Hindu Nationalist. Movement and. Indian Politics. 1925 to the 1990s. Strategies of Identity-Building,. Implantation and Mobilisation. (with special reference to ...
CHRISTOPHE JAFFRELOT
The
Hindu Nationalist Movement and
Indian Politics 1925 to the 1990s Strategies of Identity-Building, Implantation and Mobilisation (with special reference to Central India)
HURST & COMPANY, LONDON
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
page vii
Abbreviations
xviii
Glossary
xx
INTRODUCTION
1
Parti. THREE HINDU NATIONALIST STRATEGIES 1. STIGMATISING AND EMULATING THREATENING OTHERS' - THE FORMATION OF HINDU NATIONALISM The genesis of Hindu nationalism The Arya Samaj and 'Arya nationalism' The Hindu Sangathan movement: stereotypes of the Muslim and the Hindu inferiority complex Savarkar and Hindutva ethnic nationalism The RSS: a Hindu nationalist sect The sectarian crucible ofthe Hindu nation - An ideological akhara - The world-renouncer as an activist RSS Brahminism and its social contradictions An ideology of the ethnic nation rather than of the race or the state German sources of Golwalkar's ideology A special kind of racism The primacy of social organism The organisation above men Priority given to the expansion ofthe shakha network The northward expansion and the pracharaks' modus operandi ix
11 12 13 19 25 33 35 35 40 45 50 53 55 58 62 64 66
χ
Contents Explaining the RSS's relative attractiveness in the 1940s The RSS and the Hindu Mahasabha A North India movement
2. THE STRATEGY OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS MOBILISATION AND THE POLITICS OF SECULARISM
68 72 75
80
The political context after 1947
81
Nehru's secularist struggle
83
The first attempt to exploit the issue of Ayodhya
91
Hindu traditionalists and Hindu nationalists join together in defence of the Hindus of East Pakistan Nehru and the Hindu traditionalists
96 98
Secularism as a legitimate norm of the Indian political system
102
The further marginalisation of the Hindu Mahasabha An extremist party The Hindu Mahasabha in Madhya Bharat
107 107 109
3. A SPECIFIC PARTY-BUILDING STRATEGY: THE JANA SANGH AND THE RSS NETWORK
114
The RSS and politics The birth of the Jana Sangh First the part, then the whole
115 116 119
The RSS and its affiliates The Jana Sangh, replica and auxiliary ofthe RSS The complementarity ofthe RSS and its affiliates
123 123 125
Minimal public involvement: the party's organisational priority The Jana Sangh's Sanghathanist party-building pattern The case of Madhya Pradesh -Mandsaur -Ujjain ' -West Nimar
129 131 132 138 141 144
A counter-model of party-building
149
Partii. OSCILLATION AND HYBRIDISATION IN THE 1960s 4. TOWARDS STRATEGIES OF MODERATION? Adjusting to the political context
158 159
Contents The dual constraints ofthe 'Congress system ' - The Hindu traditionalists and state politics - Nehru and the politics of secularism The Jana Sangh's opposition to public ownership of the economy - The desire for decentralisation - The Jana Sangh as spokesman for 'the middle world' From dogmatism to pragmatism? The origins of integration with the legitimate opposition The 'cluster technique', a party-building pattern borrowing from both Sangathanism and the aggregative method 5. THE MIXED STRATEGY: HINDU MOBILISATION AND ELECTORAL ALLIANCES The Vishwa Hindu Parishad: the strategy of stigmatisation/ emulation and the religious network Pracharaks and 'modern gurus ' The VHP, a consistory for Hinduism ? The strategy of ethno-religious mobilisation under a double constraint The cow protection movement The firm secularism ofthe Centre The cow protection movement in Madhya Pradesh The unreliability of religious leaders Electoral progress and increased reliance on notables and princes Electoral alliances and coalition governments
xi 159 160 165 169 169 172 178 180 183 193 194 194 196 202 204 208 209 210 213 221
Part III. THE CONTRADICTIONS O F T H E 1970s 6. LOCAL CADRES AND POPULISM The main division within the Jana Sangh is not vertical but horizontal The influence ofthe Sangathanist network in shaping party strategy The choice between traditionalist integration and Sangathanist populism The primacy ofthe organisation over individuals The central government's fight against communalism
230 231 231 233 236 238
xii
Contents The patriotic and populist roles ofthe Jana Sangh: the problem of outdoing the Congress The sociological limits of populism: the Jana Sangh's inability to widen its base The appeal to the masses and the decline of 'vote banks' The cost of relying on princes
7. THE HINDU NATIONALISTS IN THE 'J.P. MOVEMENT' The activist turn: the Jana Sangh leadership, its local cadres and the RSS back in step The political convergence of social reformers A windfall and a dilemma: associating without losing one's identity The Emergency: crucible of integration Unity 'from above' 8. THE IMPOSSIBLE ASSIMILATION Towards a political culture of synthesis? The ex-Jana Sanghis and the question of unity 'Shakha culture' or 'Janata culture'? The Janata Party in the Hindi belt Return to 'political untouchability'
240 244 245 246 255 255 258 266 272 277 282 283 291 292 301
Part IV. THE CONVERGENCE OF HINDU NATIONALIST STRATEGIES IN THE 1980s 9. THE CONTRADICTIONS OF THE BJ.P. AND THE EROSION OF SECULARISM The BJP: heir to the Janata Party? Risks of divorce from the grassroots and the RSS Notabilised swayamsevaks and ideological notables and princes The RSS's reservations regarding the BJP The erosion of secularism as a political norm 10. THE HINDU SENSE OF VULNERABILITY AND THE R.S.S.'s POLITICAL OFFENSIVE The inferiority complex ofthe majority revisited
314 315 319 320 326 330 338 338
Contents The VHP and building the Hindu nation against the Other The VHP as the spearhead of the RSS's new political strategy - The laborious relaunching ofthe VHP (1979-81) -Activists, sadhus and patrons - The emergence of a Hindu ecclesiastical structure (1982-4)? The development ofthe VHP network at the local level The increasing involvement of a particular religious network The attempt at Hindu mobilisation Reconversions, the welfarist tactic and temple-building The Ekatmata Yatra - or the shaping of an ideological devotionalism The revival ofthe Ayodhya issue The contribution of ex-Congressmen l l . THE MAKING OF A HINDU VOTE? The communalisation of politics Avoiding the dangers of 1967: the strength of the religious network The BJP between integration and mobilisation: the success of a mixed strategy The reinstatement ofthe Sangathanists An accommodating 'legitimate opposition ' The BJP is won over to the strategy of ethno-religious mobilisation The 1989 election campaign: populism, 'political b h a k t i and riots A superimposition of strategies: the case of Madhya
Pradesh Ram as a national hero for the 'angry Hindu ' Processions, communitas and riots as an all-lndia phenomenon The shilanyas The BJP's victory in Madhya Pradesh: the activists in the forefront
xi jj 345 346 347 350 351 353 355 358 35g 360 363 364 369 369 371 374 375 378 381 ^83 38
J
388 ·* 398
404
xi ν
Contents Part V. THE EARLY 1990S: HOW TO CONQUER AND RETAIN POWER
12. MAKING A BID FOR POWER: THE SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE HINDU MOBILISATION Mandir versus Mandai: Hindu mobilisation and caste conflict From the mixed strategy to ethno-religious mobilisation pure and simp1e - The BJP, the VHP and V.P. Singh - Hindu nationalist reactions to the Mandai report - The Rath Yatra: a national procession and demonstration of strength - Another wave of communal riots - The Kar Seva and the creation of a cult of martyrdom An expanding base, but why? The affinities between the new élite and the BJP: the impact of social and economic change The 1991 elections An aggressive electoral campaign The BJP as a national party? The cost of being in power 13. THE PARADOX OF THE RAMJANMABHOOMI MOVEMENT Problems of division of labour The BJP *s difficulties as a nationalist and a government 6 December 1992 party The unleashing of communal violence The reaction of the central government: an ambivalent tactic A limited crackdown In quest of a compromise at Ayodhya The strategy of ethno-religious mobilisation in question The resilience of BJP unity The risks in relying on sadhus and Bajrang Dalis 14. THE BJ.P. HELD IN CHECK IN THE HINDI BELT A gradual shift in emphasis in the ethno-nationalist repertoire The 1993 campaign for the Assembly elections: the strategy of ethno-religious mobilisation ebbs away The BJP in search of an ethno-nationalist image
411 412 412 412 414 416 419 420 424 432 436 436 438 446
449 449 450 455 458 464 464 468 473 AlA 478 482 482 485 485
Contents The difficulty of exploiting the Ayodhya issue - The weakening ofthe VHP - Ayodhya: an issue on the wane? The Congress (I) 's electoral strategy and the difficulty of the BJP in evolving an economic programme The test of power: Madhya Pradesh The decline of the sangathanist pattern - Patwa, Sakhlecha and Joshi as faction leaders? - The development of groupism - Indiscipline among party workers - Dissensions and the 1993 elections The poor performance and 'pro-rich' image ofthe Patwa government - The issue of loan-waiving - The alienation ofthe tribals - The OEC vote and the question of reservations The 1993 elections in Madhya Pradesh: the BJP sustains damage - The BJP becomes ever more urban - Bhopal: the making of a stronghold The BJP in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Delhi
xv 487 487 489 491 494 494 494 497 500 502 504 504 505 506 510 511 511 515
CONCLUSION
522
EPILOGUE Can the Hindu nationalists cater for the socio-economic interests of the OBCs? The BJP emphasises socio-economic rather than ethno-religious issues Populism and the 1994-5 state elections The state, the judiciary and the Hindu nationalists Will tensions emerge in the 'Sangh parivar' ?
533
February 1996 APPENDIXES A. Victims of Hindu-Muslim riots, 1986-90 (map) B. Hindu-Muslim riots in India and resulting victims, 1954-93 C. The same information as in B. in graphic form D. Performance of the Jana Sangh and the BJP in Vidhan Sabha elections, 1952 to 1991
534 536 539 544 547 55
°
551 552 553 554
xvi
Contents
E. Performance of the Jana Sangh and the BJP in Lok Sabha elections, 1952 to 1993-5 F. Notables and activists among Madhya Pradesh BJS and BJP MLAs by region, 1957-90 G. Occupations of Madhya Pradesh BJS and BJPMLAs, 1957-90 H. Caste- and community-based distribution of Jana Sangh and BJP MLAs in Madhya Pradesh, 1952-93 J. Madhya Pradesh Vidhan Sabha election results, 1952-93 (9 maps)
555 556 558 559 560-8
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
569
index
577
