Impact of Cognitive Training on Efficiency of the Executive Control ...

International Journal of Sport Studies. Vol., 4 (11), 1359-1366, 2014 Available online at http: www.ijssjournal.com ISSN 2251-7502 © 2014; Science Research Publications

Impact of Cognitive Training on Efficiency of the Executive Control Network of Attention on the Table Tennis Players Zahra Fathirezaie1*, Alireza Farsi2, Mohammad Kazem Vaez Mousavi3 1- Ph.D. Student of Motor Behavior, Physical Education and Sport Science Faculty, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran 2- Ph.D., Associated Professor of Motor Behavior Group, Physical Education and Sport Science Faculty, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran 3- Ph.D., Professor of Motor Behavior, Emam Hosein University, Tehran, Iran *Corresponding Author, Email: [email protected]

Abstract The key to improve attention is “learning to choose the most important information” and at the same time “tune out all other (irrelevant) areas, stimuli or actions”. The objective of this paper is determining effect of cognitive training with working memory tasks on efficiency of executive control network in table tennis players. The present paper is of semi-experimental type and was done using pre-test and post-test. A total of 20 participation were categorized into two training groups of cognitive and control. The cognitive group received the visual-spatial working memory tasks and the control group did the two simple mobility skills of forehand and backhand of the table tennis without cognitive .Before and after the 45-minute 8 training sessions, the participants took the attentional network test (ANT)so as to measure executive control of attention. The results of 2×2 repeated measures ANOVA showed a significant difference between the two groups executive control of attention. The “cognitive group” showed improvement of the network efficiency in the executive control of attention factor whereas the 2nd group showed no change. Regarding the average scores, more improvement was observed in the “cognitive group” rather than the control group. Regarding the research results, it seems cognitive training has a positive impact on the efficiency of the neural network. And, this issue shows the effect of increasing the inner-network communications and the flexibility of the brain toward repeating and practicing. And, this issue shows the effect of increasing the intra-network communications and the flexibility of the brain toward repeating and practicing. Therefore, it might be said that cognitive training has more positive effects on cognitive abilities due to the involvement of more cognitive capabilities such as memory, attention, perception and also more involvement of brain networks and facilitate of synaptic connection. Keywords: Attention Networks; Brain; Cognitive Psychology; Neural Plasticity; Working Memory.

Introduction With the Scientific advances in cognitive psychology big evolutions have occurred in this case. Now, not only it is possible to study the functional anatomy of brain networks, but also it is possible to study the quality of genetic differences might lead to individual variation in the potential to use these networks in acquisition and performance of skills. 1359

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However, most of the progress in this area has been obtained thanks to“ Hebb” attempts so that his learning theorizing has caused a join of neuroscience with psychology that is mentioned as neuropsychology nowadays. Basic of idea of hebbian learning is “When an axon of cell A (presynaptic neuron) is near enough to excite a cell B (postsynaptic neuron) and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A’s efficiency (synaptic weight), as one of the cells firing B, is increased.”Several major late-twentieth century events give improved prospects for an integration of psychological science around the ideas introduced by Hebb. Cell assemblies and phase sequences are names for aspects of neural networks. Positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) are methods provide a toolkit that can be used either along or together to make human networks accessible for detailed physiological study (Posner and Rothbart, 2007). Imaging data have supported the presence of three networks related to different aspects of attention. These networks carry out the functions of alerting, orienting and executive control (Posner and Raichle, 1994). Executive control including monitoring and resolving conflict in planning, decision making, error detection, and overcoming habitual actions, mainly involving the anterior cingulate cortex and lateral prefrontal cortex (Posner, 2012). A very diverse set of training methods have been shown to improve aspects of attention and self- regulation. These methods could be classified into two different groups, based on their origin: methods arising from Asian tradition (e.g. integrative body- mind training [IBMT] and mindfulness) or attention state training (AST) and methods developed in Europe and the USA (practice) or attention training (AT). AT means practice in conflictrelated tasks, working memory tasks or other tasks involving executive control mechanisms. These tasks often use repetitive trials that involve executive control or, in some cases, use curricula designed with the goal of exercising control mechanisms (Tang and Posner, 2009). Owen and colleagues (2010) recruited over 11,000 18to 60-year-olds to complete 6-week online training program including practice of tests of reasoning and problem solving, attention, memory, visuospatial skills. Result showed despite substantial improvements in performance on each of the trained tasks (large effect sizes), the training and control groups did not show differential improvements on the four benchmark tests (Owen and et al, 2010). One such study by Jaeggi et al (2008) required participants to practice a very demanding n-back working memory task that involved simultaneously monitoring two strings of auditory and visual stimuli. Task difficulty was increased as performance improved (Jaeggi et al, 2008). Olsen, Westerberg and Klingberg (2004) reported very similar transfer results of working memory training but also showed that performance improvements were accompanied by increased activity in the middle frontal gyrus and inferior parietal cortices- areas that have been strongly implicated in working memory (Klingberg, Forssberg and Westerberg, 2002). It is already well established that most neurologically healthy people can substantially improve their performance on a give cognitive task with sufficient practice (see Green and Bavelier, 2008; Kelly, Foxe, and Garavan, 2006).Cognitive abilities can also be improved with individualized adaptive training and these improvements are reflected in more efficient of the neural networks (Erickson, et al, 2007). Recently it has been shown that working memory training in adults can generalize to other cognitive tasks. One study demonstrated adult improvement in more general cognitive abilities (fluid intelligence) after practice on a working memory task (Jaeggi et al, 2008). The extent of gain in intelligence depended on the amount of training. One training regimen of working memory tasks and a set of transfer tasks were developed to examine the trainability of executive control process (Perssonand Reuter-Lorenz, 2008). Results indicated that executive control can be improved by working memory training and that this transfers to a wide variety of tasks. Overall, these results establish that training of attention is possible in children and adult, improving attention and working memory and IQ tests measuring aspects of performance quite different from those involved in the training (Tang and Posner, 2009). There are important differences between experts and novices in pattern recognition, determination, and picking up perceptual cues (see for a recent meta-analysis, Mann, Williams, Ward and Janelle, 2007), specific perceptual skills were investigated and training programs for specific types of sports were developed which try to improve specific demands of perception and cognition (for overview, see Abernethy, Wann and Parks, 1998; Vickers, 2007; Williams and Ward, 2003; Williams, Ward and Smeeton, 2004). Similarly a stronger focus has been placed on more specific attentional strategies and processes contributing to sports performance in recent years (Memmert, 2009). When one considers the excutive control of attention, there is also suggestive evidence of link with motor skill performance. The existing evidence suggests that executive attention may play a role in athletic skill performance by mediating distraction or by managing performance in more than one task (e.g., divided attention, see Memmert, 2009). Consistent with this hypothesis, performance in a flanker task (e.g., Eriksen and Eriksen, 1974) is greater in athlete compared to non-athletes (see Voss et al, 2010). Additionally, managing performance on multiple tasks can have differential effects on expert and novice skill performance (Beilock, Bertrnthal, McCoy, and Carr, 2004). Recent work also suggests that WM load can hinder motor skill execution under dual task conditions (Poolton, Maxwell, Masters and Raab, 2006), which also implies an increased load on executive attention. Taken together, evidence suggests that executive attention functions should play an 1360

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important role in motor skill performance under a variety of circumstances (Kasper et al, 2012). The key factor that makes optimum use of visual information while doing the skills is cognitive and attentional training with regards to the types of sport assignments. Yet no study has been observed about examining the effect of cognitive training with working memory tasks on improving attentional networks in the field of sport sciences. The present study intends to examine the possible changes in the efficiency of executive control network by using the current basics and designing practices. Regarding the possibility of involvement of cognitive process of attention in any phase, we study the effect of cognitive training with working memory tasks on efficiency of executive control network in table tennis players in this research. Thus, the question addressed in this study is whether the performance of neural networks of executive control of attention is influenced by the cognitive training with working memory tasks in sport skill changes or not.

Materials and Methods Participants The current study was applied, semi-experimental and field research that was done with two groups. The first group was “cognitive group” that were consisted of individuals which did the cognitive practice via the working memory tasks in the training sessions. The second group was control group that did the table tennis class practices without the cognitive factor. The research participants consisted of the female students of “Shahid Beheshti University” that had the physical education2’s course in the first semester of the 2013-2014’s academic year, 30 people participated voluntarily took part in the present study voluntarily. After studying the entrance factors for the research (that decreased the number of participants to 20) they were assigned into two groups homogeneously. These people had no experience in performing the table tennis skills. Before entering the study, the participant’s visual acuity was measured using the Snellen test. The criteria for eliminating the participants consisted of having a background of stroke, visual system impairment, visual agnosia, encephalitis and illnesses of central nervous system. Also using drugs that effected the visual, motor and attention system. After 6 educational and teaching sessions for learning the motor skill of forehand and backhand for the participants, the quality and quantity test was performed on them to choose them as skillful participants for the research. For quantitative study of the participants, those individuals that could correctly due 7 of 10 attempts in both skills after the end of those 6 educational sessions, entered the research. The criterion of proper implementation for the quantitative study was not to hitthe ball to the net and the ball to go out without hitting the front table. For qualitative study of the two motor skills of the participants, a 24-question checklist of forehand and backhand motor skills was produced in the Likert scale of 5 that examined the qualitative status of the desired skills. This check list was reviewed by 8 table tennis couches and has validity content with the validity content index (CVI) of 0.88.The amount of reliability using the Intraclass coefficient correlation was 0.92.Those people that scored in the desired skills in both aspects of qualitative scoring (score of 72 and higher) and quantitative scoring (score of 7 or higher) entered the research. After the six sessions of training and examining the obtained scores by individuals for qualification, 20 people were qualified. Materials After selecting 20 skillful subjects (10 people for each group) were selected, they participated in attentional network test (ANT) so as to examine the changes in the efficiency of the executive control. As it can be observed in fig. 1, the attentional network test has been designed by Fan and colleague (2002) and the validity of its retest has been reported to be 0.87.To perform this test, Table Tennis Robot Oukei TW2700 S9 Professional Serving Machine made in China along with 50 white balls was used. Before dividing people into 2 groups, they did ANT and they were divided into two homogeneous groups according to the average scores of the individuals in executive control of attention. In order to take the attention networks test, the participants sat in a dimly lit room 80 centimeters far from a 14-inch monitor in front of it. They were instructed to keep their eye fixated at a central crosshair throughout the duration of the task. Two rectangles (3° wide by 1° high) were onscreen 2° above and below fixation throughout the entire task. After a variable delay of 400-1600 ms, a number cue (0, 3, or 9; 1° visual angle) was presented at fixation for 100 ms. The numbers 3 and 9 were spatial number cues that indicated the likely target location. Each number represented either the upper or lower location, and this spatial cue was valid 80% of the time. The mapping of the number to the likely location was given to the participant at the outset and was counterbalanced across subjects. On a small number of trials a neutral cue (0) or no cue was presented. Following a stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA), a string of five arrows appeared in either the upper or lower rectangle. The task was to indicate the direction of the middle arrow while ignoring the flanker arrows that could be either congruent (>>>>>) or incongruent (>>>). Participants were instructed to respond as quickly and as accurately as possible by pressing one of two corresponding keys on the keyboard. The target display remained on the screen until response. Fig. 1 shows the sequence of the attention task. Within subjects factors 1361

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for the attention task were cue type (valid, invalid, neutral, and no cue) and target type (congruent and incongruent). In order to index the three attention networks, response time (RT) subtractions were calculated (Fan et al., 2002).

Fig 1: A sketch of the design of the ANT based on Fan et al (2002). The goal of the task is too quickly and accurately report, by key pressing, the direction of the center arrow (target) in the stimulus row. After dividing the subjects into two ten-person groups and having 8 sessions of 45-minute training, the attentional and operation network test was performed on them again. The 45-minute training session consisted of warming up for ten minutes, 30 minutes of exercising designed for each team and 5 minutes of cooling down. Different studies have shown that cognitive training with working memory tasks cause improvement in cognitive abilities so that executive control improves by means of cognitive training with working memory tasks. Based on this fact, cognitive training via working memory tasks was used for this group by means of Table Tennis Oukei device. In this period of training, the table in the opposite side of the participant was divided into 3 4-piece parts according to the figure 2.On each table, the numbers of each square were written according to figure 2. The instructions of 8 training sessions The first session: Two numbers (9 and 4 for instance) are told to the participant before the ball is thrown by the table tennis robot and after throwing the ball toward his forehand, he returns it to those mentioned numbered areas. In this session, the ball is thrown toward the participant slowly (the ball is thrown to the right-hand side of the participant for 14 minutes and to his left-hand side for 14 minutes and the speed of the ball is 30 times per minute and the speed of the ball itself is 2). The 2nd session: We begin with 3 numbers. It is told to the participant that after hitting the ball toward his forehand, throw the ball to those 3 areas their numbers have been told (9 minutes to the right-hand side and 9 minutes to his left-hand side and in the last 9 minutes it must be done as pairs of throws to the right-hand side and the left-hand side to those 3 areas).For example, it is said to hit to the areas of 2, 7, and 8 and again to the areas of 2, 7, and 8.3 balls are thrown to the right-hand side and to the left-hand side of the participant and the speed of the ball is 30 balls per minute and the speed of the ball itself is 3. The 3rd session: 4 numbers are announced for the participants before the ball is thrown by the table tennis robot. The speed of the ball is 30 balls per minute like the 2nd day and the speed of the ball itself is 4. The 4th session: 5 numbers are announced for the participants before the ball is thrown by the table tennis robot and the session is like the third one. The 5th session:6 numbers are announced for the participants before the ball is thrown by the table tennis robot and the session is like the third one and the speed of the ball itself is 5. The 6th session: 7 numbers are announced for the participants before the ball is thrown by the table tennis robot and the session is like the fifth one. The 7th session: 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 numbers are told to the participant randomly.The balls are thrown to the righthand side of the participant for 9 minutes, 9 minutes to the left-hand side of the participant and in the last 9 minutes the balls are thrown twice to the right-hand side and twice to the left-hand side of the participant. The speed of the ball is 30 balls per minute and the speed of the ball itself is 5.

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The 8th session: It was performed like the seventh session except the speed of the ball to be 40 balls per minute. Control group of trainings were as class trainings under administration of the class coach without cognitive factor. The research data was examined to be in P ≤ 0.05and using average and standard deviation for descriptive data and multivariate analysis of 2×2for studying the difference between the two groups (cognitive and control) in the two training phases (pre-test and post-test) in SPSS 18. The independent T-test was used to study the differences between the two groups in pre-tests. Figure 2, a training design indicating that in the right-hand side is the participant and in the left-hand side is the table tennis robot.

Table tennis robot

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5

9

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Participation

Fig 2: The experimental setup for table tennis, showing the 12 positions for target areas, the participant, the table tennis robot and the flight of the ball during play. According to the design, the table in front of the participant has been divided into 12 positions and the couch tells the participants some numbers before throwing the ball by the table tennis robot so that he response to the positions of the numbers of the thrown balls by the table tennis robot according to the numbers mentioned before.

Results Before performing the statistical data analysis, the Shapiro-Wilk statistical test was used to evaluate the normality of data distribution. After confirmation of data normality, the independent T-test was used to study the availability or lack of any difference in the pre-tests. Then, regarding lack of any significant difference in pre-tests, in order to study the difference in pre-test and post-test results of the two groups (cognitive and control), the method of multivariate analysis of 2 ×2 was used for the independent efficiency of attention network variables. Table 1 indicates the average and standard deviation of executive control scores.

Table 1: average, standard deviation, the score amount of attention executive control in the two groups before and after the training

Groups Dependent variable Tests M±Sd

Cognitive group Executive control pre posts 87.7±23.8 50±20

Control group Executive control Pre Post ±6.28 84.6±8.22 83.1

According to the two groups results in pre-test, there was no significant difference in executive control (t= 0.390, p= 0.701, df= 18). The results from the analysis of variance showed that the main effect of training (pretest and post-test) was significant (F(1,9) = 18.784, P= 0.002, partial η2 = 0.676) and the main effect of group (executive control group and control group) was not significant (F(1,9) = 0.821, P= 0.389, partial η2 = 0.084) and also the main effect of the interaction between the groups and the training session (pre-test and post-test) was significant (F(1,9) = 21.691, P= 0.001, partial η2 = 0.707).Furthermore, regarding the significance of the effect of training session as well as the interaction between the two groups and the attitude of giving trainings, we studied their impacts. 1363

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Table 2: comparison of the two groups in pre-test and post-test of executive control of attention Training Group (i) Group (j) Mean Std. Error Sig Difference (i-j) Pre test Cognitive Control 4.600 12.010 0.711 Post test Cognitive Control -24.700 11.033 0.05* * P≤ 0.05 According to the obtained scores in fig. 3 it can be said that there is no significant difference between the two groups in pre-test but a significant difference is observed between the two groups of the research in post test according to the average scores as seen in table 1, it can be said that the executive control group shows a better operation than the control group in the post-test. Therefore, cognitive training with working memory tasks has a positive effect on the efficiency of the executive control of attention in comparison to the control trainings.

Mean scores of efficiency of executive control

35 32.5

30 25

20.7

20 15

17.3 16.5

10 5 0

Pre-test Cognitive group

Post-test Control group

Fig 3: Interaction between two groups in pre and post test of executive control of attention

Discussion and Conclusion The present study was performed so as to study the effect of cognitive training with working memory tasks on the efficiency of the executive control network of attention on table tennis players. It may be said that the present research was in the field of cognitive psychology that was done using the method of undergoing cognitive training in the field of sport to examine the impact of cognitive training on the brain and achieving basic cognitive and executive capabilities. The research results showed that cognitive training with working memory tasks caused improvement in executive control network of attention of the table tennis players whereas the group that had without cognitive training (control group) showed no improvements in the efficiency of the executive control network. In this regards our results accordance with Klingberg et al., 2002; Klingberg et al., 2005; Olesen et al., 2004; Rueda et al., 2005; Reuda et al., 2012; Thorell et al., 2008 that they shown cognitive training with working memory tasks causes improvement in executive attention operation making changes in those brain areas related to executive function Even in Kleinberg and colleagues’s study shown 90 percent of the impact of the working memory training has been remained after 3 months. While these results are somewhat different from finding by Owen et al. Studies by Owen et al was done on 11000 participants with six weeks of training and the practice consisted of designed tasks to improve reasoning, memory, planning, visual-spatial skills and attention. Despite improvements were observed in every one of the cognitive tasks that were trained, no evidence was found for transfer effects to untrained tasks, even when those tasks were cognitively closely related (Owen et al., 2010). The simple synaptic connection of Hebb’s theory states that practice and repetitive activity causes improvement of neurotic networks such as attention. Therefore it can be told that the obtained results are in conformity with Hebb’s theory. Repeat performing of working memory tasks that do not rely on overt learning strategy cause improvement in the executive control network of attention. As shown in research by Kleinberg et al, performing repeat working memory tasks on ADHD children led to improvement attention networks especially executive control of children (Kleinberg et al., 2002; Kleinberg et al., 2005). In Beck et al’s study on ADHD children and teenagers, the results showed that working memory practice as interference causes improvement in executive control and ADHD symptoms (Beck et al., 2010). The 1364

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results of studies by Olesen et al showed that changes relevant to the practice of working memory tasks is accompanied with the increase in Prefrontal and parietal lobes activities (Olesen et al., 2004). Working memory consists of various cognitive components such as encoding, attention control, keeping data and resistance to interference. Therefore, changes in brain activity can be evidence to flexibility related to practice in neurotic systems under the working memory. Also our findings concord with results by Jaeggi et al (2008), Olesen et al, (2004) and Persson and Reuter-Lorenz (2008) showing that working memory practice improves cognitive capabilities. They showed that general cognitive abilities of the adults improved after exercising working memory practices. It was shown in Persson and Reuter-Lorenz’s research that memory tasks practices cause improvement in cognitive components specially their executive control. In Voss et al’s study that was done on the influence of two types of cognitive trainings (changeable and fixed) in learning computer games, the results by means of FMRI showed that the brain has the flexibility of transferring the practiced capabilities in the form of changeable practice into new tasks of the real world such as driving, sport or neurotic rehabilitation. Rueda et al’s research done on 5-year-old children, two groups having computer practices and without having computer practices were compared. Their results indicated that those having computer practices showed faster activity in executive attention network with more efficiency than children without computer practice. They also demonstrated transfer of attention training into fluid intelligence and self-regulation. Their results showed that the effectiveness of brain system under the influence of self-regulation can improve through cognitive experiences in the period of growth during childhood and this issue makes an opportunity for curriculum advancement in people (Rueda et al, 2012).Also it could be said that the results of this study are in accordance with results by Kasper et al, 2012; Pontifex et al, 2009; Roca et al, 2011.Although the type of the training used in this study are different from those used in our research, it might be said that practices based on sport performance influence the cognitive components such as executive control of attention. For instance, in Pontifex et al research the effect of aerobic exercises on attention networks have been studied. They showed that after the aerobic exercise, less delay for the reaction time was observed in comparison to the pre-test for the condition of tasks that required more capacity of working memory and this phenomenon supports this view that changes in cognitive operation after intense workloads exercise training is too much for those tasks in need of a large amount of executive control. Studies show that the effect of intense workloads exercise training causes increase in the amount of information along with a relatively more decrease in the delay time of reaction after the aerobic condition on executive control. The results in research by Kasper et al (2012) showed attentional functioning and putting performance were related but that the strong relationships with orienting and executive attention were only present in the group given external focus in instructions. Their results highlight the importance of considering both pre-existing individual differences of cognitive functioning as well as the focus of attention during execution in studies of motor skill performance. But these results are not in accordance with Huertas et al (2011) so that the results in their studies have shown that no changes were seen the executive control orienting after two aerobic conditions but instead, an improvement has been observed in the alerting network after exercise. The reason for this difference as said by the researchers themselves seems to be in the diversity of the used protocols and the different aspects of measured attention. The results differ from others in executive control, given that they showed an enhancement of this function when participants were exercising under moderate aerobic workloads (e.g., Audiffren et al., 2009; Pontifex and Hillman, 2007). Finally, it can be said that cognitive training based on the working memory tasks caused improvement in executive control network in athletes. This means that probably cognitive training improves synaptic and network connections relevant to executive control of attention. Furthermore, the cognitive training that somehow causes creation of cognitive decisions and problem solving in the field of sport causes more improvement in the performance. It can be said that in future, studies can be on cognitive skills for transferring to sport (perception through training) and considering attention to be an important field in different sports specially strategic ones. The present findings, along with future research, will certainly add to the knowledge about the effects of different physical efforts on specific aspects of attention that are relevant for sports performance. References Abernethy B, Wann J.P, Parks S.L, 1998. "Training perceptual-motor skills for sport". In B. Elliott (Ed.) 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