Herbal-based Traditional Medicinal Knowledge of Local Inhabitants in ...

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Dec 24, 2013 - Physiology Research Centre, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar,. Uttarakhand, 246 174 ... The Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand state of India covers an area of .... A household survey was conducted using open, individual.
Herbal-based Traditional Medicinal Knowledge of Local Inhabitants in Rudraprayag District of Uttarakhand, India Kailash Chandra, Bhagwati P. Nautiyal and Mohan C. Nautiyal

Research Abstract Traditional medicinal knowledge has gained much attention recently due to rejuvenation of faith in traditional system of medicines. The Indian Himalaya is a source of plant based indigenous medicinal knowledge based on local plant diversity. Surveys were conducted in Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand, India to collect indigenous information on primary health care. 29 formulations using 159 plant species were recorded treating 119 ailments in 13 broad therapeutic classes. Results have been compared with traditional knowledge from other parts of India.

Introduction Traditional medicinal knowledge is defined as the sum of knowledge, skills and practices based on the ideas, beliefs and experiences indigenous to a culture, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, treatment and improvement of physical and mental illnesses (WHO 2000). About 60% of the Indian population depends on traditional systems of medicine (Timmermans 2003). India harbors about 17,000 plant species of which 7500 are known as medicinal plants (Nayar 2011). Uttarankhand state in the Indian Himalaya region is geographically and climatically diverse with the highest number of plant species known for medicinal properties among all the Indian Himalayan states (Kala 2004).

al vaidyas who claim to be able to treat chronic disorders such as chronic gastric problems, eczema and migraines that do not respond well to western medicines. Documentation of formulations prepared by traditional vaidyas is a step forward toward assessing claimed properties of medicinal plants and also for preparation of new formulations (Kala 2005c). Documentation initiatives have generated species lists, parts used, and distribution ranges (Chopra et al. 1986), and specific information on some species (Dhyani et al. 2010, Nautiyal et al. 2001, 2002, Pandey & Pandey 2010), however, there is no comprehensive record of plant based traditional knowledge in Rudraprayag district, Uttarakhand, India.

Methods Study Area The Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand state of India covers an area of about 2439 km2 and lies between latitudes 30°19’00’’ and 30°49’N and longitudes 78°49’ and

Correspondence Kailash Chandra and Mohan C. Nautiyal, High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar, Uttarakhand, 246 174, INDIA.

The inhabitants of Uttarakhand are still dependent on traditional vaidyas (practitioners of Ayurveda) and local Bhagwati P. Nautiyal, Department of Horticulture, Aromatic and Medicinal Plants, School of Earth Sciences and Natural Rehealers for treating diseases (Kala 2000, 2005a). In the sources Management, Mizoram University, Aizawl 796 004, evolution of Ayurveda, the Himalaya region has played an Mizoram, INDIA. important role with restricted habitats of many valuable [email protected] medicinal plant species (Kala 2005b). However, recent years have witnessed fragmentation and outright loss of Ethnobotany Research & Applications 11:299-313 (2013) the traditional plant knowledge. There are many traditionPublished: 24 December, 2013 www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-299.pdf

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79°21’13” E (Figure 1). Altitudes range from 800-8000 masl with varied topography. The climate varies from subtropical monsoon to tropical upland. The northern and western parts of the district are perennially under snow cover with subalpine and alpine types of climate associated with lofty Himalayan peaks up to 8000 masl altitude, notably including Kedarnath (6,940 masl) and Chaukhamba (7,138 masl) with alpine ridges up to 3,800 masl (Tungnath). Therefore, severe winter and comparatively higher rainfall are the characteristic features of the northern and western part. The year may be divided into 5 seasons: cold winter (December–February) with temperature around below -12°C; spring (March-April); summer

(May-June) with maximum temperatures to 32°C; southwest monsoon season (mid June-September); autumn or post monsoon season (mid November-last October). The average annual rainfall is around 1220mm at the district headquarter, Rudraprayag while average annual rainfall is 1995mm at Ukhimath town located at 1000 masl. Traditional medicinal system and therapeutic classification Information was collected through ethnobotanical inventories (Jain 1967, 1986). Preliminary surveys for the collection of plants were conducted for the entire Rudraprayag

Uttarakhand

Kedarnath

Chaukhamba

N Ukhimath

Tungnath

Rudraprayag

INDIA

Bay of Bengal

Rudraprayag

Indian Ocean Figure 1. Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand state, India. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-299.pdf

Chandra et al. - Herbal-based Traditional Medicinal Knowledge of Local Inhabitants in Rudraprayag District of Uttarakhand, India district targeting different blocks and altitudes during the years 2007-2010. Thereafter, three sites between 8002500 masl were selected for more intensive surveys. Plant samples were pressed, dried and preserved for deposition in the herbarium (Jain & Rao 1977). Dry specimens were poisoned using Kew mixture (115 gm HgCl3 in 4.5 l ethyl alcohol). Identified plants (Gaur 1999, Naithani 1984-1985) were verified by comparison with prior collections from GUH, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar and BSI, Northern circle Herbarium, Dehradun. All the specimens were then deposited in GUH. The survey was conducted by sampling a wide range of users as suggested by Hamilton (2003). Background information was collected on the use, distribution, and status of plant resources in the area through a baseline survey. A household survey was conducted using open, individual

Leaves & aerial parts 3%

Seeds

301 Figure 2

2 2 1

4%

Rhizomes

5%

Fruit

30%

7%

Roots Bark Whole plant

9%

Latex

13%

12% 12%

Tubers Inflorescence/Flowers Resin Gum

Figure 2. Plant parts used medicinally in Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand state, India.

and group interview was conducted during outdoor field Results surveys as per the methods described by Martinez (1995) and Cunningham (2001). For this purpose, a semi strucDuring the study, 159 plant species were recorded to tured questionnaire was prepared preferably in local lantreat 123 ailments. Leaves and aerial parts were most guages for direct communication. Information collected commonly reported parts (Figure 2). Seventy species included plant identification criteria, parts used, time and were used to treat gastrointestinal problems, followed by collection methods, source of knowledge of traditional skin diseases (44) and uro-genital disorders (43). health cares/ specialization, formulations, dose determination of all the plants mentioned by the people/ traditionMost of the time fresh material was used for medicial healers. Interviews were prepared following standard nal formulations. Formulations (Figure 3) were swarsa methods (Martinez 1995). For greater accuracy, a particu(fresh juice), lepa (paste), kwatha (decoction with boiled lar medicinal use of every species verified by at least five informants was considered as authentic Swrasa information for this report. Species cited by fewer 3% 3% than five informants were not used in the final syn5% Lepa thesis of the data. Emphasis was given to specialist medicinal plant users of Rudraprayag district. Specialists are people for whom medicinal and aromatic plants are major components of their livelihood, such as trained practitioners (vaidyas, Ayurvedic doctors, pharmacists), folk knowledge based vaidyas, dai (woman practitioners), and other traditional health practitioners. Non-specialist users such as elder peoples who used medicinal plants for home consumption for the treatment of ailments were also surveyed. Data were analyzed for various therapeutic groups as described by Handa and Kapoor (2006) and Kala (2005a).

Kwatha Churna

Avaleha Taila, ghrita

27%

7% 7% 8%

Others Kasaya

17%

10%

Paka

13%

Aristha Figure 3. Medicinal formulations used in Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand state, India.

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Figure 3

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water), churna (powder), avaleha (semi-solid), taila and ghrita (oil), kasaya (decoction), aristha (partially fermented) and paka (semisolid preparation with ghee or oil). Swarsa and lepa are mainly used as first hand remedies available to elderly people. Other formulations are

used by vaidyas. Remedies based on use of single species were a predominant feature of this health care system (Table 1). However, formulations with many ingredients were also recorded and are present in Table 2.

Table 1. Medicinal properties and, formulation types [aristha (partially fermented), avaleha (semisolid), churna (powder), kasaya (decoction), kwatha (decoction with boiled water), lepa/laipen (paste), netrabindu (eye drop), paka (semisolid preparation with ghee or oil), swarsa (fresh juice), taila and ghrita (oil)] of medicinal plants recorded in Rudraprayag district, Uttarakhand, India. Plant species

Vernacular

Formulation

Therapeutic uses Local remedies

baisingu

essential oil

Hepato-protective

Churna and oil is useful in cough, constipation and jaundice, oil and flowers are useful in respiratory disorders, hypertensive.

bauj

churna, swarsa

Vasodilator; Analgesic; Gastro-intestinal; Hepato-protective; Insecticidal; throat problems

Churna rhizome is useful in cough and throat infections, for treatment of livestock khurpaka. Oil is used in hysteria. Fresh rhizomes are crushed into swarsa and used in gastric troubles of infants, for relief of jaundice, and for removing lice. Used for clearing a heavy voice.

Achyranthes aspera L.

latjira

lepa, swarsa Antidote; Demulcent; Oxytocic

Panchang laipen is used as an antidote for scorpion and snake bites. Root paste (1 part) along with water (8 parts) is taken orally by women to assist in child birth.

Alternanthera pungens Kunth

-

swarsa

Febrifuge

Leaf swarsa taken for fevers.

Deeringia amaranthoides (Lam.) Merr.

kalalori

swarsa

Anti-malarial; Tonic; Febrifuge Anti-cancerous; Anti-hemorrhoid

Root swarsa is used for toothache and infectious conjunctivitis. Seed churna is taken with mand (rice starch) for piles.

Buchanania cochinchinensis (Lour.) M.R.Almeida

piyal

churna, lepa Anti-inflammatory; Topical

Seed churna or laipen are used externally for treating glandular swellings of the neck.

Semecarpus anacardium L.f.

Bhilow

avaleha, swarsa

Antiviral for skin warts; Vermifuge

Poisonous pericarp is mixed with sugar and water into avaleha and orally administered under the supervision of vaidaya in small quantities to remove or kill intestinal worms. Fresh juice is used topically to remove skin warts.

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.

brahmi/ mandukparnii

swarsa

Febrifuge

Fresh or dried plant juice is fresh water is taken internally and kept on forehead externally for high fever.

Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.

brahmi

netrabindu

Conjunctivitis; Ophthalmatic

Entire plant netrabindu is used topically on mucus membranes for eye infections

Acanthaceae Justicia adhatoda L.

Acoraceae Acorus calamus L.

Amaranthaceae

Anacardiaceae

Apiaceae

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Chandra et al. - Herbal-based Traditional Medicinal Knowledge of Local Inhabitants in Rudraprayag District of Uttarakhand, India Plant species

303

Vernacular

Formulation

Therapeutic uses Local remedies

Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand.

aak

kwatha

Dermatological problem; Antileprosy

Root bark decoction is used externally for skin diseases or leprosy.

Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W.T.Aiton

kalidudhi

churna

Nephrolithiasis,

Root churna and milk are administered twice daily for abdominal pains and also for removing kidney stones.

Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L.

gundrya

kwatha kasaya, swarsa

Anti-diarrheal; Antiseptic

Aerial parts kwatha or kasaya is used to treat diarrhea, dysentery and gastointestinal disorders. Leaf juice is applied on injuries. The plant is known as having antiseptic properties.

Anaphalis adnata Wall. ex DC.

bugula

lepa

Anti-hemorrhage; Shamanistic

Tomentum from the outer surface of the leaves is dried and used for stopping bleeding cuts or wounds.

Artemisia nilagirica (C.B.Clarke) Pamp.

kunja

swarsa

Anthelmintics; Shamanistic

Leaf swarsa is given orally to expel intestinal worms. The plant is regarded as sacred and offered in religious rituals.

Artemisia roxburghiana Wall. ex Besser

kunja

kasaya

Antiseptic; antihemorrhage

Fresh leaf kasaya is applied as a tourniquet with cloth on cuts or wound to stop bleeding, and as an antiseptic.

Bidens bipinnata L.

kuru

lepa

Galactagogue; Dermatological problems; Orthopedic; Vermicide

Used as milk promoter during breast feeding. Leaf past is applied on skin diseases.

Centipeda minima nakchini (L.) A.Br. & Asch.

churna

Antihypersensitive; Respiratory disorders; Analgesic; Anti-allergic

Crushed or powdered leaves and inflorescences are used in snuffing colds, bronchitis and headaches.

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.

bhangra

swarsa

Dermatological problems

Fresh juice swarsa is used externally in treating skin diseases.

Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd.

kalajira.

swarsa, lepa Anthelmintics; Dermatological problems

Seed extract is administered orally to expel threadworms. Seed lepa is used topically for skin infections.

kirmor

kasaya

Ophthalmatic

Root bark kasaya, after boiling with water is used topically on mucus membranes for eye ailments.

lepa

Dermatological problems; Wound healing

Bark and fruit lepa is used externally for cattle skin diseases or for wounds or cuts.

Apocynaceae

Asteraceae

Berberidaceae Berberis lycium Royle Bignoniaceae Oroxylum indicum tantya (L.) Kurz

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304 Plant species

Ethnobotany Research & Applications Vernacular

Formulation

Therapeutic uses Local remedies

lasura

swarsa

Diuretic; Respiratory disorders; Splenomegaly

Fruit swarsa is believed to be useful in urinary ailments, lung and spleen troubles.

tagar

essential oil

CNS depressant; Local anesthetic; Shamanistic

Rhizome oil is said to be useful in pagalpan (extreme mental disorders) and in pooja as dhoop (essence).

kalhari, langlai

lepa, churna Dermatological problems; Anti-emetic; Abortifacient

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

baheda

churna

Constipation; Colic Used along with haida, saunth (dry pain; Respiratory ginger), or jiggery to treat asthma. Also disorders used as a rasāyana (rejuvenating drug).

Terminalia chebula Retz.

haida

paka, swarsa

Antihypersensitivity; Respiratory disorders; Gastrointestinal disorders

Fresh or boiled fruit pulp with honey is administered for the treatment of asthma, cough, and bronchitis. It is a very good purgative, useful for piles and strengthen the body.

genthi

paka, avaleha

Anti-ulcer; Antihemorrhoid

Cooked tubers are used for treating ulcers and piles.

Baliospermum solanifolium (Burm.) Suresh

banjamalghota

swarsa

Hepatoprotective

Fresh root swarsa is taken with water twice a day to treat jaundice.

Euphorbia hirta L.

dudhali

kwatha, churna

Anti-dysuric; Respiratory disorders

Panchang is used by vaidyas for treating cough, asthma, and urinary problems.

Abrus precatorius L.

rathadani

lepa

Gout; Rheumatism Root is used in joint pain and believed to treat ulcerous wounds. Seeds are used as an eye cleaner.

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.

dhak

kwatha, dye

Menstrual disorders; Antiseptic

Root bark kasaya is taken internally for menstrual disorders. A yellow dye from the flowers is said to be antiseptic.

Millettia extensa (Benth.) Baker

gauj

lepa

Pesticide; Insecticide

Root powder lepa is rubbed on cattle to remove lice and flies.

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.

kaunch

swarsa, paka

Anti-ulcer; Anthelmintic; Blood purifier; Anti-diarrheal

Leaves are boiled and administered for ulcers. Leaf swarasa with kalimirch (Piper nigrum L.) is used as an anthelimintic.

Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd.

ashok

ghrita, aristha

Menorrhagia; Uterus disorders

Fresh shoots / flowering buds are reported to be very useful to regulate menstrual cycles and related concerns. For this, 6-8 buds are eaten daily. Bark is used for anemia, leucorrhoea, and menorrhea.

Boraginaceae Cordia dichotoma G.Forst.

Caprifoliaceae Valeriana jatamansi Jones Colchicaceae Gloriosa superba L.

Tuber is said to be useful in the treatment of skin diseases, infections and treating lice. It is also used to stop vomiting and said to be useful as an abortifacient.

Combretaceae

Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea bulbifera L. Euphorbiaceae

Fabaceae

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305

Plant species

Vernacular

Formulation

Therapeutic uses Local remedies

Senna occidentalis (L.) Link

chakunda

kwatha

Antihypersensitive; Respiratory disorders; Dermatological problems; Antihemorrhoid

Seed churna is boiled with water and taken for asthma and bronchitis. Seed lepa is applied externally twice daily for piles or skin diseases.

Senna tora (L.) Roxb.

chakunda

kwatha, asava

Vermifuge; Anthelmintic; Anti-leprosy

Fresh leaf kasaya with curds is taken with water at bed time for treating worms, and is taken internally for leprosy or leucoderma.

Ajuga brachystemon Maxim.

neelkanthi

swarsa, kwatha

Ant malarial; Febrifuge

Leaf swarsa is used for malarial fever. Leaf kasaya is useful for general fevers.

Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl.

daiya, priyangu

raw, topical

Anti-Inflammatory; Anti-rheumatic; Demulcent

Leaves are warmed and applied to treat rheumatic joints.

Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm.

bindap

lepa

Anti-septic; Wound healing

Tomentose leaf lepa is applied to wounds and cuts.

Mentha spicata L.

odina

kasaya

Carminative; Laxative

An infusion of leaves with onion is used as a digestive medicine.

Mosla dianthera (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Maxim.

malcharu

swarsa, lepa Dermatological problems; Wound healing

Fresh leaf juice is used externally for skin diseases during rains, and for wounds or cuts.

Ocimum americanum L.

morya

swarsa

Carminative; Cold beverage

Fresh leaves are used in the preparation of a cooling drink and as a digestive agent.

kathmaru

lepa

Orthopedic purposes

Fresh bark paste is used as a plaster for cattle fractures.

phionly

lepa

Wound healings

Panchang lepa is used topically for cattle diseases with wounds.

dhaula

swarsa, avaleha

Febrifuge

Fresh flower swarsa with sugar is believed to have a cooling effect and therefore used as a drink in high fevers.

Abelmoschus crinitus Wall.

van bhindi

swarsa, kwatha

Dermatological problems; Aphrodisiac

Root kwatha is believed to be aphrodisiac. Swarsa is applied in cuts and wounds.

Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet

kanghe

Kwatha

Febrifuge; Anti-diarrheal

Leaf kwatha is given as a febrifuge. Bark decoction is given for diarrhea.

Cissampelos pareira L.

pahare

kwatha

Diuretic; Antidysuric

Root kasaya is boiled with water and taken for urinary troubles.

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers

gilae

swarsa, kwatha

Anti-leprosy; Diuretic, Febrifuge

Arial roots are extracted and applied topically for leprosy. A stem decoction is used by the local vaidya for treatment of fevers and urinary problems.

Lamiaceae

Lauraceae Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers. Linaceae Reinwardtia indica Dumort. Lythraceae Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Malvaceae

Menispermaceae

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306 Plant species

Ethnobotany Research & Applications Vernacular

Formulation

Therapeutic uses Local remedies

Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb.

dhau.

netrabindu

Ophthalmatic; Eye ointments

Seed paste is conjunctivitis.

Ficus benghalensis L.

bargad

kasaya

Hypoglycemic; Anti-diarrheal; Opthalmatic

Soft bark kasaya is used for dysentery and diabetes. Fresh latex is used for eye infections.

Ficus palmata subsp. virgata Browicz

anjir

kasaya, latex

Diuretic; Dermatological problems; Vermifuge

Vaidyas use fruit for promoting urine discharge and also for skin diseases. Fresh latex is used internally to extricate intestinal worms.

Ficus subincisa Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.

umaru

kwatha, latex

Anti-diarrheal; Hypoglycemic

Root and stem latex is taken with boiled water for diarrhea, piles, and diabetes.

sunjuna

avaleha, crude gum/ lepa

Dermatological problems; Gastrointestinal disorders

White gum is used topically as a lotion for skin diseases, and also taken internally with sweets or milk for stomach pains.

punar-nawa

churna, swarsa

Antihypersensitive; respiratory disorders; Dyspepsia; Dysuria; Diuretic

Root churna or swarsa is used for asthma, stomach problems, and dysuria.

bhilmoru

swarsa

Antiviral; Dermatological problems

Juice is used for removing skin warts or small thorns from the skin.

satyanashi

kwatha

Abortifacient; Antihypersensitive; Respiratory disorders; Hepatoprotective

Yellow latex is used for eye diseases. Root kwatha is administered orally for the treatment of asthma and bronchitis. Vaidayas with spiritual power used seeds for the treatment of jaundice. Seeds are used as abortifacient.

kulai

fresh resin

Wound healings

Resin is used topically for healing cuts and wounds.

-

lepa

Antiseptic

Leaf paste is believed to have good healing properties.

timbru

churna, taila Anti-pyrea

Seed churna or seeds macerated into oil are applied to treat pyrea. A stem has great religious importance as a symbol of “Lord Narsinhga.”

Moraceae applied

topically

to

Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam.

Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia diffusa L.

Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata L. Papaveraceae Argemone mexicana L.

Pinaceae Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Ranunculaceae Anemone tetrasepala Royle Rutaceae Zanthoxylum armatum DC.

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Chandra et al. - Herbal-based Traditional Medicinal Knowledge of Local Inhabitants in Rudraprayag District of Uttarakhand, India Plant species

307

Vernacular

Formulation

Therapeutic uses Local remedies

slipari

churna, swarsa

Gastro-intestinal disorders; Nephrolithiasis

gidartambakhu

churna, taila Dermatological disorder

Dried inforescence churna mixed with mustard oil is used externally for skin diseases.

Datura inoxia Mill.

dhatura

ghrita, kasaya, emulsion

Antihypersensitive; Respiratory disorders; Analgesic; Anti-diarrheal

Leaf kasaya made into ghrita butter / ghee is administered orally for body pains and is believed to be useful for asthma and bronchitis. Leaf swarsa along with ointment is used topically to treat skin spots.

Solanum americanum Mill.

ginway

swarsa

Febrifuge; Conjunctivitis

Fruit juice is used internally for fevers and topically for eye infections.

Solanum rudepannum Dunal

ban-bhatta

paka

Hepatoprotective

Unripe fruit are cooked like vegetables and eaten for the treatment of liver troubles.

ganthi

lepa, avaleha

Orthopediatric

Fresh bark paste is used as a plaster for animals/cattle fractures.

paka

Menorrhagia disorder; Oxytocic; Abortifacient

Young shoots are cooked as vegetable and eaten for smooth menstruation, delivery and also used as an Abortifacient .

chhipari

kwatha

Pitta vicar; Intestinal disorder

Leaf powder converted into kwatha with gomutra (cow urine) is believed good for all types of pitta ailments.

ghee-kunwar

kwatha, laipen

Hepatoprotective; Cardiac stimulant; Dermatological problems

Fresh leaf kwatha is administered orally for liver disorders and heart problems. Leaf paste is applied topically to treat skin diseases.

ban-haldi

avaleha, churna

Demulcent; Confectionary purpose

Rhizome paste or powder is applied externally to burns.

Saxifragaceae Bergenia pacumbis (Buch.Ham. ex D.Don) C.Y.Wu & J.T.Pan

Dried rhizome churna is believed to relieve gastritis and is also used for kidney stones.

Scrophulariaceae Verbascum thapsus L. Solanaceae

Urticaceae Boehmeria rugulosa Wedd.

Urtica ardens Link kandali

Vitaceae Ampelocissus rugosa (Wall.) Planch. Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe vera (L.) Burmf.

Zingiberaceae Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.

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Table 2. Some traditional health care system formulations recorded in Rudraprayag district, Uttarakhand, India. Remedies

Administration

Cough & respiratory disorders: A combination of trifala (Terminalia chebula Retz., Terminalia 3 gm of churna is administered orally with bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. and Phyllanthus emblica L.) and Piper honey twice a daily for 7 days. longum L. (10-15 gm each) in equal amounts is ground into fine churna. Bark of Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, Digitalis Taken orally twice a daily with ginger swrasa purpurea L., Pistacia chinensis subsp. integerrima (J.L. Stewart and honey for 7 days. ex Brandis) Rech. f., Cyperus scariosus R.Br., dry ginger, Piper nigrum L., P. longum and Parthenocissus semicordata (Wall.) Planch. is taken in equal quantity and ground into fine churna. Piper longum is ground into churna and added to sainda namak Taken with warm water for all types of cough. (pink rock salt) in equal proportion. Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd., Cordia dichotoma G.Forst., Acacia Vatika are taken orally for severe cough. nilotica (L.) Delile bark and Glycyrrhiza glabra L. in equal quantity is ground into churna, filtered with muslin cloth, then mixed with ginger swrasa and converted into vatika (tablets). 1 kg fresh ginger is boiled over fire in a bronze pan until it is converted into paste. The same volume of cow ghee is heated in the bronze pan until it started boiling. Paste of ginger is then mixed with ghee and boiled until it become almost brownish in color. It is cooled down and stored.

A teaspoonful of the formulation is taken orally after dinner every day followed by a cup of cow milk for three months. This treats chronic asthma.

Treatment of leucorrhea (swet pradar) & painfull menorrhazia (stri roga): Roots of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, Asparagus racemosus Around 3 gm of churna is administered with Willd., Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. seeds along with trifala (see milk twice a daily for the treatment of swet above) are mixed in equal proportion into churna. pradar (Leucorrhea). Churna is prepared with equal quantities of silajeet (asphaltum), Taken orally twice a day with warm water. Convolvulus arvensis L., P. longum and misri (crystallized sugar lumps). 25 g Asparagus racemosus, 10 g satwa of Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers, 20 g Saussurea gossypiphora D.Don, 25 g G. glabra and 120 g Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. is mixed and ground then filtered with muslin cloth, then mixed with 20 g Crocus sativus L. and 10 g godanti bhasma (a natural form of calcium derived from plants).

3 g of formulation is taken orally with cow milk in mornings and evenings after meals for 15 days for rakta pradar (menorrhagia). During the treatment, spices and oily foods are prohibited.

Surma (white), bark of Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd. and mishri Taken with cow milk in mornings and evenings (see above) are mixed and ground into churna. after meals for 10-15 days for swet pradar. Mesua ferrea L. and mishri (see above) are ground and filtered About 6 mg of churna is taken orally daily with muslin cloth into churna. as a single dose for 30-45 days for painful menorrhagia. Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz leaves, Cocculus hirsutus (L.) One teaspoonful is taken orally for 15 days for W.Theob. and Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. (all dried) are mixed swet pradar. in equal proportion, ground, filtered and formulated as churna. Fever including pneumonia Bark of Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm. About 2 g churna is taken orally 3 times a day (20 g), Myristica fragrans Houtt. (5 g) and saunth (dried ginger) with warm water for pneumonia. Rice and cold (50 g) are ground into churna after filtering with muslin cloth. food is prohibited. Thereafter, it is added with loha bhasma (iron ash) (10 g), swrna bhasma (gold ash) (600 mg) and A. moschatus (400 mg). A combination of Ocimum tenuiflorum L., P. longum, P. nigrum 1 teaspoonful is administered twice a day for and mishri (6:4:1:10) is ground in water. one week for periodic fever.

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Panchang of Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex One teaspoonful of kwatha is taken orally for C.B.Clarke is converted into churna and boiled in water with 3 days for fever. leaves of Lamium amplexicaule L. until only half of the volume remains. The product is filtered with muslin cloth and the kwatha (decoction) is stored in an air tight container. M. esculenta bark, D. purpurea, P. nigrum and P. chinensis subsp. Churna is taken with honey for 7 days for integerrima in equal amounts is ground into churna. treatment of fever. Phyllanthus emblica, Plumbago zeylanica L., T. chebula, P. Taken twice a daily for 1 week with warm nigrum along with saindha namak are taken in equal amounts water for all types of fever, gastric troubles and respiratory problems. and ground into churna. Ear, nose, and throat A paste is made of a mixture of Solanum aviculare G. Forst. and The lepa is used as toothpaste to treat Spilanthes acmella (L.) L. in equal proportions. sensitive teeth as well as toothaches. Fitkari (alum) (5 g) is ground and added to rose water (250 ml).

About 2-3 drops of this is poured into the eyes at short intervals (2-3 hours) for pain relief and infections.

Saussurea gossypiphora flowers are ground into churna.

A pinch of churna along with swrasa of lemon is used for earaches.

Gastro-intestinal disorders Saunth (dry ginger) (10 g), T. chebula bark (20 g), P. emblica (10 Administered orally (5 g) 3 times a daily for g) T. bellirica (15 g), khurasani ajwain (Hyoscyamus niger L.) dysentery. (25 g), boja (Acorus calamus L.) (15 g) and gilai (T. cordifolia) (25 g) are mixed and ground into churna. Piper longum (5 g), shyaha jeera (Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Churna used for indigestion and constipation. B.Fedtsch.) (10 g), saindha namak (15 gm) and naushadar (ammonium chloride) (20 g) are mixed and ground into churna. Dry P. emblica (10 g) and T. chebula (5 g) are mixed and ground Taken orally 2 times daily for 3 days for into churna. dysentery. Rheumatism / joint pain Arandi (Ricinus communis L.) (100 g) and Vitex negundo L. (200 Massage of this taila on joints is useful for g) are boiled in mustard oil (500 ml) until it turns black. This is rheumatic pain. then filtered and stored as taila. Pipali (P. longum) fruit (1 g), pipali roots (15 g), Phaseolus Administered frequently (4-5 times a day) for vulgaris L. (15 g), saunth (10 g) and P. zeylanicum (10 g) are rheumatic pain. boiled and filtered. A pinch of black salt and D. purpurea are also added. Yograj guggulu (an Ayurvedic formulation) is mixed with mustard One teaspoonful is taken orally and topically 2 oil. times daily for 15 days for rheumatic pain. Hepatoprotective Dry ginger, P. nigrum, P. longum, D. purpurea and dry heeng Churna is administered orally with warm water (asafoetida) in equal proportions are ground into churna. (2-4 g) for 15-20 days for liver disorders. Triphala churna

One half teaspoonful is taken frequently for one week for jaundice.

Anti-hemorrhoid (piles treatment) Young bud of guava (100 g) and M. esculenta bark (200 g) are Two teaspoonfuls are taken twice daily for 30 ground and filtered with muslin cloth to make fine churna. days for piles. Young and fresh leaves of Senna tora (L.) Roxb. are ground and The mixture is chewn raw on an empty stomach mixed well with water. early in the morning for 15 days.

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Therapeutic Categorization of Indigenous Medicinal Knowledge: 123 different ailments were reported to be treated with indigenous medicinal practices in the Rudraprayag district. These ailments were further categorized into 13 major therapeutic groups. The largest category was dermatological (skin) problems with 24 ailments followed by ear, nose and throat (ENT) with 20, gastrointestinal disorders (18), uro-genital problems (16), mental disorders/nervous disorders/shamanistic (10), orthopediatric purposes (7), cardiovascular, respiratory and fever (5 each), cancer and hepato-protective categories (2 each), and only 1 ailment under hemorrhoid and hypoglycemic. Under different therapeutic groups, nearly 70 species were reported for the treatment of gastrointestinal ailments out of which 51 species were also used for the treatment of ailments under different therapeutic groups. This was followed by dermatological group comprising of 44 species, uro-genetial by 43 species, respiratory disorders 34 species, mental disorders 31 species, fever 29 species, cardiovascular 24 species, ENT 18 species, for bone related and liver ailments 12 species each, 6 species for the treatments of piles, 4 species for cancer and only 2 species were reported for the treatments of diabetes. Besides 51 species of gastrointestinal group, 36 species of uro-genital, 31 of respiratory, 30 species of mental disorders, 26 of fever, 24 species of cardiovascular, 22 species of dermatological and many other species also reported to have other therapeutic uses. Gastrointestinal disorders: Ailments treated are constipation, colic pain, cholera, indigestion, vomiting, diarrhea, dysentery, gastritis and ulcer. Most of the time plants are used as carminatives and laxatives. Few plants have been previously reported for this purpose (Kala 2004). Most of the time, species were used as a single remedy with occasional combination with water, salt, sugar and honey. Out of 70 species, 40 were mainly used to treat diarrhea and dysentery, 20 for gastritis and acidity, 5 for ulcer and 10 for constipation. One of the practitioners suggested the decoction of root of Berberis aristata DC. as a very good treatment for chronic gastritis. Dermatological problems: Cuts and wounds were the most frequent maladies of this group followed by itching, scabies, eczema, pimples, blisters, burns, boils and swellings. Most of the remedies were used as demulcents and antiseptics applied topically in the form of lepa and swarsa. Kala (2004) reported 134 species for treating skin diseases and A. conyzoides was the most common species also reported during this work.

Uro-genital problems: Many of the plants used for uro-genital problems that are covered in Table 1 are reported for the first time. Most were used as diuretics. Additional formulations from vaidayas related to this category are presented in Table 2. Respiratory disorders: Ailments treated are cough, cold, bronchitis, asthma, tuberculosis and as a vasodilator. The formulations are predominantly churna administered orally and preferably with honey. Mental disorders: Ten ailments were treated by traditional health care professionals, while 23 species are used for shamanistic purposes. Fever: Ailments treated include normal fever, pneumonia and typhoid. Cardiovascular: Ailments treated include hypertension and low blood pressure. Several plants are used as cardio-stimulants. Ear, nose, and throat: Ailments treated are nose bleeds, conjunctivitis, cataracts, night blindness, and tooth or ear aches. Most of the time, fresh juice of plants is used as and when required. Bone diseases: Ailments treated are rheumatism, arthritis, bone fracture, dislocated joints and sprains. Some formulations used especially for rheumatism and joint pains are described in Table 2. Miscellaneous problems: In addition, twelve species were reportedly used to treat liver ailments and as a tonic, six for the treatment of piles, four for cancer, and two for diabetes.

Discussion Globally, treatments of various gastrointestinal disorders are predominant, and a sizeable number of plants have been reported as part of treatment for such illness across different ethnic communities (Kala 2004). However, Kala (2004) reported that more medicinal plants in Uttarakhand were used to treat general body ache and colic pain.

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Chandra et al. - Herbal-based Traditional Medicinal Knowledge of Local Inhabitants in Rudraprayag District of Uttarakhand, India Traditional medicinal systems are diverse in their historical background, logic, practices, contemporary social realities and dynamics (Bhasin 2007). Medicinal knowledge of the local inhabitants of Rudraprayag district can be categorized into three groups: 1) Traditional medicinal knowledge (folk medicines) that is intrinsic knowledge inherited by oral communications across generations within the indigenous communities (Hazarika et al. 2012). 2) Traditional systems of medicine, mainly Ayurveda, practiced by trained practitioners and vaidayas. and 3) Shamanistic medicine practiced by performing religious rituals including tantra-mantra and using plants either as a symbols of gods or evil spirits. Out of 150 people surveyed, only 25 were trained. The remaining 125 practitioners were using experiences they learned from elders and supporting primary health care of family members and village inhabitants. This study reveals some new used besides common medicinal uses of the plants recorded Abrus precatorius L. and Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers. are used for bone related diseases in Rudraprayag district. Kala (2004) also reported A. precatorius along with Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. and Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don for treating bone diseases. In Kumaun Himalaya, the Bhotiya apply this for treatment of gastric problems, digestive system, dysentery and diarrhea, liver malfunctioning, kidney stone, fever, blood purifier, common cold and cough, skin diseases and for vigor and vitality of the body (Farooquee et al. 2004). Crushed juice of Achyranthes aspera L. is used for dysentery, piles, skin eruptions and ulcer in Sonitpur, Assam (Kumar et al. 2009). However, this plant is used as an antidote, demulcent and as oxytocic and for the treatment of tooth aches in Rudraprayag district. In high altitude areas it is used for the treatment of ringworm (Phondani et al. 2010). Acorus calamus L. was reported in this study for gastrointestinal problems and as a hepatoprotective. Similarly, Rawat et al. (2010) reported that it is used for the treatment of dyspepsia, bronchitis, dysentery, snake bite, insectifuge and asthma in traditional medicinal systems of Tones valley of Garhwal Himalaya. In Meghalaya, a root decoction of A. calamus is taken orally for the treatment of malaria (Bora et al. 2007). Similarly, in other parts of Uttarankhand, Kala (2004) reported that A. calamus was used to treat nine ailments including fever, stomachache, and headache, abdominal pain, in respiratory problems and also in malaria. In Rudraprayag, Argemone mexicana L. is used as an abortifacient, anti-hypersensitive, and its yellow latex is used for eye diseases. Kwatha of roots is administered orally for the treatment of asthma and bronchitis. Vaidyas with spiritual power used seeds for the treatment of jaundice. However, Nath people in Assam (Sikdar & Dut-

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ta 2008), reported A. mexicana as useful in leprosy, scabies, syphilis, and gonorrhea, toothache, as a purgative, for dropsy, jaundice, healing of ulcers, herpes, and skin diseases. It is also used as an antidote for snakebites. Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl. is used in dermatological problems and for the treatment of leprosy in Rudraprayag whereas in Arunachal Pradesh it is used for headaches and indigestion (Kala 2005c). Sati and Joshi (2011) reported anti-fungal activity in root bark of Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. It is also used in skin diseases in Rudraprayag district. In Assam (Sikdar & Dutta 2008), Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. is taken internally and applied externally to blacken hair. Fresh leaves are used for elephantiasis, liver ailments, and dropsy. Juice is also used for jaundice and fever. However, in Rudraprayag, fresh juice is used externally to treat skin diseases. Euphorbia hirta L. is used for cough and asthma, whooping cough, chronic bronchitis, as a sedative, hemostatic, soporific, and for urinary problems in Rudraprayag district. In Assam, the milky juice was considered useful for warts (Sikdar & Dutta 2008).

In Arunachal Pradesh, Oxalis corniculata L. is used to relieve intoxication from wine as well as for diarrhea (Kala 2005c). By contrast in this study the juice of the plant is used for removing skin warts, and to take out small thorns from the skin. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link is used as a remedy for hysteria, dyspepsia, nervous disorder skin diseases, bronchitis, asthma, and as an antidote for snakebite (Bhardwaj & Gakhar 2005, Dutta & Dutta 2005, Sikdar & Dutta 2008). In the Rudraprayag district it is used to treat asthma, bronchitis, piles, skin diseases, and hypersensitivity. Solanum rudepannum Dunal is used for treatment of liver troubles in Rudraprayag district. However, in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh it is used for treatment of malaria (Bora et al. 2007). Urtica ardens Link was reported in this research as useful in menorrhagia disorder, as an oxytocic and as an abortifacient. However, Phondani et al. (2010) reported it as useful for anemia. In Apatani, Arunachal Pradesh, Zanthoxylum armatum DC. is used to treat colds, cough, fever and as an appetizer (Kala 2005c). In Rudraprayag district, Z. armatum was used mainly for the treatment of tooth ache and pyorrhea. Similar uses were reported by Rawat et al. (2010) in Tones valley.

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Conclusion The traditional medicinal system of Rudraprayag includes diverse knowledge of useful plants. Many species already described by earlier workers had different medicinal uses. Some formulations are also reported for the first time during the course of this study. Moreover, information regarding various formulations may help local people to fulfill primary health care demands.

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Director, HAPPRC, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar for providing necessary facilities during the course of this work. We are also thankful to all traditional healers / vaidayas, elder people and all the local inhabitants of Rudraprayag for sharing their knowledge and all their help during the course of this work.

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