HOW TELECOMMUTERS BALANCE WORK AND

HOW TELECOMMUTERS BALANCE WORK AND THEIR PERSONAL LIVES By Tina M. Miller

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION: MIS 2016

Baker College Flint, Michigan

ABSTRACT HOW TELECOMMUTERS BALANCE WORK AND THEIR PERSONAL LIVES by Tina M. Miller Past research has suggested that telecommuters can balance their work and personal lives more efficiently than their office counterparts. Researchers had not explored how telecommuters who worked for a private health insurer balanced their work and personal lives. The following aspects of telecommuting were investigated: (a) telecommuters’ expectations, (b) structure of work and home environment, and (c) handling obstacles at work and home. This qualitative phenomenological study consisted of interview data collected from a convenience sample of 19 full-time telecommuters self-selected from a population of 5,819 people who worked for a private health insurer located in the United States. The theoretical framework for the study was Herzberg’s two-factor theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. Seven themes emerged: (a) maintaining a separate office in the home; (b) setting family expectations; (c) remaining task oriented and disciplined and maintaining a normal routine; (d) communicating with managers and colleagues; (e) juggling work and personal life; (f) taking breaks and lunches; and (g) taking personal time off. The results indicated that work–life balance can be achieved by (a) creating structure in the working environment, (b) gaining organizational and management support, (c) limiting personal obstacles during working hours, and (d) limiting work-related tasks during personal time.

DEDICATION I dedicate this to my family and friends who were patient with me as I spent numerous hours studying, researching, and writing.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would first like to thank my husband, who put up with my long hours of research, writing, and sitting at my computer. There were so many times I wanted to quit, but you continued to encourage me. I am thankful that you supported my desire to pursue this endeavor and now that I am done, we can spend more time camping, fishing, riding our motorcycles, and just hanging out. I would like to thank my family and friends for all their support and encouragement. I would also like to thank the participants who agreed to give up their time and take part in this study. I would like to thank Carol at Gramlee for editing my dissertation. I would like to thank Jerry Zukerman for editing my dissertation based on Baker College standards. I would like to thank my committee members Dr. Helen Bojarczyk and Dr. Mary Dereshiwsky for their expertise and encouragement. A special thanks to Dr. Stephanie Hoon, who provided her guidance, expertise, encouragement, valuable time, and input throughout my entire doctoral journey.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................1 Background of the Problem .......................................................................................................2 Statement of the Problem ...........................................................................................................4 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................................4 Theoretical Support for the Study ..............................................................................................5 Research Questions ....................................................................................................................6 Assumptions...............................................................................................................................7 Scope and Delimitations ............................................................................................................8 Limitations .................................................................................................................................9 Nature of the Study ..................................................................................................................10 Significance of Study ...............................................................................................................11 Definitions and Key Terms ......................................................................................................12 Summary and Overview ..........................................................................................................13 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................16 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory ...............................................................................................17 Hygiene Factors ................................................................................................................ 18 Motivating Factors ............................................................................................................ 25 Summary of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory ................................................................... 29 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs .................................................................................................30 iv

Transcendence................................................................................................................... 31 Self-Actualization ............................................................................................................. 32 Aesthetic Needs ................................................................................................................ 33 Cognitive Needs ................................................................................................................ 33 Esteem Needs .................................................................................................................... 34 Belongingness and Love Needs ........................................................................................ 34 Biological and Physiological Needs ................................................................................. 35 Summary of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs...................................................................... 36 Telecommuting ........................................................................................................................37 Summary and Overview ..........................................................................................................40 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................42 Research Design.......................................................................................................................42 Bracketing Study......................................................................................................................47 Pilot Study................................................................................................................................48 Main Study ...............................................................................................................................49 Target Population .............................................................................................................. 49 Data Collection and Analysis............................................................................................ 53 Validity and Reliability ............................................................................................................60 Validity ............................................................................................................................. 60 Reliability.......................................................................................................................... 61 Role of the Researcher .............................................................................................................62 Protection of Human Participants ............................................................................................63 v

Confidentiality .................................................................................................................. 63 Protection of Data ............................................................................................................. 64 Summary and Overview ..........................................................................................................64 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ..............................................................................................................66 Demographic Characteristics ...................................................................................................67 Themes .....................................................................................................................................72 Bracketing Study............................................................................................................... 72 Pilot Study......................................................................................................................... 74 Main Study Results ..................................................................................................................75 Questionnaire Results ....................................................................................................... 76 Findings and Results ..............................................................................................................102 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................110 Summary ................................................................................................................................110 Female Participants ......................................................................................................... 119 White Participants ........................................................................................................... 121 Assumptions Addressed .........................................................................................................122 Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................123 APPENDIX A PARTICIPANT INFORMED CONSENT FORM .............................................173 APPENDIX B DEMOGRAPHIC DATA ....................................................................................174 APPENDIX C ORIGINAL PARTICIPANT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ................................175 APPENDIX D INTERVIEW QUESTIONAIRE REVISED ......................................................176 APPENDIX E TINA’S FIVE-DAY JOURNAL .........................................................................177 vi

APPENDIX F BRACKETING STUDY RESPONSES TO INTERVIEW QUESTIONS .........178 APPENDIX G PILOT STUDY RESPONSES TO INTERVIEW QUESTIONS .......................180 APPENDIX H MAIN STUDY RESPONSES TO INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ........................183

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Herzberg’s Two-Factory Theory

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Table 2. Epoché and Bracketing Stages

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Table 3. Demographic Data

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Table 4. Demographic Data—Pilot Study

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Table 5. Demographic Data—Main Study

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Table 6. Participant Occupation

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Table 7. Participant Salary

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Table 8. Activity Details

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Table 9. Emerging Themes--Bracketing Study

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Table 10. Emerging Themes--Pilot Study

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Table 11. Emerging Themes--Main Study

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Table 12. Interview Question 1 Responses

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory.

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Figure 2. Main study participant occupation

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Figure 3. Participants salary

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Figure 4. Activity totals.

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Figure 5. Participant hours worked plot graph.

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Figure 6. Interview Question 2 responses.

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Figure 14. Interview Question 10 responses

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Figure 15. Interview Question 11 responses

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Although a number of researchers have suggested telecommuters effectively balance their work and personal lives compared to those who do not telecommute (Baard & Thomas, 2010; Goodman, 2013; Noonan & Glass, 2012 other research has had contradictory results (Patterson et al., 2014; Wheatley, 2012). Boyar (2013) noted the success of telecommuting depends on the person, the type of role, and the training the person receives on balancing work and personal time more efficiently. There was limited understanding of how telecommuters working for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives. Several researchers have noted job satisfaction and employee morale improves because of greater flexibility working in a telecommuting environment (Dahlstrom, 2013; Hankel, 2013; Tustin, 2014). Telecommuting and working from home were import job-related factors that led to job satisfaction for 87% of baby boomers and 89% of generation Y (Solanki, 2013). Yet, because of management and personal obstacles, a telecommuter may not successfully balance his or her work and personal life (Hilbrecht, Shaw, Johnson, & Andrey, 2013). Telecommuters should be self-starters who can create a personal workspace for professional activities away from personal distractions and still communicate with managers (Belanger, Watson-Manheim, & Swan, 2013). Telecommuting workers must prove they are worthy of working from home because they are not in the office or physically visible to managers (Gajendran, Harrison, & Delaney-Klinger, 2015). Furthermore, some managers believe a work–at-home environment is not ideal because of inadequate communication and productivity; instead, face-to-face communication and collaboration lead to a more desirable, trustworthy workplace and one that is easier to manage (Martinez-Sanches, Perez-Perez, De-Luis-Carnicer, & Vela-Jimenez 2007; Patterson, Harvey, &

2 Bosco, 2014; Rocco, 2014). Goodman (2013) reported that managers may expect telecommuters to work outside normal working hours or work longer hours, some experts believe that if workers given the freedom and flexibility to work where they want, they will be more productive and satisfied (Martinez-Sanches et al., 2007). Family members demand a share of the telecommuter’s time and may interfere during working hours because of his or her ready-availability (Golden, 2012; Irby, 2014; Nicholas, 2014). Indeed, creating boundaries between work and personal life reduce stress and anxiety, which assists in balancing work and personal life (Kossek, Thompson, & Lautsch, 2015). According to Hilbrecht et al. (2013), telecommuters enjoy the solitude, anonymity, and flexibility of work from home; however, the struggling to please managers, family members, and themselves can put work and life out of balance. Background of the Problem Telecommuting, allows employees to complete work-related tasks from home or a remote location (Noonan & Glass, 2012). Telecommuting trials were conducted by IBM beginning in the 1990s, and by 2006 almost 40% of the organization's employees were telecommuting (Brady, 2011); however, the phenomenon of telecommuting was coined by Nilles in 1973. Nilles (as cited in Davis, 2011) believed work could be accomplished productively and efficiently working from home utilizing computer technology. After commuting from Los Angeles to Washington D.C., working as a rocket scientist for the Federal government, Nilles began running studies and experiments to show the benefits of telecommuting (Reitan, 2014). The Federal government did not start running their experiments until the late 1970s (Reitan, 2014). According to Thye, Osman, Othman, Razak, & Aji (2012), the success of telecommuting within several Federal agencies not only increased productivity but enhanced employee morale. Several researchers

3 have stated that one of the most frequently perceived advantages for telecommuters is better work–life balance; the flexible work arrangement allows employees to manage their own time (Bannon, Ford, & Meltzer, 2011; Church, 2015; Clark, Karau., & Michalisin 2012). In 2002, Switzerland reported 16.8% of the population practiced some form of telecommuting and at the present growth rate, Switzerland predicts there will be 1.4 million telecommuters in Switzerland by the year 2030 because of the increased flexibility and work-life balance experienced by employees (Ciari Marmolejo, Stahel, & Axhausen, 2013). Since 1973, many private sector companies have adopted telecommuting policies; in 2012 63% of these companies’ employees were telecommuting, and by the end 2016, an estimated 63 million were working from home (Oliff, 2014). Congress introduced the Telework Enhancement Act in 2010 to encourage and promote telecommuting as a flexible working environment (Genova, 2010). In 2010, a study of American organizations with at least 50 employees reported 50% offered telecommuting as a flexible working environment (Leslie et al., 2012). According to Thompson (2012), 85 of the 100 best companies to work for as reported in Fortune magazine offer their employees telecommuting. Hundreds of organizations worldwide have implemented telecommuting to help increase companies’ corporate social responsibility, decrease environmental impacts associated with maintaining a physical office location, negotiate evolving economy, and remain competitive (Baard & Thomas, 2010; Church, 2015; Nastase & Ionescu, 2011). According to Galvez, Martinez, and Perez (2012), balancing work and personal life has become increasingly difficult because of family obligations. Since 2012, approximately 77% of employers in the U.S. have allowed flexible work schedules and approximately 63% have allowed employees to occasionally work from home (Kossek et al., 2015). Several accounting

4 firms decided to vacate the physical office for a virtual work environment. These businesses experienced several advantages by going virtual including the ability to hire the best employees, increased cost savings, employee flexible work schedules, and higher productivity (Drew, 2013). According to Gold and Mustafa (2013), the inability for employees to balance work and personal life remains. Statement of the Problem Telecommuting increases an employee’s ability to balance his or her work and personal life. Yet balance between one’s work and personal life is important because balance leads to job satisfaction (Baard & Thomas, 2010; Belanger et al., 2013; Dahlstrom, 2013; Galvez et al., 2012). According to Herzberg (2011), work and life balance is considered a hygiene factor, part of Herzberg’s two-factor theory of job satisfaction. Also, Maslow (1943) stated that work and life balance is an aesthetic need, noting that balance is part of the hierarchy of needs model on job satisfaction. The problem addressed in this study was the limited understanding of how private health insurance telecommuters balance their work and personal lives and if work and life balance have an effect on job satisfaction. Addressing the problem contributes to existing knowledge of how telecommuters balance their work and personal lives. Insight into this problem could motivate employers to offer telecommuting options or improve existing telecommuting policies, thereby helping employees balance work and personal time more efficiently to increase employee job satisfaction. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to improve the limited understanding of how telecommuters who work for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives and if this affects job satisfaction. Telecommuters who worked for a private health insurer shared their

5 lived experiences. Discovering the behavioral patterns among the telecommuters in this study is intended to assist employees, managers, and organizational leaders to create telecommuting policies that could help telecommuters balance their work and personal lives and increase job satisfaction. For example, exploring how the telecommuters in the sample structured their work and handled personal issues ca help managers to decide what policies to implement when transitioning to a telecommuting environment. Ensuring a balance between work and personal life is also important to the organization, because job satisfaction leads to productivity and quality (Baard & Thomas, 2010; Brady, 2011; Church, 2015; Davis, 2011). According to several researchers (Goodman, 2013; Gajendran et al., 2015), the balance of work and personal life can increase job satisfaction and productivity; improve retention and recruitment; reduce commuting costs, congestion, and pollution; and offer employees greater flexibility. The outcomes of this study can assist managers when working with telecommuters to ensure policies and goals are equivalent between for centralized employees and telecommuters. Also, the results may help telecommuters in communicating their needs to managers. The conclusions based on the input from employees who currently telecommute serve as a helpful guide for employees who desire to telecommute. Theoretical Support for the Study Herzberg’s two-factor theory of job satisfaction and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory served as the theoretical framework for this study. According to Herzberg (2011), work–life balance is a hygiene factor. Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (2011) listed several hygiene factors: wages, and other benefits; company policies and administration; good inter-personal relationships; quality supervision; job security; working conditions; and work–life balance. Motivating factors include a sense of personal achievement, status, recognition, challenging

6 work-related tasks, responsibility, opportunities to advance, promotion, and growth (Herzberg et al., 2011). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory forms a pyramid of requirements, including (a) biological and physiological needs, (b) safety needs, (c) belongingness and love needs, (d) esteem needs, (e) cognitive needs, (f) aesthetic needs, (g) self-actualization, and (h) transcendence (Aanstoos, 2010). Aanstoos (2010) stated Maslow believed work–life balance is an aesthetic need and included it as part of his hierarchy of needs model on job satisfaction. Although some researchers have concluded that telecommuters are better able to balance their work and personal lives, compared to workers who do not telecommute, there was little understanding of how telecommuters who work for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives. Themes emerged during the data analysis process were explained in light of Herzberg’s and Maslow’s models. Research Questions To explore how telecommuters who work for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives, the following central question was used to guide the study: How do telecommuters working for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives? Four research questions were as follows: 1. What steps do telecommuters take to create structure in their working environments? 2. What role does the organization or management team take in assisting telecommuters

to maintain work and life balance? 3. How do telecommuters handle personal obstacles during their working hours? 4. How do telecommuters handle work-related issues during personal time?

7 Assumptions Several assumptions were made at the start of the study. The first assumption was telecommuters working for a private health insurer would have no structure in their working environment. This assumption did not hold true for this population, based on the findings in chapter 4. The sample of participants in this study stated creating structure in their working environment was achieved by setting up a separate workspace, handling only work-related activities from the home office, remaining disciplined, and being organized and aware of expectations. Seven of the participants worked more than 40 hours a week, but had no adverse impact on this assumption. The participants in this study also had a flexible working environment which allows them to juggle personal and work-related tasks. The second assumption was telecommuters working for a private health insurer would not have adequate support from their organization and management to assist in maintaining work and life balance. This assumption was inconclusive, according to the findings in Chapter 4. Question 3 in Chapter 4 addressed the organization and management expectations. The participant responses included very high expectations, held telecommuters to a higher standard than their counterparts working from a centralized office, much pressure to perform or overproduce, and overall higher expectations than employees working from a centralized office location. Question 6 addressed how the organization or management team assists the participants in balancing work and personal life. The participant responses included flexible management, supportive management, the importance of taking a vacation, wellness programs, and entertainment. Though three of the participants stated their organization and management team did not offer support, these were the same participants who work over 40 hours a week and had negative responses about their work and life balance throughout the entire study. After

8 reviewing the rest of the responses, my second assumption was inconclusive. The third assumption was telecommuters working for a private health insurer were handling personal tasks during working hours. This assumption held true according to the findings in Chapter 4. Seven of the participants stated they had a flexible schedule, and 10 stated they juggle work and personal life. Three of the participants stated they have few personal obstacles; therefore, the majority of the participants were handling personal tasks during working hours. The final assumption was telecommuters working for a private health insurer were handling work-related tasks during personal time. This assumption held true. Nine of the participants stated work did not interfere with personal life. Five participants stated they traveled with work-related equipment as well as handle work-related tasks while on vacation. Further, support this assumption held true based on the third assumption since these two assumptions are directly linked. Scope and Delimitations Research throughout this study focused on telecommuters who worked for private organizations and not related to those who worked in home-based Internet businesses. The target group population for this study worked at one private health insurer. The participants were selected on a first-come, first-served basis from those who responded to an invitation posted on the social network LinkedIn. The purpose of this study was to determine how telecommuters who worked for a private health insurer balanced their work and personal lives. Common themes that emerged were based only on answers provided by the participants during the interview process, found by analyzing the interview transcripts. Organizational and management telecommuting policies were obtained from the telecommuters involved in the study.

9 Limitations Several limitations affected the findings. I initially sought to obtain participants from a private health insurer, my employer. However, my leadership and human resource department would not approve of this endeavor. After several months of research, I opted to utilize social media. In the summer of 2013, the target population was a health insurance group on LinkedIn. The group had an overall membership of 24,204. Although the pool of participants was more than adequate to conduct the study, contacting members of this group resulted in no responses from people willing to participate. Other health insurer groups were contacted through LinkedIn, and some participants from a private health insurer were able to participate. The participants requested the private health insurers not be mentioned in this study; thus, the pseudonymous a private health insurer. The second limitation involved communicating with the participants. The LinkedIn policy does not allow a contact e-mail address within the body of the communication. After participants had responded with a willingness to participate, the participants were given my contact e-mail and basic instructions. This process took a little over a week. The third limitation was using a voice recorder to record the interviews. The voice recorder was an older model Olympus recorder that could not be attached to the phone; additionally, interviews could not be downloaded onto a computer. Thus, I downloaded a Droid HTC MAX cell phone app, Call Recorder, to record the interviews. I forwarded the recordings to e-mail and then moved them into a password-protected folder on a personal desktop computer. The fourth limitation was finding transcription software to transcribe the interviews from the voice recording to digital format. After researching transcription software used by medical transcriptionists, transcription services, and open source transcription options, I determined that

10 manual transcription using Word and Windows Media Player was more time- and cost-effective. The fifth limitation was researcher bias. As a full-time telecommuter, I have found that both positive and negative job factors have affected my ability to balance my work and personal lives. A 12-hour working day is normal, and I often work 7 days a week, including holidays and approved vacations. The increased work hours could be a telltale sign of lack of work-life balance. Therefore, potential researcher bias was addressed by completing a bracketing study. Bracketing is a process in which the researcher creates a distance from previously held theories and assumptions to become a nonparticipating observer. Hurlburt and Raymond (2013) advised researchers to avoid personal experiences in their research and to focus their attention instead on their participants’ perceptions. Chan, Fung, and Chien (2013) stated that phenomenological studies require bracketing. Conducting a bracketing interview before interviewing the participants was important to learn about my presuppositions concerning the nature and meaning of the phenomenon (Deady, 2011). Further discussion regarding the bracketing process is addressed in Chapter 3. Nature of the Study A better understanding of how telecommuters who work for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives could add to the existing knowledge base on the phenomenon of telecommuting. The study began with a bracketing study, followed by a pilot study, and concluded with the main study. First, I used a bracketing study to eliminate researcher bias. Next, I conducted a pilot survey to determine the feasibility of the study. Finally, I used a qualitative approach to conducting a phenomenological exploration consisting of semistructured interviews with telecommuters who worked for a private health insurer. The purpose of phenomenological research is to investigate the meanings of the lived

11 experiences of people to identify the core essence of human experience as described by the research participants (McGlasson, 2011). The phenomenological research process consists of collecting information through interviews, observations, and the perceptions of the research participants (Englander, 2012). Normally, a limited number of subjects are involved in extensive and prolonged engagement, allowing the researcher to develop patterns and relationships of meaning from the data (Lester, 1999). Significance of Study Telecommuting issues have been studied across many industries, addressing a variety of employee and employer concerns (Hunton & Norman, 2010). Many researchers have pointed out the adverse effects of telecommuting by focusing on cost of implementing the technical configuration, the loss of face-to-face communication, the ability to handle change, advancement opportunities, management and employee relationship, and the loss of social contact associated with working from home (Baard & Thomas, 2010; Davis, 2011; Goodman, 2013; Irby, 2014). Other researchers have focused on the benefits of telecommuting and explored costs savings for employees because of nonexistent commutes, reductions in environmental pollution, tax credits in some states for employers offering telecommuting as an alternative work environment, greater employee retention and loyalty, and decreased absenteeism (Hunton & Norman, 2010; Nicholas, 2014; Kossek et al., 2015; Noonan & Glass, 2012). This research was significant for determining how telecommuters who worked for a private health insurer balanced their work and personal lives, possibly leading to improving the telecommuters’ work environments. The results of this research may provide additional information that could assist organizational leaders, managers, and employees when implementing telecommuting as an alternative working environment, enhancing or altering a

12 current telecommuting policy, or accepting a role as a telecommuter. Implementing telecommuting may allow organization leaders and managers to receive several benefits, including (a) increased worker productivity; (b) the ability to attract and retain good employees; (c) capacity to save money on real estate, facilities, and overhead costs; and (d) improved employee morale (Clark et al., 2012; Drew, 2013). Employees may benefit from a closer proximity to and involvement with their families, have greater control over their working environments, and enjoy health benefits because of less stress, less time spent commuting, and a more balanced life (Golden, 2012). Definitions and Key Terms Bracketing. Bracketing is a methodological process used in a phenomenological inquiry that requires deliberately putting aside one’s beliefs about the phenomenon under investigation or what one already knows about the subject before and throughout the phenomenological inquiry (Chan et al., 2013). Hierarchy of needs. Biological and physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, self-actualization, and transcendence (Aanstoos, 2010). Hygiene factors. Hygiene factors are job-related elements that can lead to job dissatisfaction if conditions are not met; these factors include supervision, company policy, working conditions, salary, peer relationship, and security (Herzberg et al., 2011). Motivating factors. Motivating factors are job-related elements that can lead to job satisfaction, such as achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth (Herzberg et al., 2011). Phenomenology. A phenomenology is a research approach designed to explore the

13 meanings of the lived experiences of people to identify the core essence of human experience as described by the research participants (Lester, 1999). Pilot study. A pilot study also called a feasibility study is a “small-scale version, or trial run, done in preparation for the major study” (Simon, 2011a, p. 1). A pilot study can also be the pre-testing or “trying out” of a particular research instrument (Hazzi & Maldaon, 2015, p. 53). Productivity. Productivity refers to output per hours worked (Lambert, 2016). The value of products per work hour (Gahan et al., 2014). Saturation. Saturation is a condition used in data collection for ensuring that adequate and quality data are collected to support the study (Mason, 2010). Telecommuter. A telecommuter, also known as a teleworker, is an employee who does not commute to a central place of work (Brown, 2010). Two-factor theory. The two-factor is also known as the Herzberg motivation-hygiene theory and dual-factor theory (Stello, 2011). Certain factors within the workplace cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction (Herzberg et al., 2011). Summary and Overview Attracting loyal employees is important if organizations want to remain competitive and telecommuting as an alternative work environment is vital attracting dedicated employees (Bernardino, Dea Roglio, & Del Corso, 2012). Researchers have found that employees are more loyal to the firm or entity because they appreciate the autonomy of telecommuting opportunities offered (Hunton & Norman, 2010). Many researchers have studied negatives and positive aspects of telecommuting, including the cost of implementing the technical configuration, the loss of face-to-face communication, the ability to handle change, and the loss of social contact associated with working from home (Ramsower, 1983). However, limited research exists on

14 how telecommuters who work for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives. The focus of this investigation was to understand how telecommuters who worked for a health insurance provider balanced their work and personal lives. This goal was accomplished by conducting in-depth interviews with a variety of participants from a health insurance provider organization that offers telecommuting opportunities. Chapter 2 contains a review of literature related to Herzberg’s (2011) two-factor theory, which includes hygiene and motivation factors, and Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs model. Chapter 3 includes a description of the research design, population, sample, data collection and analysis, and the role of the researcher. Chapter 4 provides the results of the study. Chapter 5 provides the summary, conclusions, and recommendations for practical applications and further research. Organizations’ telecommuting policies must be clear and concise and easy for the telecommuter to understand (Overmyer, 2011). Organizational managers are responsible for (a) establishing relationships, (b) understanding staff who work in a remote environment, (c) understanding how employees approach work-related activities, (d) encouraging employees who telecommute, and (e) creating clear and concise telecommuting policies (Fallon, 2015). Further, managers set goals and objectives, provide feedback, create deadlines, delegate work, and recognize the contributions made by telecommuting employees (Sanders, 2012). Clearly, managers’ roles and responsibilities are essential components in telecommuters’ ability to balance work, life, and productivity. Sanders (2012) outlined four general elements of an effective telecommuting policy: (a) communicating and working with managers, (b) defining the workday, (c) organizing, (d) being accountable, and (e) confusion about expectations as a telecommuter. Successfully

15 implemented telecommuting policies can help employees balance work and personal time, reduce transportation and environmental impacts and increase retention and job satisfaction (Taylor, 2015). Although researchers have concluded that telecommuters are better able to balance their work and personal lives, compared to office workers, there is little understanding of how telecommuters who work for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives, which could be leading to ineffective organizational telecommuting policies.

16 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW Work–life balance is considered the most important factor in determining personal job satisfaction (Connick, 2014). Work–life balance also leads to more productive employees (Lautsch & Kossek, 2011). Two of the most prominent scholars on job satisfaction are Frederick Herzberg and Abraham Maslow. Herzberg (2011) created the two-factor theory, showing that hygiene and motivating factors influence job satisfaction. Hygiene factors include salary, wages, and other benefits; company policies and administration; good interpersonal relationships; quality supervision; job security; working conditions, and work–life balance (Herzberg et al., 2011). Motivation factors include a sense of achievement, status, recognition, challenging work, responsibility, the opportunity for advancement, promotion, and growth (Herzberg et al., 2011). Maslow (1943) created the hierarchy of needs model, which comprises eight levels: (a) biological and physiological needs, (b) safety needs, (c) belongingness and love needs, (d) esteem needs, (e) cognitive needs, (f) aesthetic needs and the element of balance, (g) selfactualization, and (h) transcendence. Herzberg and Maslow’s research and conclusions contain many related themes, one of which is work and personal life balance (Herzberg et al., 2011; Maslow, 1943). Although many researchers believe telecommuters can balance their work and personal lives effectively (e.g., Boyar, 2013; Hill & Fellows, 2014), little research has been conducted to determine how telecommuters who work for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives. The work-life balance affects employee health, job satisfaction, and employee retention (Umer & Zia-ur-Rehman, 2013). This literature review explores how telecommuters who work for a private health insurer can balance their work and personal lives, based on Herzberg’s two-factor

17 theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The balance between work and personal life is important regardless of the work environment (Umer & Zia-ur-Rehman, 2013). Glass (2014) defined balance as dividing time between the different aspects of a person’s life such as personal, family, friends, and work. Achieving balance between work and personal life is essential for overall health (Gurney, 2010). When the balance between work and personal life is not achieved, some employees experience a lack of sleep, anxiety, depression, and stress. Therefore, the ability of telecommuters to balance their work and personal lives required further analysis by researching telecommuters who work for a private health insurer. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Herzberg’s (2011) two-factor theory is broken down into hygiene and motivating factors. Hygiene factors include company policy and administration; wages, salaries, and other financial remuneration; quality of supervision; quality of interpersonal relations; working conditions; and a sense of job security (Malik & Naeem, 2013). Motivation factors are based on the individual’s need for personal growth which includes status and opportunity for advancement, recognition, responsibility, challenging or stimulating work, sense of personal achievement, and personal job growth (Malik & Naeem, 2013). Table 1 shows the breakdown of Herzberg’s two-factor theory.

18 Table 1 Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Hygiene Factors Salaries, Wages & other Benefits Company Policy & Administration Good Inter-Personal Relationships Quality of Supervision Job Security Working Conditions Work/Life Balance When in place, these factors result in General Satisfaction Prevention of Dissatisfaction

Motivator Factors Sense of Personal Achievement Status Recognition Challenging/stimulating Work Responsibility Opportunity for advancement Promotion/Growth When in place, these factors result in High Motivation High Satisfaction Strong Commitment

Herzberg’s (2011) two-factor (motivation-hygiene) theory is based on research conducted into employee job satisfaction. Herzberg’s theory indicates that if hygiene needs are not met, employees feel dissatisfied. Hygiene needs prevent employees from becoming dissatisfied, and motivators assist with employee satisfaction (Herzberg et al., 2011). A “great many things can be a source of dissatisfaction, but only certain factors can contribute to satisfaction” (Stello, 2011, p. 5). Work–life balance is considered a hygiene factor (Herzberg et al., 2011). With a balance of work and personal life, employees have an overall sense of satisfaction, despite the physical location of the office. Hygiene Factors Salary, wages, and benefits. Salary, wages, and benefits are important hygiene factors in the workplace and motivate employees whether the workplace is a centralized office location or a home office (Schlechter, Hung, & Bussin, 2014). However, “surveys that directly ask employees how important pay is to them are likely to overestimate pay’s true importance in actual decisions” (Rynes, Gerhart, & Minette, 2004, p. 381). Some telecommuters say pay is not

19 the primary motivating factor (Rynes et al., 2004). For example, some IT employees said they would take a cut in salary if they could work from home (Whitney, 2011). Of the employees surveyed, 35% stated that they would take a 10% cut in pay to work from home because of the high gas prices (Whitney, 2011). In a Momcorps survey of 1,071 Americans, 42% stated they would take a cut in pay if they could work from home (Tahminciouglu, 2013). Therefore, some employees are willing to accept a lower salary or wage for the advantages of working from a home office. For example, about 80% of people who telecommuted said they did so to spend more time with their families, and about 77% stated avoiding the stressful daily commute was important (Fisher, 2012). Of the group surveyed, 82% claimed they had fewer interruptions from colleagues. Of those surveyed, 31% noted their average pay had dropped (Fisher, 2012). Further, in an informal online poll, 92% of respondents said they would accept a dream job that required them to work from home (Bradley, 2011). Also, researchers at Dice reported that more than a third of IT workers were willing to take up to a 10% pay cut to telecommute (Bradley, 2011). Despite the research showing employees will accept a lower salary to work from home, some workers support equal pay for telecommuters (Bradley, 2011). Bradley (2011) reported that some workers believe telecommuters deserve pay increases: It is true that the employer has significant incentive to promote telecommuting. Telecommuting simultaneously boosts productivity and significantly cuts costs. If you add up the money saved in office space, power, climate control, networking, janitorial services, and in many cases even the technology used if workers rely on their own home PC and/or smartphones, the company can save a ton of money by letting users stay home. Based on that, I can see why it might seem like you should get a raise instead of a cut.

20 (Bradley, 2011, para. 4) Company policies. Company policy and administrative procedures are important hygiene factors to all employees, whether they work in a centralized office or a home office. Policies and procedures should be included in the company’s employee handbook and should be specific to the organization, but also follow state and federal regulations (Allen, 2011). Allen (2011) claimed that policies and procedures should be a baseline for employee expectations and should clarify what an employee needs to accomplish every day in the workplace. In a survey of 4,500 information workers conducted by Microsoft, 56% of lower- to midlevel information employees said their companies did not have an official policy for working remotely (Fuscaldo, 2011). Establishing guidelines for remote workers is vital to boost productivity, facilitate communication, and help establish trust between an employer and the staff (Fuscaldo, 2011). Balancing work and personal life is a constant struggle because of competing demands (Forris, 2015). Organizations have created innovative policies to help provide a balance between the two. Some of the policies have included paid family leave for new fathers as well as for mothers, telecommuting, shared work, shift work, and paid time off (Olah, Richter, & Kotowska, 2014). Proactive approaches to health and wellness, workplace flexibility, paid and unpaid time off, and dependent care assist employees to balance the competing demands of work and life (Lingle, 2010). For example, at Proctor and Gamble, 60% of all employees have flexible hours and work schedules to balance the demands of work and personal life (Lingle, 2010). Company policies that promote working from home allow employees to balance their jobs and personal lives more efficiently. Solid interpersonal relationships. Solid interpersonal relationships are important

21 regardless of whether employees work in a centralized office location or telecommute (Ferrell & Herb, 2012). Management skills allow managers to communicate effectively with staff, coworkers, and upper management. Effective workplace communications facilitate the development of relationships needed to succeed at work (Ye, 2012). Success is based on the performance of employees and coworkers (Ye, 2012). Interpersonal skills allow managers to see the business through staff and coworkers’ eyes (Dahlstrom, 2013). The ability to create effective communication promotes solid personal relationships (Nicholas, 2013). Making remote relationships work requires several important factors for the employee: clarifying management expectations; invest time in getting to know management; recognize when communication with management is important; learn to utilize tools; stay on one’s manager's radar; always be reliable and dependable; use social media to build relationships, and understand cultural differences (McIntyre, 2012). Managers define goals and expected results for their entire team and learn to balance their virtual versus physical office based employees by building relationships through effective communication (McIntyre, 2012). Relationship building is a vital requirement when working with telecommuting employees to ensure open lines of communication. In a telecommuting relationship, the most important lesson for managers to learn is effective communication to build solid working relationships (Hassan & Nuruddin, 2011). Communication and relationship building is vital between managers and telecommuters to maintain a balance between work and personal life. Management and employee training in effective communication skills such as how to use e-mail, phone etiquette, and instant communication can increase in building intrapersonal relationships (Hassan & Nuruddin, 2011). Quality of supervision. The quality of supervision is important to employees who work

22 in a centralized or home office. Ndlangamandla (2011) showed that the lack of supervision quality and expertise to manage the departments creates a lack of self-discipline amongst employees and ultimately affects performance, which results in job dissatisfaction. According to the International Telework Association and Council, 44.4 million Americans worked from home at least part of the time in 2004, up 7.5% from just one year earlier. Management must set standards for working in a remote environment so they can be applied consistently (Davis, 2011). Management must include accountability and trust, efficient and open lines of communication, and critical feedback (Angeles, 2013). Management training is essential to work with managers on the quality of supervision to help promote a balance between work and personal life. Training contributes to alleviating the concerns of managers and to identify specific areas that need addressed as the telework arrangement is formalized (Hassan & Nuruddin, 2011). Quality supervision allows managers to work together with telecommuters to understand their needs and focus on the balance between their work and personal lives. Job security. Job security is another important hygiene factor that affects all employees, whether they work in a centralized office or a home office. Members of the Society for Human Resource Management annual conference surveyed human resource professionals and found the top two primary sources of dissatisfaction were job security and benefits (Hastings, 2010). Also, researchers at Concordia University found that employees were so concerned about job security that they would come to work even if they were ill (Hastings, 2010). Employees with job security do not necessarily fear retribution for periodic absences from work (Brooks, 2011). Prospective telecommuters have expressed some concerns related to job security when pursuing a position that is working from a home office because some telecommuters have a feeling of out

23 of sight, out of mind (Bram, 2010). Job security is an important concern for all employees and organizations (Kraja, 2015). Although some companies begin virtual work arrangements on a voluntary basis, telecommuting has increasingly become necessary to increase productivity, reduce employer and employee costs, and provide an alternative to cutting jobs (Fleischer, 2012). For example, Burrus et al. (2009) found that allowing employees to work from home is a positive and cost-effective method compared to layoffs. Downsizing not only costs organizations 50% to 75% in salaries, but remaining employees are concerned about their job security (Burrus et al., 2009). The telecommuting program within the federal government provides employees with greater job security because job cuts are one quarter the rate compared to the private sector (Edwards, 2015). Telecommuting improves employees’ productivity, health, job security, and balance between work and their personal lives (Lister, 2010). After conducting a study of management solution firms in the Midwest, Campbell (2015) found that telecommuting improves productivity, loyalty, retention, stress reduction, job security, and work-life balance. Working conditions. Working conditions are one aspect of Herzberg’s job satisfaction factors (Herzberg et al., 2011). Working conditions refer to the working environment where employees work together to achieve a common organizational goal utilizing common policies and procedures put in place by the organization such as supplying a physical workspace or other tools for employees to complete work-related tasks (Awan & Tahir, 2015). It includes lighting, facilities, and temperature as well as supplied equipment and tools that impact an employee’s working environment (Blaug, Kenyon, & Lekhi, 2007). Employers can confirm an appropriate and safe working environment by creating a telecommuting policy where employers frequently visit the employee’s remote working location (Hogan & Rutherford, 2014).

24 Offering an alternative working situation can have an impact on working conditions and job satisfaction (Campbell, 2015). Flexible working environments can provide employees with control over working conditions such as the location of their workplace and working schedules (Lari, 2013). For example, the Federal Highway Administration in Minneapolis implemented a flexible work environment and discovered were more satisfied and experienced less stress, whereas management experienced reduced absenteeism and increased productivity (Buckeye, Sherkow, Lari, & Saunoi-Sandgren, 2013). Telecommuting as a working condition or alternative working environment enables employees to balance their work and personal lives (Noonan & Glass, 2012). Improving working conditions by offering work from home arrangements for employees can lead to increased employee retention, job satisfaction, and improved work and life balance (Olorunfemi, 2013). Work and life balance. Work and life balance is the final hygiene factor of centralized office and home office employees. Work–life balance was not been a topic of discussion for most organizations until women started entering the workforce and demanding a balance between their work schedules and personal life (Vakta, 2014). Lack of work-life balance will lead to stress and employee burnout, which will have an impact on productivity and performance and lead to job dissatisfaction and worse health (Paul, 2011; Poulose & Sudarsan, 2014; Sathyanarayana & Indla, 2010). Also, employees that have no work-life balance have increased absenteeism as well as intentions of leaving their employer (Poulose & Sudarsan, 2014. To understand how to better balance work and personal life, IBM (as discussed in (O’Callaghan, 2010) surveyed 24,000 employees in 75 different countries. Those who telecommuted had better work-life balance compared to those working in a centralized physical office. IBM also found that workers who telecommuted had more flexibility, were more

25 productive, and could put in more hours and still maintain work-life balance (O’Callaghan, 2010). Johnson (2010) concluded that of those surveyed at IBM, the majority of employees consistently encountered conflicts trying to juggle work and home life. After breaking down the research conducted by IBM, researchers found employees who telecommuted did not experience tension between work and life balance until they worked 19 more hours on average than employees working from a centralized office location (O’Callaghan, 2010). Johnson (2010) stated within the IBM study employees working for a centralize office experienced tension between work and life balance after working an average of 38 hours per week. Employees who telecommuted could work an average of 57 hours before experiencing tension between work and life balance (Johnson, 2010). Work and life balance are vital to telecommuters because often work demands are greater and telecommuters feel obligated to put in more hours (Maiya & Bagali, 2014). Motivating Factors Sense of personal achievement. A sense of personal achievement can be a strong motivator for centralized or home office employees. Rynes et al. (2004) noted that money can be the main sense of personal achievement. Teck-Hong and Waheed (2011), however, found that money is not the main motivator of personal achievement but is only a temporary reward. Hygiene factors rather than motivation factors such as recognition, working conditions, and company policies had more of an impact on personal achievement (Teck-Hong & Waheed, 2011). According to McClelland (2012), key motivating factors are a need for personal achievement, a desire for power, and need to have a connection with others. Personal achievement is not limited to materialistic or money; personal achievement is a sense of doing and being more than we are and a balance between harmony and happiness (Bartram, 2011).

26 Setting personal goals and creating a sense of personal purpose is tied to personal achievement (Berg, 2015). McClelland (2012) stated people motivated to improve themselves and seek personal achievement will naturally seek roles and responsibilities that allow them to satisfy their needs and achieve their goals. Some employers create innovative ways in which to assist employees to obtain a sense personal of achievement, including a rewards system, recognition, promotion, pay increases, job security, interesting work, and good working conditions (Remi, Abdul-Azeez, & Durowoju, 2011). Some employers offer job sharing, flexible work schedules, and telecommuting as a part of their rewards system (Sneglar, Renard, & Venter, 2013). Positive reinforcement can also encourage an employee’s morale which leads to a sense of personal achievement (Bevegni, 2015). According to Ajala (2012), employees feel that their personal achievements contribute to the overall success of the department and the organization. Job status. Job status is critical to obtain job satisfaction, whether employees are in a centralized office or a home office. For example, Uzonna (2013) conducted a study that stated job status was a very important job factor that increased satisfaction ratings. According to Barkhuizen, Swanepoel, and Ermakova, (2012), job satisfaction can be directly connected to employment status. Employees who have a higher level job status or job title, for the most part, have increased expectations and therefore a greater expectation to perform at a higher rate than those with a lower job status or job titles (Anaejionu, 2013). Job status is directly tied to job satisfaction because the more valuable an employee role or title sounds, the more pride, and ownership the employee takes within the organization (Uzonna, 2013). However, Correll, Kelly, O’Connor, and Williams (2014) stated employees that prefer a flexible or telecommuting work environment feel their wages increase at a slower rate, they have lower performance reviews, and the chance of promotion and increasing their job status is limited.

27 Recognition. Recognition is a motivating factor that is important to employees regardless of the physical work location, and recognition is directly related to employee satisfaction (Shafiq, Mariam, & Raz, 2011). According to Okojie (2009), employees will increase their productivity and performance if they are rewarded and recognized for the work they do. Omollo (2015) found of those employees surveyed across multiple banks, 33% strongly agreed, and 37% agreed that job satisfaction was tied to recognition. Positive feedback was an important recognition-motivating factor. Challenging and stimulating work motivates both centralized and home office employees. One less expensive method compared to rewards, bonuses, and promotions is a recognition program rewarding employees for a job well done (Uzonna, 2013). Palmer (2011) stated providing employees with challenging will not only further develop and empower employees but also increase job satisfaction. Management should create recognition programs that encourage and reward employees to increase job satisfaction (Follis, 2015). Whether an employee works in a centralized office or telecommutes, an employee’s level of responsibility, recognition, and achievement is a motivating factor (Sarwar & Abugre, 2013). Increasing employee responsibility opens the door for personal growth, and offering recognition programs will increase job satisfaction (Danish & Usman, 2010). For example, Palmer (2011) stated that if employers raise the level of responsibility within the manufacturing department from just manufacturing products to ordering materials to create the products as well as delivery arrangements of the final product, employees will appreciate more responsibility and recognized for their efforts. Efforts to keep remote workers motivated, happy, and committed can be implemented like any other employee motivation program. To motivate telecommuters, many organizations

28 maintain the same employee related policies that apply to centralized employees such as awards, promotions, benefits, and recognition programs (Bernardino et al., 2012). For example, the Cleveland Clinic implemented a recognition program in 2010 which focused on appreciation, honors, excellence and caregiver monetary awards to recognize employees with outstanding performance (Patrnchak, 2013). Danish and Usman (2010) found recognition programs can increase employee morale, self-esteem, performance and passion which positively impacts employee motivation and productivity. A study conducted by Next Generation Consulting in 2008 cataloged rewards that are most important to telecommuters in order from one to five as compensation, benefits, work-life, performance and recognition, and development and career opportunities (Leaf & Ryan, 2010). Advancement opportunities. Advancement opportunities are a strong motivating factor for both centralized and home office employees. Employees tend to have greater job satisfaction and are motivated to achieve if they will receive and advancement or promotion (Danish & Usman, 2010). To motivate employees, one option for leaders is to assist in employee development and advancement opportunities within the organization (Llopis, 2012). Employers can offer advancement opportunities in several ways such as offering advancement opportunities to employees that are the top performers, creating a general location where advancement opportunities are posted, and working with staff to determine their goals and ambitions within the organization (Crandall, 2014). Advancement opportunities can increase morale, productivity, and motivate employees. However, many telecommuters or remote employees do not feel motivated because of a sense of isolation and disconnect from their managers and therefore find their advancement opportunities limited (Busch, Nash, & Bell, 2011). According to Leaf and Ryan (2010), of the 678 respondents in the study conducted by Next Generation Consulting,

29 49.7% stated development and career opportunities were the most important to the employees. Promotion and growth. Promotion and growth are the final motivating factors for both centralized office and home office employees. A solid reward system within an organization can increase job satisfaction and motivate employees (Malik, 2010). Such a reward system could consist of bonus, awards, advancement opportunities, promotions, and growth (Malik, 2010). Promotion and growth opportunities increase employee satisfaction and motivate employees to perform (Mwanje, 2010). Managers play a vital role in motivating employees to produce quality results (Abbah, 2014). According to Heathfield (2012), managers need to work on setting realistic and achievable goals that encourage and motivate their employees. According to a survey conducted by Korn/Ferry International, more than 60% of global executives believed that telecommuters do not advance in their careers compared to traditional office workers (Stuart, 2010). Stuart (2010) also showed 78% of those same executives felt telecommuters were more productive than the traditional office employees and 48% stated they would work from home on a permanent basis. According to Harbert and Tucker-Tatlow (2013), telecommuters are less likely to receive a promotion or growth opportunities within the organization. However, according to Shockley (2014), organizations can implement programs that ensure there are no bias policies that impact promotion or growth opportunities for telecommuters. Summary of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Applying Herzberg’s two-factor theory to the telecommuting population in the workplace will increase job satisfaction, increase productivity, work/life balance, and quality (Johnson, 2016). Knight and Westbrook (as cited in Baylor, 2010) theorized that telecommuters were more motivated and therefore more engaged in their jobs. According to Baylor (2010), engaged

30 employees were 26% more productive. Mello theorized because of the flexibility of working from home; telecommuters had higher job satisfaction, productivity, enhanced advancement opportunities, and monetary savings because they no longer commuted to a centralized work location (Webster-Trotman, 2010). However, other researchers had a different view of job satisfaction for telecommuters because of the isolation telecommuters experience; they are not always convinced the organization is loyal or committed and therefore telecommuters experience lower morale and job satisfaction (Proctor, 2014; Smith, Patmos, & Pitts, 2015). Additional negative impacts to job satisfaction are the loss of human interaction between telecommuters, colleagues, and management (Forgacs, 2010). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow created a model known as the hierarchy of needs that is divided into basic needs and growth needs such as physiological needs, safety, love, esteem, cognitive, aesthetics, and self-actualization (Dodson, 2014). Maslow created an eight-stage model consisting of biological and physiological needs (air, food, water, shelter); safety needs (order, law stability); love and belongingness (work group, family, affection); esteem needs (selfesteem, achievement, status, independence); and self-actualization needs (realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth) (McLeod, 2014). Figure 1 is a diagram adapted from Maslow’s eight stages.

31 Transcendence

Esteem Needs

Harmony, Peace

Self-confidence, Respect

Self-Actualization

Belongingness and Love Needs

Fulfillment, Potential

Acceptance, Trust

Aesthetic Needs

Safety Needs

Balance, Appreciation

Security, Stability

Cognitive Needs

Biological and Physiological Needs

Understanding, Exploration

Shelter, Food

Figure 1 Note: Adapted from “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,” by S. McLeod, 2014, Simply Psychology, Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html Transcendence The term transcendence has multiple meanings. For some, transcendence is a belief that a person’s state of mental perception and well-being transcends any social conflicts and creates a sense of harmony within the soul, mind, and body (Garcia-Romeu, Himelstein, & Kaminker 2016). Transcendence is a belief that the human spirit or internal energy can transcend human nature and thereby produce a better world (Rohlf, 2016). For organizations and management, transcendence means employees feel like they are a part of something beyond themselves, making them feel like they can live up to their potential (Michaelson, Pratt, Grant, & Dunn, 2014). Transcendence empowers employees to go beyond the boundaries they set up for themselves (Michaelson et al., 2014). Dent et al. (2005) stated transcendence in the workplace is the framework for employees to feel connected to one another and transcend from self-interests placing the needs of the

32 organization first. According to Ngunjiri and Miller (2013), transcendence in the workplace is “spirituality is a framework of organizational values evidenced in the culture that promotes employees’ transcendence through work process, facilitating their sense of being connected to other in a way that provides feelings of completeness and joy” (p. 5). Transcendence can be applied to the relationship between manager and employee by creating work-related values and concepts that empower employees to achieve greatness and support the overall goals of the organization (Saba, 2013). Self-Actualization Self-actualization can be defined as a sense of self that is derived from a combination of terms relating to ones’ self, such as esteem, image, and identity (Sailor, 2013). Chintalloo and Mahadeo (2013) defined self-actualization as a need to be all that we can be and follow the path in our lives we were born to follow. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs defines self-actualization as maturity or becoming human and achieving our full potential (Pajouhandeh, 2013). According to Pajouhandeh (2013), self-actualization is also defined as the need for positive reinforcement and acceptance by others. The desire for self-actualization will cause individuals to pursue experiences that assist the individual in achieving full potential and avoid experiences that have a negative impact (Panda, 2015). Self-actualization is driven by motivation because motivation is tied to setting goals for humans to achieve their full potential and move to the next level of selfactualization (Villar & Kushner, 2010). According to Singh (2011), passion is a major motivating factor because as one level of a humans’ immediate goal or potential is reached, passion is what keeps humans motivated to pursue an even higher level of self-actualization. Self-actualization includes other factors such as the acceptance and expression of self, the capacity in which we reach our full potential, and

33 the realization of what we can achieve (Knox, 2012). Brusman (2012) suggested selfactualization is achieved by making choices in life that promote personal and professional growth as well as setting goals that allow humans to go beyond their normal capacities. Aesthetic Needs Markovic (2012) defined aesthetics as a state of mind where the quality of the individuals’ experience is different from the normal experience. Aesthetics “seek to legitimize the concern with imagination and creativity across the continuum of aesthetic concerns, from the narrow concern with beauty to the broadest concern with the simultaneous engagement of mind, body, and sensibility” (French, 2014, p. 10). The need to arrange physical objects in a manner that is pleasing heightens our sensory perception levels (Aaltonen et al., 2012). Aesthetic needs are critical to telecommutes to have a desirable and optimal set of surroundings in which to do their job (Singh, Paleti, Jenkins, & Bhat 2012). Schell, Theorell, and Saraste (2012) found a direct relationship between a need for aesthetic surroundings in the workplace and employee performance and productivity. Therefore, telecommuters require aesthetics to create a working environment that is not only well organized but a pleasing and functional (Lari, 2013). Cognitive Needs A human being’s desire to gain knowledge and increase their level of intelligence is a cognitive need (Vogel, 2013). Cognitive needs are “a desire to understand, to systemize, to organize, to analyze, to look for relations and meanings, to construct a system of values” (Brown, 2012, p.116). According to McLeod (2014), cognitive needs cannot begin to form until physiological needs are met such as sleep, food, and water. Cognitive needs impact motivation because pursuing knowledge, learning, and intelligence requires motivation (Lai, 2011). Brown (2012) stated if cognitive needs are not met, knowledge and insight are lacking. Therefore,

34 humans are left unfulfilled. Research suggests that cognitive needs are vital for telecommuters and the ability to share knowledge and build relationships (Van Der Duin, Van Baalen, & Van Der Meulen 2013). Esteem Needs All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect, encouragement, appreciate, and to respect others. People need to engage themselves in their work to gain recognition and rewards and gain the respect of their employers (Gichohi, 2014). Working from home can boost self-esteem because employees have more anonymity and are empowered to make their own decisions and have greater control of their working environment (Collin, Rahilly, Richardson, & Third, 2011). According to Provenzano (2013), telecommuting gives employees a sense of independence and empowerment which improves their job satisfaction and increases self-esteem. Esteem needs are part of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs that lead to employee satisfaction (Jerome, 2013). Telecommuters have shown an increase in esteem and job satisfaction because of flexible work schedules, the ability to balance family needs and work requirements, and increased in anonymity (Fonner & Roloff, 2010). Additionally, Dahlstrom (2013), states office politics and work-related distractions can impact employee satisfaction. Implementing an alternative work environment such as telecommuting can increase productivity, lower absenteeism, increase morale, and self-esteem which impacts employee satisfaction (Dahlstrom, 2013). Beauregard et al. (2013) stated that low self-esteem leads to employee burnout and greatly impacts employee job satisfaction. Belongingness and Love Needs Belongingness and love needs are a psychological aspect of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs which includes emotionally based relationships, such as with friends, family, and sexual partners

35 (Puangyoykeaw & Nishide, 2014). Telecommuters are anonymous; as such, many telecommuters feel emotionally disconnected from colleagues working from a centralized office location (Weal, 2012). To increase feelings of importance and to belong, telecommuters and managers can implement certain practices, such as scheduling video conferencing time, scheduling onsite face-to-face meetings, encouraging events outside of the workplace such as volunteer activities, and encouraging general interactions with one another (Petersen, 2012). Safety Needs People’s desire to be safe can dominate their behavior. Safety needs have to do with securing a person’s area and keeping people free from harm, threat, danger, and fear (Kaur, 2013; Yang, Hwang, & Chen 2011). According to Hanif, Khalid, and Khan (2013), fringe benefits and health insurance plans are considered part of safety needs. Telecommuting impacts safety needs because of challenges managers face in providing a safe working environment (Webster-Trotman, 2010). Telecommuters require a workplace that is not only organized, but telecommuters require a to-do list in case of an emergency such as what to do in the event of a fire, important emergency phone numbers to have on hand, and an evacuation route (Ellison, 2012). Additionally, telecommuters require mental and physical safety needs such as making sure office equipment is ergonomic; if using a computer, safety eyewear or a screen protector is utilized; and working hours do not negatively impact health or mental well-being (Hedge et al., 2011). Biological and Physiological Needs Biological and physiological needs are basic human instincts such as the need for water, food, shelter, and other physical needs (Fakhri et al., 2014). Physiological or biological needs relate to the physical well-being of the individual (Chapman, 2011). Certain physiological or

36 biological needs must be met to motivate employees (Jerome, 2013). If basic needs are met, a motivated employee might work harder than expected to complete the task, as well as proactively find ways to improve the quality and efficiency of the work environment (Gupta, 2011). Summary of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Applying Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to the telecommuting population in the workplace can assist employees better balance work and personal life because when needs are met, employees are better able to achieve results and remain productive because they feel selfsufficient and trusted by their employers (Randall, Novotny, & Larson, 2006). Employees who telecommute also feel they are respected and appreciated (Craiovan, 2014). According to O’Keefe and Chen (2011), if telecommuters have a sense of personal achievement and feeling like they belong, their sense of isolation when working virtual is reduced. Furthermore, if management is supportive of telecommuters, telecommuters will be able to better balance work and personal life (Maphanga, 2014). Pietersen and Oni (2014) stated one of the top ten ways to retain loyal employees is to offer a flexible working environment, including telecommuting and promoting work and life balance. However, other researchers had a different view of needs because telecommuters often feel isolated and disconnected from management (Bezuidenhout, 2013). According to Sheppard (2013), telecommuting negatively impacts working relationships and can impact employee productivity. Naithani (2010) argued that telecommuting not only negatively impacts working relationship but negatively impacts employee performance. Telecommuters might also work longer hours to maintain goals set by management, and therefore work and life balance are nonexistent (Abbah, 2014; Baylor, 2010; Noonan & Glass, 2012).

37 Telecommuting Telecommuting has increased greatly over the past several decades, perhaps because of the positive outcomes organizations and employees have experienced despite any adverse findings of telecommuting (Forgacs, 2010). Recently, managers at organizations such as Hewlett-Packard, Best Buy, and Yahoo have altered the employees work environment by requiring telecommuters to give up their home offices and work from the centralized office location, citing working from a centralized location increases productivity, the quality of work, and communication between management and employees (McGruber, 2013; Tkaczyk, 2013). Some state the altered working environments at Yahoo, Best Buy, and Hewlett-Packard are major steps backward in the way organization, management, and employees work (LaveyHeaton, 2014; Ryan, 2013). Researchers have found telecommuters are not only more productivity and produce higher levels of quality work, but have better communication skills, more loyalty to their role and the organization, and better work-life balance (Ahalt & Kelly, 2013; Taylor, 2015). Because many researchers have concluded telecommuters are better able to balance their work and personal lives, compared to non-telecommuters, my research motivation was to determine if and how a sample of telecommuters who work for a private health insurer were able to create work–life balance. To support this research, I examined outside research sources and literature and found support for the need to study how telecommuters who work for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives (Arif & Farooqi, 2014; Radhakrishnan & Bright, 2013; Horn, 2012). In a Reuters survey in January of 2012, approximately one in five workers telecommuted worldwide (Leybovich, 2012). Researchers at the University of California found “Dot-commers thought they had it made when they started coming into the office in shorts and flip-flops.

38 However, some USSC employees go to work in their pajamas” (Mickelson, 2008, para. 1). The university staff believed “telecommuting is an important issue for staff, both in terms of retention—increasing productivity and making staff feel supported—and environmental issues— the amount of people and cars coming on campus” (Mickelson, 2008, para. 4). Flexible working environments are vital to support the needs of the organization and the employees (Ajala, 2012). To attract and retain top employees, organizations have increased the number of flexible job opportunities and telecommuting roles (Forris, 2015). A flexible working environment is often more important to an employee than pay or salary (Winnard, 2012). According to Mukhtar (2012), some people believe women have higher demands for work/life balance compared to men. However, several studies have shown both genders have equally high demands. Work/life balance is necessary to remain healthy, mentally stable, and have an overall better quality of life (Mukhtar, 2012). Offering a flexible work environment such as telecommuting is important when attempting to create a balance between work and personal life (Naithani, 2010). There are several benefits of working from home such as control over work hours, working environment, no physical commute, and more time to handle personal needs (Demerouti et al., 2014). Though some research supports a flexible working environment by offering telecommuting, some researchers have opposing views and believe there are adverse effects to telecommuting such as isolation, lack of work/life balance, and management’s lack of control (Thye et al., 2012; Webster-Trotman, 2010). Despite negative research, telecommuting is expected to increase greatly over the next several years because of benefits such as flexibility, increased productivity, technology, autonomy, and assisting employees with work/life balance (Belanger et al., 2013; Smith et al., 2015). Alaska Airlines adopted telecommuting as an alternative work environment to reduce

39 employee-related costs, improve customer service relations, and improve their employee's work/life balance and reported 50% savings in costs related to real estate which was approximately $250,000 (Klie, 2012). Although the University of Central Florida offers telecommuting to its employees, they must maintain goals, have a positive performance evaluation, and maintain a suitable working environment (University of Central Florida, 2013). According to Cho and Balutis (2011), telecommuting increases productivity, health and wellness, and retention. Telecommuting has even increased within the public sector like in cities such as Houston where the mayor reported a possible cost savings of $16.8 million dollars over a year period because of the expenses associated with driving to and from the centralized office location (Brady, 2011). Working from home might also facilitate a better use of personal time and time spent with family and taking care of household obligations; however, working from home does not always seem to benefit the employee because telecommuters might not necessarily know when to stop working (Demerouti et al., 2014). Telecommuters might have higher expectations set by management due to the lack of a physical commute time, and therefore telecommuters work longer hours (Da Silva & Virick, 2010). Telecommuters may also not have the same salary, recognition benefits, visibility, or promotion opportunities because of the lack of face-to-face contact with management (Kurlanda & Cooper, 2002). According to Forris (2015), telecommuters at times feel a sense of isolation and the inability to handle the pressures associated with working from home because they have a difficult time balancing work and personal life. Researchers such as Ramsower (1983), Brown (2010), Sarbu (2014), and Dutcher and Saral (2014) have done lots of research on the positive and adverse effects of telecommuting.

40 Although Taylor (2015) and Boyar (2013) concluded that, compared to office workers, telecommuters are better able to balance work and time spent with family, reduce transportation and environmental impact, and that leads to happier employees which increase retention and job satisfaction, there is not much available research on how telecommuters working for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives. Summary and Overview Attracting loyal and dedicated employees is important if organizations want to remain competitive (Owusu, 2012). Telecommuting as an alternative work environment is vital regarding retaining and supporting employees (Bernardino et al., 2012). Researchers have identified the telecommuting negatives and positives, which include the cost of implementing the technical configuration, the loss of face-to-face communication, the ability to handle change, and the loss of social contact associated with working from home (Ramsower, 1983). Taylor (2015) and Boyar (2013) concluded that, compared to office workers, telecommuters are better able to balance work and time spent with family, reduce transportation and environmental impact, leading to happier employees and increased retention and job satisfaction. Yet little research is available on how telecommuters who work for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives. The literature review highlighted areas of employee needs and desires, as well as ways in which an organization can maintain telecommuters’ satisfaction and help them balance their work and personal lives. The literature review showed common themes between Herzberg and Maslow’s models, indicating that balancing work and personal life leads to job satisfaction (Hilbrecht et al., 2013; Leslie, Manchester, Park, & Mehng, 2012). The results of this study may enhance organizations’ knowledge and provide steps that can be taken to increase work/life

41 balance and creating standard policies that have no variance between a telecommuter and working from a centralized office location. Telecommuting policies should be written to support those employees that work from home. The results of this study may also provide possible approaches for improvement to serve telecommuters and enhance their ability to balance their work and personal lives. Chapter 3 focuses on the methodology and methods used to conduct this study. The chapter provides descriptions of the phenomenological approach, bracketing study, pilot study, and the one-on-one in-depth recorded telephone interviews. The rationale for using a phenomenological approach is provided. Chapter 3 closes with a summary.

42 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY Chapter 3 provides a review of the qualitative research methodology used for this study. First, the problem and purpose of the study are examined, followed by a discussion of the following topics: (a) research design, (b) target population, (c) sample, (d) instrumentation, (e) data collection procedures, (f) data analysis procedures, (g) the role of the researcher, and (h) human participant protection. The chapter closes with a summary. The purpose of this research was to better understand how telecommuters who work for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives, which may lead to ineffective organizational telecommuting policies. This purpose was accomplished by gathering the lived experiences of telecommuters who work for a private health insurer, guided by the following central research question: How do telecommuters working for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives? Four research questions were posed: 1. What steps do telecommuters take to create structure in their working environments? 2. What role does the organization or management team take in assisting telecommuters to maintain work and life balance? 3. How do telecommuters handle personal obstacles during their working hours? 4. How do telecommuters handle work-related issues during personal time? Research Design The research design for this study was qualitative, consisting of a phenomenological approach. Qualitative research begins with an assumption, the possible use of a theoretical lens and the study of a research problem inquiring into the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem (Creswell, 1998). My assumption was telecommuters work/life

43 balance was out of balance because of organizational policies, management demands, and family or personal conflicts. Therefore, I used a qualitative phenomenological approach to inquiry, consisting of data collection via structured telephone interviews, and data analysis to determine patterns and themes (Frankel et al., 2012). I reviewed several qualitative research options to determine the best method for the study. The five qualitative research options were action research, case study, ethnography, grounded theory, and phenomenology (Creswell, 2008). Action research is a technique for engaging within organizations and is a methodology for obtaining otherwise unavailable information and, above all, as a strategy for the diffusion of knowledge (Weatherly & Jennings, 2013). Action research focuses on the practical concerns of people in a problematic situation, as well as on the goals of social science by collaborating with researchers and participants within a mutually acceptable ethical framework (Holgersson & Melin, 2013). Action research facilitates exploration of personal histories to understand how people’s natures affect what they value and do (Meier & Stremmel, 2010). Case study methodology provides tools for researchers to study complex phenomena within the context of the situation (Vissak, 2010). When the case-study approach is applied correctly, it becomes a valuable method for research to develop a theory, evaluate programs, and develop interventions (Creswell, 1998). Case studies show evidence-based informed decision (Vissak, 2010). Case studies are used to examine individuals or specific historical events or as a teaching strategy to understand exemplary cases (Creswell, 2008). According to Amerson (2011), the case-study design can be used to describe a case, explore a case, or compare multiple cases. Ethnography refers to fieldwork or observation of participants where the investigator

44 interacts with the people being studied and provides an in-depth look into their lives (Van Manen, 2010). Ethnography is a written description of a particular culture, including the customs, beliefs, and behaviors, based on information collected through fieldwork (Nathan, 2014). “The description may be of a small tribal group in an exotic land or a classroom in middle-class suburbia” (Fetterman, as cited in Higginbottom, Pillay, &, Baodu 2013, p. 14). Creswell (2014) defined ethnography as “research studies conducted within a cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period by collecting primarily observation data” (p. 14). The fourth option, grounded theory, is defined as theory research. The researcher attempts to derive a “general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of the participants in a study” (Creswell, 2014, p. 14). The theory must emerge from the data collected in the field rather than be taken from the research literature (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). The fifth option was a phenomenological approach. Qualitative phenomenological researchers seek to describe rather than to explain, starting from a perspective free from hypotheses or preconceptions (Ashton, 2014). The goal of the qualitative phenomenological research is to describe participants’ lived experiences of a phenomenon (Bound, 2011). The research focus of this study was to understand how telecommuters working for a private health insurer balanced their work and personal lives. Thus, the phenomenological approach was selected for this study. The phenomenological research utilizes descriptive statements made by those being studied (Bound, 2011). The aim is to achieve an analytic description of the phenomena not affected by prior assumptions (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008). I chose a phenomenological approach because of the lack of research available on the factors that contribute to a group of telecommuters’ ability to balance their work and personal

45 lives. According to Bloomberg and Volpe (2008), the purpose of phenomenological research is to investigate the lived experiences of the research participants to identify and capture information described by the research participants. Phenomenological researchers often use the interview method to collect data (Henderson, 2010). Interview questions are formulated in alignment with the purposes of the study (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008). Interviews can be conducted within a group setting; however, according to Davison (2014), individual interviews provide detailed and in-depth information based on the participants personal lived experiences without interference from others within the group. The type of study design, data collection methods, and interview type chosen depends on the data being gathered and analyzed (Baskarada, 2014). Because there was little information regarding the phenomenon of telecommuters who telecommuted for a private health insurer, a qualitative approach was a logical research choice. Focus groups can be the source of information to study a phenomenon (Simon & Goes, 2011). According to Onwuegbuzie et al. (2010), focus groups are used to collect and assemble information to come to an overall consensus. Focus groups are also known as group interviews though Sutton and Arnold (2013) stated group interviews is a generic term and should be referred to as nominal or Delphi groups. According to Bryman (2012), focus groups cover a variety of topic and can save researchers time. However, focus groups are often difficult to control. Certain individuals within the group dominate the other persons, impersonal, and do not represent the larger population (Mack, 2012). Focus groups are useful especially when reviewing products but can but just as effective in other types of phenomenological research especially when the participants feel free to express their opinions (Degand, 2015). I chose the individual interview method to collect data for this study. Many advantages

46 support the use of individual interviews to gather data. First, individual interviews facilitate personal contact between the interviewer and the participants. Interviews can be structured, semistructured, and unstructured (Englander, 2012). Second, one-on-one interviews allow the researcher to collect more detailed data compared to data collected through surveys (Swift, 2011). For example, interviews allow the researcher to obtain additional details from initial responses when conducting a one-on-one interview (Babbie, 2013; Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008). Also, individual interviews promote conversation and encourage the participant to provide their opinions in a manner in which they put more thought, attitude and personality into the content collected by the researcher (Babbie, 2013). Third, individual interviews are more flexible, which allows the researcher to explain information that might be unclear to the participant or enable the researcher to alter any questions asked to clarify the information the participant is providing (Turner, 2010). Also, the individual interview enables the researcher to establish a rapport, which gains the trust and cooperation of the participants and allows the researcher to have control over the interview, which supports confidentiality and privacy (Leedy & Ormond, 2001). Fourth, response rates are often higher because of personal, one-on-one interviews (Irvine, 2011). Finally, personal interviews allow the researcher to ask open or close-ended questions and record the data to be transcribed for later analysis (Creswell, 2008). Individual interviews do have some disadvantages. Costs may be higher if the researcher has to include travel expenses, a location to conduct the individual interviews or costs associated with holding focus groups (Phellas et al., 2011). Researchers may be biased and may influence participants’ responses because of the proximity to the participants (Kura, 2012). Personal interviews also lack anonymity, compared to quantitative methods such as surveys (Bowden et al., 2015). Finally, participants may feel threatened or intimidated by the interviewer (Jones, 2014).

47 I determined that conducting individual telephone interviews was the best approach to minimize researcher downtime and costs. I asked 20 participants about the factors that contributed to their ability to balance their work and personal lives and maintain productivity and quality in a telecommuting environment. The 20 participants lived in the United States, worked for a private health insurer, and were obtained via the social networking site LinkedIn. Bracketing Study The study process began with a bracketing study. Bracketing is a process whereby the researcher distances himself or herself from personal theories and assumptions to eliminate any bias theories or opinions (Simon, 2011b). Bracketing is a process to develop a nonjudgmental study that will not impede the perception of the phenomenon at the heart of the study (Simon, 2011b) and is necessary to eliminate the researcher's bias, theories, or personal experiences that can corrupt the outcome of the research (Leedy & Ormond, 2001). According to Chan et al., (2013), bracketing can help eliminate the researcher’s experiences to minimize influencing or making suggestions that alter the participants’ personal experiences and points of view. I identified my preconceptions, beliefs, and assumptions by writing down personal opinions and experiences gained while working as a full-time telecommuter for a private health insurer. I maintained a journal of daily activities for a 5-day period to capture events throughout the day. A 6-stage process was utilized to reduce or eliminate researcher bias (Bednall, 2006), as shown in Table 2.

48 Table 2. Epoche and Bracketing Stages Bracketing Process Stage 1

Repetitive reading and notating repetitive information

Stage 2

Constitute topics of importance

Stage 3

Find links between themes

Stage 4

Find symbolization in topics of importance

Stage 5

Authenticate and additional testing

Stage 6

Summarize the data obtained

Note: Adapted from “Epoché and bracketing within the phenomenological paradigm,” by J. Bednall, 2006, Issues in Educational Research, 16. Retrieved from http://www.iier.org.au /iier16/bednall.html

Based on the bracketing study, the interview questions were altered to help eliminate researcher bias. The data and outcomes of the bracketing study are not a part of the main study; however, the outcomes are included in Chapter 4 in the bracketing section, and the journal and original interview questions are included in Appendix E and Appendix C. Pilot Study I conducted a pilot study by interviewing two full-time telecommuters who work for a private health insurer. The purpose of a pilot study, also called a feasibility study (TickleDegnen, 2013), is to conduct a preliminary or trial investigation before carrying out the primary study (Simon, 2011a) as a small-scale rehearsal to test the feasibility of a study (Shuttleworth, 2010). I selected participants on a first-come, first-served basis. I recorded and transcribed the

49 interviews with the intent of understanding probable outcomes and assessing the feasibility of the main study. Participant information collected and utilized during the pilot study as well as any hypothesis are not included in the main study results (Leon et al., 2011). Thus, the pilot study participants, data collected, and outcomes does not appear in the main study; however, the data collected are included in the pilot study section in Chapter 4, and information details are included in Appendix C. Main Study Ramsower (1983), Brown (2010), Sarbu (2014), and Dutcher and Saral (2014) researched the positive and adverse effects of telecommuting. Boyar (2013) concluded telecommuters are better able to balance work and time spent with family, reduce transportation and environmental impact, and that leads to a happier employee and that increases retention and job satisfaction; however, there is a limited understanding of how telecommuters working for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives. To study the problem how telecommuters working for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives, an emerging qualitative approach to inquiry, I collected data in a natural setting sensitive to the people and places under study, and data analysis that is inductive and establishes patterns and themes was utilized (Frankel et al., 2012). Target Population I targeted participants from a private health insurer who were members of the social networking site LinkedIn. The population consisted of employees who worked in various environments and included full-time telecommuters, part-time telecommuters, centralized office employees, and field employees. The goal was to obtain only full-time telecommuters within the target population. I targeted this group because the study focused on telecommuters who worked

50 for a private health insurer. The sample was selected from telecommuters who worked for a private health insurer and were members of the social networking site LinkedIn. At the time of the study, this LinkedIn group totaled 5,819 members. Of the 5,819 members, 59 were willing to take part in this study. Of the 59 respondents, 14 were disqualified: They worked from home only part-time, they did not work from home at all, they did not understand what telecommuting was, and they decided they did not want to be involved. I contacted the remaining 45 respondents via the LinkedIn site with a request to send me their e-mail addresses, telephone numbers, and best dates and times to hold one-on-one recorded telephone interviews. Of the 45 respondents, 19 replied to the request. Included in the e-mail to the 19 participants was a consent form and demographics survey, along with the interview questions that I planned to ask during the one-onone recorded telephone interviews. The demographic questions were intended to collect information about the participants’ work environments along with general demographic information. Sample I selected participants from the LinkedIn social networking group using a first-come, first-served sampling technique, which is also called convenience sampling (Robinson, 2014). Variances in the population such as gender, race, age, income, and language are obtained but not controlled since the sampling is first-come, first-serve (Delgado et al., 2013). Of the 59 respondents, 19 participants were interviewed. Two of these participants were part of the pilot study, and their results are not part of the main study. Sample sizes, which may or may not be fixed before data collection, depend on the resources and time available, as well as on the study’s objectives (Creswell, 2008). The target

51 population consisted of 5,819 members of the LinkedIn group, all of whom worked for a private health insurer. The target population included participants working in various roles and environments, including field employees, part-time, full-time, telecommuters, contractors, and centralized office employees. The sampling method involved selecting participants on a first-come, first-served basis. Because the group consisted of 5,819 members, the size of the group was more than enough to obtain a target sample. The goal was to recruit 17 to 23 full-time telecommuters who worked for a private insurance company. According to Crouch and McKenzie (2006), a small number of cases (i.e., less than 20) can facilitate the researcher’s close association with participants and enhance the validity of the in-depth information obtained in interviews. According to Crouch and McKenzie’s guidelines, the sample size was adequate to complete the study. Baskarada (2014), states eight to 12 participants are sufficient when conducting personal interviews. The target population and focus of this study were on employees who worked as full-time telecommuters for a private health insurance company. Participant demographics were collected via e-mail before the interviews. Instrumentation To answer the research questions, I asked participants a series of questions in the interviews, using open-ended questions to collect specific information. I researched alternate survey questions on various search engines; however, I found no existing survey questions that directly related to this study. The open- and closed-ended questions used for the bracketing study, as well as the revised questions asked during the pilot and main studies, are located in Appendix C and Appendix D. First, I developed a questionnaire to collect demographic information. For example, demographic data collected included the number of hours the

52 telecommuter worked each week, and if the telecommuter worked more than 40 hours a week, to determine why. Table 3 represents the demographic information I planned to collect. Table 3. Demographic Data

Participant

Gender M or F

Race

Education

Occupation

Organization Type

Salary Range

Full-time Telecommuter

1

M

Caucasian

HS

CSR

Private

$30-40K

YES

2

M

Hispanic

BA

IT

Private

$30-40K

YES

3

M

African

BA

IT

Private

$40-50K

YES

4

F

Caucasian

BA

Director

Private

$50-60K

YES

5

F

African

MBA

Nurse

Private

$70-80K

YES

6

F

African

MBA

Director

Private

$100-110K

YES

7

M

Hispanic

BA

Provider Rep

Private

8

F

Hispanic

BA

IT

Private

$50-60K

YES

9

F

Caucasian

AA

CSR

Private

$50-60K

YES

10

M

Hispanic

HS

CSR

Private

$30-40K

YES

$30-40K

YES

I constructed a list of 15 questions related to the research questions to understand how participants balanced their work and personal lives. For example, one question focused on how the telecommuter handled personal issues that arose during working hours, and how the telecommuter handled work-related problems that arose during personal time. During the interview, I asked participants a series of questions regarding how much time they devoted to work-related tasks, such as actual work performed, online meetings, and computer-related issues. Participants were also asked how much time they dedicated to personal issues, such as time for

53 household chores, time spent on hobbies or interests, and time devoted to family. Data Collection and Analysis Data collection. The first step taken was to obtain a sample population to conduct oneon-one recorded telephone interviews. A request for participants was posted on a private health insurer’s LinkedIn group board. The invitation text posted to the private insurer's group informed readers that I was working on my dissertation and needed to interview full-time telecommuters. The invitation included information about the number of questions and length of time for the recorded telephone interview. I disclosed the topic as “Telecommuting: Balancing Work and Personal Life” and invited interested participants to respond. After several weeks with no responses, I targeted additional health insurers on the social networking site LinkedIn. After 2 more weeks, I received replies from the private health insurer’s group. In total, 59 responses were received. The responses included one person who was not familiar with telecommuting, 12 who were not telecommuters, one who thought the post was a job offer, and 45 who indicated they were willing to participate in the study. I then contacted the 45 potential participants via LinkedIn with a request to send an email to a private and secure email address along with a valid contact number. A request was also made to include the best dates and times for a one-on-one recorded telephone interview. Of the 45 respondents, 19 sent contact information to the private and secure e-mail address. I sent a follow-up request to the 26 remaining respondents to send an e-mail with the required information. After 10 days, no further communication was received from the 26 remaining respondents. According to Bloomberg and Volpe (2008), establishing a timeline to complete every phase of the dissertation is a major challenge but crucial to complete the study. While I waited

54 for responses, I e-mailed the consent and demographics information to the 19 respondents along with the questions I planned to ask during the telephone interview. The intent was to respect the participants’ time. The open- and closed-ended questions were included in the e-mail not only to prepare the participants but also to respect their time. The first two respondents were selected from the sample of 19 to participate in the pilot study. I recorded the two interviews and analyzed the data to determine if the study was feasible. The pilot study did not provide enough information to form any conclusions regarding feasibility. Although the pilot study participants provided similar answers to the answers given by the main study participants, further data were required to answer the research questions and provide concrete evidence. Thus, I interviewed the remaining 17 participants. The telephone interviews were recorded with prior written consent of each participant. The majority of the interviews were a half hour to an hour in length. One interview took 20 minutes because the participant did not provide much detail and responded to questions with short, abrupt answers even when asked to elaborate. Short interviews are not uncommon when the primary method of data collection in qualitative research comprises interviews and the length of time an interview takes depends on the topic and data researched (Gill et al., 2008). In the following paragraphs, I discuss the types of information collected in the interviews: contextual, demographic, perceptual, and cognitive information. Contextual information. Contextual information refers to known information that is relevant to an understanding of the data. Information includes data that describes the person, place, or thing. Data consists of information such as a person birth or geographic location; description of a place; or details about the thing. Data are then normalized to understand the information collected (Sonmez & Ozgur, 2014).

55 Demographic information. Demographic information is an essential element in describing the characteristics of research participants. Demographic information can include such items as the participants’ age, gender, race/ethnicity, educational level, and languages spoken (Hammer, 2011). Additional demographic information can be collected if need be, such as income, marital status, and employment history (Rehman, Moazzam, & Ansari., 2015). Collecting demographic data are important because demographics provide information about participant characteristics that allow the researcher to catalog trends among various groups (Onwuegbuzie, Leech, & Collins., 2010). According to Simon (2011b), demographic data such as race, age, and gender are important because the phenomena being studied needs to reach the point of achieving sufficient information from the participants. Demographic information was collected from the 19 participants via e-mail. The participants filled out the demographic information and were instructed to e-mail the information back to my personal e-mail address. I entered the demographic data in Microsoft Excel for the analysis phase. Perceptual information. Participants’ perceptions provide informative details from the participants’ points of view, describing experiences and how those experiences influenced the participants (Zadra & Clore, 2011). Perception involves signals in the brain that result from physical stimulations of the sensory organs (Jones, 2011). The human body has five major senses: hearing, taste, smell, sight, and touch (Hussain, 2014). According to Chen and Lee (2008), perceptual information is not only physical, relating to an object or material, but psychological, relating to the brain. Qualitative perceptual information is one the most critical type of information (Portillo, 2012). Fifteen open and closed-ended questions were presented to each participant to obtain data to address the problem and answer the research questions. The

56 answers to the questions represented the participants’ points of view, experiences, and perceptions. Perception involves signals in the central nervous system, which result from physical stimulations of the sense organs (Jones, 2011). The human body has five major senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch (Stansfield, 2012). Perceptions are formed about incoming information obtained from these five major senses (Sherman, 2013). Through the perceptual process, information is gathered about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to survival. According to Cherry (2012), a perception not only creates people’s experiences of the world; it also allows people to act within the environment. Cognitive information. Cognitive is derived from the root word cognition (DeChurch & Mesmer-Magnus, 2010). Cognition is a group of mental processes that includes attention, memory, producing and understanding language, learning, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making (Zyberaj, 2011). Cognition refers to an information-processing view of individuals’ psychological functions. Shuk-Woon (2011) suggested cognitive information processing is vital in qualitative studies because it provides a better understanding of how people think. Cognitive information processing makes it easier for respondents to provide honest feedback (Hussain, 2014). Questions based on cognitive information provider responses that are honest, relevant, and specific (Shuk-Woon, 2011). I collected honest, relevant, and specific data by creating open- and closed-ended questions as well as conducting and recording one-on-one telephone interviews. Data saturation. Obtaining qualified participants was a difficult task during the data collection process. The targeted population was large, containing 5,819 potential participants. Of the targeted population, only 59 responded with a willingness to participate in the study.

57 According to Creswell (2012), five to 25 participants are adequate in qualitative phenomenological studies. Of the 59 participants, 14 were not qualified because of reasons already addressed. I contacted the remaining 46 participants to take part in the study; however, 26 of the participants did not respond to further communications. During the main study, after 17 interviews were completed, the answers to the 15 interview questions became repetitive. Thus, the study had reached a point of saturation. Saturation is a tool used for ensuring that adequate, high-quality data are collected to support the study (Mason, 2010; Walker, 2012). To confirm the data collection process was at the point of saturation, the 17 interviews were transcribed, analyzed, cataloged, and graphed. Because the research questions were answered, and this study was at the saturation point, there was no need to continue to reach out to the 26 respondents who did not provide contact information. At the point at which more data did not lead to more details, data collection ceased (Mason, 2010). Data analysis. Once the interviews were completed, I analyzed and categorized the data. During the analysis phase, I used discovery-oriented analysis tools, including Word and various tools within Microsoft Excel. The data analysis procedures are described in the following paragraphs. I recorded the interviews with the Call Recorder application on an HTC Droid cell phone. The recorded calls were then sent via e-mail to a password-protected folder on a personal computer. I manually transcribed the recorded calls into Microsoft Word I used Microsoft Excel to store and analyze participant demographic data, as well as the data collected from the bracketing study, the pilot study, the main study, and the journal. Each participant was assigned a distinct primary key beginning with 1, ordered sequentially for identification purposes and used during the findings portion of this study.

58 Boyar (2013) stated employees could balance work and personal time, reduce transportation and environmental impact, maintain job satisfaction, and help employers increase retention by engaging in telecommuting. Despite Boyar’s conclusion that telecommuting improves employees’ ability to balance their work and personal lives, there is limited understanding of how telecommuters working for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives. The data analysis approach was intended to determine themes. I utilized the data I collected from the recorded and transcribed interviews to create Excel charts, diagrams, and flow charts to represent the descriptive themes collected during the interview process (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008). Qualitative phenomenological research seeks essentially to describe rather than explain and to start from a perspective free from hypotheses or preconceptions (Ashton, 2014). The goal of qualitative phenomenological research is to describe the lived experience of a phenomenon (Bound, 2011). In this study, the goal was to explore the participants’ perceptions about what steps they take to create a balance between work and personal life. A sequential numbering system has been set up to identify the participants anonymously, from 1 to 17. The assigned number does not reflect the order in which the participants were interviewed. I analyzed the qualitative data with Microsoft Excel. Next, I listened to the recordings utilizing Windows Media player. I listened to each recording several times by pausing, playing, rewinding, and fast forwarding. Next, I transcribed the interviews using Microsoft Word, listening to each recording and reading each transcript several times to ensure the accuracy of the transcription. I listed common themes from all the transcriptions. Finally, I utilized outside research to show the relationship that existed between the emerging themes and Herzberg’s two-factor theories and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

59 My goal during the analysis phase was to determine if the participants believed they had a balance between work and personal life. According to Boyar (2013), the balance between work and personal life is possible; however, balance depends on the person, the job, and the training received to perform the role remotely. My assumption was telecommuters did not have a balance; therefore, the questions asked of the participants during the one-on-one recorded telephone interviews were designed to obtain information from the participants’ points of view. Because the questions were open- and closed-ended, the responses varied. I addressed the questions and responses one at a time and placed them into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. After reviewing the responses, to analyze the collected data properly, my next step was to define what was considered a normal full-time workweek. According to Glauber (2013), the federal government defined a full-time employee as one who works 35 hours a week for a privately owned business, which could be a small business or corporation. The majority of private enterprises define full-time employment as an 8 hour a day shift or 40 hours a week (Glauber, 2013). According to Allegretto and Cooper (2014); Mazerolle and Goodman (2013); Joshi et al., (2002); and Townsend et al., (2012), a 40-hour workweek is a normal standard throughout the American public and private sectors and encourages employers to maintain the health and well-being of their employees. However, there are some enterprises that have shift work where employees work longer than 8 hours a day and sometimes have a workweek that is longer than 40 hours, but are paid overtime or are salaried employees such as some medical doctors, nurses, and firefighters (Ahmed et al., 2014; Cohen & Plecas, 2012). For the purpose of this study and what is considered the normal working hours, I defined the baseline working hours would be an 8-hour day and a 40-hour workweek. To determine how telecommuters who worked for a health insurance provider balanced

60 their work and personal lives, participant responses were recorded, and common themes were identified based on participants’ input. I used data reduction which is a method of selecting, simplifying and transforming the data to get to an outcome (Alhojailan, 2012). I also applied techniques such as cataloging word repetition, comparing and contrasting information collected, and utilizing keywords collected from participants’ answers to formulate common themes (Vaismoradi et al., 2016). Word repetition involves counting repeating words (Ijaz et al., 2014). The compare-and-contrast technique is based on the idea that themes represent the ways in which texts are either similar or different from each other (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2010). Keywords in context refer to keywords identified throughout the text to find all instances of the word or phrase (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2010). Utilizing methods and simplifying the raw data allowed me to determine how these telecommuters balanced their work and personal lives. I cataloged the common themes that emerged and used the themes to answer the research questions. Findings are presented in Chapter 4. Validity and Reliability Validity Validity is common when conducting quantitative research but is harder to apply to qualitative research. Therefore, qualitative researchers developed five categories of qualitative validity in an attempt to solve the problem of validity, which is descriptive, interpretive, theoretical, generalizability, evaluative (Thomson, 2011). However, an account can be considered valid or true if it accurately represents the features of the phenomenon it is intended to describe (Jandagh & Matin, 2010). To determine the threats that may exist within this qualitative study, an attempt was made to locate alternative explanations for the research results (Lani, 2012). To address potential validity threats, I implemented this process:

61 1. I conducted a bracketing study. 2. I conducted a pilot study. 3. I selected participants who worked full-time in a telecommuting environment for a private health insurer on a first-come, first-served basis. 4. Contradicting results were categorized to determine if a pattern existed that required further follow-up or analysis. 5. Committee members reviewed interview questions for approval. 6. Interviews were conducted and recorded in an unobtrusive manner. 7. Data analysis was carried out to determine commonalities and themes. 8. Data were categorized to show relationships between the research questions and the narrative responses provided by the participants. 9. I addressed triangulation. 10. I addressed sample size versus population size. 11. I addressed data saturation. Reliability Reliability and validity, from a qualitative point of view, can establish the truth of the research (Barusch et al., 2011). Charts and graphs illustrate the results of the study. Reliability is the extent to which results are consistent over time, representing an accurate description of the total population under study (Barusch et al., 2011). The reliability of this study may have been affected by the sample size. Obtaining qualified participants was a difficult task during the data collection process. The first steps I took to rest reliability of this study were obtaining permission to interview each participant via an e-mailed written consent form. Participants were informed

62 their personal information would be protected and that the private insurer they worked for would be known as a private health insurer in this study. I assigned participants a sequential number as the participant identifier, beginning with 1. The recordings were initially captured on a cell phone and moved to a password-protected folder on a personal computer. Next, I transferred the data to a CD that was stored in a personal combination locked safe. Subsequently, I deleted the telephone recordings from the personal cell phone and the personal computer. The personal computer had two virus protectors. To test for reliability of this study, I recorded the interviews and then transcribed the information utilizing Microsoft Word. I then reviewed the transcribed data and cataloged repetitive words, phrases, and ideas collected from the participants. I then took the data collected and created Excel worksheets to catalog the information I collected. After reviewing the information, I determined the participants' responses were consistent with one another and therefore the data collected was reliable (Noble & Smith, 2016). I also used written policies and expectations obtained from two college universities to show some common telecommuting standards created by organizational leaders to maintain productivity and work/life balance. Finally, I explored outside research to show a relationship between the emerging themes and Herzberg’s two-factory theory, and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Role of the Researcher My responsibility as the researcher during this study included creating the overall research and concept, creating the questionnaires and obtaining the sample data, conducting the analysis on the completed questionnaires, obtaining faculty input during this study, retaining all documentation including recorded information, and writing this dissertation. I was also responsible for obtaining written approval from participants to conduct telephone interviews and

63 using participants’ responses to answer the research questions. Ultimately, the project was solely my responsibility. The researcher’s role is to clarify the research; identify the participants; understand the sensitivity of data collection, viewing, and analysis; and maintain the privacy and protection of the participants (Klingner & Boardman, 2011). In short, in qualitative research, the researcher is the instrument (Klingner & Boardman, 2011). Protection of Human Participants To ensure all participants of a study are protected, it is vital to review ethical and participant privacy policies. The participation of human beings in research studies is necessary to achieve advances in medical and social/behavioral sciences (Baskarada, 2014). Such research is not risk-free, and investigators must identify and examine the potential risks to participants, weigh them against potential benefits, and share that information with the individuals recruited to participate voluntarily in the research (Corbin & Strauss, 2014). In this study, participants were protected from harm by limiting communication to online e-mails and recorded telephone interviews. The participants’ information and the organization’s name were known only to the researcher. The Baker College Internal Review Board (IRB) also reviewed and approved the information before the study. To accomplish this task, I completed IRB training, and the IRB application was submitted and approved. Confidentiality The identities of the participants and the private health insurer were kept confidential and anonymous. All responses to the open- and closed-ended questions are included in this study; however, the participants are identified by a distinct sequential primary key, from 1 to 17. Common themes were obtained only from the in-depth recorded answers and used to form conclusions and answer the research questions. I e-mailed a consent form to each participant to

64 obtain written consent to take part in the recorded interviews. The consent sent form forwarded to the participants is included in Appendix A. Protection of Data I originally recorded and stored the telephone interviews on my cell phone. All consent and demographics data were originally placed in an e-mail folder. During this study, I kept information in a password-protected folder on a personal computer. All information was then saved on a CD that was locked in a combination safe. The CD will remain locked up for 5 years from the date of the study’s publication, after which time the CD will be destroyed. Informed Consent Before the one-on-one interviews, the participants were e-mailed the consent and demographics forms. The consent form included information about the intent, problem, and contact information for the researcher and the committee chair, as well as information on protecting participant information. Each participant was required to consent to the one-on-one interviews before participating in the recorded interview. The consent form is included in Appendix A. Summary and Overview The qualitative method used during the study was designed to provide answers to the research questions. Qualitative research begins with an assumption, the possible use of a theoretical lens and the study of research problems inquiring into the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2014). A bracketing study was conducted to reduce or eliminate researcher bias (Husserl, 2012). A pilot study conducted before the main study was carried out to test the study for feasibility (Eldridge et al., 2016). Data were collected from telecommuters who worked at a private health insurer. Study

65 participants were obtained from the social network community LinkedIn. The goal was to obtain 17 to 23 participants. The participants were sent a demographics questionnaire with the list of questions asked during the recorded telephone interviews. The interviews were recorded to gather accurate documentation that could be used for the study process. Included in Chapter 4 are the results and conclusions of this study. Chapter 5 provides my recommendations for further research.

66 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS The problem addressed in this study was the limited understanding of how private health insurance telecommuters balance their work and personal lives, which could be leading to ineffective organizational telecommuting policies. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to address the problem by gathering the lived experiences of a sample of telecommuters who worked for a private health insurer. The investigation was guided by the following central research question: How do telecommuters working for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives? Four research questions were posed: 1. What steps do telecommuters take to create structure in their working environments? 2. What role does the organization or management team take in assisting telecommuters to maintain work and life balance? 3. How do telecommuters handle personal obstacles during their working hours? 4. How do telecommuters handle work-related issues during personal time? First, to reduce researcher bias, a bracketing study was conducted. Second, a pilot study was carried out to determine if the study was feasible. The information obtained from both studies is presented in this chapter separately from the main study results and conclusions. The main study consisted of 17 participants who were interviewed in one-on-one recorded telephone sessions. The participants were telecommuters who worked at a private health insurer, recruited through the social networking site LinkedIn. The data were analyzed, and when common themes emerged based on participant answers, the themes were cataloged and analyzed in the context of the research questions. Included in this chapter are results from the bracketing study, the pilot

67 study, and the main study. Demographic Characteristics Before the main study, a pilot study was conducted. The purpose of the pilot study was to test the feasibility of the main study. Demographic data were obtained from the participants in the pilot study. Two telecommuters who worked at the private health insurer were involved in the pilot study, selected on a first-come, first-served basis. Table 4 shows a demographic breakdown of the telecommuting pilot study participants. Table 4. Demographic Data—Pilot Study Participant

Gender

Age

Race

Education

Occupation

1

F

41-50

Caucasian

BA

2

M

41-50

Caucasian

BA

CSR Network Contract Manager

Organization Type Private Private

Salary Range $30,001-50,000 $75,001$100,000

The demographics questionnaire was created with Microsoft Word. The form was sent to each participant via e-mail. The pilot study participants returned the demographics form via e-mail. Microsoft Excel was used to analyze the demographic data in a worksheet related to each question. Each pilot study participant was assigned a primary key beginning with the number 1 as shown. The data from the pilot study were not included in the main study demographics analysis. Table 5 shows a demographic breakdown of the main study participants.

68 Table 5. Demographic Data—Main Study Telecommuters Participanta

Age

Education

Occupation

Organizati on Name

Organizati on Type

Salary Range

1

41-50

HS

WAH Business Lead

Insurer B

Private

NA

2

50+

BA

Project Mgr

Insurer A

Private

3

50+

AA

RN/Nurse UNE

Insurer B

Private

4

41-50

BA

Consultant

Insurer B

Private

5

50+

AA

RN/Nurse UNE

Insurer B

Private

6

50+

BA

Insurer B

Private

7

41-50

BA

Insurer B

Private

8

50+

BA

Insurer B

Private

9

32-40

MBA

Insurer B

Private

10

32-40

BA

Manager

Insurer B

Private

11

50+

BA

RN/Nurse UNE

Insurer B

Private

12

50+

MBA

Insurer B

Private

13

50+

HS

Insurer B

Private

14

50+

MBA

Advocate

Insurer B

Private

15

50+

BA

RN/Nurse UNE

Insurer B

Private

16

41-50

BA

Contractor

Insurer B

Private

17

41-50

MBA

PMO Lead

Insurer B

Private

a

Clinical Research Spcl Ntl Healthplan Exec Learning Consultant Profit/Loss Consultant

Clinical Srvcs Director Compliance Analyst

$75,001$100,000 $75,001$100,000 $75,001$100,000 $50,00175,000 $50,00175,000 $100,001$110,000 $75,001$100,000 $75,001$100,000 $50,00175,000 $50,00175,000 $150,000+ $50,00175,000 $50,00175,000 $50,00175,000 $100,001$110,000 $100,001$110,000

All participants were female and White.

Demographic data were collected and entered into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. Participants were assigned a distinct primary key using numbers 1 through 17. Leedy and Ormond (2001) noted that if a particular person’s behavior is described in depth in the research report, he or she should be given a pseudonym to assure anonymity. The purpose of the primary

69 key was to maintain privacy for the participant and the private health insurer. Keeping participant information confidential is an important part of research; participants have a right to privacy (Leedy & Ormond, 2001). This study includes the lived experiences of the participants; therefore, a distinct primary key was assigned to respect their privacy. After the demographic information was collected and placed into Microsoft Excel, calculations were performed to aggregate the data. All the study participants were female and White. Approximately 11.8% were between the ages of 32 and 40; 29.4% were between the ages of 41 and 50, and 58.8% were over 50. Approximately 11.8% had a high school education; 11.8% had an associate’s degree; 52.9% had a bachelor’s degree, and 23.5% had a master’s degree. Table 6 shows the occupation of the participants and Figure 2 is a graphical depiction of the participants’ occupation. Table 6 Participant Occupation Participant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Occupation Advocate Clinical Research Specialist Clinical Services Director Compliance Analyst Consultant Learning Consultant Manager National Healthplan Executive PMO Lead Profit/Loss Consultant Project Manager RN/Nurse Line RN/Nurse Line RN/Nurse Line RN/Nurse Line WAH Business Lead Project Lead

70

Figure 2. Main study participants by occupation. Table 7 and Figure 3 represent the participants’ salaries.

71 Table 7 Participants’ Salary Participant

Salary Range

1

NA

2

$50,001-$75,000

3

$50,001-$75,000

4

$50,001-$75,000

5

$50,001-$75,000

6

$50,001-$75,000

7

$50,001-$75,000

8

$50,001-$75,000

9

$75,001-$100,000

10

$75,001-$100,000

11

$75,001-$100,000

12

$75,001-$100,000

13

$75,001-$100,000

14

$100,001 - $150,000

15

$100,001 - $150,000

16 17

$100,001 - $150,000 $150,001

Figure 3. Participants’ salaries.

72 Breaking out the participants by demographic characteristics visually was important because these traits may represent the characteristics of the population (Banks, 2008; Bricki & Green, 2007). Mertens (2014) noted that demography techniques present population data in a systematic manner. The importance of demographic data can be gauged from the growing application of population figures in several disciplines of study. Demographic information is participant profile information that describes who the participants in your study are—where they come from, some of their history and/or background, education, and personal information such as age, gender, and ethnicity. Such demographic information is needed to help explain what may be underlying an individual’s perceptions, as well as the similarities and differences in perceptions among participants. In other words, a particular data point (e.g., age) may explain a certain finding that emerged in the study. (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008, p. 70) Themes Bracketing Study I conducted a bracketing study to eliminate or reduce researcher bias (Husserl, 2012). I created a Monday-through-Friday 5-day journal in Microsoft Word to track my daily activities (see Appendix E). There are 120 hours in a 5-day period. I used Microsoft Excel to determine how many hours I spent working, sleeping, and handling personal issues. Table 8 and Figure 4 provide the details of the hours spent working, sleeping, and handling personal issues.

73 Table 8 Activity Details Activity Personal Sleep Work

Activity Hours 717.59 3749.00 2733.39

Total Hours 7,200.00 7,200.00 7,200.00

Activity Percent 9.97% 52.07% 37.96%

Figure 4. Activity totals. After the bracketing study, the original list of interview questions was revised to obtain more information. The revisions were made because the answers to the original seven questions did not provide enough information to create common themes. The original seven questions are located in Appendix G. Table 9 shows the list of common themes that emerged from the bracketing study. The themes that emerged were not detailed enough to answer the research questions; therefore, before the pilot and main study, additional questions were added. The revised questionnaire is located in Appendix D.

74 Table 9. Emerging Themes—Bracketing Study Bracketing Study Responses

Emerging Themes

Juggling personal and work-related activities throughout the day

No Structure in working environment

Maintain productivity

Organizational and management support

Perform the same as if were in centralized office

Creating structure in working environment

Take breaks and lunches

Creating structure in working environment

Pilot Study I conducted a pilot study before the main study to assess the study’s feasibility (Eldridge et al., 2016). Participants for the pilot study were selected on a first-come, first-served basis from the 19 telecommuters at the private health insurer who agreed to participate in this study. The responses are included in Appendix G. Table 10 shows the themes that emerged. Based on the replies and themes that emerged during the pilot study, the decision made was to continue with the main study. Table 11 shows the emerging themes for the main study.

75 Table 10. Emerging Themes—Pilot Study Cataloged Responses Grouped Able to handle personal activities because a lot of downtimes Aware of expectations Juggling personal and work-related activities throughout the day Maintain productivity Perform the same as if were in centralized office Set sign on and off time Take breaks and lunches Try and stick to a 40-hour workweek

Emerging Themes No structure in working environment Creating structure in working environment/Organizational and management support No structure in working environment Creating structure in working environment/Limiting personal obstacles during working hours Creating structure in working environment/Limiting personal obstacles during working hours Creating structure in working environment/Organizational and management support Creating structure in working environment/Organizational and management support Creating structure in working environment/Organizational and management support

Table 11. Emerging Themes—Main Study Catalogued Responses Deadlines Demanding role Encouraged to exercise/wellness Encouraged to take vacation time Flexible management Heavy workload Juggling work and personal life Maintain 40-hour workweek No structure Organized Separate work and home Set family expectations Supportive management Work more than 40-hours a week

Themes Creating structure in working environment/Limiting personal or work-related obstacles No structure in working environment Organization and management support/Limiting personal or work-related obstacles Organization and management support/Limiting personal or work-related obstacles Organization and management support No structure in working environment No structure in working environment Creating structure in working environment/Limiting personal or work-related obstacles No structure in working environment Creating structure in working environment Creating structure in working environment/Limiting personal or work-related obstacles Creating structure in working environment/Limiting personal or work-related obstacles Organization and management support No structure in working environment

Main Study Results The main study included 17 participants, selected on a first-come, first-served basis from

76 a private health insurer’s LinkedIn group to take part in a recorded telephone interview. The recorded interviews were scheduled to take one hour. Two interviews lasted slightly over one hour; 14 were between 40 and 55 minutes long. One interview lasted 20 minutes. The participant seemed rushed and distracted, with a large amount of noise in the background that sounded like children screaming and running around. When asked if the participant wanted to reschedule, the participant replied, “No, this is a good time.” The participant continued with the interview; however, the answers were short and abrupt. When asked if there was any additional information the participant could provide to each question, the response was negative. I expected each to vary to some degree from one person to the next. The interview times were adequate to complete the study and answer the research questions. Questionnaire Results Interview Question 1. Question 1 was, “How many hours on average do you work each week in your telecommuting role?” Ten of the 17 participants stated they worked 40 hours per week. Five stated they worked 50 hours a week. Two stated they worked 60 or more hours a week. Table 12 and Figure 5 show the participant responses to how many hours they work each week.

77 Table 12 Participant Hours Worked Participant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Hours Worked Each Week 35 60 40 50 40 40 50 40 40 50 60 50 50 40 40 40 40

Figure 5. Participant’s hours utilizing a 40-hour workweek. The median is shown in red.

78 For some workers, telecommuting means they worked 5 to 7 hours more per week than did workers who worked in the office (Noonan & Glass, 2012). Noonan and Glass conducted a study of 67,000 employees and found working from home simply meant an increase in the number of hours worked per week (Adams, 2012). Managers often take advantage of telecommuters by demanding they work more hours (Noonan & Glass, 2012). Interview Question 2. Question 2 was, “If you work more than 40 hours a week, please explain why.” Ten of the 17 participants did not have a response because the question did not apply. Fifty-eight percent of the participants worked 40 hours in a 7-day period. The five participants who worked 50 hours in a 7-day period offered varied reasons to explain why they worked more than 40 hours per week, including (a) too much work, (b) demanding role, (c) workload, (d) lose track of time, (e) one does whatever is required, (f) lots of work, and (g) many priorities. The two participants who worked 60 hours in a 7-day period attributed their long hours to (a) the nature of job, (b) the amount of work, (c) varying hours in other parts of the nation, (d) feeling obligated, and (e) finding it hard to step away. A study conducted by the University of Texas Austin showed 30 percent of the respondents who work from home add five to seven hours to their workweek. They are also significantly less likely to work a standard 40- hour schedule and more likely to work overtime. In fact, most telecommuting hours occur after an employee has already put in 40 hours of work at the office (Bryant, 2013, para. 2). Table 13 shows the responses from Interview Question 2. Figure 6 is a graphical depiction of the data of question 2.

79 Table 13 Interview Question 2 Responses Catalogued Responses Does not apply

Participant 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 14, 15, 16, 17

Amount of work

2

Too much work

4, 13

Workload

10

Nature of job

2

Demanding role

7

Varying hours because of time zone variances

11

Feeling obligated

11

Hard to step away

11

Lose track of time

12

Multiple priorities

13

Figure 6. Graph of Interview Question 2 responses.

80 Kossek and Thompson (2016), found long hours are partially attributed to employer demands to meet the productivity goals and management’s demands that employees working from home should be more flexible than employees that commute to a centralized office. Organizations put pressure on telecommuters to complete projects with fast turnaround times, and therefore telecommuters work longer hours and feel overworked (Golden, 2012). Managers might end up working longer hours because they do not fully trust their employees working from a telecommuting environment (Beauregard et al., 2013). Employees feel fortunate to have a job and the ability to work from home. Therefore, they are willing to work over 40 hours a week (Pinsonneault, 2001). The participants’ responses aligned with current research findings; however, it should be noted that researchers failed to state whether they included telecommuters in their studies. According to Adams (2012), telecommuting means the telecommuter often works 5 to 7 hours more per week than employees who work from a centralized office. The most telling problem with telecommuting as a worklife solution is its strong relationship to long work hours and the “work devotion schema” [Blair-Loy, 2005]. Fully 67 percent of telecommuting hours in the NLSY and almost 50 percent in the CPS push respondents’ work hours above 40 per week and essentially occur as overtime work. (Noonan & Glass, 2012, p. 45). Interview Question 3. Interview Question 3 was, “Please describe your company’s expectations of you as a telecommuter.” The respondent answers varied because of the openended question. A list of the responses is shown in Table 14. A graphical depiction of the responses from Question 3 is provided in Figure 7.

81 Table 14 Interview Question 3 Responses Catalogued Responses

Participant

Productive/working

1, 4, 15, 17

Complete work/projects on time

6, 8, 9, 10, 13, 16, 17

High expectations

2

Lots of pressure to perform

2

Up to the directors

3

Provide service

5

Attend meetings

8

Overproduce

9, 12

Higher than in office

12

No different than in the office

13

Take breaks/lunches

4

Get the job done no matter what

7, 14

Responsible

9, 16

Maintain balance

5, 11

Flexible

9

82

Figure 7. Interview Question 3 responses. An example of telecommuting candidacy and expectations was obtained from the University of Virginia (2014). A good telecommuting candidate has the following traits: 1. The employee should be self-disciplined and capable of working with little supervision. 2. The employee must demonstrate the ability to maintain productive work habits and must be flexible. 3. The employee needs strong verbal and written communication skills, as well as knowledge of computers and other technology.

83 4. The employee must have a demonstrated good performance record. 5. The employee must provide an appropriate telecommuting work environment that meets the University standards. 6. Employees must meet or exceed University expectations. (p. 1) Expectations and goals are set by the employee’s manager (Tustin, 2014). Telecommuters need to perform professionally and produce at a satisfactory level as defined by the manager (Turetken et al., 2011). An employee must keep managers informed of any problems that arise during working hours that affect job performance; and maintain an excellent performance rating to telecommute (University of Virginia, 2014). The participant responses align with the organizational expectations presented by the University of Virginia. Interview Question 4. Interview Question 4 was, “Please describe a typical workday.” The respondent answers varied because of the open-ended question. Table 15 shows the responses and Figure 8 is a graphical depiction of the responses from question 4.

84 Table 155 Interview Question 4 Responses Catalogued Responses Check e-mail

Participant 1, 4, 7, 8, 11, 16, 17

Check voice mail

1, 16, 17

Handle urgent issues

1, 11, 17

Daily reporting Lots of projects, calls, and meetings

1, 6 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17

Start at 6 a.m./end at 6 p.m.

2, 14

Take breaks/lunches

3, 14

Check computer

4

Calendar tasks

4

Priorities

5

Nurse calls

5, 12, 14, 15

Present

6

Research

6

Annual reviews

6

Same as if in office

8

Manage

7, 10

85

Figure 8. Interview Question 4 responses. A typical work day varies based on the industry and role. The participants in this study were selected from a private health insurer. According to the demographic information, four were nurses, seven held leadership roles, four were consultants, and two were research analysts. According to Humer (2013), nurse practitioners working for Aetna in 2013 made up 47% of Aetna’s telecommuting population. Leadership roles vary from supervisors to executives. The manager is usually responsible for direct reports, projects, or both (Heathfield, 2014). Managers are also responsible for empowering employees and providing a sense of belonging (Jing-Zhou et al.,

86 2010). According to Umoh et al., (2010), organizations are responsible for developing educational programs that work on not only providing tools managers require to oversee employees, but also encourage growth within the company. Organizations are also responsible for exercising reasonable care of business management and practicing ethical behaviors that do not have an adverse impact on employees or society (Manesh et al., 2015). Interview Question 5. Interview Question 5 was, “What steps do you take to create structure in your work environment?” The respondent answers varied because of the open-ended question. Table 16 and Figure 9 is a graphical depiction of responses from Question 5. Table 166 Interview Question 5 Responses Catalogued Responses Separate room for office Work-related activities only from home office Sign out and leave room when day is over Take breaks/lunches Very organized/task-oriented Meetings Know when to present Deadlines/goals Maintain balance/routine Do not know when to end day Disciplined/prioritize Maintain productivity Multitask Advanced planning Exercise No structure, work all the time Handle tasks as they come in

Participant 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 17 1, 6, 9, 17 1, 6, 10, 16 1, 4, 5, 10, 14 2, 5, 11 2 2 3, 5 3, 8 4, 12 5, 7, 15 5 7 7 10 13 11

87

Figure 9. Interview Question 5 responses. Creating structure in the work environment is accomplished in several ways. Brown (2013) suggested telecommuters create a daily schedule and stick to it; share schedules with family and friends; write out a to-do list the night before; deal with distractions effectively; take breaks; and when the workday ends stop working. They should establish strict schedules and stick to them; document; and provide decision-making criteria and leave a lot of wiggle room (McKeegan, 2014). Interview Question 6. Interview Question 6 was, “What role does your organization or management team play in assisting you maintain a work-life balance?” Table 17 and Figure 10 is a graphical depiction of the responses from Question 6.

88 Table 17 Interview Question 6 Responses Catalogued Responses Flexible management Can alter schedule to meet personal needs None, we all work long hours Take breaks/lunches Organization is big on wellness Focused on fitness Not a lot of pressure Encouraged to take vacation time Encouraged to participate in community events Employee discounts for entertainment Autonomous Treat us like we are people Supportive management


Participant 1, 5, 6, 7, 9, 16 1 2, 12, 13 3, 8 3, 13, 16, 17 3 3 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 14, 15 4 4 5, 8 8 10, 11

89 Telecommuting is a challenging work environment, and telecommuters require supportive management (Dahlstrom, 2013). Employers are encouraged to find ways to communicate successfully, establish ground rules, use technology, and reward employees (Flax, 2014). A similar approach involves implementing a gatekeeping strategy to determine who works outside of the office, including monitoring telecommuters, often communicating with telecommuters, and maintaining a work-group culture (Lautsch & Kossek, 2011). Interview Question 7. Interview Question 7 was, “How do you communicate your needs to your manager?” The respondent answers varied because of the open-ended question. Table 18 and Figure 11 is a graphical depiction of the responses from question 7. Table 18. Interview Question 7 Responses Catalogued Responses

E-mail Meetings During review time Verbally/phone Instant messaging

Participant

1, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17 1, 4, 9, 10, 12 1 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 2, 3, 6, 8, 13, 14, 16

Surveys

9

Not a lot of daily communication

12

90

Figure 11. Interview Question 7 responses. Communication, despite the location of the office, is vital in the work environment— employee involvement, shared goals, and frequent communication are more effective (Heathfield, 2014). Common methods of communication between employees and management include using instant messaging, providing status reports, holding face-to-face meetings, establishing working hours, sharing documents, and being prompt and clear (Howington, 2013a). Interview Question 8. Interview Question 8 was, “How do you handle personal obstacles that arise during working hours?” The respondent answers varied because of the openended question. Table 19 and Figure 12 is a graphical depiction of the responses from question 8.

91 Table 19. Interview Question 8 Responses Catalogued Responses Flexible schedule Family respects home office privacy Few personal obstacles Juggle

Participant 1, 2, 7, 10, 11, 13, 16 1 1, 9, 14 2, 3, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17

Take vacation time if needed Contact manager

3, 4, 5, 6, 16, 17 4, 5, 9, 10

Figure 12. Interview Question 8 responses. Setting boundaries on family and office space in the home is one way to overcome personal obstacles (Anusha, 2014). Telecommuters are encouraged to create a set work schedule, set expectations, and priorities, and create a dedicated work environment in the home (Young, 2014). Creating a dedicated space, set privacy boundaries, limiting interruptions, managing expectations, limiting distractions, protecting the daily schedule, and protecting

92 personal time are ways to overcome personal obstacles while working from home (Kossek et al., 2014). Interview Question 9. Interview Question 9 was, “How do you handle work related tasks that arise during personal time?” The respondent answers varied because of the openended question. Table 20 and Figure 13 is a graphical depiction of the responses to question 9.

Table 20. Interview Question 9 Responses Catalogued Responses

Participant

Depends on work-related emergency

1, 16

After-hours business calls go to voice mail

1, 15

After-hours e-mail handled the next business day

1, 15

Travel with work-related items on vacation

2, 3, 10, 11

Handle work-related tasks while on vacation

2, 3, 7, 10, 11

Work does not interfere with personal

1, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 17

Telecommuting is a benefit handle work-related task during personal time

4

Buddy system when on vacation

5

93

Figure 13. Interview Question 9 responses. Handling work-related issues that arise during personal time is easy if the employee remains disciplined, builds downtime into the daily schedule, drops activities that drain energy, rethink tasks, get moving, and remember a little relaxation goes a long way (Bhargava, 2014). When taking a vacation from work, it could take up to three days to relax when going on vacation and longer vacations (7 days or more) are associated with better psychological outcomes compared to shorter vacations (Etzioni, 2003). When attempting to overcome workrelated tasks that might interfere with personal time, telecommuters are encouraged to let coworkers and managers know personal time schedules and plans, to set limits and boundaries, and to avoid letting vacation activities be interrupted by work (EtzionI, 2003). Interview Question 10. Interview Question 10 was, “In the last year how many times have you called in sick for yourself or your family?” Table 21 shows the responses.

94 Table 21. Interview Question 10 Responses Catalogued Responses One time None in the last eight years Never

Participant 1, 4, 5, 9 2 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17

Few, less than five times

8

According to the Center for American Progress, employees who are offered sick time as a part of their benefits package utilize on average 3.9 days for personal illness (Farrell & Venator, 2012). Utilizing 3.9 days as the median, the participants’ responses are calculated in a graphical depiction shown in Figure 14.


95 A study conducted in 2008 by Medibank Private estimated a loss of 2.14 work days and an average cost of $533 annually per employee due to absenteeism related to sickness or emergency time off (Medibank, 2011). Businesses lost in 2011 an estimated $153 billion on employee absenteeism (Richardson, 2014). An employer with 20 employees could lose as much as $16,000 per year because of absenteeism (Bowen, 2010). Telecommuters contend that commuting to and from work causes stress (Licheron & Martin, 2014). Stress leads to mental or physical sickness (Holland, 2016). Employers have reported that telecommuters use less sick time to meet personal or family needs (Hagen, 2013). Interview Question 11. Interview Question 11 was, “In the last year, how many times have you called in sick just to get away from work?” All 17 participants answered “never” to this question. In a multinational survey, researchers found that China led, with 71% of its employees admitting to calling in sick when they were not (Hollon, 2011). Figure 15 shows a graphical interpretation of Hollons’ survey results.

Figure 15. Derived from Hollon’s data.

96 Researchers found that among employees working from a central office, 78 percent of employees who call in sick, really aren’t. They do so because of family issues, personal needs, and stress. Telecommuting alleviates the need to call in sick for reasons other than personal illness. For example, a parent with a sick child can work from home, and even if the employee is only 50 percent productive due to caring for the ill child that is 50 percent more productive than he would be if he missed the workday entirely (Hincha-Ownby, 2013, para. 10). Interview Question 12. Interview Question 12 was, “Do you feel there is a difference in the workload expectations placed on you as compared to your centralized counterparts within your organization? Please explain by providing an example.” The respondent answers varied because of the open-ended question. Table 22 shows the participant responses and Figure 16 is a graphical depiction of the responses. Table 22 Interview Question 12 Responses Catalogued Responses Yes, more productive since no commute Yes, those in office believe I am not really working Yes, on-site meetings become social hour No, if in office, same requirements Yes, urgent requests handled by telecommuters due to flexibility Do not know how to answer this question No, my entire team is virtual No, those working in the main office work harder than Telecommuters and are paid less Yes, feel invisible Yes, not considered for higher profile job

Participants 1, 10 2 2 3, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14 4 5 6, 15, 16, 17 7 8, 14 8

97


98 Researchers at MIT Sloan Management reviewed the variance between management perceptions of office-bound employees and work-from-home employees: When asked to recall traits of their employees, bosses were 9% more likely to describe workers who put in expected face time as “dependable” and “responsible” compared to at-home workers. Those who put in extracurricular face time got an even bigger boost, with bosses 25% more likely to call them “committed” and “dedicated.” (Luckerson, 2012, para. 4) Interview Question 13. Interview Question 13 was, “How do centralized office colleagues communicate and share work-related activities?” Table 23 shows the participants responses and Figure 17 is a graphical depiction of the responses. Table 23. Interview Question 13 Responses Catalogued Responses Staff meetings

Participants 1,3,7,9

Conference calls

1,2,7,11,12,13,14,15,16

Instant messaging

2,3,9,14,16

WebEx Email SharePoint Projects Everyone is remote

2 2,3,4,5,7,11,12,13,14,15,17 4,5,17 5 6,8,10

99

Figure 17. Interview Question 13 responses. Interview Question 14. Interview Question 14 was, “Do you feel centralized office colleagues are envious of your working environment? Please explain your answer.” Table 24 are the participant responses, and Figure 18 is a graphical depiction of the responses.

100 Table 24. Interview Question 14 Responses Catalogued Responses

Participants

Yes, for those that do not have the opportunity

1

No, most have the option to telecommute

2

Yes, up to management/department causes jealousy Yes, office colleagues complain about traffic Cannot answer No, entire team remote Yes, unspoken resentment No, because telecommuters work more hours

3,9 4 5,16 6,8,10,13,14 7 11,12

No, office employees are negative towards telecommuters

15

Yes, they think I am not working

17


101 According to Frasch (2013), 57% of thousands of respondents who worked at the organizations Deltek and SodaHead said centralized office employees were envious of the fact that telecommuters work from home. Office employee jealousy statistics are 60% of parents and 75% among those making over $100,000 per year (Lucas, 2013). However, Kratz (2014) disagreed with the study results based on an e-mail received from a telecommuter who worked one day a week from home. “Working from home one day a week allows me to get the oil changed or take the kids to the dentist. Working from home does take great discipline, and there is a sense of isolation” (Kratz, 2014). Interview Question 15. Interview Question 15 was, “If you had the option of working in a centralized office, would you? Please explain the reason for your answer.” Table 25 shows the participant responses and Figure 19 is a graphical depiction of the responses. Table 25. Interview Question 15 Responses Catalogued Responses Yes, if office was close to home Never, social hour in office No, balance working from home No, two-hour drive one-way in bad weather Yes, depends on job, manager, role, and pay Yes, would still require flexibility No, I like telecommuting No, too much office drama No, like autonomy No, would have to be desperate No, too much flexibility No, would find another telecommuting role No, waste of time driving Yes, if office was close to home

Participants 1 2 2 2,13,14,15,16 3,4,10,11,17 4 5 6 6 7,9 8 12 13 1

102

Figure 19. Interview Question 15 responses. According to Wright (2014), 10% of Staples survey respondents said they would accept a salary reduction to keep the telecommuting benefit. “Our survey clearly shows the benefits. Not only does telecommuting lead to a happier workforce, it’s also a critical benefit to have from a recruiting standpoint” (Mullen, as cited in Wright, 2014). Telecommuting reduces stress and increases work/life balance because the daily drive to work and from a central office location is nonexistent (Noonan & Glass, 2012). According to Wang and Ronen (2011), telecommuting increase employee morale and loyalty to the organization. Findings and Results Research Question 1: What steps do telecommuters take to create structure in their working environment? The participants throughout this study created structure in their working environment by maintaining a separate home office, conducting only work-related activities from the home

103 office, signing out of the computer and leaving the home office for the rest of the day, taking breaks and lunches, being task-oriented and organized, setting deadlines, maintaining balance, maintaining a routine, prioritizing, staying disciplined, maintaining productivity, multitasking, conducting advanced planning, exercising, handling tasks as they arose, and setting up expectations for their families. Research Question 2: What role does the organization or management team take in assisting telecommuters maintain work and life balance? Several participants in this study stated that their organizational leaders or management team assisted in helping them preserve their work and life balance. Work and life balance was accomplished by offering flexible management, altering schedules to meet personal needs, encouraging employees to take breaks and lunches and to take vacation time, focusing on fitness and wellness, avoiding placing a lot of pressure on employees, and encouraging employees to participate in community events and make use of employee discounts for entertainment. Also, managers were respectful of employees’ autonomy, treated employees humanely, and offered supportive management. Research Question 3: How do telecommuters handle personal obstacles during their working hours? The participants in this study stated they handled personal obstacles by maintaining a flexible schedule, requiring family members to respect the boundaries of the home office, juggling their work and personal lives, contacting their managers, and taking time off if needed. The participants also stated their leadership accepted handling personal obstacles during their working hours.

104 Research Question 4: How do telecommuters handle work-related obstacles during personal time? The participants in this study stated they handled work-related obstacles during personal time by keeping work and personal separate. Most said work did not interfere with personal time; e-mails and phone calls that came in after-hours were handled the next business day. They used a “buddy system” when employees were on vacation, consisting of a person or group of individuals who could handle an employee’s tasks while that employee was on vacation (Linnan et al., 2015). Some participants traveled with work-related items such as work cellphone and laptop and handled work-related tasks while on vacation. These participants viewed telecommuting as a benefit to the employee; therefore, if something work-related occurred during personal or vacation time, they handled it. Qualitative Results I sought to discover themes in the responses to the 15 open-ended questions to answer the central question (“How do telecommuters working for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives?”) and the four research questions: 1. What steps do telecommuters take to create structure in their working environments? 2. What role does the organization or management team take in assisting telecommuters to maintain work and life balance? 3. How do telecommuters handle personal obstacles during their working hours? 4. How do telecommuters handle work-related issues during personal time? Common themes emerged from the responses of the 17 participants. Although the bracketing and pilot study themes were not part of the main study, all three studies showed related emerging themes. Microsoft Excel and Visio were employed to create diagrams of the

105 themes that emerged related to the research questions. After the information was collected and catalogued, the following themes emerged that described how the participants created structure in their working environments: maintain a 40-hour workweek; separate room in home for office; take breaks and lunches; use vacation time; remain flexible; maintain balance; maintain a routine; only work-related tasks are performed in the home office; handle tasks as they come in; productive and working during working hours; set family expectations; focus on health and wellness; exercise; juggle work and personal life; take time for entertainment; plan in advance; prioritize work; communicate; multitask; know when to step away; remain disciplined; aware of organizational expectations; complete work and projects in a timely manner; and remain organized and task oriented. Based on the outcomes, the majority of the participants in this study working for a private health insurer were able to balance their work and personal lives because they created structure in their working environment by remaining disciplined and organized, and they set work and family expectations. According to Brown (2010), creating structure is achieved by communicating work schedules with family and friends, creating a to-do list the night before, dealing with distractions effectively, taking breaks, and stopping work when the work day ends. Also, the structure is created when normal office distractions that take place in a centralized office environment are reduced (Beauregard et al., 2013). The following themes emerged that explain how the organization and management supported work/life balance: maintain a 40-hour workweek; management is flexible; use vacation time; alter schedules when necessary; maintain a routine; focus on health and wellness; exercise; take time for entertainment; communicate; participate in community events; autonomous; employee respect; take breaks and lunches; and reduce negative or unrealistic

106 pressure to perform. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts supported work and life balance by creating a structured telecommuting policy. The policy includes limiting distractions in the home, maintaining communication with supervisors, creating and adhering to work schedules, providing adequate childcare, determining employees’ responsibilities, providing suitable equipment, providing training, and creating a formal agreement between the organization and the telecommuter (Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 2000). Development of telecommuting policies, training employees and managers, supplying the proper technology and security, and analyzing the existing work from home policies will are key elements in creating a solid telecommuting working environment (Shockley, 2014). The following themes emerged that explained how the telecommuters handled personal obstacles during working hours: use breaks and lunches, use vacation time, family respects working environment, contact manager if problems arise, juggle work and personal life, very few personal obstacles, and flexible schedule. Howington (2013b) suggested a good telecommuter requires the ability to work alone, enjoys working with virtual tools, can work for several hours without being distracted, can separate work from personal activities, is comfortable being at home all day, is proactive, sets necessary family boundaries, and has willpower. Telecommuters should separate work and personal life and communicate effectively with management (Lee, 2013). Pinola (2014) recommended limiting children, family, and pet demands for attention; limiting distractions when working from home outside of family; creating a separate work area, and making sure tools required to perform the job are in working order. The following themes emerged that explained how the telecommuters handled work-related issues during personal time: remain flexible, juggle

107 work and personal life, handle tasks as the arise, set family expectations, utilize the buddy system when on vacation, and take care of after-hours requests either through voicemail or the next business day. According to Venkatram (2014), applying the 95% unplugged model is relevant because according to this model, the employee focuses on work only 5% of the time during personal time, including during vacations. For example, if an employee is on a weeklong vacation, he or she may come back to hundreds of e-mails and have to catch up on events that took place while he or she was gone. By checking in 5% of the time while on vacation, the employee remains connected and aware (Venkatram, 2014). Handling after-hours e-mails can be accomplished by committing and communicating personal schedules, appointing someone to handle work-related tasks, using out-of-office messages and do-not-reply e-mails while out of the office, checking work e-mail in the morning in order to remain connected, considering timeliness and accessibility, preparing work ahead of time, and flagging anything that requires a response (Kerpen, 2014). The purpose of this study was to determine how telecommuters working for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives. In Chapter 1, I surmised that telecommuters who worked for a private health insurer had no work–life balance because of management and personal obstacles related to lack of structure in the telecommuters working environment, lack of organizational or management support, allowing personal barriers to interfere with work-related tasks, and work-related tasks interfering with personal life. To corroborate or abrogate these assumptions, I addressed the negative responses collected during this study. The following themes emerged that represent the negative responses to the 15 open- and closed-ended questions: no structure; work all the time; do not know when to end the workday; work more

108 than a 4-hour workweek; travel with work-related items when on personal vacation; handle work-related tasks when on personal time off; and telecommuting is a luxury, and therefore telecommuters need to be available 24 hours a day. Participant 4 had negative responses to creating structure in her working environment and did not know when to end the day. Participant 4 included positive responses to creating structure in her working environment, including taking breaks and lunches, setting up expectations with family, and treating her home office as an office. However, Participant 4 also shared negative responses, including handling work-related tasks during personal time. Although Participant 4 worked 50 hours a week on average because there was too much work she stated managers encouraged employees to take a vacation, to perform outreach and community involvement, to take advantage of fitness and wellness programs, and to receive discounts on entertainment. When personal obstacles arose, Participant 4 had enough flexibility in the workplace to handle the issue, or she could contact her manager and explain the circumstances. Similarly, Participant 12 stated she did not know when to end her workday and that she worked at different times and different hours. Participant 12 worked an average of 50 hours a week and did not create structure in her working environment. Participant 12 did whatever was needed, no matter what, and the organization played no role in helping her maintain work–life balance. Participant 12 had little daily communication with managers only when warranted. However, Participant 12 had a flexible working environment and could handle personal obstacles during working hours. Participant 12 attempted to keep work from interfering during personal time by leaving work at work. Participant 13 stated she had no structure and bounced from project to project and worked more when at home than she did when in the central office. Participant 13 worked an average 50

109 hours a week. Participant 13 stated the organization supported living a healthy lifestyle and taking advantage of the programs that support work-life balance, but the amount of work was not conducive to work-life balance. She had a flexible working environment and was able to handle personal obstacles that arose during working hours. Participant 13 learned to juggle work and personal life and 13 stated that because she worked long hours, she was entitled to handle personal obstacles during working hours. Participant 2 stated the organization or management team did not assist with maintaining work–life balance because she worked on average 60 hours a week because it was the nature of her job and because of the amount of work. Participant 2 stated the organization had high expectations, and there was a lot of pressure to perform. However, Participant 2 had a flexible working environment. When a personal obstacle occurred, Participant 2 handled the obstacle. Participants 2, 3, 10, and 11 stated they traveled with work-related items while on vacation, including laptops and cell phones. These participants stated they periodically checked e-mail and voicemail, and if the work-related task could wait until the next business day or until they were back from vacation, the task was handled at that time. If the task was an emergency, they handled the task as soon as they were done reading the e-mail. In summary, the analysis of the responses to the questionnaire indicated how telecommuters who worked for a private health insurer balanced their work and personal lives. Although some participants had negative responses, those responses helped provide information to answer the research questions. Chapter 5 is a summary of the findings of this study. Chapter 5 also includes the conclusions, recommendations, and possible future study topics.

110 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The purpose of this study was to improve the limited understanding of how telecommuters who worked for a private health insurer balanced their work and personal lives. This purpose was accomplished by gathering the lived experiences of telecommuters who worked for a private health insurer. Researcher bias was eliminated by conducting a bracketing study. A pilot study was carried out to determine the feasibility of the main study. The main study consisted of 17 participants who worked for a private health insurer. The participants were asked 15 open- and closed-ended questions in a one-on-one recorded telephone interview. The results were transcribed, cataloged, and analyzed to obtain emerging themes. The themes that emerged could be used to explain how this sample of telecommuters who worked for a private health insurer balanced their work and personal lives. Conclusions The investigation was guided by the following central research question: How do telecommuters working for a private health insurer balance their work and personal lives? Although I based the study on Herzberg’s two-factory theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as the theoretical support for my study, supported for the theories varied. Four research questions were posed. Conclusions regarding the four research questions are presented in the follow paragraphs. Research Question 1: What steps do telecommuters take to create structure in their working environment? The participants created structure in their working environment by maintaining a separate

111 home office, conducting only work-related activities from the home office, signing out of the computer and leaving the home office for the rest of the day, taking breaks and lunches, being task-oriented and organized, setting deadlines, maintaining balance, maintaining a routine, prioritizing, staying disciplined, maintaining productivity, multitasking, conducting advanced planning, exercising, handling tasks as they arose, and setting up expectations for their families. Consistent themes emerged during the study that showed how these telecommuters were able to balance their work and personal lives. The conclusion drawn from the findings is that the participants in this study were able to balance their work and personal lives, largely by maintaining a separate workspace within the home. The participants worked with their families to set boundaries, so work and personal life were separated. Also, the participants were organized, disciplined, responsible, and task-oriented. The participants maintained a routine by setting specific start and end times. Participants included fitness as a part of maintaining balance and creating structure. These findings are supported by current literature on Herzberg’s two-factory theory, which addressed hygiene factors work/life balance and working conditions (Herzberg et al., 2011). Sheppard (2016) suggested unfavorable working conditions can have an adverse impact on an employee’s job satisfaction and therefore creating a positive working environment such as telecommuting can improve working conditions and create a structured working environment that supports work/life balance. Furthermore, a flexible working environment such as telecommuting improves the working conditions and provides more flexibility for employees and management will benefit from a more loyal and productive employee (Berg et al., 2014; Lyness et al., 2012; Troup & Rose, 2012). When work and life are balanced, employees experience less stress and organizations will see a decrease in absenteeism and employee attrition (Kumar &

112 Chakraborty, 2013). These findings are also supported by the current literature on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which consist of biological and physiological needs (air, food, water, shelter); safety needs (order, law stability); love and belongingness (work group, family, affection); esteem needs (self-esteem, achievement, status, independence); and self-actualization needs (realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth) (McLeod, 2014). Maslow’s biological and physiological hierarchy of needs are supported in that flexible working conditions support work/life balance as well as employees feel a sense of freedom and the ability to satisfy their self-actualization needs (Mollah, 2015). Telecommuters, compared to their office worker counterparts, are better able to balance their work and personal lives. Boyar (2013) claimed the success of telecommuting depends on the person, the job, and the training the employee receives and allows employees to balance work and personal time more efficiently. Research Question 2: What role does the organization or management team take in assisting telecommuters maintain work and life balance? Several participants stated that their organizational leaders or management team assisted in helping them preserve their work and life balance. Work and life balance was accomplished by offering flexible management, altering schedules to meet personal needs, encouraging employees to take breaks and lunches and to take vacation time, focusing on fitness and wellness, avoiding placing a lot of pressure on employees, and encouraging employees to participate in community events and make use of employee discounts for entertainment. Also, managers were respectful of employees’ autonomy, treated employees humanely, and offered supportive management.

113 A positive workplace can be achieved in multiple ways, from improving communication between the employees and management to allowing flexible work schedules or environments. Bringing balance to the workplace starts at the top with executives setting structure and expectations. Irfan and Azmi (2015) suggested that work-life balance can be achieved when employees can meet the needs of family, employer, and society. Assisting employees to maintain a work–life balance can be accomplished by following these steps: (a) set priorities, (b) time management, (c) do not multitask, (d) set goals, (e) respect personal time, (f) review habits and lifestyle, (g) take vacation, (h) ask for help, (i) employee life coaches, (j) exercise, (k) remain disciplined, (l) find an advisor, (m) use the word “no” when needed, and (n) evaluate the personal and work routine on a regular basis (Anusha, 2014). Policies and procedures should be included in the company’s employee handbook and should be specific to the organization but also follow state and federal regulations to support work-life balance. Organizations can help assist employees in maintaining work–life balance by offering flexible working hours; fitness programs; child care programs; and employee support programs such as health coverage, retirement packages, and mental health programs (Vulcan, 2014). Klonsky (2014) argued that crucial to a company’s success is keeping communication lines open, motivating and challenging employees, and aligning employees’ vision with management or the organization is. Having happy employees is a key driving force for satisfied customers (Ariani, 2015). Effective methods to support work and life balance include creating a positive work environment, sharing the company’s success, and setting goals and rewards (Kim, 2013). These findings are supported by current literature on Herzberg’s two-factory theory, which addressed motivators and hygiene factors (Herzberg et al., 2011). According to Stello (2016), organizations that support hygiene factors such as working conditions, pay and benefits,

114 a vigorous and fair organizational telecommuting policy, job security, and quality leadership cab increase an employee’s work/life balance. Furthermore, supporting motivating factors such as personal achievement, employment status, responsibility, promotion, growth, and recognition will motivate employees to work with management to maintain work/life balance (Royle & Hall, 2012). These findings are also supported by current literature on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which included biological and physiological needs, safety needs, love and belongingness, esteem needs and self-actualization needs (Dodson, 2014). When the majority of the needs are met, employees feel a sense of satisfaction and communicate their requirements to management so they can work together to maintain work/life balance (Eggerth & Flynn, 2012; Lester, 2013). Managers in this study assisted the participants in maintaining work–life balance by creating policies that supported balance. The employer offered vacation time and a flexible work schedule. The organization created telecommuting policies to encourage employees to maintain a separate, safe, and distraction-free working environment. Managers assisted the telecommuters by offering support and flexibility. Managers did not place much pressure on employees. In summary, based on the research conducted for this study, I found the majority of the participant expectations would be the same if they were working in a centralized office. Research Question 3: How do telecommuters handle personal obstacles during their working hours? The participants in this study stated they handled personal obstacles by maintaining a flexible schedule, requiring family members to respect the boundaries of the home office, juggling their work and personal lives, contacting their managers, and taking time off if needed. Organizations offering telecommuting as a working environment can assist

115 telecommuters handle personal obstacles by having clear communication and written policies to help telecommuters in understanding the requirements of working in a telecommuting environment (Sa, 2013). For example, according to Oregon State University’s (2012) telecommuting agreement, a telecommuter must agree to the following: (a) prepare a designated work location; (b) be professional in terms of job responsibilities, work products, and customer contact; (c) be self-motivated; and (d) make arrangements for child or dependent care. Also, the policy states that telecommuting is not a substitute for the dependent care and that workers should not perform personal business during working hours (Oregon State University, 2012). During working hours, telecommuters must remain reachable by phone, fax, network access, or e-mail (Oregon State University, 2012). Rutgers University (2014) offers a similar policy for telecommuters. Telecommuters are required to maintain effective communication and satisfactory completion of duties and assignments, including furnishing, maintaining, and securing a remote worksite (Rutgers University, 2014). Employees are expected to remain professional, to avoid using university equipment for private purposes, to keep family or friends from using that equipment, and to notify supervisors when unable to perform work assignments because of equipment failure, illness, or other circumstances (Rutgers University, 2014). United Health Group, WellPoint, Blue Cross and Blue Shield, Aetna, Cigna, and Humana are all private health insurers that offer what are known as work-from-home programs. As of 2009, 20% of United Health Group employees telecommuted (Brunelli, 2009). I could not obtain telecommuting policies and expectations from any of these private health insurers because none of them provides their agreements to the public. The participants in this study did not provide written documentation of policies and expectations; instead, they only talked on the

116 phone about the policies. The university policies mentioned earlier from two college universities showed some common standards of how organizational leaders view personal obstacles that arise during working hours. According to the participants, organizational leaders expect telecommuters to remain productive and working and to complete projects on time. Sometimes leaders pressure workers to perform. Telecommuters are expected to provide service, attend meetings, overproduce, take breaks and lunches, get the job done no matter what, be responsible, maintain balance, be flexible, perform the same as or higher than they would if they were in the office. “Flexibility” was a keyword among the responses. Although the two written university policies outlined requirements that no personal activities are to occur during working hours, clearly there must be some flexibility. These findings are supported by current literature on Herzberg’s two-factory theory which addressed motivators and hygiene factors (Herzberg et al., 2011). According to Kelly et al., (2014), working conditions such as telecommuting, flexibility, job status, organizational policies assist employees in handling personal obstacles that might arise during working hours and therefore assist employees in maintaining work/life balance. Furthermore, supporting motivating factors such as job status and personal responsibility will help employees in reducing the personal obstacles that arise during working hours and help support work/life balance (Johnson, 2016). These findings are also supported by current literature on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs which included safety needs; love and belongingness; esteem needs; biological and physiological needs; and self-actualization need (Demir, 2014). When Maslow’s hierarchy of needs are met, employees are better able to work with management to reduce personal obstacles that might

117 impact their work and maintain work/life balance (Saif, Nawaz, Jan, & Khan., 2012). Based on the participant responses, I concluded that because of the flexible working environment, the participants were able to handle personal obstacles during working hours. This might not be a policy supported by their organizations. Employees working more than 40 hours a week and working during vacation believed they should have the ability to handle personal obstacles during working hours. Research Question 4: How do telecommuters handle work-related obstacles during personal time? The participants stated they handled work-related obstacles during personal time by keeping work and personal separate. Most said work did not interfere with personal time; emails and phone calls that came in after-hours were handled the next business day. They used a “buddy system” when employees were on vacation, consisting of a person or group of individuals that could handle an employee’s tasks while that employee was on vacation (Linnan et al., 2015). Some participants traveled with work-related items such as work cellphone and laptop and handled work-related tasks while on vacation. These participants viewed telecommuting as a benefit to the employee; therefore, if something work-related occurred during personal or vacation time, they handled it. Working while on vacation is not a good habit (Brownawell & Wiggins, 2013). It seems questionable that organizations would offer vacation time and then expect the employee to work while on vacation. However, some employees believe they are obligated to do whatever the employer asks, whenever the employer asks (Smith et al., 2016). Encouraging participants to travel with work-related items and to work while on vacation did not seem to be the policy of a private health insurer. Of the 17 participants, 15 offered a

118 variety of responses, including the following: 

flexible management



can alter schedule to meet personal needs organization wants employees to take breaks and lunches; organization is big on wellness



organization is focused on fitness



not a lot of work related pressure



encouraged to take vacation time



encourage to participate in community events



discounts for entertainment



supportive management



treats employees as people.

I concluded that participants who traveled with work-related items and worked during vacation time did so out of choice and not because of an organizational demand. The majority of the participants identified supportive and flexible management practices. These findings are supported by current literature on Herzberg’s two-factory theory, which addressed motivators and hygiene factors (Herzberg et al., 2011). According to Malik (2010), working conditions such as telecommuting, flexibility, job status, organizational policies assist employees in handling work-related obstacles that might arise during personal time and therefore assist employees in maintaining work/life balance. Furthermore, supporting motivating factors such as job status and personal responsibility will help employees in reducing the workrelated obstacles that arise during personal time and help support work/life balance (Malik, 2011).

119 These findings are also supported by current literature on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which included esteem needs, safety needs, love and belongingness, biological and physiological needs, and self-actualization needs (Jerome, 2013). When Maslow’s hierarchy of needs are met, employees are better able to reduce the number of work-related incidents that occur during personal time and maintain work/life balance (Goswami & Mathur, 2013). For these participants, at times, work and life balance is a blur. Padalkar (as cited in Walia, 2014) stated, “I use technology to my advantage. For me, the boundary between work and home is a blur. I do not believe I need to ‘switch off’; I have a flexible approach” (p.1). Work and life should be synchronized (Ursrey, 2013). These participants need to create structure in their working environment, and to do that, they needed to handle personal obstacles during working hours and handle work-related tasks during personal time. Perhaps employers and employees should begin to use the term work–life effectiveness. Female Participants Baruch and Holtom (2008) stated the greater the population and response rate, the more credible the findings. Rindfuss, Choe, Tsuya, Bumpass, and Tamaki (2015), low response rates do not necessarily lead to any conclusions that the study is biased. The two participants in the pilot study were a male and a female. The 17 participants included within the main study were women. Participants were selected on a first-come, first-served basis. The participant pool contained mostly females; in 2014, the private health insurer had 52,000 employees, and 67% of them were female (Metzger, 2014). After reviewing the target population of 5,819 and applying Metzger’s figures and noting that 67% of those employed with the private health insurer were female, I estimated that approximately 3,898 of the potential participants were female. Applying the same 67% proportion of the group that responded to the original request to take part in the

120 study, 40 of the 59 people who responded would have been female. Further, 14 of the 59 respondents were not qualified to participate. Of the 14 who were not qualified, nine would likely have been female. Applying the same 67% proportion of the 45 participants who were qualified to take part in this study would result in approximately 30 of the 45 being female. Applying the same 67% proportion of the 19 qualified participants would imply 13 would be female. Two of the 19 were invited to participate in the pilot study, which was conducted with one male and one female. This left a population of 17 participants for the main study. Applying the same 67% proportion indicates that 11 of the participants would have been female. However, in the main study, all 17 participants were female. Further research was conducted to explain why there were few male participants. The original discussion created on the private health insurer’s social networking group on LinkedIn was investigated. Of the 59 respondents, 50 were female, which would be a rate of 85%. Of the 59 respondents, nine were male, a rate of 15%. Five of the males worked in a centralized office full-time and had no experience with telecommuting. Two males worked as telecommuters one day a week. Two males worked as full-time telecommuters. Of the two males, one followed through almost immediately with a willingness to participate and was included in the pilot study. The remaining male telecommuter did not respond to e-mails inviting him to schedule an interview. The pilot study included one male because the study was conducted on a first-come, first-served basis. Internet surveys as long as the questions are short seem to have a higher response rate and males in general respond at a rate of 51.5%; women in general at a rate of 48.5% (Deutskens, De Ruyter, Wetzels, & Oosterveld, 2014). My study was conducted via a telephone interview of telecommuters working for a private health insurer. According to Wojcik (2013), the number of women working for private

121 health insurers is roughly equal to the number of men. Men normally have a lower response rate to surveys than women (Rindfuss et al., 2015). Women are more likely to participate in telephone surveys or interviews than are men (Glass et al., 2015). After conducting the above research to explain why of the 19 participants only one was male, I determined it was because this study was a traditional telephone survey, and thus women were more likely to respond. White Participants All 19 participants were White. Of the 59 respondents, five were African-American, and 54 were White, a rate of 91%. There were 19 participants in this study. Applying the 91% proportion indicates that 17 should have been White. This determination was made because LinkedIn allows users to post a picture. I also collected demographics information from the 19 participants included in this study. Furthermore, Whites are more likely to participate in surveys and studies than are non-Whites (Glass et al., 2015; Vemuri et al., 2011). Typical telecommuters are between 35 and 54 and are more likely to be White (Wood, 2013). In a national study on telecommuting, only 12% of telecommuters were either Black or Hispanic (Raphel, 2013). Of the original pool of potential participants who were not White, three did not because they either worked from the office full-time or worked from home one day a week. The remaining two were full-time telecommuters and qualified to take part in the study. The two non-Whit respondents did not reply to my invitations. According to Bloomberg and Volpe (2008), establishing a timeline to complete every phase of the dissertation is a major challenge but crucial to complete the study. I set a deadline of 10 days to receive correspondence from the participants. An additional 10 days were given to those who did not respond within the first ten days. Deadlines for response rates and maximization were obtained from the University of

122 Texas’s (2014) guidelines for maximizing response rates. For online surveys, 7 to 10 days is sufficient (University of Texas, 2014). The study was conducted via the telephone; however, initial contact to obtain participants was made via the online social networking site LinkedIn. According to Hamilton (2009), business surveys require a minimum of 2 weeks for high-value surveys or 1 week when speed is the primary concern. If purposive sampling was the study design, I could have controlled for population identifiers such as race and gender. Palinkas et al., (2013) claimed purposive sampling is popular in qualitative research because the information collected contains further details in a short period when resources are limited and are intended to determine the commonality among the answers provided by the participants. Assumptions Addressed At the beginning of this study, my assumption was telecommuters working for a private health insurer would have no structure in their working environment. This assumption did not hold true for this population based on the findings in Chapter 4. The sample of participants in this study stated creating structure in their working environment is achieved by setting up a separate workspace, handling only work-related activities from the home office, and remaining disciplined, aware of expectations, and organized. Although seven of the participants worked more than 40 hours a week, doing so had no adverse impact on this assumption. The participants had a flexible working environment that allowed them to juggle personal and work-related tasks. The second assumption was telecommuters working for a private health insurer would not have adequate support from their organization and management to assist in maintaining work and life balance. This assumption was inconclusive, according to the findings reported in Chapter 4. Interview Question 3 in Chapter 4 addressed the organization and management

123 expectations. The participant responses include very high expectations; held telecommuters to a higher standard than their counterparts working from a centralized office; a lot of pressure to perform or overproduce; and overall higher expectations than employees working from a centralized office location. Interview Question 6 addressed how the organization or management team assists the participants in balancing work and personal life. The participant responses included flexible management, supportive management, the importance of taking a vacation, wellness programs, and entertainment. Though three of the participants stated their organization and management team did not offer support, these were the same participants that work over 40 hours a week and had negative responses about their work and life balance throughout the entire study. After reviewing the rest of the responses, my second assumption remains inconclusive. The third assumption was telecommuters working for a private health insurer would be handling personal tasks during working hours. This assumption held true according to the findings in Chapter 4. Seven of the participants stated they had a flexible schedule, and 10 stated they juggled work and personal life. Three of the participants stated they had few personal obstacles; therefore, the majority of the participants were handling personal tasks during working hours. The final assumption was telecommuters working for a private health insurer would be handling work-related tasks during personal time. This assumption held true. Nine of the participants stated work did not interfere with their personal lives. Five of the participants stated they travel with work-related equipment as well as handle work-related tasks while on vacation. Recommendations for Future Research Nineteen employees from the private health insurer participated in this study. Of the 19, two were selected for the pilot study on a first-come, first-served basis. The remaining 17

124 participants were included in the main study. Several limitations were addressed during this study. Finding willing participants was a challenge. Future researchers could include a different method of obtaining willing participants other than LinkedIn. I attempted to work with my employer to get participants; leadership and the HR department did not approve this endeavor. Future researchers could seek approval from their employer to conduct research on how telecommuters balance work and personal life amongst their colleagues. Working with the investigators’ employers can reduce the number of threats to the study because the employers have a stake in the outcome of the study and therefore could be more supportive. Future researchers could use the snowball method, which could increase the number of participants and therefore offer a larger sample size. Communication with the participants was difficult throughout this study. Initial contact was made via social media. After the target population had been obtained, I felt as if I was pressuring the participants to follow through and complete the interview process. I had to set a time limit to meet the deadlines set up to perform this study. Future researchers could employ other forms of communication such as face-to-face, random telephone calls, or randomly mailed questionnaires. Effective communication between the researcher and participants is necessary to the validity of the study because the researcher needs to clearly understand the participant's responses provided that corroborates or abrogates the hypothesis. When attempting to obtain willing participants, I found willing participants did not fully read the request. I specifically stated I was recruiting full-time telecommuters for this study and received responses from centralized office employees; part-time employees; and full-time employees telecommuting a couple of days a week. Future researchers could be to study how work and life balance is achieved within these populations and could prove or disprove the

125 results of this study. Future research could be conducted by targeting other private health insurers to compare the outcomes of this study or employ a study that focuses on work and life balance in other industries to corroborate or abrogate the findings within this study. Possible future research could include a study on the negative responses obtained in this study and investigate why female participants are more likely to respond to surveys or research studies compared to males. Similarly, research could be conducted to determine why Whites respond to surveys and studies more often than people from other races or ethnicities. Future research could involve a comparison between telecommuters’ work-related conditions and centralized office employee work-related conditions. From a practical application standpoint, employees who telecommute or work from a centralized office location can employ the findings contained in this study to create a work and home environment that supports work and life balance. Management and leadership can review the findings and determine if their current policies support work and life balance or if policies require further review and revisions. Employees and employers should remain in constant communication to ensure work and life balance is achieved. During this study, responses to the questionnaire questions led to new questions. IN answer to Interview Question 2, one participant stated she felt a strong sense of obligation to work and found it difficult to step away from work. One participant stated she lost track of time. Two responses led to a new question: Why as a telecommuter do you feel obligated, lose track of time, and find it hard to step away from work-related tasks? Responses to Interview Question 4 led to an after-thought that the original question should have been revised. I should have asked participants about their specific work-related

126 tasks and daily routine compared to those of colleagues who work in the centralized office. Responses to Interview Question 5 begged for additional questions about why telecommuters might explain a lack of structure in their working environment. Reponses to Interview Question 6 led to these additional questions: 

In your opinion, if your organization or management team does not assist in maintaining a work-life balance, why do you feel that way?



If your organization or management team does not assist in maintaining a work-life balance, then what do you feel they could do to support work-life balance? Concluding Statement

Throughout this study, referring to the bracketing study helped me minimize researcher bias and thereby avoid affecting the outcomes. I found the pilot study process somewhat frustrating because one of the participants did not fully understand the questions; therefore, the responses contained irrelevant information that required transcribing, cataloging, and analyzing. The participants in the main study had no problems answering the questions; however, deciphering and cataloging their responses was challenging. The participants were very social, and at times the recordings contained conversations that did not relate to the study. I allowed this social conversation because I wanted to make the participants feel comfortable and willing to respond honestly. The findings indicated that the organizational leaders and managers played a part in helping employees maintain work and life balance by supporting structure in the telecommuters’ working environment. Leaders and managers did this by offering flexibility, encouraging employees to take vacation time, and focusing on mental well-being and fitness. Managers encouraged employees to take time out of the day for breaks, lunches, and to get up and away

127 from the desk. Further, I assumed that family demands a share of the telecommuter’s time and would often interfere during working hours because the telecommuter was readily available. My assumption was that because they worked from home, the telecommuters felt obligated to attend to family matters or household-related tasks. In fact, I found that telecommuters enjoyed the flexibility, solitude, and anonymity of working from home, and thus were constantly struggling to please managers, family members, and themselves. In summary, my assumption that telecommuters’ work–life balance is nonexistent was not corroborated. Thus, the outcomes of this study indicate that telecommuters who worked for the private health insurer were able to balance their jobs and personal lives effectively.

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173 APPENDIX A PARTICIPANT INFORMED CONSENT FORM

Research Title: TELECOMMUTING: BALANCING WORK AND PERSONAL LIFE. A QUALITATIVE STUDY. By taking part in the audio-recorded telephone interview, you agree to be a part of this study. Purpose of the Research: The research is being conducted as a part of the requirement of my Doctor of Business Administration at Baker College’s Center for Graduate Studies. The purpose of this study is to collect and analyze qualitative data and explore how telecommuters balance work and personal life. Explanation of Compensation: There will be no compensation for participating in this study. Confidentiality: No person, telephone number or e-mail will be mentioned in the report. Name of Person to Contact in Case of Research Related Injury: If you have any questions about your rights as a subject/participant in this research, or if you feel you have been placed at risk, you can contact the Chair of the Human Subjects’ Institutional Review Board through Dr. Mike Tyler, Associate Vice President of Institutional Effectiveness, Baker College at 810-766-4329. If you have any questions relating to the details of the study, you may contact Dr. Stephanie Hoon, Baker College at 810-766-2049, Dissertation Committee Chairperson. The researcher may be contacted at 301-693-0162. Right to Refusal: If you change your mind and decide you do not wish to participate in the research study, after agreeing to participate in the study, please contact: Tina M. Miller 301-693-0162 [email protected] I am over 18 and eligible to participate in this study. Please check the Yes box if you agree to take part. I agree to take part in the study. Yes____

Participant

Date

Investigator

Date

174 APPENDIX B DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. Please complete the survey below and return to me via e-mail at [email protected]. Please note that the information collected in this questionnaire is completely confidential and will only be sued for the purposes of this research study. Demographic Data Sheet 1. My gender is: _____Female

_____Male

2. My age is:

_____26-31

_____18-25

_____32-40

_____41-50

_____50+

3. My race/ethnicity is: a. _____African American b. _____White/Caucasian d. _____Hispanic/Latino e. _____Native American

c. _____Asian f. _____Other

4. Education Level: a. b. c. d. e.

_____High School Diploma/GED _____Associates _____Bachelors _____Masters _____Doctorate/PhD

5. Occupation: ______________________________________________ 6. Organization Name: _______________________________________ 7. Organization Type:

_____Private

8. Salary range: _____below $30,000 _____$30,001-$50,000 _____$50,001-$75,000 _____$75,001-$100,000 _____$100,001-$150,000 _____above $150,001 9. Full-time telecommuter:

Yes ____ No____

Thank you for completing this questionnaire. Your time and participation are very much appreciated, and will contribute to a growing knowledge around existing job factors that contribute to the ability to balance work and personal life and the impact those job factors have on productivity when working as a full-time telecommuter. Please do not forget to e-mail this questionnaire to the researcher at [email protected].

175 APPENDIX C ORIGINAL TELECOMMUTER PARTICIPANT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

1.

How many hours on average do you work each week?

2.

If you work more than 40 hours per week, please explain why.

3.

In the last year, how many times have you taken sick time whether for yourself or family?

4.

During a typical work day, what sort of personal activities take you away from your work related tasks.

5.

When personal activities arise, what impact do they have on completing your work related tasks?

6.

Do you feel there is a difference in the expectations and goals placed on a full-time telecommuter as compared to a centralized office employee? Please explain your response and why you feel that way.

7.

If you ever worked in a centralized office environment, please explain how your performance differed compared to how you perform as a full-time telecommuter.

176 APPENDIX D INTERVIEW QUESTIONAIRE REVISED In order to better understand how telecommuters working for a private health insurance company balance work and personal life, this researcher will ask the following questions:

1. How many hours on average do you work each week at your telecommuting role? 2. If you work more than 40 hours per week, please explain why. 3. Please describe your company’s expectations of you as a telecommuter. 4. Please describe a typical work day. 5. What steps do you take to create structure in your work environment? 6. What role does your organization or management team play in assisting you maintain work and life balance? 7. How do you communicate your needs to your manager? 8. How do you handle personal obstacles that arise during your working hours? 9. How do you handle work related tasks that arise during personal time? 10. In the last year, how many times have you called in sick for yourself or family? 11. In the last year, how many times have you called in sick to just get away from work? 12. Do you feel there is a difference in the work-load expectations placed on you as compared to your centralized office counterparts within your organization? Please explain by providing examples. 13. How do centralized office colleagues communicate and share work related activities? 14. Do you feel your centralized office colleagues are envious of your working environment? Please explain your answer. 15. If you had the option of working in a centralized office, would you? Please explain the reason for your answer.

177 APPENDIX E TINA’S FIVE-DAY JOURNAL I am a full-time telecommuter for a large private health insurer. My role is to create a backend database in SQL Server and Teradata to store intervention-related activities targeting our members and their health and wellness. Members are targeted across all lines of business and various methods such as gift cards, letters, and phone calls. Not only are we targeting members in relation to their health, but our goal is also to spend our money more wisely and improve our HEDIS and CAHPS scores. With the database I have created, we are able to display this information visually. In addition to working very long hours, I try and find time to pursue my hobbies: hunting, camping, fishing, spa days, motorcycle riding, and relaxing when possible with my husband and 4 cats. Monday, April 14, 2014 I was up at 6:20 a.m. I began working at 7:00 a.m. and took a 15-minute break at 10:00 a.m. I worked until 8:00 p.m. I went to bed at 10:00 p.m. Tuesday, April 15, 2014 I was up at 7:00 a.m. and I began working at 8:00 a.m. I worked until 8:45 p.m. I went to bed at 10:00 p.m. Wednesday, April 16, 2014 I was up at 7:02 a.m. and I began working at 9:00 a.m. and worked until 9:00 p.m. I went to bed at 9:30 p.m. Thursday, April 17, 2014 I was up at 7:17 a.m. and I began working at 9:00 a.m. and worked until 9:00 p.m. I went to 9:23 p.m. Friday, April 18, 2014 I was up at 7:02 a.m. and I began working at 8:56 a.m. and worked until 10:00 p.m. I went to bed at 11:00 p.m.

178 APPENDIX F BRACKETING STUDY RESPONSES TO INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

1. How many hours on average do you work each week?

60-65

2. If you work more than 40 hours per week, please explain why.

Lots of work. Slow computer response times due to VPN makes it, so projects take longer to complete. Too many changes to current projects because management cannot make up their mind what they want to see and how they want to see things. The system that I use to query is always running slow because everyone else uses the same system.

3. In the last year, how many times have you taken sick time whether for yourself or family?

None

4. During a typical work day, what Laundry. Answering the front door for deliveries. sort of personal activities take you Answering personal calls. Answering personal emails. Making breakfast, lunch or dinner. away from your work related tasks. 5. When personal activities arise, what impact do they have on completing your work related tasks?

They do not have an impact. If I need to make breakfast or lunch, I am allowed to eat breakfast and lunch. My personal tasks never interfere with work. Work is always first and if the computer is slow running a query that is the time I check personal email because I cannot do anything on my work computer. It is tied up.

6. Do you feel there is a difference in the expectations and goals placed on a full-time telecommuter as compared to a centralized office employee? Please explain your response and why you feel that way.

Yes, I do. I feel management expects more because you are working from home. They feel you should be at their beck and call. I have received calls from my work and personal cell phone and the call will start off: "Tina, I know you are on vacation but.”.” Tells me really they do not care that I am on vacation, they need me to do something. I never travel without my work cell and laptop. This is because I know as soon as they send an

179 email and see that I am on vacation, it is time to bother me.

7. If you ever worked in a centralized office environment, please explain how your performance differed compared to how you perform as a full-time telecommuter.

I would not say my performance differed at all. I perform no matter my working environment. What differed was the time spent doing non-related work tasks. Such as the restroom was a five-minute walk from my desk in the office. So to get to the restroom and back was 10 minutes. Then I have a weak bladder and drink a lot of water, so I would on average take five bathroom breaks. That is a total of 50 minutes. I was at work from 830am to 530pm and had an hour lunch. When I arrived in the morning, I would spend on average 20 minutes with my manager talking about personal things. Then on average another 20 minutes during the day sometime talking with other colleagues about personal things. Working from home, I actually work more than I socialize. That would be the performance difference I see.

180 APPENDIX G PILOT STUDY RESPONSES TO INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Questions

Pilot P1 Answers

Pilot P2 Answers

How many hours on average do you work each week at your telecommuting role?

45-50 Depends

40

If you work more than 40 hours per week, please explain why?

Depends on training or staff shortages if I work more than 40

Does not apply.

Please describe your company's expectations of you as a telecommuter.

Answer the phone within 3 rings. Maintain call statistics. Solve member issues. Answer emails. Cannot surf the Internet. Go into office if the computer is down.

Depends on your locale. The policy says if you live 60 miles or more from the office you can telecommuter.

Please describe a typical work day.

Log in and check emails. Answer member questions about benefits and show them how to use the website. Transfer calls

Sign into various CSR programs at 7am. Check VM. Check email to look for pressing items. Work on files that came in the prior day. Work with CSR related issues and software. Take calls and handle CSR issues as they come in.

What steps do you take to create structure in your work environment?

Take Calls. Do homework when not busy. Watch TV. Clean house. Cook.

Having a set sign on and sign off time. Taking lunch.

181 What roles does your organization or management team play in assisting you maintain a work and life balance?

They do not. They expect you to be available 24-7. Really you cannot have a life outside of working because they contact you last minute for training.

Suggest we stick to a 40hour workweek. We all are hourly, and they do try and push people to work through lunch or work off the clock. Not me though because I call them on it. There is not overtime and no problems with taking vacation or time off for appointments. It is a place to work really.

How do you communicate your needs Email. Once in a while a to your manager? home visit.

IM, email, and phone.

How do you handle personal obstacles that arise during your working hours?

Take care of them. Do not really have personal obstacles because working a graveyard shift. A lot of free time to do personal things during work.

It depends on if I have to leave my desk. If it personal phone or computer related, I take care of it. If I have to leave my desk for a short amount I time, I am on away.

How do you handle work related tasks that arise during personal time?

I don't have issues unless the organization does not give enough notice for training. I work a parttime job and when I don't have enough notice I can't attend the training, and my manager gets mad. They don't like me working parttime.

I don't have this issue because I work only 40 hours. If I get a call on my work phone and I am off, I take care of it the next day. If I get an email, again I take care of it the next day.

In the last year, how many times have None you called in sick for yourself or family?

None

In the last year, how many times have None you called in sick just to get away from work?

None

182 Do you feel there is a difference in the work-load expectations placed on you as a telecommuter compared to your centralized office counterparts within your organization? Please explain by providing examples.

No. Expectations are the same. The exception is the shift I work graveyard we have to be more selfsufficient. Supervisors and Managers work days.

Someone like myself would never have a higher up role. They do not let telecommuters hold certain positions. Such as administrative or CSM. Only a person that goes into an office at least 3 days a week can hold that type of role. They also hold the office employees in higher regard. I hear it on conference calls and in periodic face-to-face meetings. The office people are buddy-buddy. Telecommuters are outsiders.

How do centralized office colleagues communicate and share work related activities?

Through Instant Messaging

The office people expect us telecommuters to be available at a moment’s notice. Like we have nothing to do. They think we sit around and suck our thumbs.

Do you feel centralized office colleagues are envious of your working environment? Please explain your answer.

No. Some people do not want to telecommute. They want to get away from home life.

I think in some ways they are because of more freedom. I hear central employees say they wish they could hide.

If you had the opportunity of working If I was paid more. in the centralized office again, would Otherwise, I like being at you? Please explain your answer. home.

If I had the option, no. Been there done that.

183 APPENDIX H MAIN STUDY RESPONSES TO INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Participant P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10

1. How many hours on average do you work each week in your telecommuting role? 35 60 40 50 40 40 50 40 40 50

P11

60

P12 P13 P14 P15 P16 P17

50 50 40 40 40 40

2. If you work more than 40 hours per week, please explain why. Does not apply Nature of the job, the amount of work. Does not apply Too much work Does not apply Does not apply Demanding role Does not apply Does not apply Workload Varying hours in other parts of the U. S., feel obligated, hard to step away. Lose track of time, one of those that does whatever needs to be done no matter what. Lots of work, just a lot of priorities. Does not apply Does not apply Does not apply Does not apply

184

Participant P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 P15 P16 P17

3. Please describe your company's expectations of you as a telecommuter. Productive. High, Lots of pressure to perform. Just recently as an organization went to a telecommuting environment due to lack of space, Left the option of allowing telecommuting up to the directors. Working, make sure you take lunch and breaks. Provide customer service; help members reach personal health goals. Complete work on time, available during working hours. Get the job done no matter what. Meet deadlines, do your job, attend meetings, complete projects. Get work done, be responsible, attend meetings, flexible, no micromanaging. Project deadlines met. Must maintain balance, the Executive team knows easy for people to overwork they want you to have balance. A little higher than in the office, most of us tend to overproduce. Think they expect that because we are at home. No different than in the office, have assigned states so just get the work done. Get the job done, have goals, provide what they expect of me, close and open cases. Remain productive. Do the job, be responsible. Complete your tasks, high productivity.

185


4. Please describe a typical work day. Check Email, check voicemail, handle urgent issues, daily reporting. Start at 6am, end at 6pm, lots of calls, projects, and meetings. Get up no alarm, take breaks/lunches, work until off. Coffee by 8am, check computer, respond to emails, calendar tasks, meetings. Look through priorities, work a member roster, meetings, handle alerts, process inpatient/work programs, nurse calls. Obtain reports, work client incidents, present, research, annual reviews. Teleconference, Email, arrange the schedule, work on projects, manage hundreds of people. Check email, same as if I were in the office. On the phone, conferences, sales/business strategies. Conference calls, health projects for elderly, staff managing. Email, handle issues from the night before. Contracts for hospital/networks, conference calls. Respond to inquiries, handle legislation, create language for federal and state compliance, handle projects Start at 9am, work until 630pm, take lunch, call members, meetings. Meetings, Evaluate member cases. Check Email, meetings, handle incoming calls. Check voicemail, check Email, handle issues from the night before, meetings.

186

Participant

P1 P2

P3

P4 P5

P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13

P14 P15 P16 P17

5. What steps do you take to create structure in your work environment? Separate room for office, only work related activities are done from this room, sign-out when the day is over, do not return to the area until the next day for work, take breaks/lunches as if in a physical office. Very organized, meetings and knowing when required to present. Work related deadlines for clinical reviews, monthly goals, upstairs office away from distractions, up to me to make sure I maintain structure and balance. Have home office and treat it that way, prior expectations set up with family when working I am working, take breaks/lunches, downside is I do not know when to end my day. Disciplined, workflow of activities, maintain productivity, stay on task, take breaks/lunches. Separate office in home, no family distractions, handle personal stuff during personal time, handle work related stuff during work time, put work stuff away when done for the day and it does not come out until working again, have a start and end time to work. Disciplined, make plans weeks in advance, plan free time, prioritize time, multi-task, Maintain a routine. Have actual office space in the home; office is separated from the rest of home, no distractions. Start and stop time the same daily, exercise, eat meals same time and regularly. Work the day as it comes in, problem solver, use the calendar for projects. Do not really, just at my desk different hours and different times. There is no structure, bounce from one project to another. Have tried hard just cannot find it, work more hours from home than when I was in a central office. I watch how much time I am in the queue and handling calls, I take 15-minute breaks, I set a goal to call eight people before lunch. These are cases, I look at my case load and take it from there. The online system that displays whom I need to call keep track of members to follow-up with. Same start and end time, keep work and personal issues separate. Separate area for home office, only work related activities handled from home office, Limit family distractions by setting up boundaries.

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6. What role does your organization or management team play in assisting you maintain a work life balance? Flexible management, can alter schedule too, meet personal needs. None we all work long hours, entire team works long hours, entire department works long hours; management works long hours. Make sure breaks/lunches taken, organization is big on wellness, focused on fitness, not a lot of pressure to get things done now. Encouraged to take vacation time, encouraged to outreach and be involved in community activities, physical and mental wellness programs, employee discounts for entertainment and many programs to encourage personal involvement. Autonomous, never denied vacation time, flexibility. Flex and vacation time that must be taken. Remind to take a vacation, flexible. They do not other than being aware, treat us like we are people, the whole team is virtual, autonomous, encourage to get up from your desk periodically, take breaks/lunches, prior to holidays will let us all leave early without taking vacation time. Management good about that family comes . First, high management expectations so get work done, but take care of personal issues. Very supportive, do work over the weekends but it is the workload but still supportive. Contact manager to alert something came up if it takes longer than a few hours will take a day off. I would have to say none. They do not, they are all into healthy living and get your health up but working all these hours’ leaves me stressed, they say one thing but do another, would love an eight hour day to take advantage of all our benefits. I take vacation time here and there, do not want us working a lot of hours, I worked last night and the night before so they will make me take off time, so I am not burned out. Encourage balance between work and personal, have a small child and have doctor appointments and they are flexible without using all your vacation time. Flexible, encourage wellness and balance. Programs to help with balance and being healthy.

188


7. How do you communicate your needs to your manager? Email, meetings, during review time. Verbally, Instant Messaging. Good working and personal relationship, Through the phone or instant messaging. Meetings. Verbal communication. Phone, Email, Instant messaging. Teleconference, Email. Instant messaging, Email, Cell phone, Text. Weekly meetings, engagement surveys, improving working culture. One-on-One meetings, verbally. Call, Email. One-on-One, not a lot of day to day communication. Instant messaging, Email, Telephone. Phone, Instant messaging. Phone, Email. Email, Instant messaging, Phone. Phone, Email.

189 Participant P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 P15 P16 P17

8. How do you handle personal obstacles that arise during working hours? The flexible schedule helps for emergencies. Family knows when in home office working and respect that. Very few personal obstacles. Do not have many if personal phone rings I answer it. Learn to juggle the two as if in the office. Run to post office or appointment flexible schedule. Juggle personal phone calls. If emergency that is just going to take a little time, send message to manager. Longer emergencies take paid time off. Contact director and explain circumstance. Personal issue will either take a short period of time or require time off to handle. Let manager know. If something quick, just come back and finish work and alter schedule. If it takes longer, vacation time. If something comes up, take the few hours needed and make up the time in the evening. If something arises, handle it. As long as job is done not an issue. Manage them. Will send out short email that I am logging off. Text and will handle work later. Do not have them but I would just do whatever I needed to do and contact manager. Telecommuters have more privacy, so you just take that personal call. Other personal you just handle and alert your manager. Just handle it. Flexible working environment. Personal call, just answer it. Something comes up that needs handled I just do it. It is flexible to take time off if needed of juggle the schedule. I can juggle because I work long hours. Depends, if I can take care of it right then and there, I do. If I can take care of it on a break or lunch, I do. I really do not have a lot of personal obstacles. I take care of them. Like puppy was sick, and I just took care of it but did not leave the actual work area. Flexible to handle personal issues and then makeup time later if need be. Take personal time if need be. Just handle them as they come and if it requires time off, take it.

190

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9. How do you handle work related tasks that arise during personal time? Depends on emergency. If business phone rings after hours, goes to voicemail, answered the next business day. Do not monitor business phone or email during personal time. I do travel with work laptop and cell while on vacation, so anything arises work related, I handle it. Do not have these. Used to in old job. Older now and not worth it to let work interfere with personal. If urgent handle the issue but 98% of the time, it can wait until the next business day. Company benefit to telecommute so more accessible but personal choice if you handle work during personal time. I do travel with work cell phone when on vacation. Does not apply. When off, am off. Buddy system when on vacation time. Does not occur. Have 24 hours to respond to clients, so the tasks is handled during normal working hours. Cell comes with me on vacation. Email says on vacation however I will respond. Depends on what the issue is. Does not apply. Work cell and laptop stay home when on vacation. Does not apply. Work does not impact personal time. Work is always with me. I have to be in control, so things are handled. If I overwork, it is my fault, and I need to create my own balance. Happens all the time that is why I work long hours. Things arise all the time because of the difference time zones between the offices. Do not. Try and have balance so leave work at work. But bad habit of checking work emails at night. I switch off but then I do not take vacation. Work never interferes with personal. When I am on vacation, I am on vacation. Call my voicemail and will return the call during normal working hours. It really depends. Not many issues and if it were something that was true emergency manager has personal cell. This does not happen and will not allow to happen.

191

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10. In the last year, how many times have you called in sick for yourself or your family?

11. In the last year, how many times have you called in sick just to get away from work? Never. If time needed, take vacation. No mental health day required yet. Never Never Never Never. Management supports balance. Never Never

One Time None in last eight years. Never One Time One Time None None Few I don't even think five times. Do not get sick because not in office bringing it home. Never One Time Never Never. If I need to relieve stress, I take Never a walk. Never Never Never Never Never Never. If I need time off, I will take it. Never Never Never Never Never Never Never Never

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12. Do you feel there is a difference in the work-load expectations placed on you as compared to your centralized counterparts within your organization? Please explain by providing an example. Expectation is more productive since no commute. Yes. Office people have a perception that telecommuters are not really working. Out of sight out of mind. When attending physical onsite meetings, it is social hour for office colleagues. Do not feel a difference. If in the office still have to get same thing done. Yes. When it comes to urgent requests telecommuters can handle because they are more flexible. Centralized person would have to go all the way to office. No answer for this question. Do not know Not sure I can answer that we all are virtual. Those that work in the main office work more than everyone else and the pay is bad. Working in the office, you work harder, longer and get less out of it. I work longer hours but have the flexibility and the pay. Prior feeling of being invisible as a telecommuter. Not considered for high profile work. Entire team is virtual now, so feelings no longer exist. No, but if you ask another person on another team maybe. My entire team is remote so no. I sometimes notice, and it seems like it is expected. Example, if I get email at 10pm and do not answer until the next day, I feel like people expected me to answer it. Yes, but that is of my own choosing. Need to learn to put things down and have a stop time. I respond to emails all hours of the night. I need to learn to shut off. No, it seems about the same, but most of us work from home. No. We have the same responsibilities. No, we all have our jobs to do. There is no connection between us and them. People our all over so we all feel very disconnected. We used to meet every quarter for a face-to-face meeting but not anymore. Cannot answer since I have never had an office role. There might be, but I have no personal experience. Heard complaints that I do not really work but I set people straight. If I was not really working, I would not be employed.

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13. How do centralized office colleagues communicate and share work related activities? Staff meetings, Conference calls. Conference calls, Instant messaging, WebEx, Email. Once a month team meetings, Instant messaging, Emails. SharePoint, Email, Downside is after a meeting telecommuters do not meet with central employees, and you feel left out of the loop. Projects, Email, SharePoint. We are all remote but communicate phone, email, instant messaging. Teleconference, Email, Meetings twice a week. We are all virtual now. Other team contact we use virtual meetings or instant messaging. No, contact with central office. Virtual. Email, Phone, Conferences. Email, Phone. Conference Calls, Phone, Email. Instant messaging, Email, Phone. Email, Phone. Conference calls, WebEx. Email, SharePoint.

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14. Do you feel centralized office colleagues are envious of your working environment? Please explain your answer. Yes, for those that do not have the opportunity. No. Most people in the organization have the option to telecommute. It is up to management of specific departments, and some do not trust employees. Organization is working to stop this so everyone has the option of working from home. Yes. I hear office colleagues say must be nice to work from home and not commute. They complain about traffic. I do not really know. No, my team is all remote. Yes, mostly just resentment but it is unspoken. Prior to no telecommuting, yes but now all virtual so no. Other departments, yes. Because some managers in other areas let you telecommute all the time, others one or two days a week and some not at all. This makes people jealous. No contact with central office but have heard others say it is awesome you get to telecommute. But no personal experience with this. No. Because telecommuters work so many hours of our own choosing. No, I think because we work more hours than they do but they complain about driving. No, because everyone has the opportunity to work from home. No, because everyone does it or can do it. No, because those that work in the office have an attitude they are better than me. Since I work at home, it is like that is really not a job. Even my family has this attitude. Everyone I know is very negative towards me because I work from home except those I work with that work from home. Cannot answer this since I really do not know. Yes, because they do not think I am working really. They tend to think they work harder than those of us that work from home and I think we all work the same. Like I said before if I were not really working, I would not have a job.

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15. If you had the option of working from the centralized office, would you? Please explain the reason for your answer. If it were close to home, yes I would. Never. It is too much social hour in the office. I have a job to work, not socialize. I have plenty of friends. Working from home helps me have a balance normally. This current job no, but prior roles. Driving two hours oneway to the office, I would be off my rocker especially with MN winter storms. There is no way. Never. Depends on the job and the manager. At this point would have to be best job there is.

P6

Depends on the role. Would still require flexibility. Feel with the way technology is working at home should be allowed. No. Although I have been offered a different role. However, no telecommuting and I like working from home. No. Too much office drama based on past experiences as a military contractor. Somewhat hostile environment at times. Current role is a walk in the park. Very autonomous.

P7

I would have to be desperate and crazy to give up this flexible environment.

P8 P9 P10 P11

Not a chance. Too much flexibility. Still, have to produce and get work done and sometimes crazy, but not a chance. No way. No further answer just no way. If it were the same pay? It would have to be a pretty good offer. Probably not. It would have to be a job I could not pass up.

P12

No. I will not give this up, and if they wanted me to, I would find a new telecommuting job.

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P14

No, because I have been there done that. I do not live close to the office. 5hour commute. Then parking is off area. Then walk to the office. Then work going on across all the bridges. A waste of six hours out of your day. It all adds up to wasted time. Do not think so because the office is too long of a drive. If it were close maybe.

P15 P16

At the most one day a week but not every day. Too much traffic would take an hour to get to work and an hour home. No. I do not like to drive.

P17

Would depend on the job, the pay and the drive time to the office. If all of that was not what I want, then no.

P13