment, ethical behaviour and a desire for a critical evaluation of the consequences of the applications of science.

Uni Unit Un niit t 1.1 5 7 9 14 19

Local ecosystems: interactions and responses

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Population trends Interactions between organisms Trophic interactions Adaptations Competitive interactions The impact of humans on ecosystems Student activities: Investigation 1.2 A local ecosystem field study Investigation 1.3 Trophic relationships Investigation 1.4 An ecosystem report

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Unit review Questions

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Exam-style questions

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Unit review Questions

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Australian environments Abiotic characteristics Distribution and abundance Population estimates Photosynthesis and respiration Student activity: Investigation 1.1 Sampling studies

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Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems

Unit U Un niit ni t 1.2 25 27 30 35 39 40

Chapter one

Domain knowledge P6 Explains how cell ultrastructure and the coordinated activities of cells, tissues and organs contribute to macroscopic processes in organisms. P7 Describes the range of organisms in terms of specialisation for a habitat. P8 Analyses the interrelationships of organisms within the ecosystem.

Domain skills P11 Identifies and implements improvements to investigation plans. P12 Discusses the validity and reliability of data gathered from first-hand investigations and secondary sources. P13 Identifies appropriate terminology and reporting styles to communicate information and understanding in biology. P14 Draws valid conclusions from gathered data and information. P15 Implements strategies to work effectively as an individual and as a team member.

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Prescribed focus areas P2 Applies the processes that are used to test and validate models, theories and laws of science, with particular emphasis on first-hand investigations in biology. P4 Describes applications of biology which affect society or the environment. P5 Describes the scientific principles employed in particular areas of biological research.

1 Define what is meant by the term ecosystem. Answer: Any environment containing living organisms that interact with each other and the non-living components of that environment. 2 Describe how the elements carbon and oxygen are recycled in an ecosystem. Answer: Carbon is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide during respiration. This carbon dioxide is used by plants during photosynthesis and oxygen is then released into the atmosphere as a product of this reaction. 3 Describe what food chains represent in an ecosystem. Answer: Food chains represent a transfer of energy within an ecosystem by showing the feeding relationships between organisms within a particular ecosystem. 4 Identify a human impact and assess the effect it has had on the environment. Answer: Burning fossil fuels, for example, has had a very significant impact on the environment. The build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has trapped heat from the Sun, leading to global warming. Some of the effects include increased water temperatures, melting ice caps and rising sea levels. 5 Describe a strategy that is currently being used to reduce a named human impact. Answer: Clean Up Australia Day, for example, is a united effort to reduce pollution on land and in many water systems to conserve the habitats of native plants and animals.

Resources Interactive quiz Students may attempt the quiz on Exam Café Online to find out how much of the content they know before starting this chapter. They can repeat the quiz after completing the chapter to see how much they have learnt.

Resources Teacher support A test bank for this chapter with over 50 multiple-choice and short-answer examstyle questions, along with full answers, is available as an adaptable Microsoft® Office Word document. Tests and practice exams can be easily tailored to your students’ studies and help prepare them for examinations. These are available on the teacher version of Pearson Reader at www.pearsonplaces.com.au.

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Vocabulary preview estimates glucose habitat immigrations percentage cover photosynthesis plan sketch population profile sketch quadrat respiration sampling techniques terrestrial environments transect

The distribution, diversity and numbers of plants and animals found in ecosystems are determined by biotic and abiotic factors.

STUDENT LEARNING

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In this unit students will: • compare the abiotic characteristics of terrestrial and aquatic environments

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• identify the factors determining the distribution and abundance of a species in each environment • describe the roles of photosynthesis and respiration in ecosystems

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• identify uses of energy by living organisms

• identify the general equation for aerobic cellular respiration and outline this as a summary of a chain of biochemical reactions.

STUDENT ACTIVITY Students will:

• process and analyse information obtained from a variety of sampling studies to justify the use of different sampling techniques to make population estimates when total counts cannot be performed.

Resources Interactive quick quiz

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A comprehensive glossary for this chapter is available to teachers on Pearson Reader at www.pearsonplaces.com.au. It is also available to students on Exam Café to support them in learning the definitions of the key terms. Students can build their own electronic glossary and add supporting notes and images. A glossary is also included at the back of the student book and this teacher edition.

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Glossary

TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS

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abiotic abundance aquatic environments ATP biotic capture–recapture catalyst community cytoplasm distribution ecology ecosystem emigrations environment enzyme

Encourage students to do the vocabulary quiz for this chapter on Exam Café Online. It could be used to pre-test students’ knowledge of vocabulary for this unit.

What’s coming up later? This unit covers the abiotic and biotic factors that effect the distribution and abundance of organisms living within various ecosystems. There are a number of opportunities for practical activities around the school, or alternatively a field study of a local ecosystem could be organised to complete the practical aspects of this unit.

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UNIT OPENER Learning strategies The environment of an organism is its surroundings—everything around it, both living and non-living, that affects it. An ecosystem is any environment containing living organisms interacting with each other and with the non-living parts of that environment. An ecosystem can be any size, from a drop of rainwater to the whole Earth. It can be a pond, a forest, a desert or a small area you are studying in a piece of bushland. The term ‘ecosystem’ tells us that it is being studied as a system. This system involves the exchange of materials and energy between organisms and their environment. Ecosystems are largely self-sustaining. Environments have abiotic and biotic factors. Abiotic means non-living; biotic means living. Abiotic factors include physical and chemical factors, such as the temperature, rainfall, type of soil and the salinity of the water. Biotic factors include all the living organisms, how many types there are, their numbers, distribution and interactions. The habitat of an organism is the place where it lives. The organisms that are found living together in a particular place form a community. The study of the relationships living organisms have with each other and with their environment is called ecology.

An ecosystem is any environment containing living organisms interacting with each other and with the non-living parts of that environment.

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Before reading about the characteristics of aquatic and terrestrial environments, have students complete this exercise to make connections between what they know and what they will need to learn. Class time

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Inquiry activity: Lightning writing

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Have students construct a vocabulary bank of the terms in bold. For each term, ask students to write a brief description and include an example where possible. Habitat: The place where an organism lives e.g. marine fish live in the ocean.

Purpose

Some Australian terrestrial environments: (a) rainforest, (b) open forest, (c) desert, (d) mountain top, (e) grassland, (f) city, (g) farm.

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Terrestrial environments are environments on land. Land covers about 35% of the Earth’s surface. Differences in the climate, the topography of the land, the availability of water, and human actions have produced many different terrestrial environments. They include rainforests, open forests, mountain tops, deserts, grasslands, heathlands, farms and cities. Some terrestrial environments in Australia are shown in Figure 1.1.

Reading strategy

The habitat of an organism is the place where it lives.

Figure 1.1

Australian environments A Au

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The environment of an organism is its surroundings—everything around it, both living and non-living, that affects it.

10 minutes Method

1 Tell the students they will have either 1 or

2 minutes to list as many different types of environments as they can (you must time them for it to be lightning writing). 2 Call on different students to give answers and write them on the board. 3 After all the different types of environments are listed, ask students to classify them as terrestrial or aquatic. Thinking

Ask students if they know the scientific names for these environments or if they know the difference between freshwater and saltwater. A local ecosystem

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Misconceptions Biofact boxes Biofact boxes occur throughout this unit. They outline examples relevant to the concepts within this unit. They can be used to add interest and extension for students, but are not essential content for the syllabus requirements.

Ask students, in pairs, to brainstorm the terms ‘ecosystem’ and ‘environment’, giving examples and descriptions of each term. Are they the same? What are the differences? Often students confuse the terms or interchange them. It is important that students have a clear understanding of these terms early in this chapter. Once the students have had time to brainstorm, call on students in the class to share their ideas/misconceptions and as a class write a definition and description for each term.

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Learning strategies Using visuals

Figure 1.2

Divide the class into eight groups, and assign each group a picture from Figure 1.2. Each group can classify the type of environment and name it, then suggest which abiotic factors might influence the organisms that live in that environment. Students may also give examples of how changes in a factor may affect organisms. Each group can then present their work to the class and open up a discussion about how abiotic factors vary between terrestrial and aquatic environments.

Some Australian aquatic ecosystems: (a) open sea, (b) estuary, (c) rocky shore, (d) saltwater lake, (e) coral reef, (f) freshwater lake, (g) swamp, (h) river.

Aquatic environments are water environments. They may be saltwater or freshwater. Saltwater environments include the open seas, estuaries and saltwater lakes. Oceans cover about 65% of the Earth’s surface. Tides, waves, currents and winds continuously move the water in the surface layers. Freshwater environments include still water such as lakes, ponds and swamps, and moving water such as springs, creeks and rivers. Some aquatic environments in Australia are shown in Figure 1.2.

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Go to the web destinations for Chapter 1 to find out about the characteristics of different environments. c

Web destination

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Resources

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Use the web destination below to analyse an ecosystem with the class. Show the interactive simulation using a data projector or interactive whiteboard and ask students questions about the biotic and abiotic factors within the ecosystem. This would be a good activity to use at any stage of this unit (introductory or revision).

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Go to the web destinations for Chapter 1 to find out about the components that make up an ecosystem.

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Resources Web destination

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Go to the web destinations for Chapter 1 to find out about CO2 levels.

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Web destination

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Heinemann Biology

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Syllabus expansion Abiotic characteristics A Ab Terrestrial and aquatic environments have very different abiotic characteristics. These differences mean that, in order to survive, animals and plants living in an aquatic environment will be very different from the animals and plants living in a terrestrial environment. These differences are summarised in Table 1.1. TABLE 1.1

compare the abiotic characteristics of aquatic and terrestrial environments

A comparison of the abiotic characteristics of aquatic and terrestrial environments

Characteristic

In aquatic environments

In terrestrial environments

Water has a high viscosity. This makes it more difficult for organisms to move through it.

Air has a low viscosity. This makes it easier for organisms to move through it.

Buoyancy Buoyancy is the amount of support experienced by an object immersed in a liquid or gas. It is equal to the weight of the liquid or gas displaced (Figure 1.3).

The buoyancy of water offers support to both animals and plants. It may help them to maintain their shape, and enables some organisms to function at different depths.

Animals and plants do not experience much buoyancy from air. They need to be able to support themselves.

Temperature variation The main source of heat is from the Sun’s radiation. The radiation intensity depends on latitude. It is greater at the equator than at the poles. Animals and plants can survive only within a certain temperature range.

Water heats up more slowly than air. Temperatures in the surface ocean layers vary from 30°C at the equator to freezing point in arctic regions. However, the temperature in a particular region varies only a little from year to year. Deep waters everywhere are cold (Figure 1.5). Small bodies of water may show considerable daily and seasonal variation.

Surface temperatures on land vary far more than in water. The highest recorded is 60°C, and the lowest is less than –80°C. Daily and seasonal variations may be very great. Temperatures beneath the ground do not vary so much. The ability to avoid or tolerate heat gain and loss is important in land organisms.

Pressure variation The Earth’s gravitational field (the pull of gravity) gives rise to pressure differences between the upper and lower layers in both air and water. At any one level pressure is constant.

Pressure in water increases rapidly with depth. At a depth of 10 metres the pressure is twice that on the surface. Very few organisms live at great depths. Changing depth rapidly may be difficult for many organisms.

Atmospheric pressure decreases with height above sea level and also fluctuates over time. It may affect breathing by animals and flight.

Availability of gases Oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important gases for living organisms.

Gas availability in water is low and depends on the temperature. Diffusion is slower. More gases can be dissolved at lower temperatures. Oxygen concentration also decreases with depth. Oxygen availability affects the number and distribution of aquatic organisms, and also their body structure. Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonate and bicarbonate ions.

Availability of water

Water availability is rarely a problem in aquatic environments, but the osmotic effects of fresh and salt water are important to organisms.

Water availability varies. The amount of rainfall and when it falls particularly affect plants. Obtaining water and preventing its loss may be a problem for all land organisms, especially in arid environments.

Availability of ions

Saltwater (marine) environments contain 3.5% dissolved salts—mostly sodium and chloride ions. Freshwater environments have a low ion concentration. Organisms need to be able to cope with any osmotic differences between their cells and the external environment.

Ions are available in the soil. The type and amount depend on the composition of the soil. Soil type and pH influence the type and amount of plant growth.

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Gases are freely available in air and diffusion is rapid. Air contains about 20% oxygen and 0.03% carbon dioxide. The remainder is mostly nitrogen. Gas availability is not usually a limiting factor for land organisms, except at high altitudes.

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Learning strategies Making connections New words There are a number of new words in Table 1.1. Ask the students to write a definition for each of the words as they come across them in their reading. For homework have the students compare their definition with a reputable source, such as a science or online dictionary. Read through each concept in Table 1.1 and ask students to think of an example for each concept and share it with the class. This should allow students to make everyday connections with the biology content. For example: • Viscosity—pouring water compared to pouring honey. • Temperature variation—relate the way humans cope with temperature variations (we change our clothing and our personal environment—heating or air conditioning etc.) compared to other organisms that migrate, hibernate, have short life cycles or die. • Water availability—relate availability of water to students’ experiences with water restrictions during drought and how this affected local plants and animals. • Pressure variation—some students may have been diving or mountaineering and experienced pressure changes. • Availability of gases—students may be aware of rising CO2 levels in connection with climate change. The level of CO2 has increased from 275 ppm (parts per million) in the atmosphere 200 years ago to a current level of 390 ppm. Scientists recommend a level of 350 ppm.

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Viscosity Viscosity is a measure of how hard it is to move through a gas or a liquid (fluid).

Students should be able to define the term ‘environment’ and give examples of terrestrial and aquatic environments. The photographs in Figures 1.1 and 1.2 should assist with this. Students should also be able to define the terms ‘biotic’ and ‘abiotic’. The syllabus requires a comparison of abiotic characteristics, which is provided in Table 1.1. This summary can be used after a class discussion of the characteristics of each type of environment, or a discussion with examples can be based around the table.

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Learning strategies Issues in science

TABLE 1.1

Have students analyse Figures 1.4 and 1.5 and write a description explaining what happens to each abiotic factor in the diagram. Many of these abiotic factors are interpreted by humans as ‘weather’. Studied by meteorologists, weather includes measuring not only temperature and precipitation (rain, hail, snow) but also wind speed, visibility, air pressure, cloud conditions, air quality and water vapour. The Australian Bureau of Meteorology has an excellent website.

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In aquatic environments

In terrestrial environments Light can pass freely through air. Plenty of light is available to land organisms. Dense plant growth or topography may affect light penetration to some areas. The amount of light received is important for plant growth.

Availability and type of substrates There are many different types of rocks, soils, sands and other material formed from rock. They vary in their mineral and nutrient status.

Bottom-dwellers are affected by the type and amount of substrate available. Free-swimming and surface-level aquatic organisms are less affected, although the amount of sediment (turbidity) in water is important.

The amount and type of soil, the amount of rock and the gradient of the land all influence plant growth and the availability of habitats for ground-dwellers and animals that live underground.

Strength of natural forces

Tides, currents and waves vary in strength according to the season and the weather. Some organisms cannot survive in moving water, while others cannot survive in still water.

Winds and rain vary in strength and duration according to the season and the climate. Many organisms cannot survive exposure to these factors in open environments.

Availability of shelter

Not all aquatic organisms require shelter. The substrate, rocks, vegetation and coral reefs may provide for those that do.

Most animals require shelter. Some plants will grow only in sheltered environments.

Availability of space

This can be a limiting factor in some aquatic environments, especially for animals requiring territory.

This can be a limiting factor on land for both plants and animals, particularly those requiring territory, shelter or nesting sites.

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Light falling on water may be reflected, scattered or absorbed. Light penetration in water decreases rapidly with depth (see Figure 1.4). Light availability affects the distribution of organisms in water.

upthrust from water

depth in metres 3 5

LIGHT red orange yellow

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weight of fish

Figure 1.3

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Buoyancy in water. The fish’s body is supported by buoyancy. If the upthrust is greater than the fish’s weight, the fish rises. If it is less, the fish sinks.

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Skill builder: Interpreting information

Characteristic Light penetration Light is received from the Sun’s radiation. The light intensity is greater at the equator than at the poles.

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• A number of organisations monitor the abiotic factors in our environment. Streamwatch is a water monitoring program that monitors our waterways in conjunction with Sydney Water and the Sydney Catchment Authority. Students can join Streamwatch or find out more on their website. The program has been running since 1990 and over 250 schools are involved. • The issue of climate change can be introduced here. Regional or global climate change is ‘any change in weather patterns’ and is determined by comparing statistics collected over years to see patterns. The issue today is one of global warming or increased annual average temperatures of water, land and air. • Technology and how advances in technology and scientific research go hand in hand is a theme in the Biology syllabus. A discussion of how we measure abiotic environmental factors can introduce this topic. Traditional methods at weather stations include thermometers and rain gauges, whereas new technology includes satellite images and webcams. Students may have looked at webcams for weather details, e.g. Surf watch or snowcams at ski resorts.

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Figure 1.4

Light penetration in water. When light enters water, the different wavelengths are absorbed at different depths. Red, orange and yellow are absorbed first. The green, blue and violet wavelengths are absorbed with increasing depth. This is why the underwater world is dominated by blues and greens. Almost no light penetrates below a depth of about 30 metres.

Heinemann Biology

Using visuals


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Go to the web destinations for Chapter 1 to find out about the following: • Australian Bureau of Meteorology • New South Wales information • Satellite images of Australia • Weather zone


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Students could construct a simple table, chart or mind map to summarise the information comparing the abiotic factors of terrestrial and aquatic environments, using examples where possible. Some students find colour very helpful, so you might suggest they colour code the columns. For example, the aquatic environment could be written or highlighted with blue, while red or brown could be used for the terrestrial environment.

Learning strategies a

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solar radiation

Definitions

depth in metres 0 warm surface water 1000

Students can write definitions for the terms: ‘distribution’, ‘profile sketch’ and ‘plan sketch’. A diagram may also be useful to have in their work books.

zone of change

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Figure 1.5

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(a) In large bodies of water, the surface layers of water warm up in spring and summer. In calm conditions two layers form: a warmer surface layer and a colder layer below. In autumn and winter, when air temperatures are colder and there is more turbulence at the surface, this layered effect disappears. (b) In very cold regions, a layer of ice forms on the surface of water in winter. This insulates the water below, allowing aquatic organisms to survive.

cooler, deeper water

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layering in the ocean, east coast of Australia

DDistribution and abundance Di Distribution

Profile sketch of the distribution of three species of plants in a sample area at Myall Lakes, New South Wales.

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Banksia asplenifolia Boronia parvifolia

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Go to the web destinations for Chapter 1 to find out about the water monitoring program run by Streamwatch.


A local ecosystem

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Go to the web destinations for Chapter 1 to find out about recent and ongoing surveys at the New South Wales Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water.

Using Figure 1.6 ask students to describe the distribution and abundance of the three species of plants and draw inferences based on abiotic factors. For example, as the altitude increases the species Bansksia aemula becomes more common. This may be because it is able to survive at higher altitudes and lower air pressure, whereas the other species might not.

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Figure 1.6

Banksia aemula height above ground in cm

The distribution of a species is all the places in which it is found.

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The distribution of a species describes where it is found. No species is spread evenly through an entire natural ecosystem. Organisms occupy the areas where the biotic and abiotic factors of the environment suit them. They live where their chances of survival are high, where their requirements for survival are met, and where they are able to avoid predators. Figure 1.6 is a profile sketch showing where three different plant species were found by an ecologist who walked in a straight line for 140 m across a slight dip between two ridges at Myall Lakes, New South Wales. The places where the plants were found are indicated by shading. As you can see, closely related species (the two banksias) can occur in different zones. The boundaries between different species are not always as distinct as this; these three species seem to have quite different requirements for survival. Figure 1.7 is a plan sketch of the same area, giving us more information about the extent of the three species than the profile does.

Skill builder: Interpreting information

Skills chapter The skills chapter available on the Exam Café CD contains a section on analysing information, which provides advice on locating reliable and useful resources for investigations.

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Research Students who are interested can use this activity to find out more about the monitoring programs for the distribution and abundance of Australian flora and fauna. They can produce a report that states the organism being monitored, why it is being monitored and the recent findings and implications of this work. The New South Wales Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water has examples of recent and ongoing surveys. One example is the monitoring of ibis in Centennial Parklands. The abundance of these birds has increased dramatically over recent years. As a result of monitoring programs and an effort to reduce the population, the nesting sites of these birds have been removed and tracking devices fixed to many of the birds. The web destination below discusses some of the issues surrounding these birds and tracks one bird over several months using the radio transmitter fixed to its leg.


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Go to the web destinations for Chapter 1 to find out about the efforts being employed to control the ibis population.

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