Insect Pest Management Practices in Litchi

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Chapter 7

Insect Pest Management Practices in Litchi Kuldeep Srivastava1, S.D. Pandey1, R.K. Patel1, Devinder Sharma2 and Vishal Nath1 National Research Centre on Litchi, Mushahari, Muzaffarpur – 842 002, Bihar 2 Division of Entomology, SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu – 180 009, J&K

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn) is an important subtropical evergreen fruit crop belongs to family Sapindaceae. It is known as queen of the fruit due to its attractive deep pink/red colours and flavoured juicy aril. It has high nutritive value and refreshing taste. Litchi is consumed as fresh fruit, pulp and various processed products like squash, RTS, wine etc (Singh et al., 2012). Litchi appears to be native of the area, near Southern province of China and northern Vietnam from where it was introduced into India during the 18th century in the North East region (Tripura) and over the period of time to eastern states and percolated in the northern states (Rai et al., 2000). In India litchi is being grown in an area of 82700 ha with a total production of 580 000 ton annually NHB (2013). The major litchi growing countries are China, India, Brazil, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, Mauritius, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Madagascar and Taiwan. It is now an important commercial fruit crop in India due to its export potentiality. Cultivation of litchi is widely spread in eastern India which provides livelihood opportunities to millions of people in the region. It is commercially grown in Bihar, Uttarakhand, West Bengal and Jharkhand (Rai and Kumar, 2004). Due to its high economic returns and ever increasing demand in the domestic markets, the crop

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is also gaining momentum in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Tripura, and Orissa. Among biotic stress, insect pests are the major constraints in healthy litchi production whereas few minor pre harvest foliar diseases and some post-harvest rotting pathogens are also common. The micronutrient deficiency particularly, the boron, zinc, manganese and copper affects the litchi crop adversely both in terms of quality as well as quantity. About 40 insects and mite species reported attacking trees and fruits of litchi at different stages of growth (Singh and Singh, 1954; Wadhi and Batra, 1964; Vevai, 1971; Hameed et al., 1992). Earlier, only two species, namely, erineum mite and bark eating caterpillar were reported causing serious damage to litchi trees (Mathur and Tandon, 1974; Butani, 1977). Recently, litchi fruit borer and litchi leaf roller have acquired the status of major pests and now, litchi looper, litchi bug and bag worm are emerging pests of litchi (Hameed et al., 2001; Kumar et al., 2011; Choudhary et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2013). Detailed account of insect pests of litchi and their management practices have been enumerated in this chapter. Table 7.1: Insect Pest Complex of litchi Common Name

Scientific Name

Fruit borers/

Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley

litchi stem-end

C. litchiella Bradley

borer

Conopomorpha cramerella Snellen Cryptophlebia peltastica Meyr.

Order: Family Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae

Cryptophlebia leucotreta Meyr. Cryptophlebia bactrachopa Meyr. Cryptophlebia ombrodelta Lower Cryptophlebia illepida Deudorix spp.

Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae

Deudorix epijarbas Moore Deudorix epijarbas amatius Deudorix epijarbas diovis Hewitson). Fruit-piercing moths

Eudocima (Othreis) fullonia (Clerck),

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Eudocima salaminia (Cramer) Eudocima jordani (Holland) Leaf-feeding

Oxyodes scrobiculata F.

caterpillars

Oxyodes tricolor Guen.

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Achaea janata (L.), Leaf rollers

Gonimbrasia belina Westwood

Lepidoptera: Saturniidae

Olethreutes perdulata Meyr.

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae

Platypeplus aprobola (Meyrick) Adoxophyes cyrtosema Meyr. Homona coffearia Nietner Contd...

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Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops Table 7.1–Contd... Common Name Beetle borers

Scientific Name Aristobia testudo (Voet),

Order: Family Coleoptera:Cerambycidae

Uracanthus cryptophagus, Branch borers

Zeuzera coffeae Nietner,

Lepidoptera: Cossidae

Bark borers

Salagena transversa Walker

Lepidoptera: Metarbelidae

Comoritis albicapilla Moriuti

Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae

Cratopus angustatus Boh.

Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Weevils

Cratopus humeralis Boh. Euthyrrhinus meditabundus Fab. Orthorrhinus klugii Boh. scales

Soft scales

Homoptera: Coccidae

Pulvinaria psidii (Maskell),

(Homoptera: Diaspididae

Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus, Parasaissetia nigra (Nietner) Saissetia coffeae (Walker) Armoured scales Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) Fiorinia sp. nr. nephelii Maskell Fiorinia nephelii Parlatoria pseudopyri Kuwana, P. cinerea Danne and Hadden Aulacaspis spp. Leaf feeding beetles

Rhyparida discopunctulata Blackburn

Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

Monolepta australis (Jacoby) Monolepta apicalis (Sahlberg) Scarab beetles Bugs

Xylotrupes gideon (Linnaeus)

Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

Tessaritoma papillosa

Hemiptera: Tessaritomidae

Tessaritoma javanica Thunberg Tessaritoma quadrata Distant, Lyramorpha rosea Westw. Fruit spotting bugs

Hemiptera: Coreidae

Amblypelta nitida Stal. Amblypelta lutescens lutescens (Distant) Leptocoris spp.

Hemiptera: Lygaeidae

Leptocoris rufomarginata (Fabricius)

Hemiptera: Rhopalidae

Leptocoris tagalica Burm. Nysius vinitor Bergroth

Hemiptera: Miridae Contd...

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Table 7.1–Contd... Common Name Mealybugs

Scientific Name Planococcus citri (Risso)

Order: Family Homoptera: Pseudococcidae

Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) Mites

Aceria litchii (Keiffer)

Acari: Eriophyidae

Aceria longana Boczek and Knihinick Aceria dimocarpi (Kuang)

Gall flies

Oligonychus coffeae (Nietner)

Acari:Tetranychidae

Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks)

Acari:Tarsonemiidae

Dasyneura sp.

Diptera: Cecidomyidae

Litchiomyia chinensis Yang and Luo Fruit flies

Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt)

Diptera: Agromyzidae

Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) Ceratitis capitata (Weidemann) Ceratitis (Pterandrus) rosa Karsch Mealybugs Thrips

Planococcus citri (Risso) Dolichothrips indicus Hood

Homoptera: Pseudococcidae Thysanoptera: Thripidae

Megalurothrips distalis Karny Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood Scirtothrips aurantii Faure Thrips imaginis Bagnall Pena et al. (2002)

1. Litchi Fruit Borer, Conopomorpha cramerella Snellen (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) Litchi fruit borer known as the litchi stem-end borer in China and the Litchi fruit borer in Thailand, is one of the major pest of Litchi. Besides India, pests occur all litchis growing countries viz. China, Taiwan, Thailand etc. The pest shows a preference for litchis over longans but in both crops, damaged fruit may fall from the tree. Lal and Sharma (1978) reported that moth is active on litchi trees as leaf miner from August to February, then shifted to alternate hosts namely kath, jamun and chhota amaltas and finally migrate to litchi orchard to lay their eggs on the calyx. The extent of damage can be positively correlated with the amount of precipitation (Singh, 1992). Similarly Hameed et al. (1992) noticed maximum fruit damage during May-July and highest population of pest in August. They reported that from October to March, pest population was not found in orchards but reappeared in the month of April. Fruit loss and leaf infestation has been estimated from 24-32 per cent and 7-70 per cent, respectively by this pest (Lal and Sharma, 1976; Hameed et al., 2001). Huang et al. (1994) reported that in Taiwan, 96.1-100 per cent litchi fruit get damaged by C. sinensis

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Bradley, a closely related species in untreated orchards. Bhatia et al. (2000) observed 13.6-64.9 per cent incidence of C. cramerella in Himanchal Pradesh. Adults are nocturnal and mating usually takes place during dusk and lay their eggs singly soon after mating on the under surface of the leaf or near the calyx of litchi fruits (Lal and Sharma, 1978). Longevity of the adults varies from 3.12 to 6.84 days (Sharma and Agrawal, 1988). Singh (1992) reported larval period and pupal period from 7-8 days and 6-7 days, respectively. Fully grown larvae come out of the fruit and pupate on the litchi surface.

Management Practices i. Cultural and Mechanical Approaches Pruning of trees after harvest, field sanitation and removal of young fallen fruits has been found effective in reducing pest population. Purbey and Nath Vishal (2013) reported that moths can be excluded by enclosing the fruit panicles in nylon mesh bags. Bagging also improves colour and quality of litchi fruits. ii. Biological/Semiochemicals Use of Trichogramma chilonis @50000 eggs/ha two times right from flowering to colour break stage. Mesochorus sp., Chelonus sp., Bracon sp. and Apanteles sp. are parasitizing this pest. Pheromone trap may be used for monitoring the pest incidence and mass destruction. Kumar and Kumar (2007) also reported control of litchi fruit borer by using Trichogramma chilonis @50000 eggs/ha at flowering time followed by two spraying of Nimbicidine @3ml/l of water at lentil fruit stage and colour break stage. iii. Chemicals/Botanicals Manuring the litchi trees with 4 kg of castor and 1 kg of neem cake per tree in the root zone after the first shower of monsoon reduced the fruit borer infestation (Hameed et al., 2001). Spray the orchard with Deltamethrin 2.8 EC (0.0028 per cent) 1ml/l or Fipronil 5 SC (0.01 per cent) 2 ml/l or Flubendiamide 39.35 SC (0.008 per cent) 1ml/ 5l of water after fruit set and second spray may be given before 15 days fruit harvest for effective control of fruit borer.

Integrated Strategies P Orchard should be weekly inspected before initiation of flowering with pheromone trap to observe the abundance of fruit borer. P If incidence observed, release of Trichogramma chilonis @50000 eggs/ha should be made immediately. P After fruit setting bunch of fruits may be bagged to exclude the pest. Bagging also improved fruit colour and quality. P Trees should be pruned after harvest to remove harbour pupae of the pest. P If needed, spray the orchard with Deltamethrin 2.8EC (0.0028 per cent) 1ml/l or Fipronil 5 SC (0.01 per cent) 2 ml/l or Flubendiamide 39.35 SC (0.008 per cent) 1ml/5 l of water after fruit set and second spray may be given before 15 days harvest.

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2. Bark Eating Caterpillar, Indarbela tetraonis Moore and I. quadrinotata Walker (Metarbelidae: Lepidoptera) There are two species of bark eating caterpillars, (Indarbela tetraonis Moore and Indarbela quadrinotata Walker) and both are polyphagous in nature with wide range of host plants including, longan, rambutan, mango, mulberry aonla, ber, citrus, phalsa guava, jack-fruit, jamun, loquat, pomegranate and rose (Verma and Khurana, 1974; Khurana and Gupta, 1972.). The pest is distributed throughout Indian subcontinent, mainly U.P., M.P., Bihar, Rajasthan, Haryana, Orissa, A.P., T.N. and Maharashtra. Particularly in Bihar Indarbela tetraonis Moore is a very serious pest of litchi, guava, mango and ber (Sharma and Kumar, 1986). Damage is caused by caterpillar, which bore into trunk, main stems and thick branches of litchi tree and destroying xylum tissues resulting into poor growth and fruiting of the tree. Caterpillars remain within the tunnel inside the stem during day, come out in night and feed upon the bark. Older and uncared trees are more affected by the pest. Infestation may be noticed by the presence of ribbons of wood chips, frass and silken thread over the bark surface (Hameed et al., 2001; Atwal and Dhaliwal, 2008). After hatching in June caterpillar feeds up to March-April and completes only one generation in a year (Hameed et al., 2001).

Management Practices i. Cultural and Mechanical Approaches Remove and burn the ribbon like silken webs that may contain the caterpillars hiding under them. The caterpillars can be killed by inserting an iron spoke into the tunnels. ii. Chemicals This insect has also been successfully controlled by injecting kerosene oil into the tunnel by means of a syringe and then sealing the opening of the tunnel with mud. Remove the webs from tree trunks and put emulsion of DDVP (0.05 per cent) in each hole and plug them with mud. Mix Chlorpyriphos 2 ml per litre of water and apply the bark eating caterpillar infested area with a brush at 15 days interval. Sharma and Kumar (1986) also reported spraying of Trichlorfon or DDVP or Monocrotophos (0.05 per cent) on the tree and at forking of branches as soon as caterpillars start nibbling to control bark eating caterpillar.

Integrated Strategies P As a preventive measure, spraying of the attacked trunk and branches with 0.05 per cent Chlorpyriphos may be done. P The caterpillars can be killed by inserting an iron spoke into the tunnels. P This insect has also been successfully controlled by injecting kerosene oil into the tunnel by means of a syringe and then sealing the opening of the tunnel with mud. P Another method of control is dipping a small piece of cotton in any of the fumigants, like carbon bisulphide, chlorosal or even petrol and introducing it into the tunnel and sealing the opening with clay or mud.

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P Remove the webs from tree trunks and put emulsion of DDVP (0.05 per cent) in each hole and plug them with mud. Mix chlorpyrphos 2 ml per litre of water and apply the bark eating caterpillar infested area with a brush at 15 days interval. P As a preventive measure, spraying of the attacked trunk and branches with 0.05 per cent Chlorpyriphos may be done.

3. Leaf Roller, Platypeplus aprobola (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) The Leaf roller is a cosmopolitan pest and has been reported in various fruit crops in Hawaii, South Africa, Australia and China. Leaf roller is a very serious litchi pest in Bihar and surrounding areas. The incidence of leaf roller can be observed on litchi trees throughout the year, however more population has been observed from July-February (Singh, 1971a). The symptoms of leaf injury by the larvae are manifested through rolling of tender leaves and feeding inside. According to Lal and Malick (1976) leaf injured by the leaf roller varied between 16.70 to 71.60 per cent while trees infestation varied 12.88 to 53.54 per cent during August to February. Mating and oviposition in leaf folder takes place during night. The insect completes its life cycle within 21.6-31.0 days in July-August and 46.0-46.5 days in February-March (Kulkarni et al., 1967; Maiti and Sahoo, 1991).

Management Practices i. Cultural and Mechanical Approaches Summer ploughing to remove possible pupae in the field. Longia cultivar is slightly resistant to litchi leaf roller. The rolled leaves that contain larvae may be removed manually during light infestations to check further infestation. ii. Chemicals Foliar spray of Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 2ml/l or Imidacloprid 17.8 SL 0.5 ml/l may be done when 20 per cent of leaf flushes are infested to minimize damage to young trees or at critical periods of leaf growth in older trees. Pest can also be successfully controlled by spraying of Dimethoate (0.03 per cent) or Methyl-Demeton(0.025 per cent) (Lal and Mallick, 1976).

Integrated Strategies P Removal of affected flush, summer ploughing, spray of chemicals can be much effective than alone. P The damage caused by leaf rollers is tolerated as long as it is restricted to the foliage and unlikely to affect flower initiation. P The rolled leaves that contain larvae may be removed manually during light infestations to check further infestation. P The pest is subject to attack by numerous parasitoids viz. Trichogramma sp., Apanteles sp., Brachymeria obscurata (Wlkr.), Phaeogenes sp. and Nemorilla floralis maculosa Meig., as well as being predated on by the beetle, Calleida sp., and the fly, Xanthandrus comtus Harris.

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P If necessary, carbaryl 2g/l or Chlorpyriphos 2ml/l may be applied when 20 per cent of leaf flushes are infested to minimize damage to young trees or at critical periods of leaf growth in older trees.

4. Leaf Cutting Weevils, Myllocerus sp. and Apoderus blandus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Grey weevil (Myllocerus Sp,) and red weevil (Apoderus blandus) are polyphagous pest therefore, besides litchi its damage other important crops (Singh, 1974). Adult has long snout with grey colour, though poor flier but very active feeder on the leaves of litchi. It attacks leaves, shoot and flower. Adult weevils congregate on the tender leaves and nibble irregular holes on the leaves and sometimes consume the entire leaf leaving the midrib only (Singh et al., 2012). The damage of red weevil is more severe at the time of shoot emergence as it prefers newly leaves therefore; newly established orchard/nurseries are more vulnerable for pest attack (Kumar et al., 2011).

Management Practices i. Cultural and Mechanical Approaches The grubs of these weevils feed on organic matter in the soil below the canopy, hence, ploughing and exposing these grubs reduces the problem. Hand picking of the adult weevils reduces their incidence to some extent. Adult weevils can be removed from plants by vigorously shaking a branch over an open, inverted umbrella. The collected weevils can then be dumped into a container of soapy water. ii. Chemicals Spraying of Carbaryl 2g/l or Buprofezin @ 1ml/l is highly effective against weevils. Recently, a mixture of Thiamethoxam + Lambdacyhalothrin @ 2ml/5l of water has been found very effective against litchi weevils. Additionally, this product is also effective against bugs and lepidopteron defoliators.

5. Litchi Looper, Perixera illepidaria (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) Looper attacks tender leaves in mass and defoliate the new shoots (Kumar et al., 2013). In severe attack, it completely defoliates the newly emerged flush. Besides litchi so many host plants viz. longan, rambutan, mango, and castor have been reported for this pest (Schreiner and Nafus, 1992; Kumar et al., 2013). Incidence of this pest has been observed from July to December however, highest population in September- October (Kumar et al., 2014). The total life cycle of semilooper is completed in around 25 days. Female lay eggs on the under surface of the leaves and egg hatches within 4-5 days. Larval and pupal periods are completed in 8-9 and 5-7 days, respectively (Kumar et al., 2014). 5-6 overlapping generations are completed in a year.

Management Practices i. Cultural and Mechanical Approaches Larvae can be hand picked to reduce the incidence. Loopers pupate at the leaf surface and can be seen easily therefore, may also be removed manually. Larvae can also be hand picked to reduce the incidence.

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ii. Chemicals Spraying of Quinoalphos or Chlorpyriphos @ 1.5-2.0 ml per litre water. Alternatively Deltamethrin @ 1 ml per litre can be sprayed to avoid resistance (Waite and Hwang, 2002).

6. Litchi Bug, Tessaratoma sp. (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) Litchi Bug has been emerged as major pest in all litchi growing countries (Choudhary et al., 2013). There are many species of bugs viz. Tessaratoma javanica Thunberg, T.papillosa Dury, T. quadrata Distant, T. nigripes Dallas and T. malaya Stal that attack litchi plant, out of which, T. javanica Thunberg is the most destructive in Australia, China, India, Myanmar and Thailand (Han et al.1999; Leksawasdi and Kumchu 1991; Lu et al.2006; Menzel, 2002). In India, pest is also noticed in all litchi growing areas particularly, Jharkhand, Bihar, U.P., Punjab, H.P. and J. and K. Both adults and nymph suck cell sap mostly on tender plant parts such as growing buds, leaf petioles, fruit stalks and tender branches of litchi tree. In case of severe infestation drying of growing buds and tender shoots has been observed resulting into poor fruit set. The bugs when crowd on the developing fruit, it causes the fruits to fall a couple of week later. Longan, rambutan, Kusum, pummelo, castor, pomegranate, eucalyptus, loquat and rose are major host plants of this bug ((Singh et al., 2009),). In the northwestern part of India, the insect appears on litchi from the last week of April and disappears from the orchard after the last week of August and undergoes hibernation in adult stages (Kumar et al., 2008), however, in eastern India incidence of this bug has been observed from February to September (Choudhary et. al., 2013). Female lays globular and off pink eggs, mostly in bunch of fourteen on lower surface of leaves. The bug passed through five instars, which are sub rectangular and dark brick red except first instar, which was nearly sub-rectangular. The average duration of male and female adults are around 43-45 and 47-48 days, respectively. Newly emerged nymph is dirty white and soft bodied insect but colour changes to yellow-red after few days (Choudhary et. al., 2013).

Management Practices i. Cultural and Mechanical Approaches This pest is combated by shaking the trees in winter, collecting and dropping them into kerosene, but practice is feasible only small areas. The egg of bugs is in clusters and visible which can be removed and destroyed. ii. Biological Control There are natural enemies which parasitize 70 to 90 per cent of eggs laid late in the season. The adults are attacked by several fungi, birds and red ants may also be used as biological means of control. iii. Chemical Control If chemicals are used, the timing of sprays is critical because the bugs vary in their susceptibility to insecticide at different times of the year, depending on body fat content and its nature (Singh et al., 2009). These bugs may be controlled with any systemic insecticide.

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7. Bag Worm: Eumeta crameri Westwood (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) Bag worm larvae infest the older leaves and bark. Young caterpillars construct silken bags covering with bark and dry twigs and by living inside scrap the leaf surface (Agrawal, 2002; Agrawal and Pati, 2002). Coffee, tea, maize, pomegranate, tamarind, castor, sandal, Casuarina, Cinnamon, Shorea robusta, are the alternate host of bagworm (Agrawal and Pati, 2003). Incidence of this pest has been noticed throughout the year on litchi with maximum population during the month of September-October. Females remain in their bag within their pupal case and release a sex pheromone to attract males. After mating, female laid eggs on pupal case. Newly emerged larva initially feed on dead mother, then construct their own cage (Amin and Sultana, 1977). Life cycle of the pest is completed around 3 months and usually 4 generations are completed in a year.

Management Practices Silken bags can be removed as easily seen on the surface of leaf. Neem based formulation may be used as precautionary measures. In severe infestation spraying of carbaryl 2g/l or Chlorpyriphos 2ml/l or imidacloprid 0.5ml/l may be done.

8. Litchi Mite, Aceria litchi (Acari: Eriophyidae) Litchi mite has been reported from all the litchi growing countries of the world including India, where litchi mite has been found in almost all litchis growing areas. The litchi erineum mite was reported by Mishra (1912) and Fletcher and Mujtaba (1917) under the genus Eriophyes. Keifer (1943) described and named the litchi erineum mite as Eriophyes litchi Keifer. Further, on the basis of morphological characters genus Eriophyes is divided into two genera namely Eriophyes and Aceria and now pest is known as erinose mite or litchi mite (Chennabasavanna, 1966; Lal and Rahman, 1975). Litchi mite is a destructive pest, causing curling of leaves and chocolate-brown growth on the ventral surface of leaves at later stage (Singh and Raghuraman, 2011). Both nymphs and adults damage the leaves, inflorescence and young developing fruits by puncturing and lacerate the tissues with their stout rostrum and suck the cell sap (Lal and Rahman, 1975). The infestation generally begins from lower portion of the trees and gradually extends upwards. The incidence of litchi mite can be observed round the year on litchi trees; however, severe infestation has been noticed from March to September and goes under hibernation in extreme cold (Mishra, 1912; Mishra, 1980). Alam (1959) reported that there was a direct and positive correlation between the growth of new leaves and the mite infestation; whereas negative correlation was found between the population density of the pest and rise in temperature and humidity. However, Lal and Rahman (1975) reported active period of mite is January to October and hibernation in adult stage during November to December under surface of leaf. The highest population (18.1 per cm2 leaf surface) of mite was observed during March, while lowest population (1.4 per cm2 leaf surface) was during November. Sharma et al. (1986) also reported litchi mite during AprilMay and November- December but mentioned that the population was significantly influenced by temperature and relative humidity. The female lay eggs, singly at the

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base of the hair on the lower surface of leaves. The eggs are small, 0.04 mm in diameter, round and whitish which hatched within 2-3 days and newly emerged nymphs feed on soft leaves. The nymphs and adults are similar in appearance, whitish and fourlegged, however, nymphs being smaller and have less number of lateral setae. Life cycle is completed within 8-20 days with 10-12 generations in a year (Prasad and Singh, 1981).

Management Practices i. Cultural and Mechanical Approaches Litchi mite control measures must be preventive. Once the mite is established, it is almost impossible to eradicate, hence depending upon infestation it is recommended that trees should be monitored specifically for erinose mite incidence on a monthly schedule. Additionally, constant vigilance during the conduct of routine orchard operations will assist in the early detection of mite infestations. Layers should be prepared only from non-infested plants. The leaves should be checked regularly for symptoms over summer and autumn. All trees in an orchard are not to be flushed or infested at the same time. Therefore, branches infested with the mite should be cut off. After harvesting in June, infested branches must be removed (Prasad and Singh, 1981; Kumar, 1992). ii. Natural Enemies Associated with Litchi Mites Horticulture ecosystem provides better opportunity for the survival of natural enemies in compression to annuals and therefore, incidence of natural enemies coincides with pest fauna. Very good predation has been observed in litchi orchard by several predators viz., Chrysoperla carnea, Praying mantis, Predatory bug (Eocanthecona furcellata) and spiders which predates on semilooper, weevils and other defoliators. In addition to this, several parisitoides viz. Trichogramma Sp., Appentales sp. etc. exists in the litchi orchard and regulates pest population. Therefore, to conserve the natural enemies population management measured should be planned accordingly. Numerous species of predatory mites, particularly those from the Phytoseidae, have been recorded with A. litchii (Wu et al., 1991; Waite and Gerson, 1994). Agistemus exsertus Gonzalez (Stigmaeidae), has been used for control of mite in China. In India, Lall and Rahman (1975) reported that Phytoseius intermedius Evans and Macfarlane, Phytoseius sp., Typhlodromus fleschneri Chant and Cunaxa setirostris were found in association with A. litchii. Somchoudhury et al. (1987) added a further six species, namely Amblyseius largoensis Muma, Amblyseius syzygii, Amblyseius herbicolus (Chant), Typhlodromus sonprayagenis, Typhlodromus homalii, and Agistemus sp. Thakur and 346 G.K. Waite and J.S. Hwang Sharma (1989) added Amblyseius coccineae Gupta, Amblyseius finlandicus Oudemans, Amblyseius purni Gupta, and Amblyseius paraaerialis Muma. iii. Chemical Control Layer saplings may be sprayed with Dimethoate @ 2ml/l before leaving the nursery. Prior to planting out, the operation should be repeated twice at 10-14 day intervals. In September-October, trees must be treated just prior to vegetative flushing with Dimethoate @ 2ml/l. Spraying should be repeated after two weeks. In the month

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of February spraying with propargite @3ml/l before flowering have been found useful. Need based spraying of buprofezin @1.5 ml/l may done just after fruit setting to manage mites/bugs.

Integrated Management of Litchi Pest Various established and also innovative methods can be applied to keep the litchi pest under control. Some of the methods have been described here. However, for effective management the smart blend of all methods in befitting manner can be tried.

a. Cultural and Mechanical Methods The infested litchi shoots and leaves due to litchi mite, leaf roller, fruit borer and bark eating caterpillar are pruned twice in a year during June and August and may be utilized in making compost. Infested samplings with mites are not used. Area around the trees is ploughed during summer to kill the eggs and hibernating stages of soil insects and litchi mealy bug by exposing to sun heat, ants and birds. Banding the tree trunk with 300 mm wide alkathine sheet (400 guage) prevents the nymphs of mealy bug from climbing the tree. Larvae of bark eating caterpillar can be easily destroyed by pouring kerosene oil in the hole or by using a mixture of ethyleneglycol and kerosene (3:1) (Singh et. Al., 2012). Manuring the litchi trees with 4 kg of castor and 1 kg of neem cake, when applied at root zone after the first shower monsoon have been proved effective in reducing mites, leaf roller and fruit borer infestation (Lal and Rahman, 1975). The alternate host such as kath, jamun and chhota amaltas which harboured the pest during offseason be collected and destroyed in order to minimize the chance of heavy infestation of the leaf roller in subsequent year.

b. Host Plant Resistance Sufficient information is not available on this aspect. Bhatia et al. (2000) studied the response of different cultivars against C. cramerella and observed minimum fruit damage with Seedless Early (33.3 per cent) followed by Deharadun (61.1 per cent), Large Red (73.7 per cent), Muzaffarpur (75 per cent), Saharanpur (76.5 per cent), Rose scented (78.6 per cent), Calcuttia (78.8 per cent), Seedless Late(81 per cent) and McLean(85.7 per cent). Litchi cultivar Bedana showed the highest infestation from litchi mite, followed by Shahi and China cultivars (Hameed et al., 1992). Ray and De (1950) also reported Bedana and Deharadun cultivars being highly susceptible to the mite, while Kasba cultivar showed low mite infestation. For litchi leaf roller, however the cultivars Shahi showed the higher leaf infestation than Longia cultivar.

c. Biological Control Natural enemies play important role in reducing the pests population of litchi. Hameed et al.(1992) found eight species of predatory mites, namely Amblyseius caecineae Gupta, A finlandicus Oudemans, A largoensis Muma, A paraacriallis Muma, A purni gupta, Phytoseius intermedius Evans and Macfarhane, Typhlodromus fleschneri Chant and T homalii Gupta were associated with litchi mite. Population of these predatory mites were remain high during summer months (April to September) with peak in June. With the onset of winter the population of predatory mites starts decreasing.

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Three species of hymenopterous parasitoids belonging to genera Apanteles species, Bracon species and Mesochorus species have been reported to parasitizing the larvae of Cnopomorpha cramerella during July to September (Hameed et al., 1992). Hwang and Hsich (1989) reported two species of parasitoids, Phanerotoma species and Apanteles species from the pupae of Acrocercopes cramerella. Two other parasitoids Tetrastichus species and Elasmus species were also recorded from Acrocercopes cramerella larvae feeding on shoots or leaves. The classical biological control of litchi stink bug utilizing Anastatus japonicas (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) and O. phongi (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) has resulted in effective management of the pest in China, Hong Kong and Thailand (Han et al., 1999; Leksawasdi and Kumchu 1991). Choudhary et al. (2013) also noticed Anastatus bangalorensis Mani and Kurian (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) and Ooencyrtus sp. (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) infesting eggs of T. javanica. Obviously, these findings would help in the development of effective integrated pest management modules. Table 7.2: Biocontrol Agents Associated with Insect Pests of Litchi Insect Pests

Natural Enemies Goryphus sp. (Ichneumonidae)

C. sinensis

Phanerotoma sp.

Type of Parasitism Larval/pupal Larval

Colastes sp. Pholestesor sp. (Braconidae) Tetrastichus sp. Elasmus sp. Phanerotoma sp.

Pupal

Apantele sp., Trichogrammatoidea bactrae fumata Nagaraja C. cramerella

Mesochorus sp.,

Egg larval

Chelonus sp., Bracon sp. Apanteles sp. Cryptophlebia sp.

Trichogrammatoidea fulva

Egg

Nagaraja Goniozus sp. nr. triangulus Keiff. (Bethylidae), Cryptophlebia ombrodelta

Larval

Agathis sp. (Braconidae), Apanteles sp. (Braconidae) Phanerotoma dentata Panz. (Braconidae) Brachymeria pomonae (Cameron) (Chalcididae), Euderus sp. (Eulophidae) Echthromorpha insidiator Smith. F., Gotra bimaculata Cheeseman (Ichneumonidae) Contd...

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Table 7.2–Contd... Insect Pests

Natural Enemies

Type of Parasitism

Thelariosoma sp. (Tachinidae) Elachertus sp. nr. Lateralis (Eulophidae) Pristhesancus maculipennis Stal (Reduviidae) Trichogrammatoidea bactrae Nagaraja

Larval Egg

T. cryptophlebiae Nagaraja C. illepida

Cremastus hymeniae Vierick,



Horogenes chilonus (Cushman), Coccygomimus sanguipes (Cresson), C. punicipes (Cresson) Pristomerus hawaiiensis Perkins (Ichneumonidae), Brachymeria obscurata (Walker) (Chalcididae), Bracon mellitor Say (Braconidae), Omphale metallicus Ashmead (Eulophidae), Perisierola emigrata Rohwer (Bethylidae) and Sierola cryptophlebiae Fullaway (Dryinidae). Eudocima (Othreis) fullonia Telenomus sp.,

Egg

Ooencytus papilionis Ashmead (Encyrtidae) Telenomus lucullus Nixon (Scelionidae), Adoxophyes cyrtosema

Trichogramma sp.,

Meyr.

Apanteles sp.,



Brachymeria obscurata (Wlkr.), Phaeogenes sp. and Nemorilla floralis maculosa Meig. Calleida sp., Xanthandrus comtus Harris. The litchi longicorn beetle,

EPN Steinernema carpocapse (Weiser)

Aristobia testudo (Voet)

(Agriotes strain)

Pulvinaria psidii

Mealybug ladybird, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant,

– –

Green lacewing, Mallada signata (Shneider) Microterys kotinskyi (Fullaway) (Encyrtidae) Anicetus ceroplastis Ishii Icerya seychellarum

Rodolia chermesina



Mulsant (Coccinelidae), Borniochrysa squamosa (Tjeda) (Chrysopidae), Aprostocetus sp. (Eulophidae) Cryptochaetum sp. (Cryptochaetidae) Contd...

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Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops Table 7.2–Contd... Insect Pests

Natural Enemies

Diaspidid scales,

Aphytis sp. proclia

Hemiberlesia lataniae

Encarsia citrina (Craw.) (Aphelinidae)

(Signoret)

Type of Parasitism –

Signiphora flavella Girault S. perpauca Girault (Signiphoridae). Chrysopa oblatis Banks (Chrysopidae) Rhizobius satellus Blackburn

Tessaritoma papillosa

Encyrtus (Ooencyrtus) sp.,

Egg

Anastatus sp. Anastatus japonicus Ashmead Anastatus sp. nr. japonicus Blastophaga sp. Ooencyrtus phongi Amblypelta l. lutescens

Ooencyrtus sp.,

Egg

Anastatus sp. Gryon sp. Gryon meridianum Aceria litchii

Agistemus sp. Agistemus exsertus Gonzalez Amblyseius barkeri (Hughes), Amblyseius coccineae Gupta, Amblyseius finlandicus Oudemans, Amblyseius herbicolus (Chant) Amblyseius largoensis Muma, Amblyseius nambourensis Schicha Amblyseius neomarkwelli Schicha Amblyseius paraaerialis Muma Amblyseius purni Gupta Amblyseius syzygii, Cunaxa setirostris Okisieus morenoi Schicha Phytoseius hawaiiensis Prasad Phytoseius intermedius Evans and Macfarlane, Phytoseius sp., Phytoseius rubiginosae Schicha Typhlodromus fleschneri Chant Typhlodromus haramotoi Prasad, Contd...

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Table 7.2–Contd... Insect Pests

Natural Enemies

Type of Parasitism

Typhlodromus homalii Typhlodromus sonprayagenis herbicolus A. largoensis, Amblyseius ovalis (Evans) Amblyseius cantonensis Schicha Amblyseius okinawanus Ehara P. hawaiiensis Phytoseius fujianensis Wu Okisieus subtropicus Ehara. Fruit flies

Opius spp.

Ceratitis capitata

Biosteres spp

Bactrocera dorsalis Pena et al. (2002).

d. Chemical control The main objective of IPM is to reduce the pesticide load, however, pesticide could be recommended when its use, becomes necessary. According to Lal and Sharma (1978) and Sharma and Lal (1983), spraying of Methyl-Demeton (0.025 per cent) or Dimethoate (0.05 per cent) in 15 liters of water per tree were found most effective in reducing the number of larvae or pupae of cocao moth. According to Gill (1992) litchi nut borer is effectively controlled by spraying of Sumicidin 20 EC (0.025 per cent) which reduces the fruit damage up to 32 per cent followed by Endosulfan 35EC @ 0.05 per cent reduces 51 per cent fruit damage. The spraying is done twice i.e. first at the fruit setting stage and second at 20 days after first spray. For the control of Gatesclarkeana erotias, Fenvalerate (50g a. i./ha) and Quinalphos (500 g a.i./ha) was found to be superior to Endosulfan (875g a. i./ha) (Khangura et al., 1992). Three sprays are done in such cases at 15 days interval starting from the fruit formation stage. Bhatia et al. (2000) found that Monocrotophos 0.036 per cent and Cypermethrin 0.01 per cent was the most effective treatments for the control of C. cramerella. Litchi fruit borer is best controlled by spraying of Carbaryl (0.1 per cent) or Malathion (0.05 per cent) at an interval of 15 days. This reduces the infestation of fruits. (Hameed et al., 2001). For effective control of bark eating caterpillar trichlorfon or DDVP or monocrotophos (0.05 per cent) are sprayed on the tree and at forking of branches as soon as caterpillars start nibbling (Sharma and Kumar, 1986). At tunneling stage of the caterpillar holes are treated by dissolving 1 part of fumigant i.e. carbon disulphide or bisulphide, kerosene oil, petrol, formalin in 100 part of water. Cotton wool is then soaked well in the solution and inserted into the holes and sealed with mud (Hameed et al., 2001).

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Litchi leaf roller has been successfully controlled by spraying of Dimethoate (0.03 per cent). It gave high population reduction (61.12 per cent) accompanied with high yield return. The second best treatment was methyl-demeton(0.025 per cent) (Lal and Mallick, 1976). According to them spraying must be given in the month of January when the population remains very low. Subsequent spraying may be done at fortnightly intervals in September if the infestation persists. Earlier, litchi mite had been effectively control by using sulpur (0.05 per cent), Kelthane (0.05 per cent) (Mishra, 1912; Hameed et al., 1992). Sharma and Rahman (1982) found Kelthane (0.05 per cent) as the most effective pesticide in reducing the leaf curl due to mite and increasing fruit yield, followed by Phosphamidon (0.05 per cent), Dimethoate and Demeton methyl (0.025 per cent) when sprayed before and after flowering in litchi. Sharma (1985) also claimed the best control and highest profitable income by spraying of kelthane @ 30ml/10l of water 2 weeks before flowering. Prasad and Singh (1981) recommended pruning and burning of infested twigs in June and August with Sulphur sprays. Kumar (1992) also found pruning of infested twigs after harvest followed by spraying of Kelthane or Monocrotophos (0.05 per cent) twice at 7 days interval at the onset of flushing during SeptemberOctober. Effective control of aphids of litchi has been obtained by spraying of Monocrotophos (0.02 per cent) or Oxydemeton Methyl or Phosphamidon (0.03 per cent) (Singh and Rao, 1976). Mealy bug, litchi bug and leaf cutting weevil could be effectively controlled by spraying of Dimethoate (0.03 per cent) or Phosphamidon (0.03 per cent) or Monocrotophos (0.05 per cent) or Malathion or Quinalphos or Dichlorvos at 0.05 per cent concentration.

Conclusion Large number of insect pests has been reported to occur on litchi at various growth stages, but a few are a real menace to the cultivation of this crop. The major constraints in the production of litchi is the ravages caused by various insect pests which not only result in the low production but also drastically impair the quality, rendering them unfit for human consumption, reducing marketable yield and thereby posing a serious threat to fruit industry. Natural enemies constitute an important mortal factor in the serious insect pest on litchi. Integrated Pest Management is a strategy to manage pests on the basis of a systems approach that looks at the whole orchard ecosystem. This includes understanding how the pests interact with their plant hosts, with the general climatic conditions, plant health and nutrition and with each other. When implementing an IPM system, growers should select ways to reduce overall pest levels in their orchard and ensure that the management of pests is compatible with their other crop management strategies. It is important that growers realize that IPM system is updated from time to time in response to biological changes that occur in their orchard and new techniques or technologies are introduced as soon as additional relevant information becomes available.

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