Received: 25 June 2016
Accepted: 17 April 2018
DOI: 10.1002/hyp.13136
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Impact of water transfer on interaction between surface water and groundwater in the lowland area of North China Plain Xiaole Kong1,2
|
Shiqin Wang1
|
Bingxia Liu1
|
Hongyong Sun1
|
Zhuping Sheng3
1
Key Laboratory of Agricultural Water Resources, Center for Agricultural Resources Research, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050021, China
2
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China
Abstract The contradiction between the freshwater shortage and the large demand of freshwater by irrigation was the key point in cultivated lowland area of North China Plain. Water transfer project brings fresh water from water resource‐rich area to water shortage area, which can in turn change the hydrological cycle in this region. Major
3
Texas A&M AgriLife Research Center at El Paso 1380 A&M Circle, El Paso, TX 79927, USA Correspondence Shiqin Wang, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Water Resources, Center for Agricultural Resources Research, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050021, China. Email:
[email protected]
Funding information Science and Technology Service Network Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Grant/Award Number: KFJ‐STS‐ZDTP‐001; The National Key Research and Development Program of China, Grant/Award Number: 2016YFD0800100; 100‐Talent Project of Chinese Academy of Sciences
ions and stable isotopes were used to study the temporal variations of interaction between surface water and groundwater in a hydrological year after a water transfer event in November 2014. Irrigation canal received transferred Yellow River, with 2.9% loss by evaporation during water transfer process. The effect of transferred water on shallow groundwater decreased with increasing distance from the irrigation canal. Pit pond without water transfer receives groundwater discharge. During dry season after water transfer event, shallow groundwater near the irrigation canal was recharged by lateral seepage and deep percolation of irrigation, whereas shallow groundwater far from irrigation canal was recharged by deep percolation of deep groundwater irrigation. Canal water lost by evaporation was 2.7–17.4%. Influence of water transfer gradually disappeared until March as the water usage of agricultural irrigation increased. In the dry season, groundwater discharged to irrigation canal and pond; 2.2–31.6% canal water and 11.3–20.0% pond water were lost by evaporation. In the rainy season (June to September), surface water was fed mainly by precipitation and surface run‐off, whereas groundwater was recharged by infiltration of precipitation. The two‐end member mix model showed that the mixing ratio of precipitation in pond and irrigation canal were 73–83.4% (except one pond with 28.1%) and 77.3–99.9%, respectively. Transferred water and precipitation were the important recharge sources for shallow groundwater, which decreased groundwater salinity in cultivated lowland area of North China Plain. With the temporary and spatial limitation of water transfer effects, increased water transfer amounts and frequency may be an effective way of mitigating regional water shortage. In addition, reducing the evaporation of surface water is also an important way to increase the utilization of transfer water. KEY W ORDS
cultivated lowland, interaction between surface water and groundwater, mixing ratio, North China Plain, water transfer
Hydrological Processes. 2018;1–14.
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/hyp
Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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I N T RO D U CT I O N
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water shortage and soil salinization (Yang, Ding, Liu, & Li, 2016). In this region, groundwater in shallow aquifers is mainly brackish and
Understanding the interaction between surface water and groundwa-
the groundwater level is shallow. Agricultural production heavily
ter is critical for the management of water resources (Winter, 1999)
relies on deep groundwater for irrigation in NCP, and agricultural
and analysis of ecohydrology (Sophocleous, 2002; Wilson & Rocha,
water usage accounts for 70% of total deep groundwater used in
2016; Woessner, 2000). The accurate quantification of the exchange
the floodplains (Hu, Moiwo, Yang, Han, & Yang, 2010). Due to
of water and energy between surface water and groundwater systems
long‐term overexploitation of groundwater, several deep groundwa-
is still challenging due to heterogeneity and scale (Anibas, Buis,
ter depression cones have formed in the region (Li et al., 2014).
Verhoeven, Meire, & Batelaan, 2011; Bichler, Muellegger, Brünjes, &
The exploitation and utilization of saline shallow groundwater can
Hofmann, 2016; Kalbus, Reinstorf, & Schirmer, 2006; Naylor,
regulate the groundwater level and promote the transformation of
Letsinger, Ficklin, Ellett, & Olyphant, 2016).
precipitation into available water resources (Fang & Chen, 1997).
Although under losing river regimes, water primarily flows out of
Brackish shallow groundwater utilization in the plain only accounts
the river channel into the connected alluvial aquifer, groundwater
for 8% of total water uses (Liu, An, & Yang, 2006). Groundwater
flows into the river channel under gaining river regimes. In irrigated
crisis in the study area can be resolved by banning private well
areas, surface water and groundwater flows become more compli-
drilling, promoting water‐saving irrigation technology, water transfer
cated with the impacts of surface water diversion, groundwater
from water‐rich basins, and increasing the use of rainwater
pumping, and irrigation, which make the interaction of surface
(Li et al., 2014).
water and groundwater more complicated (McCallum, Andersen,
Water transfer projects have been launched across the globe to
Giambastiani, Kelly, & Ian Acworth, 2013; Shah, 2014). Seepage can
alleviate water shortage problems in arid regions and promote devel-
create a temporary mound or increase of the water table in alluvial
opment such as in Australia, United States, Canada, China, and India
aquifers when river stage is above the alluvial aquifers (Fernald, Baker,
(Ghassemi & White, 2007). The transfer of the Yellow River water to
& Guldan, 2007; Harvey & Sibray, 2001; Squillace, Thurman, &
the lowland area of the NCP is part of South‐to‐North Water
Furlong, 1993). Linear irrigation canals/ditches or river channels are
Transfer Project. The transferred water was mainly used for drinking
important sources of groundwater recharge and also influence water
water in the past. Part of transferred water has been used for agricul-
quality (Fernald et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2014). Extensive measure-
tural irrigation since November 2014. In the future, water transferred
ments from farm canals in Pakistan showed that about half of the
from the Yellow River into the lowland area will be used for agricul-
water diverted into the canals was lost before it reached the farmers'
tural irrigation more frequently. The mixing of diverted water with
field (Kahlown & Kemper, 2004).
local water resources in water receiving regions changes the hydrolog-
Understanding the variations in surface water–groundwater
ical cycle and the interaction between surface water and groundwater,
interaction in irrigated areas in arid or semi‐arid regions is important
especially under the condition between agricultural irrigation with
for agricultural water management. Pahar and Dhar (2014) noted
transferred water.
that monsoon rains and dry‐season irrigation pumping can reverse
Nanpi County is a cultivated lowland area of NCP with inten-
hydraulic gradients (water body source to groundwater sink).
sive exploitation of groundwater for domestic, industrial, and agri-
Arumí et al. (2009) also observed that seasonal variation in the inter-
cultural use. It also receives a significant portion of water from
action of surface water and groundwater in Chilie's Central Valley
the massive South‐to‐North Water Transfer Project, which provides
was due to the interception and diversion of surface run‐off by
water for irrigation. In addition, it is a typical demonstration zone
irrigation canal networks. Run‐off flow to flat areas recharges
in the “Bohai Granary Project” in China, aiming to increase grain
groundwater in winter, whereas canal infiltration directly recharges
production in medium‐ and low‐production regions around Bohai
aquifer and partially compensates for water uptake from plants
Sea, which is one of the potentially most productive agricultural
and evaporation in summer. In semi‐arid and arid areas with
districts in the salinized zone of NCP (Li, Ouyang, Liu, & Hu,
intensive agriculture, surface water and groundwater interaction
2011). However, the shortage of freshwater in this region histori-
and agricultural water use are closely interrelated hydrological pro-
cally increased the conflict of grain production. The combined use
cesses (Tian et al., 2015). In Texas, surface water and groundwater
of transferred freshwater, precipitation, and brackish shallow
interactions include flow from the Rio Grande and its tributaries,
groundwater could be effective in resolving such a conflict. To
irrigation canals, drainage ditches, and periodic water flows in
demonstrate the strategy of conjunctive uses of regional water
arroyos or washes or impoundments in flood‐retention reservoirs
resources, Nanpi County was selected to investigate the interaction
(Liu & Sheng, 2011).
between surface water and groundwater influenced by the trans-
The sustainability of irrigated agriculture in many arid and semi‐ arid areas of the world is at risk because of a combination of several
ferred water. Water chemicals and stable isotopes of surface water, including
interrelated factors, including lack of fresh water, lack of drainage,
irrigation
the presence of high water tables, and salinization of soil and
employed as tracers to (a) evaluate seasonal variations along with
groundwater resources (Schoups et al., 2005). This was the case in
the characteristics of surface water and groundwater interaction
lowland area of North China Plain (NCP). Although NCP is one of
affected by the transferred water and (b) estimate the ratio of
the main grain production bases in China, crop yields (especially win-
evaporation loss from surface water and precipitation mixed with
ter wheat and summer maize) are low in lowland areas due to fresh
surface water.
canal
water,
pond
water,
and
groundwater,
were
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
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Sigangxin), a reservoir (Dalangdian) and a distributing network consisting of seven canals (Nos 1–5 Grand Canals, Xiaoquan Grand
2.1
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Canal, and Ludong Canal; Figure 1).
The study area
The main stratigraphy is composed of unconsolidated sediments Nanpi belongs to the transition zone between inland alluvial plain and
of Q4 origin. Four (I, II, III, and IV) aquifer layers consist of silty‐clay
coastal plain (Figure 1). The region is characterized by warm temper-
and clay (Figure 3) (Z. J. Zhang et al., 2009). Shallow aquifer includes
ate, semihumid monsoon climate. The mean annual precipitation in
Layers I and II, whereas deep aquifer includes Layers III and IV
the area varies from 400 to 500 mm; more than 80% of which is
(Z. J. Zhang et al., 2009). Freshwater, brackish water, and saline water
received during July–September period (Yang et al., 2016). The mean
were divided based on the total dissolved solid (TDS) ranges of
annual evaporation is 1,919 mm, with 34.5%, 36.9%, 20.7%, and
TDS < 1 g/L, 1 < TDS < 10 g/L, and TDS > 10 g/L, respectively (Fetter,
7.9% occurring in spring, summer, autumn, and winter, respectively
2000). The high water quality in aquifer Layer III makes it a target for
(Xu & Li, 2013). Meteorological data of 2015 was collected from
intensive exploitation, and it is therefore the layer with the greatest
Nanpi Eco‐Agricultural Experimental Station of Chinese Academy of
groundwater depletion.
Sciences. There was 623.2 mm of precipitation in 2015 (Figure 2). The soil is Chao soil or light loam (Sun et al., 2012), with a relatively high salt content in the top 50‐cm soil layer, consisting mainly of Cl− −
or Cl and
SO42−–Na+,
Mg
2+
(Qiao, Liu, Li, & Huang, 2006).
2.3
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Water transfer
A total of 3.4 × 108 m3 water was transferred from the Yellow River to Nanpi County in 2014. The first transfer of about 0.5 × 108 m3 of
2.2
|
Hydrological characterization
water was made through No. 1 Grand Canal to the Dalangdian reservoir in September as drinking water. The second transfer of
Surface water network in the study area is complex, composing of
2.9 × 108 m3 was in October and November, of which 1.9 × 108 m3
three river systems (River Zhangweixin, River Xuanhui, and River
for drinking and the other was for agricultural irrigation. The
FIGURE 1
Location of the study area in Nanpi County (a) and sampling points in the study area (b). NCP = North China Plain
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the study area. Winter wheat is usually planted in early October and harvested during the first 10 days of June. Summer maize is planted immediately after wheat harvest and harvested at the end of September. Generally, 3–4 irrigation events are applied during the growing season of winter wheat and 0–2 irrigation events during summer maize growing stage depending on precipitation.
2.5
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Water sampling and analysis
There was a timeline of full calendar year from the sowing winter wheat in 2014 to summer maize harvested in 2015 (Table 1). In order to study the impact of water transfer on interaction between surface water and groundwater, four times of sampling were taken after water transfer event in November 2014. Agricultural irrigation is the primary use of regional groundwater. There were three irrigation periods: wintering irrigation and greening return stages for winter wheat, and early growth stage for summer maize before the rainy season. Sampling was taken based on the time of agricultural irrigation and precipitation in rainy season (Table 1). Field surveys were conducted in a hydrological FIGURE 2 County
Plot of precipitation during sampling period in Nanpi
year that covers four different time periods: after water transfer (November 11 to 14, 2014), dry season (March 18 to 20, 2015), the end of dry season (July 2 to 6, 2015), and the rainy season (September
transferred water for agricultural irrigation was discharged into the canal system—through Xiaoquan Grand Canal and then stored in Nos 1 to 4 Grand Canals for irrigation. Only farmlands near the canals were irrigated using the transferred water. Deep groundwater is still the main source of irrigation water. There are many pit ponds that store water from groundwater discharge and surface run‐offs.
9 to 12, 2015). The irrigation canal water, pond water, shallow groundwater, and deep groundwater were sampled along the main canals (Figure 1b). Groundwater sampling points were distributed at different distances from canal. Electrical conductivity (EC) was measured in situ using a portable meter (Compact meter, Horiba, Japan). Shallow groundwater depth was measured in situ using water level gauge (Model102, Solinst,
2.4
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Agricultural water uses
Canada). Irrigation frequency was varied with farmers through individual interview in the field survey. The 100‐ml polyethylene bottle
The double cropping, that is, winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) and
(prerinsed three times with sample water before the final sample
summer maize (Zea mays), is the dominant agro‐system practiced in
collection) was used to store unfiltered samples. Water samples were
FIGURE 3
Hydrogeology cross section of the study area (modified after Z. J. Zhang et al., 2009)
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TABLE 1
Timeline of the full calendar year
Season
Period
Sampling time
Water transfer event
Early October to early November 2014
Dry season after water transfer event
Middle November 2014 to middle March, 2015
–
Water transfer and irrigation events
Crop planting and harvest
Water transfer in early November, 2014
Winter wheat sowing in early October, 2014 –
Irrigation in middle From November 11 to 14, and late November, 2014, after water transfer 2014 event From March 18 to 20, 2015 Irrigation in the middle and late March, 2015
Dry season
Late March to early July, 2015
July 2 to 6, 2015
Irrigation in early July
Rainy season
Middle July to early October, 2015
September 9 to 12, 2015
–
– Winter wheat harvest and summer maize sowing in early June, 2015 Summer maize harvest at the end of September and winter wheat sowing in early October, 2015
stored in polyethylene bottles, immediately transported to the labora-
Kinetic effects in terms of humidity (h) are expressed as follows
tory and analysed within 1 week. All samples were sealed with
(Gonfiantini, 1986):
adhesive tape to reduce evaporation. The water samples were passed through 0.45‐μm filters before analysis. Samples were analysed for major ions (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, −
−
Cl , NO3 , and
SO42−)
using ion chromatography (ICS‐2100, Dionex,
USA). HCO3− was analysed using diluted 0.01 N H2SO4, and TDS calculated by summing up all the main ions in the sample. The normalized inorganic charge balance, defined as (TZ+ − TZ−)/(TZ+ + TZ−),
Δε18 Ov–bl ¼ 14:2 ðh−1Þ;
(3)
Δε2 Hv–bl ¼ 12:5 ðh−1Þ;
(4)
where Δε18Ov–bl and Δε2Hv–bl are respectively kinetic fractionation factors of
18
O and 2H between vapour and boundary layer of evapo-
ration interface. The general form of the Rayleigh distillation equation states
represents the fractional difference between total cations and anions.
that isotope ratio of the reactant in a diminishing reservoir is a func-
Freeze and Cherry (1979) recommend that ±5% was a reasonable
tion of its initial isotopic ratio (R0), the remaining fraction ( f ), and
error limit of percentages of ion balance for accepting the analysis as
the fractionation factor (ε, ε = αv–w − 1) of the reaction, which incorpo-
valid. The chemical analysis results were adopted when the charge‐
rates both equilibrium (εw–v) and kinetic (Δεv–bl) fractionation (Clark &
balance error was within ±5% in this study. Stable isotopes (δ2H,
Fritz, 1997):
δ18O) were analysed using a laser absorption water vapour isotope
R ¼ R0 f ðαv–w −1Þ :
analyser (Picarro‐i2120, CA, USA). The δ2H and δ18O values were
(5)
expressed in standard δ‐notation as per mil (‰) difference from standard VSMOW (Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water). The δ18O and
2.7
δ H measurements were reproducible to an accuracy of ±0.5‰ and
The mixing ratio of precipitation with surface water during the rainy
±0.2‰, respectively.
season was calculated used the multisource mass balance model
2
|
Multisource mass balance model
(Wang, Song, Han, Zhang, & Liu, 2010). Based on Cl−, δ2H, and δ18O
2.6
|
Rayleigh evaporation model
mass balance of surface water samples collected in July and
The δ H and δ O stable isotopes model can be developed by incor2
18
porating both equilibrium and kinetic enrichment factors of evapo-
September and precipitation, the proportions of each sample (f1) is determined as follows:
rated water (Butler, 2007). The equilibrium isotope fractionation factor is strongly dependent on the temperature (T, in Kelvin) of the
X1 f1 þ X2 f2 ¼ X3 ;
(6)
f1 þ f2 ¼ 1;
(7)
reaction, which can be determined at different temperatures through experimentation (Horita & Wesolowski, 1994; Majoube, 1971). The equilibrium fractionation factors of δ O and δ H between water 18
2
and vapour (expressed as 103lnα18Ov–w and 103lnα2Hv–w) are given
where f1 and f2 are respectively the mixing ratio of precipitation and surface water in July, and X1, X2, and X3 were mass (Cl−, δ2H, and δ18O) of precipitation, surface water in July and September.
as (Majoube, 1971) 103 lnα18 O ¼ 1:137 106 =T 2 −0:4156 103 =T −2:0667; 103 lnα2 H ¼ 24:844 106 =T 2 −76:248 103 =T þ 52:612:
3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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(1)
3.1
(2)
|
Water chemical characteristics
The means of field observations, the major ions, and the isotopic components of the different water bodies are listed in Table SI. The mean
Kinetic effects are influenced by surface temperature, wind
EC value in irrigation canal water and pond water were 1,842 and
speed, salinity, and most importantly, humidity (Clark & Fritz, 1997).
4,125 μS/cm in November 2014. The former EC value reflected the
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irrigation canal received transferred water (Yellow River). The high EC
SO42− in other three seasons. This showed that transferred water
value of pond water was primarily due to high evaporation before water
changed the hydro‐chemical characteristics of shallow groundwater.
sampling time without water transfer. The mean EC value in irrigation
TDS represents the total mineralization (inorganic content) of
canal water increased from November 2014 to July 2015 and decreased
water and was well correlated with EC value, which also reflects
from July to September 2015. The mean EC value of irrigation canal
the dissolved content in water. The irrigation canal, pond, and
water in September 2015 was higher than that in November 2014. This
shallow groundwater were brackish water, with mean TDS ranges
suggested that water transfer had greater impact on improving irriga-
of 1.10–3.61, 1.21–2.97, and 2.25–3.00 g/L in different seasons,
tion canal water quality than precipitation. The mean EC value of pond
respectively. Deep groundwater consists freshwater with mean TDS
water has the same seasonal variation characteristics with irrigation
range of 0.77–0.83 g/L in different seasons. The mean TDS was
canal water from March to September 2015, which indicates the similar
1.1 g/L in November 2014 in irrigation canal with transferred water,
effects during this period. The mean EC value of shallow groundwater
which was a little bigger than freshwater. The mean TDS in irrigation
varied from 3,543 to 4,442 μS/cm during the study period, with the low-
canal was 1.72 and 3.28 times in March and July 2015 of that in
est value observed in September 2015. The mean EC value of shallow
November 2014. The mean TDS in irrigation canal decreased
groundwater decreased from November 2014 to March 2015, then
55.4% from July to September 2015. The mean TDS in pond
increased from March to July 2015 and again decreased from July to
decreased 11.9% from November 2014 to March 2015, increased
September 2015. This suggested that water transfer and precipitation
29.7% from March to July 2015, and decreased 59.3% from July
improved shallow groundwater quality. The mean EC value of deep
to September 2015. The mean TDS in shallow groundwater
groundwater was the smallest in all water bodies varied from 1,380 to
decreased 25% from November 2014 to March 2015, increased
1,453 μS/cm, with little seasonal variation.
12.9% from March to July 2015, and decreased 10.6% from July
Seasonal variation characteristics of major ions (except K+ and −
to September 2015. The variation amplitudes of TDS for shallow
NO3 ) were the same with the mean EC value in all water bodies
groundwater were smaller than that of surface water, suggesting
(Table SI). In addition, the chemical compositions of surface water
that the impact of water transfer and precipitation on surface water
and groundwater samples were plotted in Piper diagram (Figure 4).
was greater than that on groundwater.
The main ions in surface water (irrigation canal and pond) were Na+, Cl−, and SO42−, whereas those in deep groundwater were Na+ and HCO3−. The ratio of Na+, Cl−, and SO42− in surface water increased from November 2014 to July 2015, and then it decreased from July to September 2015. In March 2015, the main ions in shallow ground+
−
water were Na , Cl ,
FIGURE 4
HCO3−,
2−
+
−
and SO4 , and they were Na , Cl , and
3.2 | Spatiotemporal variation of shallow groundwater depth In the lowland area of NCP, the water table is very shallow, suggesting that it is easily influenced by surface water and precipitation conditions
Piper diagram of different water bodies, canal (a), pond (b), shallow groundwater (c), and deep groundwater (d)
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(Chen, Hong, & Wang, 1988). Variations of shallow groundwater depth
3.3
|
Stable isotopes in different water bodies
can be a good indicator for the interactions between surface water and shallow groundwater. Figure 5 shows seasonal variations of shallow
Stable isotope (δ18O and δ2H) compositions are useful in determining
groundwater. Shallow groundwater depths were 2.63–7.56 m, 1.90–
the origin and transport of groundwater as isotopes are generally
7.10 m, 2.85–9.50 m, and 0–6.18 m in November 2014, March, July,
modified by meteoric processes and do not change readily as a result
and September 2015, respectively. It indicates that shallow groundwa-
of water–rock interactions at low temperatures (Sidle, 1998). Ground-
ter depth decreased after water transfer event season, then increased
water formed before 10 kaB.P has δ18O isotope value less than −9‰,
in the dry season and decreased in the rainy season.
and groundwater formed after 10 kaB.P has δ18O isotope value
Based on previous studies, groundwater recharge from river
greater than −9‰ (G. H. Zhang et al., 2010). In different seasons,
decreased with increasing distance from river channel (Wang et al.,
the mean δ18O values changed from −10.7‰ to −10.5‰ in deep
2014). The variations of shallow groundwater depth in different
groundwater, and it varied from −8.5‰ to −8.0‰ in shallow ground-
seasons are plotted in Figure 6. The variation of shallow groundwater
water (Table SI). These ranges show that deep groundwater was
depth decreased with increasing distance from irrigation canals from
formed before 10 kaB.P, whereas shallow groundwater was formed
November 2014 to next March (Figure 6a). It indicated that the impact
after 10 kaB.P. The large difference in δ18O isotope between shallow
of water transfer on shallow groundwater decreased with the distance
groundwater and deep groundwater suggested the weak hydraulic link
from irrigation canals. From March to September, the variation of
between them. Thus, discussion was limited to the interaction
groundwater depth was similar in the whole region (Figure 6b,c). It
between surface water and shallow groundwater in this study.
indicates that the effect of water transfer on shallow groundwater
The δ18O versus δ2H values of surface water and shallow ground-
has disappeared from March to September, and the interaction
water (especially for September) were closely or slightly scattered to
between surface water and shallow groundwater is same irrespective
the right of the local meteoric water line (LMWL) in Figure 7, indicated
of the distance from irrigation canals.
that modern precipitation was their predominant origin.
FIGURE 5
Shallow groundwater depth (m), November 2014 (a), March 2015 (b), July 2015(c), and September 2015 (d)
FIGURE 6 Variations of groundwater depth in different seasons, from November to March (a), from March to July (b), and from July to September (c)
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FIGURE 7 The relationship between δ2H and δ18O in surface water and groundwater during different seasons, November 2014 (a), March 2015 (b), July 2015 (c), and September 2015 (d). The global meteoric water line (GMWL) is δ2H = 8.13δ18O + 10.8 (Craig, 1961). The local meteoric water line (LMWL) is δ2H = 7.41δ18O + 0.53 (Wang et al., 2009) In November 2014, the majority irrigation canal water, composed
respectively. The majority shallow groundwater in July has similar δ2H
of transferred water from the Yellow River, had depleted isotopes than
and δ18O isotope value as that in March. The seasonal variation ampli-
irrigation canals (C6 and C19) and pond (P11) without water transfer
tudes of δ2H and δ18O isotopes in surface water (pond > irrigation
(δ O > −6‰ and δ H > −50‰) (Figure 7a). It indicated that evapora-
canal) were greater than that in shallow groundwater (Table SI). It indi-
tion led to high isotopic values in surface water without water trans-
cated the different evaporation potential of different water bodies.
fer. The majority shallow groundwater had low δ H and δ O value
Evaporation‐driven δ2H and δ18O isotope enrichment was significant
than surface water. However, due to being recharge by isotope‐
in surface water (Figure 7c) from March to July. Evaporation
enriched surface water, the isotopic compositions in groundwater near
decreased the slope of irrigation canal water evaporation line from
ponds (e.g., S32 and S44) and irrigation canals (e.g., S15, S26, and S47)
6.27 (March) to 4.08 (July).
18
2
2
18
were enriched in November 2014.
In September, the δ2H values changed from −60.9‰ to −56.8‰,
In March, the δ H values changed from −67.5‰ to −37.9‰ and
from −59.0‰ to −44.9‰, and from −68.5‰ to −46.8‰ in irrigation
from −67.6‰ to −12.7‰ in irrigation canal and pond, respectively.
canal, pond, and shallow groundwater, respectively. In September,
In March, the δ18O values changed from −8.9‰ to −3.9‰ and from
the δ18O values changed from −8.7‰ to −7.5‰, from −8.2‰ to
2
−8.9‰ to 1.2‰ in irrigation canal and pond, respectively. Due to
−5.1‰, and from −9.7‰ to −5.5‰ in irrigation canal, pond, and
evaporation, enriched δ2H and δ18O value was observed in irrigation
shallow groundwater, respectively. Surface water samples and shallow
canals with and without (C4, C5, C6, C7, and C21) water transfer in
groundwater samples obtained in September present a lighter and
March 2015 (Figure 7b). The δ2H and δ18O isotope values were similar
narrow range of stable isotopic signatures (Figure 7d). It could be
in November 2014 and March 2015 in most of shallow groundwater
due to precipitation with depleted isotopes.
sites, except for wells S11 and S34. S11 is an open well, and evaporation was the reason for isotope enrichment. Seasonal industrial sewage (deep groundwater with depleted isotope) discharged directly into shallow groundwater via subsurface pipes made the depleted isotope in S34.
3.4 | Interactions between irrigation canal water, pond water, and shallow groundwater Seasonal variations in EC values, major ions (Table SI and Figure 4),
In July, the δ2H values changed from −69.7‰ to −35.6‰, from
TDS (Table SI), shallow groundwater depth (Figure 5), and δ2H and
−55.2‰ to −2.4‰, and from −76.2‰ to −37.0‰ in irrigation canal,
δ18O stable isotopes (Figure 7) of shallow groundwater suggested
pond, and shallow groundwater, respectively. In July, the δ18O values
the effects of transferred water on surface water and groundwater
changed from −9.3‰ to −1.6‰, from −6.9‰ to −3.1‰, and from
interaction varied over time. The Cl− is conservative in most hydro-
−10.6‰ to −3.4‰ in irrigation canal, pond, and shallow groundwater,
logic systems, and δ18O is also conservative in subsurface water
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because evaporation mainly occurs at land surface. Using the two con-
investigation, these shallow groundwater wells were located near
servative tracers, it is possible to identify the dynamics of mixing of
the irrigation canal, and it was recharged by transferred water in irri-
different water bodies (Douglas, Clark, Raven, & Bottomley, 2000).
gation canal.
Figure 8 shows the relationship between Cl− and δ18O isotope in
There were three recharge forms between surface water and groundwater during this period (Figure 9a): first, lateral recharge of
different seasons.
irrigation canal water to groundwater nearby; second, transferred
3.4.1
|
Dry season after water transfer event
water deep percolation recharges to shallow groundwater; and third,
In Figure 8a, it is noticeable that shallow groundwater and surface
shallow groundwater recharged by deep groundwater deep percola-
water had distinct distribution features in November 2014. An
tion in region far from irrigation canals.
increasing trend in Cl− concentration was observed as follows: shallow
With little remaining water in irrigation canal before water trans-
groundwater > pond water> irrigation canal water (Table SI). An
fer, the effect of it was neglected when discussing the effects of
increasing trend δ18O isotope value was observed as follows: pond
water transfer. δ18O and δ2H isotope Rayleigh fractionation theory
water > irrigation canal water > shallow groundwater (Table SI). Cl−
was used to calculate evaporation ratio from irrigation canal during
concentration and δ18O value is smaller in irrigation canal with trans-
dry season after water transfer event. It should be noted that this
ferred water than that without transferred water (C12 and C14) and
model has several assumptions. Specifically, there was no inflow
pond water.
and outflow in irrigation canal after the water transfer event. −
Additionally, it is assumed that the water is fully mixed, and that all
concentration decreased while δ18O value stayed the same. It indi-
water is available for evaporative enrichment. In this study, the evap-
cates the dilution effects of deep percolation with transferred Yellow
oration was based on the average values of temperature and relative
River water near irrigation canal and deep groundwater far from irriga-
humidity from November 2014 to March 2015.
In dry season after water transfer event, shallow groundwater Cl
tion canal (Figure 8b). The larger variation in shallow groundwater
The initial and end isotopic were isotopic in irrigation canal water
depth near irrigation canal indicated the direct recharge from irrigation
of each site in November and March, respectively. The temperature
canal to aquifer nearby (Figure 6).
was 1.10 °C, and relative humidity was 59.25% during this period
Pond water (P1, P3, P4, P6, P7, and P12) and irrigation canal
(Table 2). We calculated evaporation ratio to make the smallest differ-
water (C4, C5, C6, C7, and C21) in March distributed in the same
ence between calculated value and the actual value. There was a 2.7–
region (Figure 8b Subregion 1). There was simultaneous growth of
17.4% evaporation loss from irrigation canal in dry season after water
δ18O isotope and Cl− concentration during dry season after water
transfer event (Table 3). The irrigation canal water (form C11 to C10
transfer event in Subregion 1. It indicated that surface water experi-
to C18 to C17 and to C16) evaporation ratio increased from 3.3% to
enced strong evaporation in this period. There were some pond
6.2% in the flow direction (except at C1 where it was 64.7%), which
waters and irrigation canal waters distributed in the same region with
indicated that there was 2.9% evaporation when the transferred water
shallow groundwater (in Subregion 2 in Figure 8b). According to
flows through the irrigation canals.
FIGURE 8 The relationship between Cl− and δ18O isotope in surface water and groundwater in different season, November 2014 (a), March 2015 (b), July 2015 (c), and September 2015 (d)
10
KONG
ET AL.
FIGURE 9 Conceptual model of primary hydrological processes occurring in different season. Dry season after water transfer event (a), dry season (b), and rainy season (c)
TABLE 2
Meteorological conditions in Nanpi County
Time
Precipitation (mm)
Dry season after water transfer event
Temperature (°C)
Relative humidity (%)
22.6
1.10
59.25
Dry season
111.8
15.36
62.33
Rainy season
332.1
26.70
72.00
TABLE 3
Evaporation ratio in the dry season after water transfer event
Site ID
δ18O (‰) in November
δ18O (‰) in March
δ2H (‰) in November
δ2H (‰) in March
Remaining fraction
C3
−8.1
−7.0
−58.4
−53.0
0.944
5.6
C4
−7.7
−3.9
−57.4
−37.9
0.826
17.4
C5
−8.1
−4.9
−58.5
−41.8
0.845
15.5
C6
−6.0
−5.3
−47.8
−45.0
0.973
2.7
C7
−6.8
−6.2
−53.7
−49.4
0.960
4.0
C10
−8.2
−7.3
−59.1
−55.5
0.953
4.7
C11
−7.8
−7.2
−58.4
−55.4
0.967
3.3
C16
−8.2
−7.3
−59.4
−55.8
0.953
4.7
C17
−8.4
−7.1
−60.0
−54.9
0.938
6.2
C18
−8.2
−7.1
−59.3
−55.1
0.942
5.8
C20
−8.2
−5.9
−59.3
−47.1
0.889
11.1
3.4.2
|
Dry season
Evaporation ratio (%)
which was mainly due to the large amounts of water used by winter wheat. The increase of δ18O isotope and Cl− concentration indicates
The surface water and shallow groundwater were gradually separated
the evaporation of the surface water. However, the unsynchronized
increased while δ O isotope
growth of δ18O isotope and Cl− concentration during dry season indi-
showed no notable change in shallow groundwater. It indicated the
cates that surface water has the other source, with shallow groundwa-
consuming of water and remaining of salt in shallow groundwater,
ter recharged to it.
−
(Figure 8c). In the dry season, Cl
18
KONG
11
ET AL.
Based on the assumptions above, we calculated evaporation
conservative ion that can be used to demonstrate mixing processes
ratio of surface water by δ18O and δ2H isotope Rayleigh fraction-
(Panno et al., 2006), and it was applied in this study. In addition,
ation theory. The initial and end isotopic in each surface water
δ18O and δ2H were used as tracers to calculate the mixing ratio of pre-
was isotopic in March and June, respectively. The temperature
cipitation. In this modelling, because there were many precipitations
was 15.36 °C, and relative humidity was 62.33% (Table 2). The cal-
during the rainy season, δ18O, δ2H, and Cl− varied with each event.
culated result was given in Table 4. The evaporation ratios of pond
So we took weighted mean of δ18O, δ2H, and Cl− in precipitation
water and irrigation canal water were 11.3–20.0% and 2.2–31.6%,
water from July sampling time to September sampling time as the
respectively. In order to determine the variation characteristics
precipitation.
along irrigation canal water flow, samples (form C11 to C10 to
In this study, we assumed that the precipitation and surface water
C18 to C17 and to C16) in Xiaoquan Grand Canal along the flow
are fully mixed, and all water is available for evaporative enrichment.
direction were analysed. No isotope enrichment was noted with
Two‐end member mixing model was used to calculate the mixing ratio
water flow in the irrigation canal. This implied that when water
of precipitation with surface water. One end member was weighted
transfer stopped, irrigation canal water was recharged by shallow
mean of the precipitation in the rainy season. The other end member
groundwater (Figure 9b) and the evaporation ratio was disturbed
was surface water in July. Water samples in September were distrib-
by the input of groundwater.
uted between these two end members (Figure 10). The mixing ratio of precipitation in surface water was given in Table 5 (based on δ2H,
3.4.3
|
Rainy season
During the rainy season, the weighted means of δ2H, δ18O, and Cl− for precipitation water were −60.2‰, −8.5‰, and 0.78 mg/L, respectively. The mean δ2H, δ18O, and Cl− for shallow groundwater were − 60.2‰, −8.2‰, and 663 mg/L in July and −60.2‰, −8.5‰, and 556 mg/L in September (Table SI), respectively. The decrease of δ18O isotope and Cl− concentration was observed in shallow groundwater; it indicated precipitation recharge to shallow groundwater (Figure 9c), which also decreased shallow groundwater depth (Figure 5) and TDS (Table SI). The mean δ2H, δ18O, and Cl− concentrations decreased from −51.4‰ to −58.9‰, from −5.9‰ to −8.1‰, and from 1,058 to 442 mg/L in irrigation canal, while they decreased from −36.6‰ to −53.9‰, from −3.3‰ to −7.1‰, and from 988 to 396 mg/L in pond water. Precipitation was the dominant effect leading to changes in the components of the surface water (Figure 9c). Cl− is considered a
TABLE 4
FIGURE 10
The two‐end member modelling in the rainy season
Evaporation ratio in the dry season
Site ID
δ18O (‰) in March
δ18O (‰) in July
δ2H (‰) in March
δ2H (‰) in July
Remaining fraction
C5
−4.9
−3.5
−41.8
−45.2
0.922
7.8
C6
−5.3
−2.7
−45.0
−35.6
0.878
12.2
C7
−6.2
−5.7
−49.4
−48.9
0.978
2.2
C8
−7.5
−7.0
−57.7
−53.6
0.952
4.8
C10
−7.3
−6.4
−55.5
−49.5
0.937
6.3
C11
−7.2
−6.2
−55.4
−54.5
0.976
2.4
C12
−8.9
−1.6
−66.7
−36.1
0.684
31.6
C13
−8.3
−5.3
−65.5
−50.1
0.826
17.4
C14
−8.4
−6.5
−67.5
−53.5
0.849
15.1
C16
−7.3
−6.7
−55.8
−52.4
0.960
4.0
C17
−7.1
−6.1
−54.9
−52.0
0.960
4.0
C18
−7.1
−2.5
−55.1
−37.3
0.787
21.3
P1
−6.0
−3.8
−50.1
−39.0
0.868
13.2
P2
−8.9
−5.4
−67.6
−50.0
0.800
20.0
P5
1.2
3.1
−12.7
−2.4
0.887
11.3
P11
−8.5
−6.9
−66.6
−55.2
0.845
15.5
P12
−2.8
0.2
−34.9
−17.7
0.823
17.7
Evaporation ratio
12
KONG
TABLE 5
The calculated proportions of precipitation during the rainy season July
Site ID
ET AL.
September
Calculation proportion of precipitation
Cl (mg/L)
δ18O (‰)
δ2H (‰)
Cl (mg/L)
δ18O (‰)
δ2H (‰)
Cl
δ18O
C5
5 965
−3.5
−45.2
188
−7.5
−57.0
96.9
79.8
78.7
79.3
C6
1 816
−2.7
−35.6
530
−8.0
−58.8
70.9
92.2
94.2
93.2
C7
1 014
−5.7
−48.9
455
−8.2
−58.8
55.2
89.9
87.2
88.5
C8
516
−7.0
−53.6
510
−8.1
−59.1
1.1
72.0
82.7
77.3
C10
582
−6.4
−49.5
525
−8.1
−58.5
9.8
82.1
84.5
83.3
C11
1 507
−6.2
−54.5
549
−7.9
−57.1
63.6
71.5
46.0
58.8
C12
475
−1.6
−36.1
273
−8.2
−60.2
42.6
95.9
99.8
97.9
C13
875
−5.3
−50.1
460
−8.4
−60.5
47.4
96.6
103.2
99.9
C14
1 041
−6.5
−53.5
737
−8.3
−59.2
29.3
87.9
85.3
86.6
C17
580
−6.1
−52.0
548
−8.2
−60.0
5.5
86.4
98.1
92.3
P1
950
−3.8
−39.0
817
−5.1
−44.9
14.02
28.5
27.7
28.1
δ2H
δ2H + δ18O /2
P2
1 667
−5.4
−50.0
558
−7.7
−57.3
66.55
74.3
71.7
73.0
P3
729
−6.3
−54.0
257
−8.2
−59.0
64.82
86.0
80.8
83.4
P5
1 243
3.1
−2.4
454
−5.8
−47.0
63.49
76.4
77.1
76.8
P8
428
−1.9
−27.8
191
−7.2
−54.4
55.47
80.6
82.0
81.3
P11
1 112
−6.9
−55.2
640
−8.2
−58.9
42.49
83.5
73.8
78.7
P12
361
0.2
−17.7
133
−6.3
−51.4
63.28
74.6
79.4
77.0
δ18O, and Cl−). The mixing ratio of precipitation calculated by using
with increasing distance from the irrigation canal. Water transfer
δ2H and δ18O isotopes was larger than that calculated by using Cl−.
changed the hydro‐chemical characteristics of shallow groundwater,
−
Extra Cl concentration was dissolved and flowed into the surface
with HCO3− ratio increased in anion. There was 2.9% loss by evapora-
water through surface run‐off due to heavy precipitation. Thus, the
tion from irrigation canal water during water transfer process and
values estimated by using δ2H and δ18O isotopes were more depend-
additional 2.7–17.4% loss by evaporation in the dry season after water
able than by using Cl− (Table 5). However, the ratio of precipitation
transfer event.
−
could be affected by point source with a high level of Cl . For example,
With the exhaustion of transferred water, the influence of trans-
little remaining water and high Cl− concentration (5,965 mg/L) were
ferred water on interaction between surface water and groundwater
found at C5, which could lead to decreased ratio of precipitation.
disappeared gradually. Groundwater also flowed back into irrigation
The mixing ratio of precipitation with pond water was in the range
canal during the dry season (March to June). The evaporation ratios
of 73–83.4% except one was 28.1% (P1), while that of irrigation canal
of pond water and irrigation canal water in the dry season were
water was 77.3–99.9%. Smaller ratio at P1 was due to the large pond
11.3–20.0% and 2.2–31.6%, respectively. Evaporation was a way for
area, large volume of remaining pond water in July, and minimal pre-
surface water loss. In the rainy season, groundwater is recharged by
cipitation mixing. Though the calculated ratio of mixing of precipita-
infiltration of precipitation, whereas surface water is mixed with pre-
tion would be smaller than the actual value, it can still provide useful
cipitation; 73–83.4% pond water and 77.3–99.9% irrigation canal
information in the surface water recharge.
water sourced from precipitation. Therefore, the signature of water chemistry in surface water was dominated by the precipitation in the rainy season.
4
|
C O N CL U S I O N S
In conclusion, the study showed that transferred freshwater and precipitation (collected during rainy season) is the important water
In the cultivated lowland area of NCP, shallow groundwater and sur-
sources to the local shallow groundwater. Because groundwater is
face water have intimate relationship with each other. Water transfer
the main source of water supply for agricultural irrigation (especially
changed the interaction between surface water and groundwater tem-
in arid and semi‐arid regions), water transfer was an effective way of
porarily. After water was transferred into the area for irrigation during
mitigating regional water shortage.
the dry season (November to March), irrigation canal water is of high water quality because of transferred water from the Yellow River.
A C K O N W LE D G M E N T S
Groundwater is recharged by deep percolation of irrigation with the diverted water near the irrigation canal. Seepage from irrigation canal
The study was supported by Science and Technology Service Network
also provided lateral recharges into underlying shallow aquifer along
Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (KFJ‐STS‐ZDTP‐001),
the irrigation canal. However, in places far away from irrigation canals,
the National Key Research and Development Program of China
the salinity of the shallow groundwater is no longer affected by the
(2016YFD0800100) and 100‐Talent Project of Chinese Academy of
canal water but controlled by the pumped deep groundwater instead.
Sciences. We greatly thank Associate Professor Ruiqiang Yuan from
The effect of transferred water on shallow groundwater decreased
Shanxi University; Wenbo Zheng, Huan Zhao, and Yuqin Zhang form
KONG
13
ET AL.
Center for Agricultural Resources Research, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, CAS; and Jinyu Guo and Yanshun Hao from Nanpi Eco‐Agricultural Experimental Station, CAS for their help in field sampling. We also greatly thank Jiahong Hu from Key Laboratory of Agricultural Water Resources, CAS for her help in the sampling analysed process. The authors greatly thank Dr Juana Paul Moiwo from Njala University for his kind help on the English revision of this paper. We are grateful to the editors and reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions, which help improve the manuscript. ORCID Shiqin Wang
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3827-3739
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SUPPORTI NG INFORMATION Additional supporting information may be found online in the Supporting Information section at the end of the article.
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