International Education - SAGE Publications

Journal of Studies in

International Education A Publication of the Association for Studies in International Education (ASIE)

Chair

Editor

Executive Director

William Cressey

Hans de Wit

Holly Monahan

Vice Chair

Editorial Assistant

Kees Kouwenaar

Jacomijn Baerts

Member Organizations AIEA: Association of International Education Administrators Representative: Manfred Thullen c/o Office of International Education, University at Buffalo 411 Capen Hall, P.O. Box 601604, Buffalo, New York, NY 14260-1604, U.S.A. CBIE: Canadian Bureau for International Education Representative: James Fox 220 Laurier Avenue, West, Suite 1100, Ottawa, Ontario, K1P 5Z9, Canada CIEE: Council on International Educational Exchange Representative: William Cressey 633 Third Avenue, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10017-6706, U.S.A. EAIE: European Association for International Education Representative: Belinda Stratton P.O. Box 11189, 1001 GD Amsterdam, the Netherlands IDP Education Australia Representative: Dorothy Davis The University Centre, 210 Clarence Street, Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia IEASA: International Education Association of South Africa Representative: Roshen Kishun P.O. Box 65099, Reservoir Hills 4090, Francis Stock Buildings, International Office, University of Natal, Durban, 4041, South Africa NAFSA: Association of International Educators Representative: Robert Stableski 1307 New York Avenue, N.W., Eighth Floor, Washington, D.C., 20005-4701, U.S.A. NUFFIC: Netherlands Organization for International Cooperation in Higher Education Representative: Kees Kouwenaar P.O. Box 29777, 2502 LT, The Hague, the Netherlands UKCOSA: The Council for International Education Representative: Clive Saville 9-17 St. Albans Place, London, N1 0NX, United Kingdom WES: World Education Services Representative: Mariam Assefa P.O. Box 745, Old Chelsea Station, New York, NY 10113-0745, U.S.A.

Editorial Advisory Board listed on inside back cover

Journal of Studies in

International Education Volume 5, Issue 4 / Winter 2001 Editorial Hans de Wit

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Articles Global Reach Through a Strategic Operations Approach: An Australian Case Study David Walters and Tony Adams

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The Time and the Trouble: Mobility Obstacles for Incoming Students From Outside Europe Daniël van Aken

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This Business of Internationalization: The Academic Experiences of 6 Asian MBA International Students at the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of Management Liv Thorstensson

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An Obstacle or a Useful Tool? The Role of the English Language in Internationalizing Chinese Universities Rui Yang

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Review Changing Perspectives on International Education, edited by Patrick O’Meara, Howard D. Mehlinger, and Roxana Ma Newman

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Reviewed by Hans de Wit Selected Recent Studies in International Education

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Index

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Sage Publications

Thousand Oaks • London • New Delhi

The Association for Studies in International Education (ASIE) is an interorganizational body whose mission is to encourage serious research and publications dealing with international education and academic mobility, to stimulate interest in such work (both in the international education community and in academic circles in general), and to develop and promote ways to disseminate this work in cost-effective and accessible formats. As such, its initial objective and primary focus is publication of the Journal of Studies in International Education. Through publication of the Journal, readers are challenged to consider how international education, cooperation, and exchange will influence and be influenced by an increasingly transnational world. The Journal of Studies in International Education (ISSN 1028-3153) is published quarterly (March, June, September, and December) by Sage Publications. Copyright © 2001 by the Association for Studies in International Education. All rights reserved. No portion of the contents may be reproduced in any form without written consent of the publisher. Submission Guidelines: Journal of Studies in International Education publishes research, essays, and reviews on international education. Articles place issues at the primary, secondary, higher education, professional exchange, and lifelong learning levels in a global context. Articles on international exchange and cooperation include such areas as study abroad, curriculum, faculty, workforce development, and development assistance. Articles on related topics such as public policy and internationalization strategies also appear in the Journal. Original research articles (historical, analytical, or experimental) should be between 3,000 and 10,000 words. Shorter articles and op-ed pieces focusing on critical issues, provocative ideas, and challenges in international education, cooperation, and exchange (1,500 to 3,000 words) will be considered. Review articles that focus on contemporary literature relevant to international education, cooperation, and exchange (1,000-2,000 words) are also welcome. Submit three copies (double-spaced) and one 3.5” floppy disk (PC or MAC) to Editor, Journal of Studies in International Education, c/o Hans de Wit, Vice President for International Affairs, Universiteit Van Amsterdam, P.O. Box 19268, 1000 GG, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. E-mail: [email protected]; fax: (011)+31 20 525 2136. Manuscripts should include a title page and date of submission. Pages should be numbered sequentially and should follow the publication guidelines of the American Psychological Association (4th edition). An abstract of no more than 150 words and biographical information (40-75 words) for each author also should be included. Tables and artwork should appear at the end of both the electronic and hard copies of articles submitted. 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Inquiries: All subscription inquiries, orders, and renewals with ship-to addresses in North America, South America, Australia, and Canada must be addressed to Sage Publications, 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320, U.S.A; telephone (800) 818-SAGE (7243) and (805) 499-9774; fax (805) 375-1700; e-mail: order@ sagepub.com; http://www.sagepub.com. All subscription inquiries, orders, and renewals with ship-to addresses in the U.K., Europe, the Middle East, and Africa must be addressed to Sage Publications, Ltd., 6 Bonhill Street, London EC2A 4PU, England; telephone (011)+44 (0)20 7374 0645, fax (011)+44 (0)20 7374 8741. All subscription inquiries, orders, and renewals with ship-to addresses in India and South Asia must be addressed to Sage Publications Private Ltd., P.O. Box 4215, New Delhi 110 048, India, telephone (011)(91-11) 641-9884, fax (011)(91-11) 647-2426. Address all permissions requests to the Thousand Oaks office. Advertising: Current rates and specifications may be obtained by writing to the Advertising Manager at the Thousand Oaks office (address above). Claims: Claims for undelivered copies must be made no later than six months following the month of publication. The publisher will supply missing copies when losses have been sustained in transit and when the reserve stock will permit. Change of Address: Six weeks’ advance notice must be given when notifying of change of address. Please send the old address label along with the new address to ensure proper identification. Please specify the name of the journal. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Journal of Studies in International Education, c/o Sage Publications, 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Printed on acid-free paper

Journal of Studies in International Education de Wit / Editorial

Winter 2001

Editorial In their opening contribution to this issue of the Journal of Studies in International Education, David Walters and Tony Adams state that international education in Australian universities has been dominated by a single paradigm: the recruitment to home campuses of international students via differentiated regional and country strategies, conventional marketing techniques, and commission agents. Australian higher education is known for its strong and successful recruitment strategies. Several other countries, including the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, and countries on the European continent and in Asia, are trying to copy this approach and get their share of the international students market. In their article, Walters and Adams describe how Australian universities are examining ways of integrating their international recruiting strategy with Web marketing, online applications, and other facets of e-business and how a new business model or a new strategic operations approach is used to make that happen. Their analysis not only gives an interesting insight into recent developments in marketing strategies in Australian higher education but also is important background material for those who elsewhere are involved in international recruitment of students. The second article, by Daniël van Aken, deals with one of the most important obstacles in the recruitment of international students, the procedures for obtaining entry and residence permits. In his article, he compares the procedures in the Netherlands with those in four other European countries (the United Kingdom, Germany, France, and Denmark), the problems students experience with the procedures, the quality of the information provided on the procedures, and government initiatives to remove the obstacles. He comes to the conclusion that in all five countries students are hampered by problems, especially in the Netherlands. In the third article of this issue, Liv Thorstensson, a Ph.D. student at the University of Minnesota, describes the result of her research on the academic experiences of six Asian international students, who, after being successfully recruited and having passed the problems with entrance and residence regulations, follow an MBA program at the Carlson School of Management of the University of Minnesota. The obstacles these students are faced with are culture shock, language barriers, and education shocks. Language is one of the obstacles that international students have to overcome. In the last article, Rui Yang gives an informative analysis of the role of foreign languages, and in particular the English language, in internationalizing Chinese Journal of Studies in International Education, Vol. 5 No. 4, Winter 2001 267-268 © 2001 Association for Studies in International Education

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universities. He argues that foreign language learning in China reflects its history, perceptions of international scholarly relations, and its assessment of the world situation. He concludes that English has gradually become a leading language of international politics, scholarship, and business, undisputed and embraced by Chinese scholars. The four articles in this last issue of 2001 debate highly relevant issues in present international education. Dealing with Asia, Australia, Europe, and the United States and providing a comparative approach to international education and a confrontation between theory and practice, this issue is in my view a good example of what the Journal of Studies in International Education stands for. On the suggestion of the Editorial Advisory Board, we renew the overview of recent selected studies in international education, published in previous years. Together with the book reviews, this overview will provide the reader with new material relevant for the study of international education. We welcome suggestions for interesting new publications. Hans de Wit Editor

Clarifications to Volume 5 From the Editor Virginia B. Vincenti, whose article, “Exploration of the Relationship Between International Experiences and the Interdisciplinary Work of University Faculty,” appears in Vol. 5, No. 1 (Spring 2001, pp. 42-63), should have included the following acknowledgment. Funds for this project were made available through a grant from the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences with money generated from the interest portion of the Massachusetts Avenue Building Assets Fund. Athanase Gahungu, whose article, “U.S.–Africa Cooperation in Education at Northern Arizona University: Unexpected Lessons,” appears in Vol. 5, No. 2 (Summer 2001, pp.146-164), has overlooked an acknowledgement to Dr. Gina Cantoni, Regent’s Professor at Northern Arizona University, who as principal investigator and director should be given credit for her role in the research and the realization of the article.

Journal of Studies in International Education Walters and Adams / Strategic Operations Approach

Winter 2001

Global Reach Through a Strategic Operations Approach: An Australian Case Study David Walters and Tony Adams A new business model is emerging, one in which competitive advantage is based on rapid and flexible responses to market change. The new capabilities are based on developing unique relationships with partners (suppliers, customers, employees, shareholders, government, and, often, with competitors), an understanding of and the ability to use and manage the new technology, and understanding the impact of knowledge creation and its distribution. This has become known as strategic operations management. These influences will inevitably change the ways in which universities think about internationalization, the recruitment of students, and the delivery of programs. This article examines the features of strategic operations management in the context of the internationalization of Australian universities.

International education in Australian universities has been dominated by a single paradigm. This paradigm can be described as the recruitment to home campuses of international students via differentiated regional and country strategies, conventional marketing techniques, and commission agents. This paradigm has served Australian universities well. It has been the basis of a service industry that has grown from a few hundred thousand dollars in export value in 1986 to more than $3.7 billion in 2001. It has also been the basis for the development of a view of internationalization that includes internationalization of the curriculum, offshore programs, staff and student mobility, and the formation of cooperative links between institutions. These various facets of internationalization have been largely treated as separate functions within institutions. Onshore recruitment has dominated and has often been separate organizationally from student mobility, offshore programs, distance programs, and the development of strong cooperative links. A summary of the development of the export model in Australia is set out in Davis, Olsen, and Bohm (2000) and Adams (1998). The recruitment of international students has also changed the financial landscape of Australian universities. In tough financial times, there have been for Journal of Studies in International Education, Vol. 5 No. 4, Winter 2001 269-290 © 2001 Association for Studies in International Education

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most institutions few if any other sources of resource expansion. There is much anecdotal evidence to suggest that with some exceptions, there have been few institutions in which the connection between the investment necessary for expanding international student number targets and outcomes has been understood and acted on. Within the existing paradigm, many institutions are beginning to examine ways of integrating their international recruiting strategy with Web marketing, online applications, and other facets of what has now become generically known as e-commerce or e-business. In some cases, this is being associated with a teaching and learning strategy that is creating online course products. Evans and Wurster (1999) put the risk and opportunities of this approach into context: Product suppliers and physical retailers still see the Internet as an arena for marketing and promotion: a new channel for doing old things. If they persist in that view, they will handicap themselves against new competitors . . . that see e-commerce as a business in its own right. (p. 85)

Business operates everywhere in an environment that is both dynamic and challenging: markets have globalized (supply markets and customer markets); technology has become all-embracing (this includes product and process technology); and relationships with suppliers, customers, and competitors are undergoing constant change (often influenced by external forces such as technology). A new business model is emerging, one in which competitive advantage is based on rapid and flexible responses to market change. The new capabilities are based on developing unique relationships with partners (suppliers, customers, employees, shareholders, government, and, often, with competitors), an understanding of and the ability to use and to manage the new technology, and understanding the impact of knowledge creation and its distribution. These influences will inevitably change the ways in which universities think about internationalization, the recruitment of students, and the delivery of programs. E-business becomes contextualized as a necessary approach within a new paradigm. This paradigm can be described as the recruitment of students to a network of regional, global, and virtual campuses through the creation of innovative international degree products and relationship and technology management. In this aricle, we will examine this emerging business model in the context of the internationalization of Australian universities and its impact on strategy and operations. Before considering the operational details, a review of the concepts underlying strategic operations is necessary.

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Strategic Operations Defined Customer-focused companies create additional value for their customers by building value chains that identify, produce, deliver, and service customer needs. They create a multienterprise organization that integrates supply chain efficiencies with demand chain management processes that anticipate customer expectations and ensure the availability of products and services in the right place, at the right time, at the required level of service, and at the lowest possible supply chain cost. Supply chain efficiencies are defined as the management of the supply chain processes (such as procurement, manufacturing, warehousing and transportation, reselling, and distribution to end users) to ensure that predetermined customer objectives are met cost-efficiently. Within the conventional paradigm of operations in Australian export of education, the supply chain includes marketing, recruiting, and admission functions; planning; academic and social support of students; provision of facilities; operation of teaching departments; and so forth. The supply chain relates all those things that have to be done out of competitive necessity to meet our strategic objectives. Demand chain management is defined as the integration of demand-sensing and demand-influencing processes to maximize customer satisfaction. Demand chain management focuses on improving the product-service offer (value proposition) to customers. Demand chain management processes include demand forecasting, product development (procurement), production, marketing, and service management. Logistics integrates the product and information flows to ensure optimal use of time and resources. In a university, the demand chain focuses on what the needs of the students and potential students are, how are they to be met, by whom, and where. The demand chain identifies the students’ value drivers in terms of quality, destination, and cost benefits and determines the value proposition that we make in terms of academic reputation, capabilities, products, services, and strategies that give us competitive advantage in meeting these customer-led needs.

A NEW BUSINESS MODEL? The supply chain on its own is tactical with a primary mission to provide acceptable service at efficient levels of cost. It works hard to optimize this goal within an environment of dynamic change. Typically, it has been built on conventional supplier-procurement models and relationships. The value chain seeks solutions beyond the old constraints. It is a new form of business design that leverages customer choice and operations decisions to develop sustainable competitive advantage.

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The traditional supply chain approach is designed to meet customer demand with a fixed product line, relatively undifferentiated and with an average service package for average customers. This is how Australian university international offices have operated for more than a decade. A standardized approach to marketing and recruiting is through printed materials, education fairs, and largely undifferentiated agreements with recruiting agents, a group largely seen as a “necessary evil” in undertaking the activity, and whose impact is seen as a cost to be minimized. A value chain approach considers the uniqueness of customers and small customer segments. It encourages customers to choose the product-service attributes they value most. It then seeks to construct an organizational structure that effectively and efficiently meets their needs. Design and development, procurement, production, marketing, and service processes are driven by logistics management—often coordinated through a multienterprise organization (a virtual organization)—to meet the different customer expectations and to do so profitably. The value chain approach focuses on the management of relationships, technology (including infrastructure), and knowledge to enable universities to meet student and other stakeholder needs.

ABOUT VALUE CHAINS Faced with declining profitability and, often, productivity, companies have two solutions: cut costs or increase transactions. Cutting costs and increasing efficiency have inherent attractions. They are relatively easy to implement, visible to the investors, and have an immediate short-term response. Increasing transactions is somewhat more difficult, particularly in times of intense competition: Existing customers are typically facing similar problems, and attracting new customers is an expensive activity. As university finances tightened in the mid- to late 1990s, many universities looked to the international office not only as a source of increased revenue but of greater efficiencies. International offices were pulled into university-wide budget models that focused on contraction of services. Rather than being seen as business units that required continuous investment to succeed, they were caught in a cycle of attempting to increase transactions and having to cut costs. However, some organizations are moving on. They are thinking beyond simple efficiency issues and toward additional value creation opportunities. They are looking beyond the supply chain toward the demand chain, or the value chain. They identify the total value expectations of customers (i.e., existing customers and potential


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customers) and develop holistic value-producing structures that utilize supply chain efficiencies and integrate them with a demand chain strategy. “Moving on” requires an ability to view the value chain as a multienterprise organization. Therefore, there is a need to be willing to work with other organizations in the chain: Cooperation, not competition, and certainly not conflict, becomes essential. This holistic organization has five key features: 1. A visionary approach, which sees how “putting pieces together” can create a more effective business model. 2. Core processes, which are identified and viewed as interorganizational rather than intraorganizational. 3. A supporting infrastructure, which facilitates integration. 4. The customer, which is an integral part of the value chain, a major stakeholder. 5. An interorganizational performance planning system.

The result is an overall approach to strategic operations with the following features: • • • • •

an emphasis on processes rather than functions, distributed assets, flexibility in product service delivery, communication and cooperation infrastructure linkages, and synchronized networks that create virtual organizations.

The concept of the value chain reverses the supply chain approach by identifying customers’ needs and working backward through the process infrastructure to identify how these may best be satisfied. A broad view of value delivery is taken, extending beyond corporate boundaries to resolve how customer satisfaction can be maximized while the costs of doing so are optimized. Value chain analysis asks and answers the following questions: • What are our customers’current value needs and do they have related needs that we could address? Do they expect to be involved in the design? • When do they arise? Where do they arise? • How are these needs currently met? Who meets them? • How else can they be met and by whom? • Where and when can customer value be produced? Who should be involved in value production?

Additionally, the value chain asks, Is there a better way of delivering value to customers? Can the value delivered be enhanced? Can costs be reduced?

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Value Chains: Organization Profile and Components Value chain analysis identifies the structure and organization of the value chain components (see Figures 1 and 2). Of particular interest are the following. • The Customer Value Model. Customers value specific criteria. Product/service quality and reliability, service guarantees, and so forth are attributes that represent value to customers. Customers incur real costs (and opportunity costs) when acquiring product/services, and these are important elements of the customer value model. Customer value drivers are derived from this model. • Core competencies profile. Each industry (and market sector) requires its participants to have specific resources and skills if it is to be successful. The value model chain permits a structured partnership approach, each partner contributing unique competencies. • Partner value objectives. Value chain participants are stakeholders, each of whom has specific expectations. Unless these are met, the success of the value chain is in doubt. • Value proposition. Using aggregate competencies, skills, and resources, the value chain identifies what is to be delivered to the customer and by what means, the benefits and costs for the customer, and the internal processes necessary to produce the value. • Value positioning and competitive advantage strategy. A value strategy states how the value proposition will be produced and delivered. The roles of knowledge, technology, and relationship management in value production, communication, and delivery are explored with a view to creating sustainable competitive advantage. • Value production and coordination. Successful value delivery is based on an understanding of stakeholder interests and their management as well as the effective management of operations (defined as production, logistics, and service). • Cost analysis of value drivers. Value drivers are specific to end user customers. Value drivers are the things that are important to customers and reflect customer priorities such that they will pay a premium for them or switch suppliers. Value drivers reinforce competitive advantage, but meeting value drivers has cost implications for the business.

Value Chains: Processes and Decisions Having identified and mapped the structure of the value chain, the next step is to identify the processes required to translate customer and value chain member expectations into delivered value (see Figures 3 and 4). Processes in value chains may have more than one owner, and this view is becoming increasingly widespread and strategically acceptable. Our interest is in identifying those industry value chains that are competitive and successful relative to the specific value chain under investigation. To identify both permits a comparison of alternative practices and the establishment of a “best practice” profile. Such an analysis identifies the specific activities within generic processes: (Text continues on page 279)

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Figure 1. The Value Chain: Organization Profile

276 Figure 2. The International Education Value Chain: Organization Profile

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Figure 3. Value Chains: Process and Decisions

278 Figure 4. Value Chain Processes in International Education


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• Design and development processes respond to the value expectations as well as the acquisition costs of end user customers and value-adding resellers (VARs). Design and development attempts to understand, and to respond to, the “value-in-use” characteristics of end users and VARs. • Procurement bridges design and development and production. For production to add utility, resources (and skills) are required. Procurement is an essential process in this context. • Production processes translate value concepts into form, place, and convenience utilities based on market volume, location, and product/service characteristics. Processes may be owned or outsourced. • Marketing serves as a conduit process in the value chain. It identifies customer (and VAR) expectations and communicates these to constituent processes. Marketing also has the role of communicating the value proposition to customers and VARs and managing organizational relationships during the delivery process. • Service has the task of ensuring that the design and development decisions reflected in the production and marketing decisions are delivered and installed. • Logistics has a major role in the value chain. The logistics process ensures that a cost-efficient and timely flow of materials occurs throughout the value chain. Logistics, therefore, identifies optimal ordering processes and manages inventories and deliveries. It designs flexibility into the procurement/production/reseller/end user interfaces. It is the strategic management of logistics that enhances the value added by each process.

Process Management Rather Than Functional Management To be effective, organizations need to work together to identify core processes across the demand and supply chains. They must then explore the implications of locating these core processes within specialist, partnership organizations. Each core process in the demand chain comprises numerous subprocesses, the importance of which varies across industries. Often, similar industries differ in their subprocess infrastructure. Where they do not differ is in the integration of core and subprocesses with the shared goal of maximizing strategic effectiveness and operating efficiencies. An example within many international offices is that of admissions. If thought of as a function, then the efficiencies and control aspects of operating a centralized group might seem to be overwhelming. Looked on as a series of processes, outsourcing all or some of the inquiries, applications, offers, and the actual enrollment becomes a possibility. The strategic operations “engine room” is the management of the interface relationships between process management, knowledge management, technology management, and relationship management to create value chains (see Figure 5).

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Figure 5. Strategic Operation

Knowledge Management Knowledge and knowledge management are integral components in strategic operations management. Knowledge management can be defined as the organizational capability that identifies, locates (creates or acquires), transfers, converts, and distributes knowledge into competitive advantage. For example, knowledge management influences R&D investment strategy and the application of experience-based knowledge to emphasize commercial abilities. Knowledge is a resource, in the same context as financial, human, and other resources. Knowledge management within strategic operations enables an organization (or a combination of organizations) to make more effective decisions about how to structure value chain operations to maximize customer satisfaction. In a broader context, we use the knowledge base within an organization to identify what additional knowledge is required to increase competitive advantage, that is, to develop a knowledge strategy.


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In the international scenario, knowledge management relates to our understanding of our markets, our customers’ needs and influences, opportunities and threats, marketing channels, and our brand position. It also relates to our understanding of our products and our ability to bring new products that represent customer needs into the market in a timely fashion. It is about the extent to which we value and nourish innovation and development. In the existing paradigm, we tend to know quite a bit about all of these things, although rarely at a deep level. Furthermore, new programs (products) sometimes take years to bring to market, whereas other times they take weeks. This will be replaced by institutions working under the new paradigm with a much deeper understanding of markets, customers, and brand and institutional processes that are designed to create and discard programs (products) quickly. Technology Management Another underlying influence in strategic operations management is technology management. It is broader in scope than manufacturing/operations strategy, that is, the integration of process and product technology to address the planning, development, and implementation of technological capabilities and capacities to meet the strategic and operational objectives of an organization or combination of organizations. Technology management can enhance the value delivered by planning manufacturing responses that deliver market volume and product and service delivery characteristics. It develops an asset structure that meets cost and plant utilization goals and customer value specifications. A technology strategy may be derived by deciding on the combined manufacturing and logistics support needed to meet market demand. Often the strategy that is derived is interorganizational. Technology management is more than introducing new computer and ebusiness systems. It is about integrating processes in appropriate technologies within the organization (and often between organizations) and includes those that might have strong nonelectronic components. As processes go beyond the single organization, interoperability (the seamless interconnection of systems) of system components must be seen across organizational lines. Relationship Management Relationship management is the managerial activity that identifies, establishes, maintains, and reinforces economic relationships with customers, suppliers, and other partners with complementary (and supplementary) capabilities

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and capacities so that the objectives of the organization and those of all other partners may be met by agreeing and implementing mutually acceptable strategies. Relationship management can influence positioning and strategy by identifying, developing, and maintaining partnerships that achieve the product service objectives needed to meet customer expectations. Relationship management moves the organization toward cross-functional decision making and control and is clearly an important component in strategic operations management. Typically, universities have always had a multitude of partnerships internationally: offshore providers, agents, and other universities and colleges. In many instances, these have been long-standing and successful relationships. Most, including the successful ones, have been grounded in a small number of activities and have not been deep. Typical of these has been the relationships between universities and recruiting agents. In the new paradigm this will change dramatically. Universities are facing the situation in which more and more students are being recruited via commission agents. This is costly and is often seen as an undesirable trend. There are two responses. The first is to attempt to limit access by agents by encouraging direct applications through the Web and through the presence of university staff continuously in key markets. The second is to embrace the change and develop a strategy that leverages agent activity for the benefit of the university and the student. The first strategy is bound to fail over a range of markets. Prospective students will seek out information resources from the university and use it to help select a destination, but they are likely to still look for the security of assistance from an agent. Furthermore, the Pareto (80/20) rule appears to apply. Twenty percent of the agents will bring forward 80% of the students recruited from agents. When the list of high-achieving agents is examined, it will include a large percentage of very substantial and professional organizations with offices across regions or even across the globe, with strategies to develop sophisticated marketing, and with electronic recruitment to universities they are confident working with. Working successfully with the new generation of “super agents” will no longer be a matter of signing a contract, attending a couple of education fairs, and expecting that students will come. It will be about extending both university and agent functions across the organizational boundaries with sophisticated online processes that move decision making away from university international offices in Melbourne or Sydney to where the student (and agent) is, or to virtual locations occupied by the partner organization. In this process, we stand to lose our ability to market our own products and to control the quality and flow of students. By developing the relationship to tie together electronic and other processes across the boundaries and by creating strong brand identification for sell-


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ing through the partnership, we maintain the control necessary and distribute the costs and benefits. There are many other examples. Three years ago, on the establishment of the new International Office at Macquarie University, it became clear very quickly that we did not have the physical resources or the technology to handle the management of inquiries, largely by e-mail. Three years on, we have been able to outsource prospect management to Hobsons, the British-based publisher and owner of the Australian Good Universities Guide (the Good Guides). This was not a product that could be purchased off the shelf; rather, it started as the realization that no university in Australia had the financial or technical resources to develop a set of electronic processes that we could clearly understand. Getting the product on air took the development of enormous trust between the five university stakeholders and between the stakeholders and the Good Guides. The result is that we not only have a stable prospect management system but also the ability to reinvent it almost continuously. The key to the development has been the creation of a multienterprise virtual organization from the fusing of the following: • Relationship management: the way the universities have worked together and opened up their own organizations and processes to the scrutiny of all and the relationship between the universities and Good Guides. • Knowledge management: our shared understanding of markets and Hobsons’s knowledge of call center processes, as well as the shared ability to innovate new product variations. • Technology management: Good Guides’ understanding of the technology needed to underpin the operation and the university’s ability to link the technology to its own systems. • The binding together by processes that extend university reach out through the Good Guides’ owned and operated technology.

WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES? Whether universities like it or not, the ground rules have changed. We are faced with being part of a globalized set of economies that are doing business in different ways. The only question is whether we as universities embrace the changes and use them to our benefit or see them as new ways of doing the old things.

Competition Our competition in Australia has traditionally come from the United States and the United Kingdom and, to a lesser extent, from Canada and New Zealand.

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The emergence of Asian and European destinations will change the dynamic. In Europe, the Bologna declaration moves degree structures to the British-American model, and a number of countries are looking closely at the success of the United Kingdom and Australia in taking an export position. Private providers also will become a bigger factor. Licensed and/or virtual programs offered through technology partnerships with a global reach will have a significant place in the market. The weakness of the Australian dollar supports the provision of good quality for price. This as well as lifestyle factors that support our activities now may not always be strong competitive factors for us. By not embracing the changes, we run the risk of facing a competitive market in which decline is the norm.

Marketing At the moment, we tend to clearly delineate marketing for different aspects of our business and see them as different businesses. Integrated marketing across onshore, offshore, and online/distance modes provides a network of choices in delivery mode and location. Student mobility products (incoming and outgoing exchange and study abroad students) are now seen as separate from (but will become part of) the network and the options. We are heading for a delivery network, which includes the home campus, and perhaps not the largest of the delivery network nodes. The Web will replace print media as the dominant marketing tool, and we will need to develop marketing strategies to funnel prospects to e-business sites. These sites will increasingly be those owned and operated by partners, whether agents, offshore providers, or what Evans and Wurster (1999) call “navigators,” organizations that do not sell anything. In these new relationships, we will begin to lose control over the direct marketing to clients. Our task will be to manage the relationships and to brand strongly our institutions to be marketed by intermediaries and network partners including other universities. This branding may have more to do with selling a lifestyle choice than education, as we presently know it. The essential task will be to funnel large numbers of deliberate and accidental inquiries from the Web to virtual and physical sites where these prospects can be converted to enrollments in our network (T. Lawrence, personal communication, 2001). We will need much stronger market research and the ability to mine successfully the data available from our prospects. Knowledge of our markets, the relationships with intermediaries, and our understanding of the technology will be the key components to manage.


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Recruitment The management of Web prospects and their conversion to enrollments in our network is the task of recruitment. The features of the emerging paradigm are the following: • • • • • • • • •

integrated, seamless prospect management strategies based on Web tools; multiple purchase channels for buyers, including multiple prices within the same market; commission arrangements with channel providers becoming the norm; integrated online application processes based on student-centered portals; growth of global/regional super agents with sophisticated application systems interfaced to university systems; full reliance on intermediaries; growth of network nodes to support local agents and offshore programs; global and regional partners contracting to deliver student numbers; and students who are more sophisticated in examining options globally.

The key to success will be to ensure the quality of processes and policies that flow across these organizational boundaries. It will no longer be a question of working closely with a single agent office to ensure the smooth flow of applications and responses but of working across the entire agent network to deliver students to a network of campuses, sites, and modes of delivery in virtual space. Independent quality reviews such as the Internationalization Quality Review will become necessary to provide assurance in a much more complex operating environment than exists presently.1

Admissions In general, admissions processes have been tightly held within university admissions offices or international offices, with final decisions being made by the relevant office according to academic criteria or the decisions being passed back to academic units. Even with offshore programs, this has been essentially the case, with some admissions by criteria being exercised by partners. Some agents also administer aspects of the process, although very much on a piecemeal, office-to-office basis. Online application systems are now beginning to be used, but they are not likely to interface across agent and home system boundaries. The new paradigm suggests the following aspects will be important: • admissions processes distributed electronically to major partners and intermediaries, including the transmission and storage of documents presently transmitted and stored manually;

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• certification of programs and standardization across trading blocs; • increased use of standard tests to supplement knowledge about national qualification structures; • self-assessment by students against entry criteria leading to new forms of conditional offers being generated automatically; • sophisticated double degree–, international degree–, and consortia-based articulation and pathway arrangements; and • fast-track development of customer driven products.

In a similar way to recruitment, admissions will be about loosening the institutional role to become that of quality assurance and policy, based on processes, strategies, and policies moving across organizational boundaries. We will need our efforts to concentrate on this quality assurance within a context of relationship, knowledge, and technology management.

Partnerships and Strategic Alliances Alliances such as the international Universitas 21 and the Australian Technology Network are bound in the end to fail, or at least fail to meet reasonable expectations. They will fail because they bring together like institutions separated only by physical location. They bring together the same set of capabilities, strategies, course types, and student profiles many times, when what is required is to bring together different but complementary capabilities. “Cooperation, not competition” will be the catch cry. Universities will need to develop strong alliances with key channel providers: global and regional agents, offshore partners, technology platform companies, Web navigation companies, universities, and university systems. These relationships will be strategically managed and will open both organizations to cross boundaries with processes, quality assurance, and strategy. Other alliances will be more transitory and informal. Groups will come together to work closely on specific projects; as the needs change, the groups will fade away or metamorphosize into something new. The older, low-level partnerships will continue to exist but will become increasingly marginalizd.

SUMMARY: PERSPECTIVES ON STRATEGY Knight (1994) described six major phases of internationalization of universities. The phases were awareness, commitment, planning, operationalization, review, and reinforcement. As internationalization comes of age in a university, there is movement through the different phases of the cycle. The integration of value chains into the process of the internationalization of universities is at an early stage and will proceed through this cycle as the new paradigm is addressed.


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The strategy of a university under the new paradigm will be based around the major components of the value chain. Identifying the customer value model. This includes the costs and benefits that our stakeholders, students, academic staff, administrators, and partners experience and incur during the selection and purchase process. Here we should attempt to enhance the benefits they perceive as important to their achieving maximum satisfaction, and where possible, work with our partners to reduce the costs customers incur when acquiring an educational product to maximize customer satisfaction. The value proposition. The value proposition should make very clear the attributes of our products and services that are available to customers. This identifies our response to the customers’ expectations. It also identifies the roles and tasks of employees, partners, and other intermediaries involved in the value creation and delivery process. Value positioning. Our value positioning is the unique or exclusive way in which we integrate knowledge management, technology management, and relationship management to gain competitive advantage. For example, knowledge management may be used to build an exclusive curriculum in an emerging academic area. Technology management may be used for applying knowledge to program content as well as the method of delivery. Positioning decisions are increasingly based on relationship management: The development of partnerships with other providers (co-option) is becoming commonplace and in many ways is as important as developing strong and sustainable relationships with intermediaries. Our strategy will move toward strong branding that links with the strategies of key global and regional partners and intermediaries. In this way we can benefit from the economies of specialization in areas where this is important (for example, curriculum) and economies of scale (for example, handling inquiries). Value production and coordination. This concerns the organizational structure necessary to implement our value positioning and the logistics to make it happen. It has two aspects. One aspect is the management of stakeholder interests; these include those of prospective students (customers) and our partners. Other important stakeholder groups are the community (our concern here should be to ensure that our educational programs are relevant to their specific needs and not some esoteric perceived need on our part) and the regulatory bodies within the countries that we operate. It is essential that our value proposition is in tune with local needs and that it complements rather than substitutes local educational offers. Organizational structure decisions include the structure and management of production, delivery, and service activities. This is an important aspect of value production and coordination as it ensures the cost-efficient implementation of the value offer.

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Cost analysis of value drivers. Value drivers are “the features that customers are prepared to pay a premium for, specific features that, if they are not available, they will switch to an alternative supplier.” Because these are essential to the customer, they are also essential to the success of the value chain partnership that has been organized to deliver customer satisfaction. Implementation of the value strategy depends on the cost-efficient delivery of the value proposition. It follows that the value drivers should be monitored constantly to ensure that the costs of production and delivery are within budgeted totals. Furthermore, they should also be monitored to be equally sure they remain relevant to the customers’ needs. This strategy, reviewed on an annual basis, radiates out from the university to link with the strategies of major partners and intermediaries and enables a coherent examination of stakeholder needs. Strategies if they are to be effective require efficient implementation. The new paradigm requires shifts in our attitudes towards managing international education as well as our behavior. Many will recognize the traditional attitudes and practices. The new paradigm reflects the many changes that are occurring and suggests the new structures and behavior patterns that will be required if we are to be successful.

NOTE 1. The Internationalization Quality Review is conducted as a professional service by the European Universities Association, a system that has evolved from the Internationalization Quality Review Process described in Knight and de Wit (1999).

REFERENCES Adams, T. (1998). The operation of transnational degree and diploma programs: The Australian case. Journal of Studies in International Education, 2(1), 3-22. Davidow, W. H., & Malone, M. S. (1992). The virtual corporation. New York: HarperCollins. Davis, D., Olsen, A., & Bohm, A. (Eds.). (2000). Transnational education providers, partners and policy. Brisbane: IDP Education Australia. Evans, P., & Wurster, T. S. (1999). Getting real about virtual commerce. Harvard Business Review, November/December. Knight, J. (1994). Internationalization: Elements and checkpoints. Ottawa: Canadian Bureau for International Education.


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Knight J., & de Wit, H. (Eds.). (1999). Quality and internationalisation in higher education. Paris: OECD/IMHE.

SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES Ashkenas, R., Ulrich, D., Todd, J., & Kerr, S. (1995). The boundaryless organisation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bowman, C. & Ambrosini, V. (2000). Value creation versus value capture: Towards a coherent definition of value in strategy. British Journal of Management, 11. Byrne, G., & Brandt, W. (1992). In W. A. Davidow & M. S. Malone (Eds.), The virtual corporation. New York: HarperCollins. Davenport, T., & Prusak, L. (1988). Working knowledge. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Day, G. (1990). Market driven strategy. New York: Free Press. Hagel, J., III, & Singer, M. (1999). Unbundling the corporation. Harvard Business Review, March/April. Johansson H. J., McHugh, P., Pendlebury, A. J., & Wheeler, W., III. (1993). Business process reengineering. Chichester, UK: Wiley. Johnston, P., & Lawrence, P. R. (1988). Beyond vertical integration: The rise of the value adding partnership. Harvard Business Review, July/August. Kay, J. (2000). Strategy and the delusion of grand designs. In Financial Times (Eds.), Mastering strategy. London: Financial Times/Prentice Hall. Koch, C. (Ed.). (1994). The power of interorganisational systems. Indications, 11(1). Leonard-Barton, D. (1992). Core capabilities and core rigidities: A paradox in managing new product development. Strategic Management Journal, 13. Lipnack, J., & Stamps, J. (1994). The age of network: Organising principles for the 21st century. New York: Omneo. Magretta, J. (1998). The power of virtual integration: An interview with Dell Computer’s Michael Dell. Harvard Business Review, March/April. McHugh, P., Merli, G., & Wheeler, G., III. (1995). Beyond business process reengineering, Chichester, UK: Wiley. Noori, H. (1990). Managing the dynamics of new technology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Normann, R., & Ramirez, R. (1993). From value chain to value constellation: Designing interactive strategy. Harvard Business Review, July/August. Oates, D. (1998). Outsourcing and the virtual organisation. London: Century Business Books. O’Sullivan, L., & Gerringer, J. M. (1993). Harnessing the power of your value chain. Long Range Planning, 26(2).

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Slywotzky, A. J., & Morrison, D. J. (1997). The profit zone. New York: John Wiley. Stewart, G. B. (1997). Intellectual capital. The new wealth of nations. New York: Currency Doubleday. Uren, D. (2001). To winners go more spoils in rivalry tango. The Australian, 10. Webster, F. (1994). Market driven management. New York: John Wiley. Whittington, R., Pettigrew, A., & Ruigrok, W. (2000). New notions of organizational “fit.” In Financial Times (Eds.), Mastering strategy. London: Financial Times/Prentice Hall.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS David Walters is a professor of marketing and head of the Business Department in the School of Economic and Financial Studies at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia. Prior to joining Macquarie University, he held posts at Cranfield School of Management, Templeton College Oxford, Stirling University, and The European Business School. He has published 14 textbooks on marketing subjects and more than 30 articles in professional journals. He is the Director of the Centre for Strategic Operations Management at Macquarie University. The Centre has been set up to investigate emerging business models that focus on enhancing customer value through the integration of supply chain efficiencies with demand chain strategies. Tony Adams is the international director at Macquarie University in Sydney, with a wide-ranging responsibility for internationalization of the university including strategy, onshore recruitment, offshore programs, and student mobility. He joined Macquarie in 1998. Prior to that, he was dean of International Programs at RMIT University in Melbourne for 7 years (1991-1998). He was a member of the RMIT Foundation Professoriate and received in 1997 the IDP Education Australia International Educator Inaugural award for his contribution to international education. He came to international education with a background of teaching and research in computer science and educational computing. He is widely published in both educational computing and international education.

Journal of Studies in International Education van Aken / Mobility Obstacles for Incoming Students

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The Time and the Trouble: Mobility Obstacles for Incoming Students From Outside Europe Daniël van Aken The present study attempts to ascertain whether the Netherlands places more obstacles than other countries in the path of incoming students from outside the European Union (EU) and European Economic Area (EEA). A comparison is made with the United Kingdom, Germany, France, and Denmark. For each of the five host countries, descriptions are given of the procedures for obtaining entry and a residence permit, the problems students experience as they go through the procedures, the quality of the information explaining those procedures, and the government initiatives being taken to remove obstacles to mobility. It is fair to conclude from the study that the mobility of foreign students is hampered by problems in all five of the host countries to differing degrees. But compared with the United Kingdom, France, and Germany, the Dutch government is doing relatively little to remove obstacles to mobility. The conclusion of this study is that the Netherlands places obstacles in the path of incoming foreign students, despite desiring their presence. These obstacles are equal to or greater than those experienced by foreign students in the other countries examined.

Because the Netherlands places restrictions on immigration, it is often considered to be much less hospitable than other European Union (EU) countries in 1 receiving students from outside the EU and European Economic Area (EEA). Substantiated, this claim would demonstrate how Dutch immigration regulations are countering government policy that encourages that Dutch education be secured on international markets by, among other things, recruiting foreign students. The treatment of these students also relates to European policy: The supporters of the Bologna Declaration, which includes the Netherlands, pledged to improve the transparency of European higher education and to better its competitive position on international markets.

Journal of Studies in International Education, Vol. 5 No. 4, Winter 2001 291-316 © 2001 Association for Studies in International Education

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For each host country, the procedures for obtaining entry and a residence permit are described in general terms. This is done on the basis of the rules for entry and temporary residence,2 the parties that play a role in the process, the requirements that applicants must meet, the time it takes to process applications, and the possibilities for foreign students to work alongside their studies or do an internship as part of their studies. The rules and procedures are complex and, in some countries, subject to frequent change. Inconsistencies in the way they are interpreted and implemented at various levels make it difficult to describe them clearly and consistently. This study will therefore offer an impression and a modest inventory of the most relevant procedures and requirements.3 The aim of this study is to offer an impression of obstacles as they are experienced in practice. This report will conclude by comparing the five host countries in terms of their procedures for obtaining entry and a residence permit, the possibilities they offer foreign students who wish to work alongside their studies, the information that is supplied, and the major obstacles. The main differences between the Netherlands and the other countries will also be described.

THE NETHERLANDS Procedures for Entry and a Residence Permit Most nationals of non-EU and non-EEA countries who wish to come to the Netherlands for a period of less than 3 months are required to apply for a “short-stay visa.” If they wish to come for more than 3 months, they must instead obtain an “authorization for temporary stay.” In both cases, they must apply in person to their nearest Dutch embassy or consulate. The embassy or consulate then asks the Visa Service of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Immigration and Naturalization Service of the Ministry of Justice for authorization to issue either the visa or the authorization. If a student travels to the Netherlands with an authorization for temporary stay, within 3 days of arrival they must apply to the local immigration authorities (Alien Police) for a residence permit. This permit will be valid for a maximum of 12 months and may be extended later. Students with a residence permit for study purposes are allowed to work for no more than 10 hours per week or full-time during the summer months. The employer applies for a work permit at the regional labor exchange and submits a document from the host institution confirming the student’s status. The student is responsible for obtaining a fiscal number. The same procedures also apply for degree-related internships.

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Possible Problems The procedural problems that discourage international students who wish to study in the Netherlands have been the subject of discussion for some time. Two symposia in 1997 and 1999 drew attention to these mobility obstacles for various groups, including international students.4 Recent magazine and journal articles have given examples of all sorts of hindrances and have called on the government of the Netherlands to do something about them.5 The Association of Universities in the Netherlands pointed out in a letter to the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science that international students and scientists run into serious problems when they try to come to the Netherlands.6 At the beginning of 2000, Nuffic published a survey of the problems that hamper the international mobility of students, trainees, researchers, and other academic visitors.7 Non-European students can have problems with any of the following when they apply for an authorization for temporary stay and/or residence permit: • • • • • • •

the duration of the application procedure, the requirements regarding documents, local policies of Dutch embassies and consulates, the bureaucratic nature of the procedure, the treatment of applicants, the financial requirements, and a lack of clear information about the procedure.

DENMARK Procedures for Entry and a Residence Permit The Danish Immigration Service falls under the Ministry of the Interior and is the first authority in matters concerning immigration. The service processes all applications for permission to enter and stay in Denmark. A student wishing to study in Denmark must apply for a visa and a residence permit to the Danish diplomatic representative in their country of origin. Nationals of certain countries need a visa if they will be staying less than 3 months and a residence permit if they will be staying longer than 3 months. Residence permits can be extended. Foreign students who reside in Copenhagen can apply for an extension to the Public Inquiries Office of the Danish Immigration Service, whereas those living outside Copenhagen apply at the local police station.8 Students who desire a work permit must apply at the Danish embassy or consulate in their home country prior to departure. Extensions are applied for at the

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Danish Immigration Service. In general, students are not granted a work permit in conjunction with a residence permit. Students who have been in Denmark for more than 18 months9 can obtain permits for full-time work during the summer months and for part-time work during the academic year.10 Students whose full-time studies include a period of work placement that is an integral part of their curriculum are supposed to apply for a work permit at the same time they apply for a residence permit. In practice, however, it seems that students often do a work placement without remuneration and without having obtained a work permit.

Possible Problems Three problems seem to occur during the process of applying for a residence permit. In descending order of importance, they are related to the duration of the procedure, the way international students are treated, and the information about the procedures.

GERMANY Procedures for Entry and a Residence Permit The diplomatic representatives (embassies and consulates) of Germany are responsible for issuing visas. The Foreign Office itself is not involved with individual decisions. Immigration policy in Germany is determined by the Bundesländer through the Aliens Registration Authority (Ausländerbehörde), which falls under the Ministry of the Interior and the senators of the Länder. An embassy or consulate may issue a visa only after the Aliens Registration Authority has ruled on the case.11 There are three relevant student visas: a visa for study purposes, a study applicant visa, and a visa to attend a language course. If a student intends to stay longer than 3 months, they must apply to the Aliens Registration Authority for a residence permit on arrival. 12 Students are allowed to work 90 days between semesters. This does not require a work permit. Any additional work must not interfere with the applicant’s studies and requires a double permit. This must be approved by the local employment office and by the Aliens Registration Authority. The local employment office must make sure that the job cannot be filled by a German or a national of an EU member state. This preference check procedure takes 4 to 6 weeks.


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For a degree-related work placement lasting fewer than 3 months, a permit is not required. Should it last between 3 and 6 months a permit is required, but an exemption can be obtained from the Central Office for Job Placement (ZAV-Zentralstelle für Arbeitsvermittlung). The student must submit the following documents: a visa, the employer’s plan for the work placement, and a letter from the institution confirming the necessity of the work placement.

Possible Problems The most significant problems faced by international students who need a visa for study purposes are related to the duration of the procedure for obtaining the visa, the financial requirements, the local policies of embassies and consulates, and the bureaucratic nature of the procedures. In addition, renewal of the residence permit depends on whether or not the student has made satisfactory progress in his or her studies. Some local offices of the Aliens Registration Authority do not accept the judgment of the higher education institution but follow their own criteria. Problems can also occur when a student has switched to a different study program. If this is done after the initial 18-month period in which it is allowed, or if the switch is to an unrelated field, the local authorities can interpret this as a change of purpose and refuse to renew the residence permit.

FRANCE Procedures for Entry and a Residence Permit With the exception of Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, Switzerland, and Vatican State, nationals of countries that are not members of the EEA are required to 13 apply for a visa before leaving their own country. Visas can be obtained from the consulate or embassy in the applicant’s home country. Students may be required to present their applications in person.14 If the application is approved, the visa office then informs the Service de la Circulation de l’Etranger at the foreign ministry in France. A tourist visa cannot be converted to a student visa. A student visa gives the right to multiple entries during its period of validity. If students will be staying longer than 3 months, they must apply for a residence permit on arrival. This is done at the local Préfecture (of the Ministry of the Interior). There are three kinds of visas: a long-stay visa (visa de long séjour), a visa for a prospective student (étudiant-concours), and a short-stay visa. International

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students are allowed to work an average of 20 hours per week during the academic year and full-time during semester breaks.15 A work permit (called a temporary work authorization) is required and can be applied for at the local employment department (Service de la Main d’Oeuvre Etrangère at the Direction Départementale du Travail et de l‘Emploi). A decision is made within about 3 weeks. With the permit, a student is entitled to work under the same conditions as any EU student. The work permit is issued for a maximum of 9 months and is renewable. For work during the university holidays, the permit is valid for a max16 imum of 3 months. A work permit is not needed for a degree-related work placement (stage) if the student is enrolled as a full-time student at an accredited higher education institution. In terms of French labor law, a stage is not considered to be a work contract.17 There must be a work placement agreement (convention de stage), however, between the company and the higher education institution. The student must continue to be registered at the institution for the duration of the placement.

Possible Problems International students who need a long-stay visa to study in France can encounter problems related to the duration of the procedure, obtaining the required documents, local policies of embassies or consulates, and financial requirements.

THE UNITED KINGDOM Procedures for Entry and a Residence Permit The Home Office, through its Immigration and Nationality Directorate, is responsible for immigration policy. The Foreign & Commonwealth Office assists in the operation of procedures that take place outside the United Kingdom. Visas must be applied for at the diplomatic post in the student’s home country prior to travel. The visa will also serve as permission to enter the United Kingdom for a specified period. On arrival, students need to show their passport and visa to the immigration officer who grants leave to enter (remain). The leave can be extended later if necessary. An application for an extension is submitted to the Immigration and Nationality Directorate.


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Most students enrolled in studies for more than 6 months have a stamp (“restriction on employment”) in their passport allowing them to work for supplementary income. They may work up to 20 hours per week during the academic year and full-time during semester breaks.18 They no longer need to apply to a Jobcentre for individual permission to work. Students with a “prohibition on employment” (generally students enrolled for 6 months or less) are not allowed to work.19 20 Most people who work have to pay National Insurance (NI) contributions. Once students have found a job, they must apply to their local Benefits Agency office for an NI number.21 It takes up to 8 weeks for this number to be issued, but the student does not need it before starting work. Students who have a restriction on employment may undertake full-time degree-related work placements if they are studying at a recognized university or college, the placement is essential for attaining qualification, the time spent on the placement forms a relatively small part of the overall course duration, and the placement does not go beyond the course completion date. Earnings from a work placement can be taken into account in assessing the student’s financial situation. 22

Possible Problems In May 1999, UKCOSA, the Council for International Education, published a survey about the difficulties students have when trying to obtain entry clearance for study purposes.23 The survey originated due to numerous complaints. The most common difficulties relate to the doubts of the entry clearance officer at the diplomatic post regarding students’ intentions to leave the United Kingdom at the end of their studies.24 The institutions felt that the entry clearance process was working against both the student and institution. Students were often not properly informed about the procedures, and the interview procedures caused various difficulties related to timing and location. Interview techniques were described as intimidating, and communication with relevant authorities was slow. The outcome of the survey was sent to all entry clearance officers. At the same time, Prime Minister Tony Blair launched an initiative to attract more overseas students. The proposed measures included streamlining problematic visa arrangements, reducing the need for students to reapply for leave to remain in the United Kingdom while studying, better informing the students, and making it easier for students to work during their studies.25 The government, with the British Council, started a marketing campaign in 2000 in key countries around the world.26 In addition, the Minister of State for Higher Education stated

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in January 2000 that visa and entry procedures should be streamlined and began taking action. When institutions were contacted in the fall of 2000 regarding this survey, visa problems were not as big of an issue. As noted by the British Council, the problems encountered should be viewed as part of the bigger picture: More than 90% of student visa applications are successful.28 Students who want to study in the United Kingdom and have to apply for a visa can encounter problems due to unjustified decisions and treatment of the entry clearance officer, the duration of the procedure, financial requirements, and local effects.

INDONESIA: A CASE STUDY To illustrate the entry procedures of the five host countries, Indonesia was selected as a sending country and a survey was conducted to learn about the experiences of nationals. Information was received regarding the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, France, and Denmark.29 The most common problems were related either to the letter of acceptance from the host institution or to the financial requirements. Only the Netherlands Education Centre (NEC) specifically mentioned the length of the procedure. The NEC and the Danish Embassy reported that procedural delays occur mainly when applications are concentrated in a specific period and when applicants are unable to present required documentation. Both Denmark and the Netherlands refer to the contacts with the home country as a possible cause of delays. Lesser problems are related to the translation of documents, evidence of sufficient funds, validity of the passport, and for the Netherlands the legalization of the birth certificate. This example, which brings several problems to light, is followed by a more in-depth review of the main obstacles. The host countries are all compared with the Netherlands on a number of points: • • • • • •

the procedure and conditions for gaining entry and obtaining a residence permit, the duration of these procedures, the consistency with which the procedure is implemented, the quality of the information provided, possibilities for working in conjunction with studies, and proposed initiatives to improve the situation.

The Conclusion will indicate how the Netherlands compares with the other countries in terms of its accessibility to academic guests.


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Procedure for Entry and a Residence Permit The Normal Procedure for Obtaining a Visa Only the United Kingdom and France allow their embassies and/or consulates to make decisions regarding whether or not to issue a visa. United Kingdom: student → embassy → student. This procedure is unique due to the large role it gives to the entry clearance officer at the British embassy or High Commission. This official can issue a visa (entry clearance) on the spot. On this basis, the immigration officer at the port of entry issues the permit to enter the United Kingdom. Very recently, the entry clearance officer has been given an even greater role in that both the visa and permit can be issued at the embassy. It is expected that this new procedure will reduce the number of requests for extensions to residence permits. France: student → embassy → student. The visa service at the French embassy or consulate decides on applications and issues visas. In the other countries, the embassies and/or consulates must first obtain permission from an official body in their home country. Germany: student → embassy → local Aliens Registration Authority → embassy → student. The German Embassy writes to the Aliens Registration Authority in the municipality where the applicant intends to live, asking for an inquiry and for permission to issue a visa. The Aliens Registration Authority sends its findings to the embassy. Denmark: student → embassy → Danish Immigration Service → embassy → student. The applicant immediately requests a residence permit. The application is processed by the Immigration Service in Denmark. Netherlands: student → embassy → Immigration and Naturalization Service → Alien Police → Immigration and Naturalization Service → embassy → student. The procedure for obtaining a visa involves more administrative steps in the Netherlands than in the other countries. Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands offer shortened versions of their visa application procedure. Fast-Track Procedures The main feature of all shortened or fast-track procedures is that they address the time-consuming communication between the embassy and the home coun-

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try. In fact, the countries that do not require this communication seem to have no need for an alternative procedure. The Dutch shortened procedure is unique in that the host institution submits the visa application on behalf of the student directly to the Immigration and Naturalization Service in the Netherlands.30 The student therefore submits all the information and documents for the visa application to the university and not to the embassy. The Immigration and Naturalization Service makes the decision and informs both the university and the embassy. Denmark and Germany, on the other hand, have special procedures that delegate tasks to the embassy. Denmark’s International Study Program uses a special form that allows the embassy to issue a residence permit without first obtaining permission from the Immigration Service. Germany has a similar, shortened procedure for students with grants from German research institutes. The embassies can issue visas to these students without first consulting the Aliens Registration Authority in Germany. Denmark’s shortened procedure using the “purple form” is less extreme. The form passes between the university in Denmark and the student until the application is complete and verified, at which point the student submits it to the embassy. In Germany, the normal procedure can be shortened by a provision stating that if the Aliens Registration Authority has not responded within a certain amount of time, the embassy can assume that the application is acceptable and can issue the visa. In the cases of the Netherlands and Denmark, the shortened procedures are achieved through the host universities’ willingness to back the applications. Procedure for Obtaining a Residence Permit Shortly after arrival in all of the countries except the United Kingdom, foreign students must register at the civic or municipal registry office. In the Netherlands, all foreign nationals must register with the police and in the United Kingdom only the nationals of some countries. The further procedure for obtaining a residence permit is much the same in the Netherlands, Germany, and France. If the person intends to stay longer than 3 months, they must apply immediately for a residence permit. This permit is granted for 1 year and must be extended annually. In France, the first application for a permit must be accompanied by a medical report. Also in France, students receive a provisional permit until the proper permit is issued. In the United Kingdom and Denmark, the procedure is slightly different. A residence permit for Denmark must be applied for in the applicant’s own coun-


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try. The new procedure in the United Kingdom will probably have a similar result. In both countries, these generally 1-year permits must be extended using a procedure similar to that in the other three countries. Bureaucracy The bureaucratic nature of the procedures is a source of delay, but the procedures themselves also create problems that are shared to some extent by all the countries. This is especially true in the case in the Netherlands, where the large number of government services involved results in communication problems and robs the process of transparency. Meeting the detailed requirements and going through all the formalities is a slow and difficult process that students can find disillusioning. They must frequently deal with immigration officers who can at times be unhelpful. This raises doubts among the students and may even discourage them from pursuing their aim of studying abroad. Students are often treated as migrants; they may hear minimal words of welcome and few people anticipate their needs. In certain countries this phenomenon is highly visible. Particularly among the administrators the students must deal with, there is little appreciation for the importance of internationalizing higher education. Or, as reported from the United Kingdom, the service workers are often unwilling to see the students as clients.

THE CONDITIONS FOR ENTRY Conditions for a Visa All five countries require presentation of many of the same documents: a passport, birth certificate, letter from the university, diplomas, and evidence that living expenses can be covered. The Netherlands has a fixed amount of money that a student must have; the United Kingdom does not. Denmark, Germany, and France have norms pertaining to the amount and its availability, but these are not always clear. All countries require a number of documents proving financial solvency. The Netherlands, France, and Germany require that students have health insurance. All but the United Kingdom require a birth certificate. Germany and France require a certified translation of the birth certificate in some cases, and the Netherlands requires some certificates to be legalized and/or verified. In the Netherlands, it is possible for the authorities to demand proof that the student will have a place to live.

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Problems Related to the Conditions for Entry In all five countries, students seeking entry have trouble producing documents that meet all the administrative requirements. Particularly difficult are the documents proving that the student will have enough money to live on. In all cases, students can be confronted with an unexpected request to produce extra documents that are not formally required. These can pertain to such things as housing, language skills, marital status, and extra sources of income. Students seeking entry to the Netherlands can encounter unique problems. In addition to the cost and time incurred from legalizing and/or verifying a birth certificate, they may also have to supplement the usual financial evidence with a guarantee from a representative or institution in the Netherlands.

Visa for Preparing to Study Except for Denmark, all the countries offer students who have not yet been admitted to a university the possibility of obtaining a visa for the purpose of preparing themselves for enrollment and, in the cases of the United Kingdom and Germany, for orienting themselves to the available opportunities. Visa for preparatory purposes have lengths varying from 90 days (France) to 1 year (the Netherlands). In all cases, the visa for preparatory purposes can be converted to a residence permit.

THE CONDITIONS FOR RESIDENCE Conditions for a Residence Permit All five countries have virtually the same conditions for obtaining and extending a residence permit. The differences lie in whether or not health insurance is required. Students in Denmark and the United Kingdom are covered by the national health scheme; in the other three countries they must present proof of coverage. France requires the results of a medical examination. The Netherlands and Germany charge a fee for the residence permit: 57 and 41 euros, respectively. Students in the Netherlands must present a document stating that they do not have a criminal record. When students report to the local civil registry office, as is customary in four of the five countries, they must present a passport. In the Netherlands, they may also be required to present a legalized birth certificate.


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Problems Related to the Residence Permit In all five countries, requirements are similar to those of the visa and therefore similar problems can occur. As explicitly mentioned in the case of Germany, a student’s residence permit may be endangered by a change of study program. Also in Germany, students can run into problems when the Aliens Registration Authority assesses the progress they are making in their studies. In the Netherlands, students can have trouble if they need a fiscal number to work but have not yet received their residence permit.

DURATION OF THE PROCEDURE To Obtain Entry In general, the procedure to obtain entry to the host country is considered too long. After submitting applications, students must wait varying times to learn whether or not the visa will be issued. The differences between the five countries are considerable. Nominal Duration

United Kingdom France Germany Denmark The Netherlands

1-10 days 4 weeks 2 months 3 months

Possible Delay

Days or weeks Several days to 1 month 6-8 weeks 4 months or more 4 months or more

It is fair to say that in all five cases, a student from any country never knows exactly how long the visa application procedure will take.

Residence Permit Applications for a residence permit, or for an extension to a residence permit, seem to present fewer problems in terms of duration. In the United Kingdom, it takes between 1 day and 2 weeks but can occasionally take 1 month. The procedure takes between 2 weeks and 3 months in France. In the Netherlands, at least 25% of all applications take longer than 3 months.

Reasons for the Delays The delays in processing applications for entry and residence permits are nearly all blamed on the large numbers of applications submitted during peak

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periods. There are certain months when the services simply do not have the capacity to deal with the flood of work. This type of problem is experienced in nearly all the countries with respect to China.31 Only the Netherlands and Denmark indicate that the exchange of information between the embassies and the central immigration services is cause for delays. This is mentioned as a possible cause in Germany in cases where the Aliens Registration Authority is involved.

Consequences of the Delays Students applying for entry to all of the countries experience the same problems as a result of these delays. They are unable to start their studies on time, which can have far-reaching repercussions.

CONSISTENCY WITH WHICH THE PROCEDURE IS IMPLEMENTED The complicated and varied administrative procedures are not designed to meet the needs of the student, as local officers often implement the procedures as they see fit. A certain degree of local interpretation occurs in all five countries at the embassies, consulates, and local immigration services. Officers exercise their own discretion in enforcing the conditions and implementing the application procedure. They may have different ideas about the procedure, which leads to students not being given accurate, consistent information. Relations between home and host countries can affect how students are treated and the strictness with which rules are applied. The circumstances in the home countries can also affect the situation. Officers at embassies and consulates in China, Pakistan, India, Russia, and the countries of northern and sub-Saharan Africa are said to cause extra problems. Bureaucracy and the inconsistent implementation of procedures is often a reason for universities and other higher education institutions to maintain their own relations with the immigration authorities. These relations are both formal and informal. Good relations are considered essential to facilitate the procedures, improve communication, and overcome problems. Such relations were reported from the Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany. A recent government initiative in France will lead to similar relationships.

THE INFORMATION PROVIDED In the Netherlands and Denmark, the information provided for students is often inaccurate and incomplete. It seems that the agencies preparing the materi-


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als are not well informed about the requirements that foreign students must meet and the procedures they must go through. The agencies do not always do an adequate job of informing the higher education institutions about the procedures and any changes that are being made. In both countries, it is reportedly difficult to obtain information from the agencies, or to find out the status of a particular application. It was reported that in Denmark, Germany, and France, the criteria regarding evidence that applicants will be able to support themselves financially are not applied with consistency.

POSSIBILITIES FOR WORKING ALONGSIDE ONE’S STUDIES For most international students, studying and living in Europe is expensive. It helps if they can supplement their income by taking a job alongside their studies. The five host countries approach this issue in different ways. The conditions under which international students are allowed to work are as follows:

United Kingdom France Germany Denmark The Netherlands

During the Academic Year

Between Semesters

Work Permit Required?

20 hours per week and Full-time 20 hours per week and Full-time 90 days per year 15 hours per week and Full-time 10 hours per week or Full-time

Full-time Full-time

No Yes No Yes Yes

Full-time Full-time

In general, the procedures do not make it easy for students to work alongside their studies. Conditions are attached that can create problems. It is especially difficult, for example, when consideration must be given to other categories of applicants before a work permit can be granted. This condition does not apply to foreign students in the Netherlands. In the Netherlands and Denmark, foreign students wishing to do an internship (period of work placement) as part of their studies need a work permit. This is not necessary in the United Kingdom and France. In Germany, a work permit is not required for the first 3 months of an internship, but if it lasts longer an exemption must be obtained. Six months is then the maximum.

INITIATIVES FOR IMPROVEMENT In all five countries, there are obstacles hampering the mobility of students. However, each has taken various initiatives to improve the situation. In the past

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2 years, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany have both proposed and achieved improvement. The United Kingdom has come the farthest, in the wake of the Blair initiative of 1999. The procedures for obtaining entry clearance and permission to stay have been simplified, and the requirements have been made less strict. Much more information is now available, access to incidental jobs is more free, and it is easier for students to bring family members with them. The various ministries involved are all aware of the problems and are willing to make significant improvements. But although the political will to remove obstacles to mobility is definitely present, the introduction of those improvements at lower administrative levels is not going smoothly. The same is true for France and Germany to a lesser degree. Since 1998, the processing of visa applications has been simplified and is now more transparent. It is now easier for foreign students to work, and the first steps have been taken to make the procedure for obtaining a residence permit more efficient. The ministries involved take internationalization seriously and act accordingly. But, as in the United Kingdom, the ministries’ resolve to make it easier for foreign students to gain entry has not yet filtered down to the lower levels. In 2000, German ministries and services developed measures to simplify the procedures and make the requirements less strict. There, too, it has become easier for foreign students to take incidental jobs and to bring family members with them. But as in France and the United Kingdom, the new political resolve is not yet felt at all levels. In all three countries, higher education institutions express confidence and optimism regarding their ministries’ willingness to continue to remove obstacles. Compared with the eagerness of the other countries, Denmark and the Netherlands are lagging behind. In Denmark it has become somewhat easier for foreign students to work, but in general no great changes are expected that would remove obstacles to mobility. The Netherlands is in an intermediate stage. The requirements for obtaining entry and a residence permit have been recently relaxed. But other measures that might bring about further improvement are either still under consideration or implementation has not yet begun. The ministries involved are far from agreement on a joint plan that would improve and simplify visa, residence permit, and work permit procedures.

CONCLUSION The purpose of this study was to determine whether foreign students wishing to enter the Netherlands face more or fewer obstacles in comparison with the United Kingdom, France, Denmark, and Germany. In spite of the modest scale of


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this study, the complexity of the procedures, and the variety of ways in which they are carried out, an answer to this query seems to have been found. It is fair to say that in all five host countries, nationals of countries outside the EU and the EEA face many problems when seeking permission to enter one of the host countries for academic purposes. They must go through a strenuous process that contrasts sharply with that of other academic visitors. The students have no idea how long the procedure will take, especially in the case of the Netherlands. In fact, the Netherlands scores worse than the other countries in a number of respects. The data gathered for this study indicate that foreign students seeking to enter the Netherlands face several extra obstacles. The processing of visa applications clearly takes longer in the Netherlands than in any of the other countries. The visa procedure is supposed to take 3 months but can take 4 or more. Obtaining or renewing a residence permit also takes relatively long in the Netherlands. This is considered to be a problem. Gaining entry to the Netherlands involves more administrative steps than in the other countries. Communication problems are inevitable as information is passed between countries. In both the Netherlands and Denmark, delays are blamed on these bureaucratic exchanges. In addition, many problems occur due to unclear information provided by various bodies. The Netherlands is the most difficult country for foreign students to study in and work in simultaneously. Only the Netherlands requires foreign students to both obtain a work permit and choose between year-round, part-time, or seasonal full-time work. In addition, foreign students in the Netherlands are permitted to work the least number of hours, must obtain a work permit to engage in a degree-related internship, and require a fiscal number that can only be obtained with a residence permit. The Netherlands has entry requirements that other countries do not. The most striking of these is that birth certificates be verified and/or legalized. This creates unique problems. Applicants may also have to provide a financial guarantee from a Dutch institution or representative in conjunction with the usual evidence of financial solvency. Regarding familiarization visits, the Netherlands offers a restricted visa to research various possibilities for study. This study has revealed that in each of the countries examined, various problems affect the mobility of foreign students. Compared with the United Kingdom, France, and Germany, the Dutch government is not doing enough to remove these obstacles. The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science acknowledges the problems, but to this date significant joint ministerial efforts to change the situation have not been made. There is no sign whatsoever of an action plan that is broadly supported by all relevant government departments that aims to help Dutch higher education establish a position on international

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markets. The higher education institutions in the Netherlands have little confidence that their government will purposefully strive to improve the situation. In the other four countries, expectations in this regard are more optimistic. The conclusion of this initial study is that the Netherlands places obstacles in the path of incoming foreign students, despite desiring their presence. These obstacles are equal to or greater than those experienced by foreign students in the other countries examined here. APPENDIX A Internet Sources The Netherlands NUFFIC: http://www.nuffic.nl/study/immigration/whom.html Department of Justice: http://www.minjust.nl:8080/a_beleid/thema/vreemd/vreemd.htm Royal Netherlands Embassy Jakarta: http://www.neth-embassy-jakarta.org/pages/con-visa.htm http://www.vreemdelingenland.com/indadres.htm http://www.inburgernet.nl/index1.html

Denmark Rektorkollegiet, The Danish Rectors’ Conference: http://www.rks.dk/studying/studyen.htm ICU, Informations Centre for International Exchange: http://www.icu.dk/eng_comi/uk_comin.htm Danish Immigration Service: http://www.udlst.dk/sjle1/uspjeceng.html http://www.udlst.dk/sjle1/regler/visa.html http://www.udlst.dk/sjle1/regler/student.html http://www.udlst.dk/sjle6/nogle99/ Royal Danish Embassy Jakarta: http://www.emb-denmark.or.id/consul/visa.htm The Royal Danish Embassy New Delhi: http://www.denmarkindia.com/ The Royal Danish Embassy Beijing: http://www.dk-embassy-cn.org/Visa___Travel/visa___travel.html Royal Danish Consulate General Hong Kong: http://www.dkembassycn.org/hongkong/Consular_Section/Other_Citizens/Studying/studying.html Denmark’s International Study Program (DIS): http://www.disp.dk/practical/aspects.html The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University: http://www.studieforvaltning.kvl.dk/haandbog/2000-2001/uk/formalities/ University of Southern Denmark: http://www.sdu.dk/Adm/Educ/ex-stud/practica/practinfovisitstudframes.html Engineering College of Aarhus: http://www.iha.dk/English_Version/Living_in_Dk/living_in_dk.html Aarhus University: http://www.au.dk/en/section8/rulestud.htm Copenhagen Business School: http://www.cbs.dk/intoff/ University of Copenhagen: http://www.ku.dk/english/studyabroad.html Technical University of Denmark: http://www.dtu.dk/index_e.htm

Germany Foreign Office: http://www.auswaertigesamt.de/www/de/willkommen/einreisebestimmungen/ visumangelegenheiten_html


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http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/de/willkommen/arbeitsaufnahme/arbeitsaufnahme_html http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/de/willkommen/studieren/index_html German Embassy Singapore: http://www.germany.org.sg/eng/visa/student.htm Botschaft Peking: http://www.dtbotschaftpeki.org.cn/visa9.htm German Embassy Lebanon: http://www.germanembassy.org.lb/english/entry.html German Embassy Cairo: http://www.german-embassy.org.eg/eng/html/kon.htm German Embassy India: http://www.germanembassy-india.org/visainfo.htm Bundesministerium des Innern: http://www.bmi.bund.de/frameset/index.jsp Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst: http://www.daad.de/info-f-a/en/deutschland/index.html http://www.daad.de/newdelhi/ Studien & Berufswahl, Bund-, Länder-Kommission für Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung und Bundesanstalt für Arbeit: http://www-en.studienwahl.de/display/map/jump.asp?KAPID=125 Deutsches Studentenwerke: http://www.student-affairs.de/ Higher Education Compass, Hochschul Rektoren Konferenz: http://www.higher-education-compass.hrk.de University of Applied Sciences Bielefeld: http://www.fh-bielefeld.de/ausland/internat/fhlivger.html University of Stuttgart: http://www.uni-stuttgart.de/ia/int_stud/degree/visa.htm http://www.verwaltung.uni-hannover.de/auslandsamt/ Pforzheim University of Applied Sciences: http://intl.fh-pforzheim.de/in/recht.html http://intl.fh-pforzheim.de/in/daadinfo/3-5.html TU Berlin: http://www.tu-berlin.de/zuv/aaa/studi_e.htm Freie Universität: http://www.fu-berlin.de/jura/informationen/sprachen/english/ University of Cologne: http://www.uni-koeln.de/verwaltung/uni/aaa/e-koeinf.htm Ruhr-Universität Bochum: http://www.uv.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/Auslandsamt/foreign.html University of Münster: http://www.uni-muenster.de/Auslandsamt/Partnerschaften/ University of Hamburg: http://www.uni-hamburg.de/PSV/Verw/RG2/info_for.html University of Hanover: http://www.verwaltung.unihannover.de/auslandsamt/englisch/zulassungwelt_gb.html Universität Bremen: http://www.aaa.uni-bremen.de/internationale.html Universität München: http://www.uni-muenchen.de/lmu32211300/deutsch/international/zulassung/visumnoneu.htm Universität Trier: http://www.uni-trier.de/uni/studsek/doks/info_stusek.pdf Universität Leipzig: http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~akadem/eng/studausl/index.html Universität Frankfurt am Main: http://www.rz.uni-frankfurt.de/zsb/auslaend.htm Universität Augsburg: http://www.aaa.uniaugsburg.de/Studium_in_Augsburg/studium_in_augsburg.htm Universität Weimar: http://www.uni-weimar.de/staa/aa.html Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen: http://www.rwth-aachen.de/zentral/dez2_bew-e.htm TU Braunschweig: http://www.tu-bs.de/studium/aka/guide/intguide.htm University of Regensburg: http://www.uni-regensburg.de/Einrichtungen/Verwaltung/Abteilung-I/Referat-I-6/indexengl.htm University of Applied Sciences Nürnberg: http://www.fh-nuernberg.de/fhn/aaa/en/faqs_en.html

France Ministry of Foreign Affairs: http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/venir/ http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/venir/etudier/enfrance.html

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http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/venir/visas/index.html http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/venir/visas/doc.asp?doc=88&langue=anglais http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/label_france/ENGLISH/int32.html http://www.diplomatie.fr/label_france/ENGLISH/DOSSIER/etudier/campus.html Consulate General of France in Hong Kong: http://www.france.com.hk/I.htm Embassy of France in the Philippines: http://www.france.com.ph/consgb.htm Consulat Général de France, Libanon: http://www.ambafrance-liban.org.lb/consulat/visaetud.htm Embassy of France in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic: http://www.ambafrance-laos.org/laobas/b_cons.htm Consulat Général de France à Alexandrie: http://www.alexfrance.org.eg/cga/visas/fiche7.htm Ministry of the Interior: http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/information/publications/etrangers/part3_fr.htm Ministry of National Education, Research and Technology: http://www.education.gouv.fr/int/etudb.htm Office des Migrations Internationals: http://www.omi.social.fr/omi/omiw.nsf/(vuepage)/F0SEXPS?OpenDocument Service-Public, le portail de l’administration française: http://vosdroits.service-public.fr/ARBO/210902-NXETR133.html http://vosdroits.service-public.fr/ARBO/06030404-FXETR149.html Centre National des Œuvres Universitaires et Scolaires (CNOUS): http://www.cnous.fr/engetrangers/engorientation/engvisapieces.htm http://www.cnous.fr/engetrangers/engorientation/engarrivee.htm EduFrance: http://www.edufrance.fr/en/datas/a-etudier/A33_NEW.HTM http://www.edufrance.fr/en/datas/a-etudier/A35_NEW.HTM EduFrance Hong Kong: http://www.france.com.hk/edufrance/practical_information.htm and http://www.france.com.hk/edufrance/arrival_in_france.htm Egide: http://www.egide.asso.fr/uk/preparer/5.1demarches/home.htm L’Etudiant: http://www.letudiant.fr/etudier/franc2.htm Phosphore, le site des 15-25 ans: http://www.phosphore.com/gabarit/theme.cfm?th=108 Educlic, le portail des professionnels de l’education: http://educlic.education.fr/Arisem23/iClass4U/ SFERE: http://www.sfere.fr/a1.htm Fondation Nationale Alfred Kastler: http://www.cnrs.fr/fnak/ahomea.html Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Tarbes: http://www.enit.fr/RelInter/index.html Université Blaise Pascal: http://www.univ-bpclermont.fr/acces_general/rel_intl.htm INSA Toulouse: http://www.insa-tlse.fr/en/cadre.htm Cergy-Pontoise University: http://www.u-cergy.fr/anglais/studies/index.html Université Paris-Sud XI: http://www.upsud.fr/relations+internationnales.nsf/HorsProgEchanges.htm?OpenPage INSA-Lyon: http://www.insa-lyon.fr/relationsInternationales.gb.html Université Bordeaux 1: http://www.cribx1.u-bordeaux.fr/ub1/rel_internat/index.html Université Aix-Marseille: http://jupiter.u-3mrs.fr/%7ead001w00/structure/ab60008.html Université de Technologie de Compiègne: http://www.utc.fr/international-gb/sri.htm Université of Franche-Comté: http://www.univ-fcomte.fr/international/welcome/Default.htm

United Kingdom UKCOSA: http://www.ukcosa.org.uk/pages/advice.htm http://www.ukcosa.org.uk/pages/adv_sites.htm http://www.ukcosa.org.uk/images/leaving.pdf British Council: http://www.britishcouncil.org/eis/ http://www.britishcouncil.org/eis/immigrat.htm


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http://www.britishcouncil.org/indonesia/education/ http://www.britishcouncil.org/india/education/ Home Office: http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/policy_law/policy_law_part-3.htm http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/forms_documents/forms_documents_home.html http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/to_the_uk/to_the_uk_8.html Foreign & Commonwealth Office: http://www.fco.gov.uk/travel/dynpage.asp?Page=336 http://visa.fco.gov.uk/ Department of Education and Employment: http://www.dfee.gov.uk/international-students/wituk.shtml http://www.dfee.gov.uk/ols/html/nboard/student_working.htm http://www.dfee.gov.uk/ols/html/place/plguid.htm University of Newcastle upon Tyne: http://www.ncl.ac.uk/studadv/Immig/contents.htm University College London: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/international/Information/ University of Westminster: http://www.wmin.ac.uk/international/Pre-arrival-info.htm University of Northumbria: http://www.unn.ac.uk/central/studserv/study.htm International Society Manchester: http://orgs.man.ac.uk/intsoc/ University of Warwick: http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/international/ University of Oxford: http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/io/ University of Birmingham: http://www.ao.bham.ac.uk/dalia/international.htm University of Reading: http://www.rdg.ac.uk/International/ London School of Economics & Political Science: http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/intrel/Default.htm University of Bath: http://www.bath.ac.uk/international-office/handbook/home.htm University of Wales Bangor: http://www.bangor.ac.uk/livestudy.html University of York: http://www.york.ac.uk/admin/intnat/visiting/ University of Leeds: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/international/html/prep/prep_frm.htm

APPENDIX B Documentation The Netherlands Immigration and Naturalization Service, Admission to the Netherlands, 1998 Short stay visa, 1998 Authorization for temporary stay, 1996 Practical training and courses of study in the Netherlands for non-European Union/European Economic Area subjects The guarantor’s declaration, 1995 Vc A4, Toelatingsvoorwaarden Buitenlandse Studenten, Vreemdelingen circulair (Entry requirements for foreign students, Ministry of Justice) Ministry of Education, Culture and Science: Notitie aanpak mobiliteitsknelpunten onderwijsvreemdelingen, December 1999 (Paper on how obstacles to the mobility of academic aliens are being dealt with) Kennis: geven en nemen, Internationalisering van het Onderwijs in Nederland (Knowledge: give and take. The internationalization of education in the Netherlands) September 1999 (http://www.minocw.nl/ english/index.htm) Een kwantitative inventarisatie van mobiliteitsobstakels voor Hoger Onderwijs vreemdelingen (A quantitative inventory of obstacles to the mobility of academic visitors from other countries) Nuffic, 2000

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Denmark Studying in Denmark, Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Copenhagen Denmark, 1997 Welcome guide for exchange students, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, 2000 Guidelines for international students, The University of Aarhus, 2000

Germany Guide concerning mobility conditions for European students, trainees and researchers, DAAD, September 2000

France Ministry of National Education, Research and Technology, Education, Research and Technology in France, 1998

United Kingdom The British Council: First steps guidance note—Preparing for a visa, a guide for international students coming to study in the United Kingdom, 2000 UKCOSA Briefing 1999 No5 UKCOSA Briefing 1999 No6 UKCOSA Briefing 2000 No3 UKCOSA Briefing 2000 No4 UKCOSA Immigration Update, September 2000 Briefing No4 Times Higher Education Supplement (http://www.thes.co.uk/)

TELEPHONE AND E-MAIL CORRESPONDENCE

The Netherlands NUFFIC Institute of Social Studies Leiden University University of Groningen Hogeschool Holland Christelijke Hogeschool Noord-Nederland Utrecht University Tilburg University Hogeschool Enschede Delft University of Technology CICAT Netherlands Education Centre Jakarta

Denmark Rektorkollegiet The Danish Rectors’ Conference/CIRIUS Danish Immigration Service Royal Danish Embassy, Jakarta

van Aken / Mobility Obstacles for Incoming Students Royal Danish Embassy, The Hague Denmark’s International Study Program Technical University of Denmark University of Copenhagen Engineering College of Aarhus University of Southern Denmark Copenhagen Business School Aarhus University Aalborg University Royal School of Library and Information Science Engineering College of Aarhus Aarhus School of Business

Germany Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst Hochschulrektorenkonferenz University of Cologne Pforzheim University of Applied Sciences Reinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen Universität Bremen Universität Hannover Freie Universität Berlin University of Applied Sciences Nürnberg University of Stuttgart Universität Leipzig Universität Augsburg

France EduFrance Egide Sfere Sfere Jakarta Fondation Nationale Alfred Kastler Université Aix-Marseille INSA Toulouse Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille ENSCP Bordeaux INSA Lyon ENIT Tarbes ENSC Rennes

United Kingdom British Council British Council Jakarta UKCOSA Foreign Office University of Newcastle upon Tyne University of Wales Bangor

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University of Hertfordshire University of York University College London University of Birmingham University of London

NOTES 1. The problems experienced by students going through the procedures to obtain entry and a residence permit can be assumed to illustrate those experienced by other types of academic visitors as well: Ph.D. candidates, guest lecturers, visiting scientists, student interns, and so forth. Under consideration here are students who wish to spend more than 3 months in a host country for study purposes. 2. Different terms are used to describe the permits, first to enter the country and then to take up temporary residence. This means that when comparisons are made, it is sometimes impossible to adhere strictly to the terminology as used in the countries in question. 3. The information was at the end of 2000 derived mainly from the Web sites of ministries, higher education institutions, intermediary agencies that facilitate international cooperation, and associations that represent the higher education institutions. The next step was to determine for each country what the national higher education organizations consider to be the main problems associated with the procedures for obtaining entry and a residence permit, and with the information that is supposed to explain these procedures. Finally, the initiatives being taken by the governments to remove obstacles and improve the situation were identified. The higher education institutions, the associations that represent them, and the intermediary agencies were asked about their experiences. This was done through a questionnaire and personal interviews. The questions were designed to elicit information about the most common problems associated with the procedures, the parties that play a role in the process, the requirements, the time it takes to process applications, and the information explaining the procedures. This study would not have been possible without the cooperation of the many people who were willing to share their knowledge and experience to supply the necessary information about the situation in the five countries. The author would like to thank Eric Richters, policy advisor, Department for International Academic Relations, Nuffic, and Liduine Bremer, his predecessor, for their invaluable guidance. Additional thanks to Kirsten Thorarinson, International Department for International Academic Relations, Nuffic, for editing the article. An extended version of this study, which was translated by Marilyn Warman, can be found at http://www.mobstacles.nl/pdf/timetrouble.pdf.


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4. Mobiliteit tussen de regels door (November 1997); Mobiliteit geregeld (February 1999). 5. Transfer March 2000: Surinaamse studenten in Nederland(Surinamese students in the Netherlands); Transfer January 2000: Ruimer baan voor de onderwijsvreemdelingen (Clearing the path for foreign academic visitors); Transfer March 1999: De lijst van struikelblokken lijkt welhaast onuitputtelijk (The list of obstacles seems nearly endless). 6. The letter was dated December 10, 1999. 7. A quantitative inventory of problems that hinder international mobility. 2000. Nuffic: The Hague, the Netherlands. 8. http://www.udlst.dk/sjle1/uspjeceng.html. 9. Since September 6, 2000 this requirement has been dropped; on the Web site of the Danish Immigration Service this is not yet mentioned. 10. http://www.udlst.dk/sjle1/studpjeceng.html; requirement: written documentation from employer. 11. http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/de/willkommen/einreisebestimmungen/ visumangelegenheiten_html. 12. Pforzheim/Daad: http://intl.fh-pforzheim.de/in/daadinfo/3-5.html; www.fh-bielefeld.de/ausland/internat/fhlivger.html. 13. List: http://www.diplomatie.fr/venir/visas/index.html. 14. See Philippines; or for an interview with the cultural service, see Hong Kong. 15. With respect to the local employment situation, students are allowed to work for a maximum of 884 hours per year. It is common for students to supplement their incomes by working. 16. Since July 1998, students are allowed to work in the first year of their studies. The Ministry of Education gives contradictory information by not mentioning this change of policy. 17. The student should not hold a productive position, which would mean actually working for the company; the student does not receive a salary, but may receive a bonus. 18. Provided they do not engage in business, self-employment, pursuit of a career by filling a permanent full-time vacancy, or services as a professional athlete or entertainer. 19. They may request an employment restriction when they apply for the visa. 20. http://www.ncl.ac.uk/studadv/Leaflets/workUK.html; UKCOSA “Students and employment 1999.” 21. This requires submitting a passport and a letter from the employer offering the job. An application form is filled in on the spot. 22. If the institution can guarantee that there is a job and can give information about the earnings: UKCOSA “Students and employment 1999”. 23. http://www.ukcosa.org.uk/pages/ec_survey.htm; THES, “Visa hurdles cost UK millions,” May 14, 1999.

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24. Other reasons include insufficient funds, entry clearance officer doubts the applicant’s intention to follow the course, delays at diplomatic posts, officer doubts the applicant’s ability to follow the course, and delays in receiving documents from the institution. 25. http://www.dfee.gov.uk/international-students/tukwis.html. 26. See their Web site: http://www.educationuk.org/. The Education UK Brand: to target would-be students in 8 priority countries and eventually in the 110 countries where the British Council has a presence. 27. http://www.dfee.gov.uk/international-students/bars.html. 28. http://www.britishcouncil.org/eis/immigrat.htm. 29. The information was received from the Netherlands Education Centre, the British Council, The Royal Danish Embassy, Sfere. No response was received from the German embassy. 30. This does not mean that the embassy plays no role. Its requirement that a birth certificate be verified might still apply, for example. 31. See also the Information Provided section.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Daniël van Aken is senior fellowship officer, Department for International Academic Relations, Nuffic, for the DELTA scholarship program of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. He obtained his master’s degree at the Faculty of Arts of Leiden University (1986) and did research on the educational system during the Indonesian revolution. He previously worked for a nongovernmental organization concerned with Indonesia and for the study coordinate of the Faculty of Arts of Leiden University, the Netherlands.

Journal of Studies in International Education Thorstensson / This Business of Internationalization

Winter 2001

This Business of Internationalization: The Academic Experiences of 6 Asian MBA International Students at the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of Management Liv Thorstensson Conducted in the spring of 2000, this study looked at the academic experiences of 6 Asian international students at the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of Management (CSOM). The research employed the case study methodology, with interviews, a classroom observation, and situational recall questionnaires as methods of data collection. The findings indicated culture shock, language barriers, and education shock as variables affecting the adjustment of these students, and are congruent with previous studies in this area. Students desired more preparation for academic expectations as well as the social environment before and during their studies at CSOM. They also asserted the need for increased international interest at CSOM.

OVERVIEW OF THE ISSUE AND PURPOSE Rationale for This Study National and International Reputation Carlson School of Management (CSOM) Dean David Kidwell asserted, The 21st century will be the century of the global village, and we realize these foreign markets are important to us and to our competitors. If students are to be successful there, they have to understand a variety of cultures . . . the international constellation we’re forming will be an important network for us. (CSOM, 1998, p. 5)


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Efforts to internationalize higher education in the United States are greatly enhanced by the presence of international students on the nation’s campuses. The field of business and management was host to the highest concentration of international students in the United States (20.1%) in 1999-2000 (Open Doors Report, 2001). In 1997, the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of Management (CSOM) MBA program enrolled 17% of its students from other countries. In 1999, the enrollment jumped to 23% (CSOM, 1998, p. 3). As stated in Going Global, a newsletter published by the International Programs Office at CSOM, Dean Kidwell aspired toward a future enrollment of 30% international students in the 21st century (CSOM, 1998, p. 2). Given the popularity of the MBA degree for Asian international students and the growing competition from both traditional and online educational institutions, the satisfaction of current Asian international students at CSOM is necessary to ensure the school’s national and international reputation and to meet its goal of a higher enrollment of international students in the future. The present research provides insights into areas where international students are satisfied and areas where they feel improvement is needed. This study can, furthermore, serve to evaluate the extent of the internationalization effort at this school. It can also serve as a model for other schools of a similar nature. Needs of International Students Several authors have argued the need for inclusion of international students in the academic process on U.S. campuses. A study by Lee, Abd-Ella, and Burke (1981, p. 107) showed that the needs of international students from developing countries at various U.S. universities were not being met with regard to practical experience and anticipated postreturn needs. Fasheh (1984) argued that the education that international students in the United States receive is narrow-minded and often irrelevant to situations in their home countries. He also stressed the need for more interaction between international students and U.S. academicians to promote mutually beneficial relations between these groups. Given the diverse nature of student populations, instructors must be aware of the needs of all students—international students included—particularly in the areas of language issues and cultural differences. The present study attempts to address these and more contemporary needs. Cross-Cultural Learning in the Classroom This study provides insights on how to involve international students in classroom discussions and to increase American students’ awareness of international

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issues. According to Paige (1990), “International students can [help] U.S. students acquire new skills in cross-cultural communication, interdisciplinary thinking and problem solving” (p. 178). As Dean Kidwell explained, “[The presence of international students at CSOM] helps local students to become more global by their interaction with peers that come from different cultures and economic backgrounds” (CSOM, 1998, p. 2). Moreover, Stefani (1997) argued that classroom interaction is deeply rooted in the culture of a society and can be problematic when it involves instructors and students from different cultures. She addressed several variables that must be accounted for in a culturally diverse classroom, such as learning styles, communication and relational styles, cognitive styles, language diversity, and gender issues. Thus, this study provides insights on how to encourage cross-cultural interaction between U.S. and international students inside and outside of CSOM’s and other business schools’ classrooms.

Terminology For this study, international students is defined as “individuals who temporarily reside in a country other than their country of citizenship or permanent residence in order to participate in international educational exchange as students” (Paige, 1990, p. 162). According to Bennett (1993), cross-cultural adaptation refers to the acquisition of new skills appropriate to a different worldview. Bennett stated that “maintenance of one’s original worldview is encouraged, so the adaptations necessary for effective communication in other cultures extend, rather than replace one’s native skills” (in Paige, 1990, p. 52). Intercultural communication, as defined by Porter and Samovar (1997), “occurs whenever a message that must be understood is produced by a member of one culture for the consumption by a member of another culture” (p. 21).

CSOM’s 1999-2000 MBA Student Population and Students in the Present Study • The total population of full-time MBA students at CSOM was about 250. • Twenty-three countries were represented in the total population. • A total of 22% of the entire MBA student population were international students. Approximately 58% of these international students were from Asian countries (CSOM Web site, n.d.).

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My sample for this study consisted of 3 first-year MBA students from the countries of Japan, Singapore, and Thailand, and 3 second-year students from India, South Korea, and Thailand.

Purpose Most, if not all, international students become integrated into the U.S. higher educational system by attending classes with American students, completing assignments, taking tests, and working on projects. Yet, unlike American students, in coming to U.S. higher education institutions, international students must adjust to a foreign academic environment, language, and culture. The 1999-2000 Carlson MBA Program brochure states, When international students first arrive at the Carlson School of Management, they know that courses will be different than in their home countries, but they are less prepared for the cultural differences in the classroom, the team meetings, and writing assignments. (p. 31)

The purpose of the present research was to examine the academic experiences of Asian international students in the MBA program at CSOM in terms of the cultural differences and other aspects specified in the previous statement.

BACKGROUND To provide background for the present research, I will briefly review theoretical and empirical literature in the following domains: (a) international student trends in the United States, (b) characteristics of the American higher education system, (c) business education in the home countries of participants in this study, (d) the origin and structure of MBA programs and international business education in the Untied States, and (e) factors affecting academic experiences of international students: learning styles, intercultural communication, and crosscultural adaptation.

International Student Trends in the United States In 1999-2000 there were 514,723 international students studying at U.S. academic institutions. Despite the Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, Asian students constituted more than half (54%) of the international enrollments in the United States in 1999-2000 (Open Doors Report, 2001). According to Johnston and Edelstein (1993), 9 of the top 10 countries of origin are in Asia, and the flow is increasing.


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Practical reasons dominate international students’ motives for study in the United States. In his research on factors influencing international students to apply to education programs in graduate schools in the United States, Bornsztein (1986) found the two biggest motives to be (a) the opportunities for professional and academic growth, and (b) the availability of advanced educational resources and instructional technology equipment. Likewise, in the 1993-1994 Open Doors Report, LaPidus (1994) wrote, “[The] combination of quality and availability [of graduate programs] continues to make graduate education, particularly in the technical and business fields, a magnet for attracting students who wish to pursue careers in these fields” (p. 1). What impact does the presence of international students have on U.S. higher education? As Paige (1990) argued, “The flow of international students is a very dynamic and important aspect of a world in transition” (p. 161). Others, such as Kedia (1999) and Ladd and Ruby (1999), argued that having a greater number of international students on campuses is one way of exposing U.S. students, staff, and instructors to social, cultural, political, and economic conditions in other countries. In short, international students’ knowledge and world experiences can supplement curricula and other activities on U.S. campuses and widen Americans’ perspectives on the world. On the other hand, Johnston and Edelstein (1993) pointed out that international students tend to enroll in science or technical programs that have no international dimensions. The authors argue that business education programs that are more interdisciplinary in their structure are in a better position to benefit from the varied backgrounds of international students, given the high enrollment of international students in such programs. Regardless of the benefits associated with the existence of international students on U.S. campuses, it is also necessary to be aware of the needs of these students and remember that their goal of studying in the United States is not to educate American students and faculty, but to educate themselves and to take that knowledge back to their home countries for the benefit of their nations and economies. Fasheh (1984) argued, “Foreign students are not empty vessels to be filled with information and theories. Their needs cannot be reduced to technicalities such as housing, English proficiency, and visas” (p. 317). He felt that there is too little input from international students in the educational process and that international students should be considered in the development of programs and curricula. Research also suggests that international students have varying opinions regarding their academic experiences in the United States (Lee et al., 1981; Stecklein, 1971). In a quantitative study on the attitudes of international students in the College of Education at the University of Minnesota, Rowan (1993) found this population generally felt alienated from American students, faculty, and

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staff. Moreover, students surveyed felt that faculty and staff lacked international interest and knowledge. The study also showed that a good portion of these students had been victims of discrimination while at the university. In this case, discrimination was based on language and race and occurred most often on campus.

Characteristics of Higher Education in the United States While studying at U.S. academic institutions, international students encounter foreign values both in and outside of the classroom, transmitted through curricula, textbooks, assignments, grading systems, extracurricular activities, and so on. Many educational theorists point to individualism as a salient characteristic of the U.S. educational system (Gutek, 1986; Mungazi, 1993). Mungazi (1993) observed, “Contemporary American educators seem to hold the view that education is far more meaningful when students are allowed to discover for themselves [critical] aspects of knowledge. . . . It generates a concept of individuality so critical to American social settings” (p. 59). Furthermore, in 1937, Dewey described the secular character of education in the United States, arguing that “the main objective of education is to prepare the young for future responsibility and for success in life” (in Mungazi, 1993, p. 77). It follows that students from societies that value collective, or group, development must adjust to objectives of the U.S. educational system: independence, self-promotion, upward mobility, and future orientation, to name a few. Education in the United States is also practical in its orientation. That is, students are expected to apply knowledge to promote change and personal or social development. Locke (1999) argued that education in the United States is viewed as instrumental and that knowledge gained can be applied to problem solving in a variety of situations (p. 29). Students from cultures in which problem-solving skills are not emphasized may experience difficulty adjusting to this characteristic of the educational system in the United States. Hoff (1979) found additional aspects of the American classroom challenging for international students: understanding lectures, frequent examinations, writing term papers, seeking help from professors, giving oral reports, participating in discussions, asking questions in the classroom, attendance and punctuality, and classroom dress and behavior. The present study takes place in the unique environment of a business school where individual competition is high and student cooperation and interaction is required.


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Business Education in the Home Countries of Students in This Study The 6 students in the present study were from the countries of India, South Korea, Singapore, Thailand, and Japan. For the most part, business management programs in higher education are rare in these countries except where they are offered solely by U.S. schools of business and management or as a partnership between national universities and U.S. institutions of higher learning. Most international students from these countries seeking degrees in business education, therefore, come to institutions like CSOM in the United States in hopes of receiving skills and experiences they would not otherwise have access to in their home countries (J. J. Cogan, personal communication, October, 10, 2000).

The MBA: Its Origins and Structure Formalized business education evolved in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century to address the shortage of management in newly industrialized markets (Daniel, 1998). Since then, business education has developed in the United States and around the world to meet the challenges presented by the dynamic and highly technological, modern business world. Today, virtually all MBA programs offer compulsory subjects, such as accounting, finance, quantitative analysis, economics, marketing, organizational behavior, human resource management, information technology, and strategy. Students may also chose subjects according to their preferences and career objectives. Most MBA programs also offer nonacademic subjects targeting competencies and personal development, such as communication skills, interpersonal relations, and career management. Brown and Masten (1998) noted that business school programs in the United States most often reflect regional or local needs. Duke and Victorova (1998) noted that MBA instructors are often challenged by the diverse backgrounds and maturity levels of MBA students, as some students are recent graduates whereas others have spent many years in the work force. Creating a positive group culture can be particularly challenging for instructors.

Internationalization of Business Education According to Toyne and Nigh (1999), international business education arose in the 1950s from “U.S. business education’s failure to address the many peculiarities associated with the crossing of national borders in order to conduct busi-

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ness in strange lands” (p. 3). Much literature alludes to the importance of international business education, given the global economy and growth of multinational businesses. Morrison (1998) stated, “Students graduating from our educational institutions must understand the effects of [the] free movement of product, capital, and information to operate in a realm where national boundaries are gradually being eliminated” (p. 326). White and Griffith (1998) performed a survey of MBA programs in the United States regarding their international efforts and concluded that the institutions surveyed lacked cultural diversity. The authors also hold that business schools need to address the international and cultural diversity of programs and that recruitment of international students should be a priority. Finally, they argue that U.S. business education must change for the United States to maintain its position as the world economic leader. In short, it is important to learn more about the academic experiences of international students so as to increase their potential for success while studying in the United States and then to apply their learning in their countries of origin.

Factors Affecting Academic Experiences of International Students Learning Styles One characteristic of American education is the inductive, or critical thinking, approach, as opposed to the deductive approach, which is standard in many countries. In contrast to the American system, rote memory, which requires students to listen and take notes in class, is commonplace in many countries. Students accustomed to these learning approaches experience difficulty adjusting to the more independent, or constructivist approach to learning emphasized in the American education system (Fischer, 1979). Rowan (1993, p. 59) found that students surveyed regard objective evaluation methods as least effective in evaluating accomplishment, and techniques that require them to formulate thoughts most effective. Moreover, Purdie and Hattie (1996) noted that Western educators often criticize Asian students in particular, for being reactive rather than proactive in their approaches to learning and more reliant on external sources of control than American students. International students accustomed to teaching methods different from those used by instructors in the United States may experience difficulty learning information presented to them.


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Approaches to Learning in Business Education A report by the Coalition for the Advancement of Foreign Languages and International Studies (1989) asserted that although academia evaluates people on what they know, business tends to evaluate people for what they can do. The report stated that in the business world, “knowing for its own sake is less important than the ability to mobilize knowledge into effective action” (p. 14). This reflects the problem-solving approach emphasized in the U.S. educational system. To prepare business students for entrepreneurship, many MBA programs assign students to working teams so that they learn how to give effective feedback, evaluate each other, and improve relationships (Gardener & Korth, 1998). Gardener and Korth (1998) undertook a study on factors affecting students’ effectiveness while working in teams. They found motivation, attitudes toward group work, learning preference, and valuing the different learning styles of team members to be factors affecting students’ ability to work in teams. They concluded, “[Professors] need to understand the factors that affect our students’ learning in order to provide enriching educational experiences. This involves understanding what our students bring to the learning environment—different backgrounds, learning styles, and attitudes toward group work” (p. 29). These works call for recognition of and sensitivity to different learning styles among students. Moreover, the literature also suggests the need for academic assistance for international students to promote positive learning experiences.

Intercultural Communication In many classrooms in the United States, particularly in business education, students are encouraged to interact with one another in class discussions and group assignments. Numerous authors have written about communication styles and their effect on human interaction (Bennett, 1993; Paige, 1990; Ting-Toomey, 1998). The major styles as defined by Bennett (1993) include the following: • • • •

Linear: Communication is conducted in a straight line toward the main point. Circular: Communication is conducted in a circular manner around the main point. Direct: What one means is stated in a very straightforward manner. Indirect: Meaning is conveyed by subtle means, such as through nonverbal behavior, parables, and suggestions. • Low context: Meaning is expressed precisely through words. • High context: Context for communication is assumed to be known. Things do not need precise explanation through words. • Task focused: Communication focuses on the task at hand, and emotions are secondary.

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• Relationship focused: Communication focuses on emotions and maintaining harmony. • Formal: Communication is bound to conventions, such as forms of address, age, and status. • Informal: Communication is not bound to conventions and is flexible.

Literature on intercultural communication suggests that although communication styles are bound to personality and circumstance, they are also to a large extent bound to culture. For example, Asians are indirect, high-context communicators, whereas Americans tend to be direct, low-context communicators (Tannen, 1998). Several authors have expressed the need for intercultural communication skills in business employees. Scott (1999) asserted that “effective international business-communication skills are the backbone that supports the transaction of business around the world” (p. 140). In their study of intercultural effectiveness in business employees, Ruben and Kealey (1979) found that “those who were non-judgemental, respectful, relativistic in their orientations to knowledge and tolerant to ambiguity were relatively more effective in the field than those who lacked these orientations” (p. 147). Likewise, Smith and Steward (1999) argued that “business educators cannot afford to overlook the extent of globalization of the economy and the impact the communication process has on the completion of international business activity” (p. 25). They also felt that U.S. students could be at a disadvantage when working in cross-cultural settings because of the general lack of knowledge of and exposure to intercultural and international issues. Fischer (1979) argued further that cross-cultural communication among students receives too little attention at universities, “precisely the places where there would seem to be the greatest capacity to comprehend the problem” (p. 101). He contended, moreover, that within a global society, business managers’ ability to interact with as little misunderstanding as possible is more vital than ever (p. 98).

Cross-Cultural Adaptation Several researchers have written about cross-cultural adaptation or adjustment of sojourners as a factor affecting the overseas experience (Althen, 1984; Bennett, 1993; Paige, 1990; Steglitz, 1993; Storti, 1989; Thomas & Althen, 1989). Common themes are culture shock, language barriers, psychological barriers, denial, and marginality within the host culture. In particular, Hoff (1979) identified three interrelated adjustment factors affecting international students in the United States: culture shock, language barriers, and education shock. Culture shock arises when “the concepts, ideology, or national values held by an international student are in conflict with those generally accepted in the United States” (p. 134). Language barriers “arise from


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an inability to communicate through language” (p. 134). Education shock is “a manifestation of culture shock that finds its primary expression for international students in activities performed as part of the learning process and that is not seated primarily in language barriers” (p. 134). Hoff explained that each of these factors ultimately affect the adaptation of international students to the new academic environment. She suggests international student orientations include language training and an extensive orientation to U.S. educational standards, as well as those of the particular institution. In summary, literature indicates that successful cross-cultural adaptation for international students is contingent on several factors, the most salient of which are academically oriented (Ballard, 1989; Hoff, 1979).

METHOD Qualitative Research Merriam (1997) wrote that the qualitative researcher is “interested in understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how they make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world” (p. 6). I deemed the qualitative methodology appropriate for this study in part because of the lack of qualitative research on this topic and because it would allow me to arrive at an in-depth understanding of classroom experiences of international students.

Case Studies of 6 Students This study is composed of 6 individual case studies of 3 first-year and 3 second-year Asian MBA students at CSOM. Merriam (1997) defined case study as “intensive descriptions and analyses of a single unit or bounded system, such as an individual, program, event, group, intervention, or community” (p. 19). The 6 cases reported herein are considered instrumental case studies that attempt to generate a general understanding of the classroom experiences of international students (Stake, 1995).

Research Questions This research was guided by one general question: What is the nature of academic experiences for 1st- and 2nd-year MBA Asian international students at the Carlson School of Management? I addressed the following topics in this research, based on my theoretical assumption that they affect international students’ experiences at CSOM:

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• Classroom variables in the students’ home county versus at CSOM: roles of professors, class participation, and assignments

According to literature reviewed above, student-professor relationships differ greatly between the United States and Asian countries. I was interested in learning students’ perceptions of roles of CSOM professors based on these differences. Participation in classroom discussions is also uncommon in Asian countries. Because CSOM students are commonly evaluated on class participation, I was interested in knowing how Asian students regard this aspect of classroom experience. Finally, in most Asian countries, grades are based on one comprehensive exam at the end of each course. In contrast, students at CSOM are expected to complete daily or weekly assignments. I wanted to know how the students approach this salient difference. • Experiences working with American students on team projects

I included this topic because of the structure of the MBA program that requires students to work in teams. I addressed intercultural communication issues and crosscultural ideals regarding work. • Internationalization efforts at CSOM

I was interested in gaining students’ insights into the internationalization of the curriculum, and CSOM professors’ concern for CSOM international students. • Where students go for help with academic or other matters

I posed this question to determine what efforts are being made to assist international students in their transition to academic life at CSOM, and to further examine students’ relationships with CSOM professors, students, and staff. • Adaptation to academic and social life at CSOM

Studies indicate that international students’ experiences are likely to differ according to length of time spent in the new academic setting (Althen, 1984; Paige, 1990; Rowan, 1993). I desired to know how students’ experiences differ based on time spent at CSOM, and I addressed this area with all students in the sample. • The Minnesota experience


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I addressed this area because of my interest in knowing if being in Minnesota, as opposed to a more multicultural state, had any effect on the 6 students’ academic and social experiences. • Improvements

Based on answers to the above questions, I was eager to hear students’suggestions for improvements at CSOM, specifically those concerning international students.

The Sample I selected Asian international students because the majority of international students at CSOM and at other business schools in the United States are from Asian countries (58% and 54%, respectively) (Open Doors Report, 2001). In addition, I felt it would be difficult to validate my findings using a cross-cultural sample. The 6 students in this study are not a numeric representation of Asian nationalities at CSOM. Rather, I chose these students because they expressed interest in participating in this study and represented a variety of Asian countries. I conducted a comparative study of 3 first-year and 3 second-year MBA Asian international students because I have not come across a similar comparative study in the research literature. Moreover, I believed a small sample of 6 students would enable me to undertake an in-depth, comparative analysis of Asian students at CSOM. First-Year Students Country

Gender

Age

Marital Status

Japan Singapore Thailand

Male Male Female

30 27 27

Single Single Single

Second-Year Students Country

Gender

Age

Marital Status

India South Korea Thailand

Male Male Female

26 33 25

Single Married Single

All 6 students were studying in the Management Information Systems concentration, which concerns itself with e-commerce, communication technology,

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and technological support, among other areas (CSOM Web Site, n.d). Four of the 6 students had previously visited the United States on short vacations or work-related excursions.

Data Collection For this research, I collected data through initial in-depth interviews, classroom observations, and situational recall questionnaires following methods outlined by Patton (1990), Merriam (1997), and Morine-Dershimer (1987). I believed a combination of these methods would optimize my understanding of the students’ experiences at CSOM, as they would allow me to approach the topic from various perspectives and in different contexts. Interviews Patton (1990) noted, “The qualitative researcher talks with people about their experiences and perceptions” (p. 10). Paige (1990) contended, “One of the best ways to have access to cross-cultural learning and cross-cultural research is through extensive interactions with international students” (p. 182). I believed it important to consult students themselves about various aspects of their academic experiences at CSOM and decided that interviews would be my primary method of collecting data. I adhered to a combination of semistructured and structured interview formats (Merriam, 1997; Patton, 1990). In a structured interview, the researcher follows a list of questions prepared ahead of time (Patton, 1990). In a semistructured interview, the researcher poses questions not worded ahead of time, which “allows the researcher to respond to the situation at hand, to the emerging worldview of the respondent, and to new ideas on the topic” (Merriam, 1997, p. 74). Given the potential for language barriers, I e-mailed the interview protocol to all participants in advance to prepare them for topics covered in the interviews. During the interview, I expanded on the questions listed on the protocol to delve deeper into the topic at hand. Classroom Observations According to Marshall and Rossman (2000), observations are “used to examine complex interactions in natural social settings” (p. 107). I chose to conduct classroom observations to better understand classroom dynamics through the eyes of international students. After the initial interviews, I received permission


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from the students and their professors to observe one class per student. I observed a total of two classes, one in which all 3 of the 1st-year students were enrolled, the other in which all 3 of the 2nd-year students were enrolled. While observing, I detailed on paper classroom events, particularly the kinds of interaction between all students, as well as with the professor. Situational Recall Questionnaires Morine-Dershimer (1987) argued, “An analysis of feelings by linking thought to action provides richer data about beliefs than observing or interviews alone” (p. 406). Therefore, I also chose to triangulate my data by administering situational recall questionnaires after each observation—a variation of a method used by researchers in the area of teacher competency that requires face-to-face interviews with teachers and students directly after classroom observations (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Leder, 1988; Morine-Dershimer, 1987). Karasti (1997) argued, Stimulated recall interviews . . . have the advantage of staying much closer to the actual events than if one were to ask questions in a situation removed from the activity of interest and of not being too intrusive to the work practice while it takes place. (p. 1)

Because scheduling conflicts prevented me from meeting with students in person after the observations, I used e-mail with personalized, open-ended questions to students regarding events that took place in the class, for example, “What were you thinking when [event Q] took place?” Final Review Finally, I e-mailed my findings to the students to validate my interpretation of data. I asked, “Does this analysis of the data appropriately reflect your feelings regarding [working with American students and professors, curricula]?” Students e-mailed comments and clarifications, which I added to my findings as necessary.

Data Analysis Following the methods outlined by Merriam (1997), I separated the data analysis into two stages: within-case and cross-case stages. The within-case analysis required that I present six descriptive, comprehensive cases, looking at contextual variables that factored into each case. In the cross-case analysis, I looked for

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themes generated across all cases, documenting individual differences that arose between them. I used procedures described by Marshall and Rossman (2000), Merriam (1997), and Patton (1990) in the thematic analysis: (a) organizing data, (b) generating categories, (c) coding the data, (d) testing the emergent understandings, (e) searching for alternative explanations, and (f) writing the report. Each case was composed of eight categories and subcategories. The cross-case analysis looked at the same eight themes that emerged in all cases and included additions or corrections to the original version made by students. I present the six categories in the following section.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The findings suggest that there is room for improvement in academic services to international students as well as increased internationalization efforts at CSOM. It should be emphasized that efforts are currently under way to involve international students in improving new student orientations, team dynamics, and general academic life for international students at CSOM. Specific measures are team training for both American and international students, orientations solely for international students, and a thriving international student organization. It is my hope that the present research will further this effort.

Discussion of Findings Results of this study fall into Hoff’s (1979) conceptual framework of adjustment factors (culture shock, language barriers, and education shock) as defined in the literature review and support additional literature on international students’ adjustment to various aspects of the U.S. education system (Paige, 1990; Rowan, 1993; Stecklein et al., 1971). The following themes derived from the findings illustrate this point. Egalitarianism Versus Hierarchy The students were shocked by the relatively casual, egalitarian rapport between students and professors in the United States as compared to the hierarchical roles of professors in their home countries. Students found it hard to approach CSOM professors as they are not accustomed to doing so in their home countries. Perhaps prior to beginning their studies, enlightening international students to characteristics of education in the United States in a handbook or Web site would alleviate this aspect of education shock and make it easier for students to approach professors. Or, faculty could meet with international stu-


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dents prior to starting classes in an orientation to explain student-professor relationships (e.g., making appointments to meet with professors outside of class and approaching professors after class). On-Your-Feet Thinking Class participation presents a significant dual challenge for these students: (a) formulating thoughts on the spot and (b) finding the appropriate language to communicate ideas and questions coherently. Thus, the critical-thinking emphasis in the North American educational system noted by Fischer (1979), along with language barriers, was difficult for these 6 international students and contributed to the education shock they felt on beginning their studies at CSOM. One solution is for professors to give all students questions regarding the lecture before the class to ensure that readings are done, to better prepare students for participating in class, and to ensure that discussions are focused on certain key points. Or, as one student suggested, professors could place lower expectations on international students in the area of class participation, due to their lack of experience with impromptu thinking and/or language barriers. More Is Better? The 6 students asserted their difficulty with managing the heavy workload at CSOM and constant evaluation, which as noted in the literature review is also a characteristic of the problem-solving nature of education in the United States and business education in particular (Coalition for the Advancement of Foreign Languages and International Studies, 1989; Locke, 1999). The students are accustomed to one final examination in Asian education systems. Is assigning a heavy workload beneficial to students? Perhaps fewer, more in-depth assignments would prove just as useful and more enriching to all students. Again, the students in this study desired to be informed of this aspect of academic life before beginning at CSOM, which could also buffer the initial education shock they experienced. Learning Positive Aggressiveness The aggressive atmosphere in the classroom and in teams seems to influence the nature of the 6 students’ experiences here. This point supports literature on intercultural communication styles (Stefani, 1997; Tannen, 1998; Ting-Toomey, 1998) and reinforces the link between language barriers and education shock.

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Students found it difficult to contribute to conversations with Americans, whom they sometimes regarded as pushy, overly talkative, and impatient. Some of the students have noticed a transformation in themselves, as they have learned to be more aggressive both in and outside of the classroom to make their voices heard. Cross-cultural differences in working styles and learning preferences also contributed to difficulties in teams, which runs parallel to previous studies in this area (Gardener & Korth, 1998; Hofstede, 1984). Working in teams has involved a learning process for all 6 students, as cooperative learning is uncommon in their home countries’ education systems. Although some students expressed satisfaction over this aspect of the MBA program, they also related their frustrations, such as having portions of team projects rewritten by American students without being consulted, the inefficiency of working with others, and the unequal division of labor. As the students stressed, cross-cultural training for American and international students and professors at CSOM might prove useful for instilling patience and tolerance for differences in communication and learning and working styles. Being International, Locally The students also questioned the degree of international interest at CSOM as expressed through curricula, sensitivity of professors and students, and low turnouts at international events. Students attributed this to the relative lack of diversity in the MBA student population and in Minnesota. Again, this supports findings in Rowan’s (1993) research. CSOM could bolster its international ethos in several ways. Internationalization of the curricula could occur, for example, via the use of comparative approaches to business systems in different countries and/or inclusion of international development aspects of business. The inclusion of international students in this process could assist in this effort and instill a greater sense of intercultural sensitivity in students and professors. CSOM must also emphasize the incentives gained by participation in international activities. Adaptation Through Preparation All students have been affected by culture shock, language barriers, and education shock throughout their academic experience at CSOM. In response to one area of this research, it is impossible to make any conclusions regarding the differences in adjustment of 2nd-year students versus 1st-year students because of the varied responses on this topic. In addition, because of the small sample, it is


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impossible to include gender or age as influencing these students’ adjustment to academic life. All students commented, however, that the initial education shock lasted throughout the first quarter or semester and progressively improved afterward. As mentioned earlier, preparing international students for salient academic aspects of the MBA program such as class participation, workloads, and working on teams might reduce difficulties. Learning to interact with American students on a social level also factored into the adjustment of these 6 students, which serves to indicate that these students desire to form relationships with Americans. The students stressed the need for information about the local culture in Minnesota, social customs such as greeting strangers, small talk, going to parties, and so on. Activities such as mixers, culture nights, peer advising, and mentors might help students get to know others on a social level, which may also improve team relations. These kinds of activities would also increase international awareness and intercultural sensitivity within the student body and could also result in the creation of future business relations around the world.

Implications for Future Research The findings of this study suggest several areas of inquiry for future research. One is the academic experiences of international students with other cultural backgrounds. A replication of this study could address academic experiences of students in other fields. One might also look exclusively at the academic experiences of female international students studying business, who are in a minority themselves. Looking at the other side, research could address American students’ experiences working with international students or American professors’ feelings toward having international students in their classes. An evaluation of the current directives to improve international student services at CSOM would also be useful. In addition, future research in this area might look at a larger sample of students and compare the experiences of international students to those of American students. One might also focus on one of the topics covered in this research such as working in teams or adjustment to life in a given context. In addition, one could follow a group of international students for 1 year to examine education shock at different stages of adjustment in more depth. A Word on the Methodology My observations of two classes at CSOM and situational recall questionnaires did not yield significant data in this study. Only 2 students in my sample

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contributed to class discussions. The questionnaires did serve to develop on the classroom experiences category, however. An additional idea for future research would be to conduct several classroom observations and situational recall interviews or questionnaires over the course of a semester to examine communication styles and class participation in more depth, which would provide more accurate data than the present research. Finally, that these 6 students agreed to partake in this study may be indicative of their need to discuss their experiences at CSOM. Other students not in this sample may feel differently. The findings of this study shed light on the nature of academic experiences for international students. However, they are not generalizable to international student populations as a whole.

Implications for Policy Development Given global economic trends and the high number of international students in the field, business schools in the United States have the potential to serve as catalysts of international and intercultural awareness. Future policies should address the internationalization efforts at business schools in the United States for this and other reasons. First, international interest in business education is essential for the maintenance of positive relations between nations. After all, as Lee et al. (1981) argued, international students in the United States will likely be future national leaders in their home countries. Knowledge gained must be transferable to international students’ home countries, particularly to developing countries. Presenting materials from diverse perspectives may also reduce economic imperialism. Second, CSOM must implement policies that address local situations and needs and incorporate international perspectives. Minnesota is not immune to international interests. Business education should address international trends and their impact on businesses in Minnesota. Finally, students in this study expressed concern over CSOM’s national and international rankings. Kerr (1975) perhaps best expressed the urgency of this point: “Those [colleges and universities] prepared to challenge and respond in ways unique to their own situation, will survive. Those colleges or universities that can’t or won’t will disappear” (p. 74). International students can be influential in this effort. After all, they are living examples of globalization trends in the world today.

REFERENCES Althen, G. (1984). American ways: A guide for foreign students in the United States. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.


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Ballard, B. (1989). Social and cultural adjustment by foreign students: The Australian experience. In B. Ebuchi (Ed.), Foreign students and internationalization of higher education (pp. 160-172). Hiroshima, Japan: Research Institute for Higher Education. Bennett, M. J. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp. 21-72). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Bornsztein, B. (1986). Why did they come? A study of the factors which influence the foreign student’s decision to apply for admission to selected graduate schools of education in the United States. Unpublished dissertation, University of Minnesota. Brown, S., & Masten, J. (1998). The role of a business school in an emerging country: The case of Ghana. Journal of Education for Business, 73, 308-313. Carlson School of Management. (1998a). CSOM as the epicenter of a global educational network. Going global [Brochure]. Minneapolis, MN: CSOM International Programs. Carlson School of Management. (1998b). Delivering excellence around the world. A new world of opportunities [Brochure]. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. Carlson School of Management. (n.d.). [Online]. Available: www.csom.umn. edu Clark, C. M., & Peterson, P. P. (1986). Teachers’thought processes. In M. Wittrock, Handbook of research on teaching (3rd Ed.). New York: Macmillan. Coalition for the Advancement of Foreign Languages and International Studies: Working Group on the Private Sector and International Education. (1989). Spanning the gap: Toward a better business and education partnership for international competence. Washington, DC: Coalition for the Advancement of Foreign Languages and International Studies. Daniel, C. (1998). MBA: The first century. Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Press. Duke, C., & Victorova, I. (1998). Exploring joint programs across disciplines. Journal of Education for Business, 74(2), 99-102. Fasheh, M. (1984). Foreign students in the United States: An enriching experience or a wasteful one? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 9, 313-321. Fischer, G. (1979). American communication in a global society. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Gardener, B., & Korth, S. (1998). A framework for learning to work in teams. Journal of Business Education, 73(6), 28-33. Gutek, G. L. (1986). Education in the United States. A historical perspective. Edgewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Hoff, B. (1979). Classroom-oriented barriers to learning: International students in American higher education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota. Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture’s consequences. International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Johnston, J. S., & Edelstein, R. (1993). Beyond borders—Profiles in international education. Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business. Karasti, H. (1997). Using video to join analysis of work practice and system design: A study of an experimental teleradiology system and its redesign. Report from the University of Oulu, Finland, HCI & Group Technology Laboratory, Department of Information Processing Science. Kedia, B. L. (1999). The CIBER agenda. In B. Toyne & D. Nigh (Eds.), International business, institutions and the dissemination of knowledge (pp. 65-84). Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. Kerr, C. (1975). Campus in transition. New York: Educational Facilities Laboratory. Ladd, P., & Ruby, R. (1999). Learning style and adjustment issues of international students. Journal of Education for Business, 74(4), 363-367. LaPidus, J. (1994). Why foreign students attend U.S. graduate schools. In T.M. Davis (Ed.), Open doors 1993/94: Report on international educational exchange. New York: Institute of International Education. Also available online: www.opendoorsweb.org/lib%20pages/For20%studs/jules_b_lapidus.htm Leder, G. (1998). Do teachers favor high achievers? Gifted Child Quarterly, 32, 315-320. Lee, M. Y., Abd-Ella, M., & Burke, L. (1981). Needs of foreign students from developing nations at U.S. colleges and universities. Washington, DC: National Association for Foreign Student Affairs. Locke, R. (1999). International management education in Western Europe, the United States, and Japan: A historian’s view. In B. Toyne & D. Nigh (Eds.), International business education (pp. 25-44). Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. (2000). Designing qualitative research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Merriam, S. (1997). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Morine-Dershimer, G. (1987). Practical examples of the practical argument: A case in point. Educational Theory, 37, 395-407. Morrison, J. L. (1998). An international perspective for the next millennium— Business education for the seamless economy. Journal of Education for Business, 73 (6), 325-326.


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Mungazi, D. A. (1993). Educational policy and national character: Africa, Japan, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Westport, CT: Praeger. Open Doors Report (2001). [Online]. Available: http://www.opendoorsweb.org Paige, R. M. (1990). International students, cross-cultural psychological perspectives. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.), Applied cross-cultural psychology (pp. 161185). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Porter, R., & Samovar, L. A. (1997). An introduction to intercultural communication. In R. Porter & L. A. Samovar (Eds.), Intercultural communication, a reader (pp. 5-26). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Purdie, N. M., & Hattie, J. (1996). Cultural differences in the use of strategies for self-regulated learning (Japanese and Australian students). American Educational Research Journal, 33, 845-871. Rowan, R. (1993). The attitudes and opinions of international students studying in the College of Education at the University of Minnesota. Unpublished Plan B, University of Minnesota. Ruben, B. D., & Kealey, D. J. (1979). Behavioral assessment of communication competency and the prediction of cross-cultural adaptation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 3(1), 133. Scott, J. (1999). Developing cultural fluency: The goal of international business communication instruction in the 21st century. Journal of Education for Business, 74(3), 140-143. Smith, M., & Steward, J. F. (1999). Communication for a global economy. Business Education Forum, 54(2), 24-27. Stake, R. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Stecklein, J. E. (with the University of Minnesota Bureau of Institution Research). (1971). Attitudes of foreign students toward educational experiences at the University of Minnesota. Minneapolis: Bureau of Institutional Research, University of Minnesota. Stefani, L. A. (1997). The influence of culture on classroom communication. In L. A. Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication, a reader (pp. 349-364). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Steglitz, I. (1993). Intercultural perspective-taking: The impact of studying abroad. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota. Storti, C. (1989). The art of crossing cultures. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Tannen, D. (1998). The argument culture: What other ways are there? Listening to another culture. New York: Random House. Thomas, K., & Althen, G. (1989). Counseling foreign students. In P. B. Pedersen, J. G. Draguns, W. J. Lonner, & J. E. Trimble (Eds.), Counseling across cultures (pp. 205-241). Honolulu: University of Hawaii.

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Ting-Toomey, S. (1998). Intercultural conflict competence. In J. N. Martin, T. K. Nakayama, & L. A. Flores (Eds.), Readings in cultural contexts (pp. 401414). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Toyne, B,. & Nigh, D. (1999). International business, institutions and the dissemination of knowledge. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. White, D. S., & Griffith, D. A. (1998). Graduate international business education in the U.S.—Comparisons and suggestions. Journal of Education for Business, 74(2), 103-115.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Liv Thorstensson is a Ph.D. student in educational policy and administration, comparative and international development education at the University of Minnesota, in Minneapolis−St. Paul.

Journal of Studies in International Education Yang / Internationalizing Chinese Universities

Winter 2001

An Obstacle or a Useful Tool? The Role of the English Language in Internationalizing Chinese Universities Rui Yang Knowledge of foreign languages often has been considered an important indicator of internationalization of higher education. In modern Chinese history, foreign language learning has been one of the basic means for China’s survival. This research first looks at the status of English as a global language, with increasing separation from imperialist culture. Based on an empirical study, it then reports Chinese response to English global language and reviews the implications of the dominance of English for internationalization of Chinese higher education. It argues that foreign language learning in China reflects China’s history, perceptions of international scholarly relations, and assessment of the world situation. It shows that the disparity in importance attached to the most influential foreign languages by Chinese academics corresponds to the current influence of countries speaking those languages and hence to the unbalanced geographical foci of China’s university internationalization.

Knowledge of foreign languages has often been considered an important indicator of internationalization of higher education (De Wit, 1997, p. 27). Since China introduced a modern higher education system from the West at the end of the 19th century (Altbach, 1992; Hayhoe, 1996), learning foreign languages has been one of the basic means for China’s survival. China’s cultural superiority in its region for thousands of years fostered a mentality of self-conceit, which was shattered when China was trampled on by Western powers in the 19th century. As a former cultural empire, and latterly a semicolony, the shift from glory to humiliation caused a shock from which the Chinese, from high officials to the populace, could barely recover (Yang, 2000a). The heated debate over whether the Chinese should learn from the “barbarian” Westerners between those who favor and those who resist acceptance of Western ideas is more than a century old (Biggerstaff, 1961; X.-L. Chen, 1983; Hayhoe, 1996; Jian & Zheng, 1965). Interestingly, although the Chinese may not always welcome Western culture, and especially Westernization, they unanimously stress the significance of Journal of Studies in International Education, Vol. 5 No. 4, Winter 2001 341-358 © 2001 Association for Studies in International Education

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learning foreign languages (Huntington, 1996). It is, therefore, not a surprise that the predecessors of modern Chinese universities were foreign language schools, established to train translators to import Western knowledge in the early 1860s (X. -X. Chen, 1986; Yang, 2000a). A range of international studies has shown that great importance has been given to teaching foreign languages and that this is only likely to increase. In Australia, for example, 31 of its 38 universities offer Asian languages (Back & Davis, 1995, p. 136). Nonetheless, the commercial dominance of first England and then America in the 20th century has meant that English has become the global language (Sprague, 1999). This status is greatly strengthened by the fact that the international communication system operates primarily in English. The electronic revolution of the 20th century, which has been almost entirely an American affair (Crystal, 1997; Specter, 1996), has contributed further to such a status, with substantial advantages given to the academic communities that use English (Altbach, 1998, p. 114). In this respect, few countries can compete with China in terms of the priority, time, and energy given to the learning of English (Owens, 1998). Foreign language learning in China reflects China’s history, perceptions of international scholarly relations, and assessment of the world situation. The cold war led to Russian becoming the dominant foreign language in China, although nowadays, it has been replaced by English. The disparity in importance attached to the most influential foreign languages by Chinese academics largely corresponds to the current influence of countries speaking those languages. It shows a striking imbalance among various countries: China looked especially to the United States as a source of expertise, precisely because of the latter’s status as the most successful example of Western capitalism (Hayhoe & Zhong, 1995). It also demonstrates different preferences during different times in China’s higher education internationalization and unequal international relations in education, as well as in socioeconomic strength (Yang, 2000b). It is thus important to look at the implications of the dominance of the English language for internationalization of China’s higher education. This article reports some findings, specifically regarding English learning and teaching, from a survey conducted at 17 tertiary institutions in Guangzhou, China, in 1998. The research used questionnaires and interviews as the main means of collecting data, with many items about international dimensions of academic life having been adapted from the International Survey of the Academic Profession, sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (Altbach, 1996; Sheehan & Welch, 1996a, 1996b). The aim of this study was to understand some factual aspects of the respondents’ work concerning university internationalization and their personal opinions on issues related

Yang / Internationalizing Chinese Universities Table 1

Becher’s (1989) Classification of Disciplinary Cultures Pure (theoretical)

Hard Soft

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Science (e.g., physics) Humanities (e.g., history) Pure social sciences (e.g., anthropology)

Applied (practical)

Technologies (e.g., mechanical engineering) Applied social sciences (e.g., education)

to or affecting that work. The specific questions were chiefly prods to elicit information on these areas and were often supplemented with follow-up questions. In selecting respondents for this study, one major issue was which disciplines should be included to depict internationalization at Guangzhou universities. Knowledge disciplines can be categorized into the pure (theoretical) and the applied (practical). Becher (1989) summarized two basic kinds of classification. He suggested four disciplinary cultures (see Table 1). The selection of respondents in this study was based on these four fields, whereas criteria used for balanced representation were, age, gender, rank, and the nature of their work unit. Both of the above methods were used, based on the advantages of each over the other in certain respects. Semistructured interviews were designed to let participants express their views freely, using their own terms and perspectives. Specifically focused questions on institutions and individuals helped elicit respondents’ views of issues and agendas in the context of their institutional and personal speciality. There were altogether 25 interviewees. All interviews were conducted in Chinese. The author felt being able to interview in Chinese was beneficial, as, after all, language is a tool for constructing reality (Spradley, 1979, p. 17). To obtain an adequate sample size that could accurately represent the population under survey (Bailey, 1978), the final target sample size was 195 persons. Among them, 136 were teachers/researchers, 8 from each of the 17 institutions, and 59 were administrators (3 or 4 from each institution, depending on the scale). The responses numbered 169, representing an overall 86.67% of the target group. Administrators’ response rate was 100%. Teachers’/researchers’ response rate was 80.88% (see Table 2). Most administrators were in charge of teaching affairs, with the second largest group involved with research administration and the third largest concerned with foreign affairs. This distribution reflects the fact that teaching administration is usually the largest among all administrative sections in Chinese universities. It is also most comprehensively involved in university internationalization activities. Research and foreign affairs sections were also considered important.

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Table 2

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Respondents From 17 Institutions

Institution

Guangdong College of Pharmacology Guangdong Institute for Nationalities Guangdong Teacher Training College Guangdong TV University Guangdong University of Foreign Studies Guangdong University of Technology Guangzhou College of Fine Arts Guangzhou Medical College Guangzhou Normal College Guangzhou University Guangzhou University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Jinan University South China Agricultural University South China Normal University South China University of Technology Zhongkai College of Agricultural Technology Zhongshan University Total

Administrators

3 3 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 3 59

Teachers/ Researchers

7 7 7 6 4 8 6 8 5 7 4 8 8 5 6 6 8 110

Efforts were also made to achieve a balanced sample of disciplines with a slight surplus of science and technology: 39% from natural sciences, 26% from social sciences, 17% from humanities, 15% from engineering, and 3% from fine arts. This study is also based on long-standing personal working experience at a Chinese university and on some primary as well as secondary Chinese language sources of information about the current situation in China.

AN EMERGING GLOBAL LANGUAGE The English language has nowadays indisputably become the language of international communication (Crystal, 1997; Watson, 2001). It has official status in 60 countries and has a prominent place in 20 more. It is the main language of books, academic journals, the media, international sports, and entertainment, and is the international language of the air and of the sea. English is either the single or an official language of every major international organization, and 80% of all information stored in the world’s electronic retrieval systems is English (Altbach, 1998). No other language has spread around the globe so extensively. What is impressive, however, is not so much the grand total but the speed with which this

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expansion has taken place since the 1950s. English dominates international scholarly publishing. Although the use of English in different academic areas varies, all areas have shown a significant increase in the use of English during recent decades. In a worldwide consultation exercise initiated in 1995 by a British Council project, people professionally involved in English language teaching in some 90 countries were asked to react to a series of statements concerning the role and future of the English language. One of the statements was, “The global market for English language teaching and learning will increase over the next 25 years”; more than 93% agreed or strongly agreed (Crystal, 1997, p. 103). This is especially the case in China, where the proliferation of English learning materials has been overwhelming and English teaching has become a thriving business. Throughout history, the distribution of languages in the world has reflected the distribution of power in the world. All the most widely spoken languages— English, Mandarin, Spanish, French, Arabic, Russian—are, or were, the languages of imperial states that actively promoted use of their languages by other peoples. Shifts in the distribution of power produce shifts in the use of languages. Two centuries of British and American colonial, commercial, industrial, scientific, and fiscal power have left a substantial legacy in higher education, government, trade, and technology throughout the world. The reason for a language’s becoming a global language has little to do with the number of people who speak it. It has much more to do with who these speakers are. When they succeed on the international stage, their language succeeds with them. The chief reason for a language to become an international language is the political and economic power of its people (Crystal, 1997). The presentday world status of English, therefore, is primarily the result of two factors: the expansion of British colonial power, which peaked toward the end of the 19th century, and the emergence of the United States as the world’s leading economic power throughout most of the 20th century. The role of English has been further strengthened by the ongoing electronic revolution. The dominance of English on the Internet is of particular interest. Specter (1996) made the following comments to highlight the role of English: To study molecular genetics, all you need to get into the Harvard University Library, or the medical library at Sweden’s Karolinska Institute, is a phone line and a computer . . . and, it turns out, a solid command of the English language. Because whether you are a French intellectual pursuing the cutting edge of international film theory, a Japanese paleobotanist curious about a newly discovered set of primordial fossils, or an American teenager concerned about Magic Johnson’s jump shot, the Internet and World Wide Web really only work as great unifiers if you speak English. (p. 1)

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As Specter concluded, if anyone wants to take full advantage of the Internet, there is only one way to do it: learn English, which is now one of the greatest and most economically effective exports of major English-speaking countries. Even Huntington (1996, pp. 59-60), who pointed out significant declines occurred in the population speaking English from 1958 to 1992, is in agreement with Bartley’s (1993) judgment that “the world’s language is English” (p. 16). He cited Bartley to point out that although significant declines occurred in the proportion speaking English natively, the overall pattern of language use in the world did not change dramatically. English is the language that people from different language groups and cultures use to communicate with each other. It is the world’s lingua franca, or in Fishman’s (1977) terms, the world’s principal language of wider communication (LWC) throughout much of the world in the latter half of the 20th century.

THE SEPARATION OF IMPERIAL CULTURE FROM GLOBAL LANGUAGE Although English, in some shape or form, may find itself in the service of the world community forever (Crystal, 1997), critics have never ceased to exist. Much of the powerful rhetoric denouncing the continued use of colonial languages has come from Western intellectuals, such as Fanon, who linked their continuing use to the determination and the ability of the ex-colonial powers to maintain their economic, cultural, and political dominance beyond independence (Johnson, 1997). To speak means to be in a position to use a certain syntax to grasp the morphology of this or that language, but it also means, above all, to assume a culture and to support the weight of a civilization (Fanon, 1967). As Fanon and others have emphasized, languages have inherent qualities and values and if you acquire one, you necessarily adopt the other. Their objection to English, and other languages of the colonialists in the postcolonial world, was not simply a question of guilt by association. It was also argued that English has been used deliberately as an instrument of British and American capitalism. For example, Skutnabb-Kangas and Phillipson (1989) claimed that “it has been British and American government policy since the mid-1950s to establish English as a universal second language so as to protect and promote capitalist interests” (p. 63). Such suspicions were not limited to Western writers. Ndebele (1987) expressed a similar view regarding the spread of English as the language of international communication. He further pointed out that the very concept of an international or world language was an invention of Western imperialism. Although some English people still regard the English language as their intellectual property, there is increasing separation of imperial culture from English


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as a global language (Johnson, 1997). One interviewee, a professor and head of a foreign languages department at an esteemed Chinese university in Guangzhou, expressed clearly that “English is the biggest export of Britain.” Salman Rushdie commented, in an essay titled “Commonwealth Literature Does Not Exist”, that the English language gradually ceased to be the sole possession of the English some time ago (Crystal, 1997, p. 130). Indeed, because the proportion of the whole population of the world’s native English speakers is rapidly becoming smaller, no one can now claim sole ownership of the language. Although English has become the world language, in international trade, for example, neither Britain nor America seems able to use English to dominate international organizations or their policies. Another example is the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). Although English has been chosen as the official language, ASEAN has not shown itself to be particularly pro-British or pro-American. One ASEAN nation that relies most on English and has the largest proportion of citizens who claim English as their first language is Singapore. But in Singapore, the position has been stated more clearly than perhaps anywhere else: “yes” to English and “no” to Western cultural values (Johnson, 1997). This is also the case in Hong Kong, where students and their parents place a high value on English but show very little interest in supporting the weight of British, European, or Western culture and civilization. It is evident that English is now the primary source of access to information. Native speakers do not own the language. Nor do they control who learns it and who does not, who uses it and who does not, the purposes it is used for, or the values it is used to express. Although the use of English is rapidly pervasive around the world and the demand for it is increasingly high, there is less and less apparent advantage to be gained by the nations that claim it as their own. The language belongs increasingly to anyone who can use it (Smith, 1985). As Fishman (1982) put it, English used for international purposes is “without love, without sighs, without tears and almost without affect of any kind” (p. 20). This concurs with Hamp-Lyons’s (1983, pp. 145-146) argument that it is no longer true that to learn English one must learn the culture. During the field study in Chinese universities in Guangzhou (see also Yang, 2000a), Chinese scholars reported that there was increasing separation of the English language from the imperial Anglo-Saxon culture. An associate professor of history, himself a New Zealand permanent resident, made the following comments: In terms of foreign language learning, we shouldn’t be too nationalistic. We can eye language as a useful tool. I think Chinese scholars should learn English well. We have no alternative. As a Chinese you can use English to express your admiration of Deng Xiaoping and your love of China.

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This concurs with Johnson’s (1997) argument, which convincingly challenges a number of assumptions about English used for international purposes, including that the use of English as the international medium of communication necessarily serves the political, economic, and cultural purposes of the former colonial powers and that native speakers in some sense own the language, set the standards for its use, define its curriculum, and offer the only legitimate or authentic source for language teachers and language-teaching materials. It is becoming clear that English used for international communication is the servant of those who can use it to express what they intend in an appropriate form and achieve their communicative purposes. English has become English (Pennycook, 1996, p. 78), which is often termed as International English (IE, or English for international purposes). It can be used as effectively to attack international capitalism and Western values as to support them and to beat the native speakers, ideologically or commercially, as to join them. Huntington (1996), who believed that there are clashes between civilizations and that the central elements of any civilization are language and religion, acknowledged that English has now become the world’s way of communicating interculturally, just as the Christian calendar is the world’s way of tracking time, Arab numbers are the world’s way of counting, and the metric system is, for the most part, the world’s way of measuring. The use of English in this way is intercultural communication. Here, English is a tool for communication, not a source of identity and community. The English language is also no longer an effective language of imperialism, as Mazrui (1986) once claimed. Evidence in our daily life is not hard to find. That a Japanese banker and an Indonesian businessman talk to each other in English does not necessarily mean that either one of them has been Anglofied or Westernized. The same can be said of German- and French-speaking Swiss who are as likely to communicate with each other in English as in either of their national languages. Similarly, the maintenance of English as an associate national language in India, despite Nehru’s plans to the contrary, testifies to the intense desires of the non-Hindi-speaking peoples of India to preserve their own languages and cultures and the necessity of India’s remaining a multilingual society. A language is more likely to be accepted as a lingua franca or LWC if it is not identified with a particular ethnic group, religion, or ideology. In the past, English had many of these identifications. More recently, English has been de-ethnicized (or minimally ethnicized), as happened in the past with Akkadian, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin. The use of English for intercultural communication helps to maintain, and indeed reinforces, peoples’ separate cultural identities, precisely because people want to preserve their own culture and use English to communicate with peoples of other cultures.


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As a substantial number of interviewees suggested, it is necessary for the Chinese to be aware of narrow-minded linguistic nationalism. In this respect, the Singaporean experience is relevant. Singaporeans have managed to cope well with multilingualism. Singapore, in accepting English, avoided the strident linguistic nationalism of other ex-colonial states and acknowledged the need to be linked up to the global economic grid and to be useful to others (Gopinathan, 1997). Although there is not such a specific linguistic policy in China, it is still safe to say that the main channel for the assimilation of Western culture is not the learning of Western languages. To learn English in China does not necessarily lead to total acceptance of the culture of English-speaking countries.

THE CHINESE RESPONSE TO ENGLISH GLOBAL LANGUAGE To say that English has become a global language does not mean that everyone in the world is happy to accept English. It does not imply that every country in the world recognizes English as an official language. Nor is it right to say that everyone in the world speaks English. Nonnative English speakers may be strongly motivated to learn English because they know it will put them in touch with more people than any other language. They may also feel that mother-tongue speakers of English have an unfair advantage over them. This was exactly what some Chinese academics explicitly expressed. As one interviewee, himself a professor of English, commented, it is in fact inevitable that there has been a strong reaction against the continuing use of the language of the former colonial power and in favor of promoting the indigenous languages in a postcolonial era. People have a natural wish to use their own mother tongue—to see it survive and grow—and they do not take kindly to having the language of another culture imposed on them. Gandhi put the point more emotively in the early years of this century, saying that to give millions knowledge of English was to enslave them. In his eye, it was a painful thing, absolutely absurd, and a sign of slavery. This was why the president of Kenya once appealed to stop aping their former colonizers. More recently, a Kenyan author, Ngugi wa Thiong’o, chose to reject English as the medium of expression for his work in favor of Gikuyu and Kiswahili in the late 1980s. After political independence, people often feel that they cannot bear to look back to their bitter experience of being forced to learn the language of the colonizer and of being punished for speaking their mother tongue. It is not difficult to see how antagonism to English can grow with such memories. Equally, it is easy to see how ambivalence can grow. Many educators in the non-English countries,

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particularly those with a British colonial history, see themselves as facing a dilemma: If they teach English, their students will have the chance of reaching the current international development, but to teach in English may mean sacrificing their cultural identity. There have been, however, very few rejections of English as a school foreign language to date, and the populations in the countries that have done so are sufficiently small that the total impact on the status of the English language as a whole is negligible (Crystal, 1997). Whether other alternatives will in the long run acquire the status held today by English or not remains open to question; nonetheless, the fact now is that English reigns supreme. It would take a long, long time to change; meanwhile, resistance to this reality means, in effect, a loss of opportunities. In China, there is a widespread acknowledgment among the Chinese academics that English is becoming a global language of international communication in politics, economy, culture, and science and technology. The Chinese response to the status of English as a global language is reflected by the following comments: One big obstacle for the contemporary Chinese scholarship to achieve internationalization is language difficulty. In fact, the contemporary wisdom of the Chinese people has been much ignored. The crucial thing is the language of communication. I think English is a big obstacle for the contemporary Chinese scholars to achieve internationalization. We have to work hard to master it.

This is not to say that confidence in the Chinese language has been lost. Indeed, some people see Chinese as a strong, if not the only, future possibility to replace English. Several interviewees from various fields from information theory and computer science to philosophy strongly believed that Chinese would be more influential in future international communications. Although Chinese is indeed becoming increasingly popular as a foreign language in many parts of the world, it is far too early to predict whether Chinese might become a global language, and if so, when. The Chinese attitude toward learning English is important here. The survey of Chinese universities in Guangzhou found that 93.64% of the academic staff sampled reported that their departments had foreign language (predominantly English) teaching programs (see Table 3), whereas 70% of them said all their students must learn at least one foreign language (see Table 4). Only one respondent (from Guangdong TV University) reported that no foreign language teaching occurred in his institution. Nearly half of academics surveyed acknowledged that they were required by their work to use foreign languages (see Table 5). Interviewees expressed similar views. One of them, a returned student from

Yang / Internationalizing Chinese Universities Table 3

Are Foreign Languages Taught in Your Department? (N = 110)

Answer

Yes No Unclear No response

Table 4

351

n

%

103 1 5 1

93.64 0.91 4.54 0.91

Which Students Are Required to Learn at Least One Foreign Language? (N = 110)

Students

n

%

All Most Postgraduate Undergraduate Unclear

77 9 10 13 1

70 8.18 9.09 11.82 0.91

Table 5

Are You Required by Your Work to Use Foreign Languages? (N = 110)

Answer

n

%

Yes No No response

52 57 1

47.27 51.82 0.91

Japan, said that the only foreign language he urged his daughter to learn was English. Despite the awareness of the inequality inherent in the fact that English is becoming a global language, the Chinese have started learning or improving their English more than ever because the expansion of the Internet has further strengthened the leading status of English. Hence, Chinese scholars want to understand what appears on their computer screens after transferring packets of data from other computers. It is foreseeable that the more the Internet spreads, the more people will be encouraged to learn English and the stronger the position of English will become (see Table 6). In this sense, it can be almost certain that the Chinese attitude toward English learning is a wise strategic choice.

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Table 6

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Rankings of Foreign Languages Used and Taught in Guangzhou Universities Foreign Languages Required by Academic Work

Foreign Language

English Japanese German French Russian Spanish Other (Italian, Thai, and Malaysian)

Ranking

Number of Times Mentioned

Foreign Languages Taught in Guangzhou Universities Ranking

Number of Times Mentioned

1 2 3 4 5 6

48 13 10 9 7 6

1 2 3 4 5 7

98 37 12 4 4 3

7

3

6

1

IMPLICATIONS FOR ENGLISH TEACHING AND LEARNING IN CHINA The aforementioned Chinese attitude toward English as a global language further proves that the social and economic changes that have resulted in the internationalization of English are not universally beneficent. The imperialism of the “old” Englishes has had its day, but the increasing use of English internationally promotes its use internationally as well as in competition with native intranational and intracommunity languages. Its spread tends to restrict the teaching of foreign languages other than English. Weaker languages and cultures are disappearing, and even stronger languages and cultures are finding their roles and status increasingly restricted. The current status of English also creates winners and losers. Those who have English at their disposal, especially those who have it as a mother tongue, will be more able to think and work quickly in it and to manipulate it to their own advantage at the expense of those who do not have it (Crystal, 1997). Native English speakers are automatically in a position of power compared with those who have to learn it as an official or foreign language. The risk is certainly real. Scientists who do not have English as a mother tongue will take longer to assimilate reports in English compared with their mother-tongue colleagues and, as a consequence, will have less time to carry out their own creative work. This explains the reason why Chinese academics, who write up their research overwhelmingly in Chinese, have their work ignored by the international community (Altbach, 1998).


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For example, American scientists usually look to the rest of the world for particular persons with whom to study and collaborate or for particular laboratories with specialized instrumentation in which to work. The language used on site is almost invariably English (Goodwin & Nacht, 1991). U.S. scholars are often misled about their place in the world and the notion of intellectual hegemony. Many Americans take it for granted that if the people of other nations are looking more and more like them; why bother to pay attention to the current languages and cultural peculiarities of those nations? It was a typical comment by the Chinese interviewees that the English status as a global language was by no means fair to them. It seems as if, as a professor of English described, “history has made a big joke about our Chinese people.” That English is the dominant language of international communications has significant implications for foreign languages teaching and learning in China. It has reshaped the market value structure of various foreign languages in China. In 1995, the long-standing English Language and Literature program could not be found in any admission bulletin of Guangdong universities, except for Guangzhou University of Foreign Studies. Instead, English for Business, English for Foreign Trade, and English for International Legal Studies, among others, were established to attract students. From a sociolinguistic viewpoint, the market value of foreign languages reflects their social economic benefits, albeit not always comprehensively. The perceived value is determined both by the demand-supply relationship caused by social economic development and international communication and by the domestic needs within a country. In view of both international and domestic factors, Xiong and Li (1998) developed a comparison of market values of the major foreign languages taught in China (see Table 7). Their findings concur with and partly explain what my data suggest (see Table 6). It is clear that the increasing use of English internationally tends to restrict the teaching of foreign languages other than English. Although learning English is increasingly imperative, it tends to become less difficult. Johnson (1997) analyzed the reason. He distinguished IE from other Englishes and defined it as a variety of English, which is more easily learned than any national or community variety. This argument, together with that of Crystal (1997)—who pointed out that if proper attention is paid to the question of language learning, the problem of disadvantage dramatically diminishes— sends an encouraging message to Chinese learners. It also brings them some relief, because many Chinese have spent a tremendous amount of time and energy on learning English and their achievement has been far from satisfying.

354 Table 7

Language

English Russian French German Japanese

A Comparison of Market Value of the Major Foreign Languages Taught in China

Economic Power

Strong Relatively weak Strong Strong Strong

Political Influence

Influential Influential Influential Less influential Less influential

Source: Adapted from Xiong and Li (1998, p. 61).

Scientific or Technological Level

Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced

Communications With China

Extensive Less extensive Less extensive Less extensive Extensive

Language Industry Services

Many Few Few Few Many

Demand-Supply Relation

Demand exceeds supply Overall equilibrium Overall equilibrium Overall equilibrium Demand exceeds supply

Current Market Value

High Less high Less high Less high High


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CONCLUSION As English has gradually become a leading language of international politics, scholarship, and business, it has been accorded a uniquely high priority in China. Unlike the situation in many other non-English-speaking developing countries where there is a strong concern about the use of the English language and a tension between the need to preserve one’s own language and the acknowledgment of English as the academic lingua franca (Knight & De Wit, 1997), Chinese scholars embrace the current status of English. To most Chinese in higher education, learning English is already an urgent, tough task. Moreover, they seem to be overconfident in believing that they should, and can, take advantage of English learning and that this can be achieved without undergoing Westernization.

REFERENCES Altbach, P. G. (1992). Patterns in higher education development: Toward the year 2000. In R. F. Arnove, P. G. Altbach, & G. P. Kelly (Eds.), Emerging issues in education: Comparative perspectives. Albany: State University of New York Press. Altbach, P. G. (Ed.). (1996). The international academic profession: Portraits of fourteen countries. Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Altbach, P. G. (1998). Comparative higher education: Knowledge, the university and development. Hong Kong, China: The University of Hong Kong, Comparative Education Research Centre. Back, K. J., & Davis, D. M. (1995). Internationalisation of higher education. In H. De Wit (Ed.), Strategies for internationalisation of higher education: A comparative study of Australia, Canada, Europe and the United States of America. Amsterdam: The European Association for International Education. Bailey, K. D. (1978). Methods of social research. London: Collier-Macmillan. Bartley, R. L. (1993). The case for optimism—The West should believe in itself. Foreign Affairs, 72, 15-18. Becher, T. (1989). Academic tribes and territories: Intellectual enquiry and the cultures of disciplines. Milton Keynes, UK: Society for Research into Higher Education. Biggerstaff, K. (1961). The earliest modern government schools in China. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Chen, X.-L. (1983). Zhongguo jindai bashi nian [Eighty years of Chinese modern history]. Shanghai, China: Shanghai People’s Press. Chen, X.-X. (1986). Zhongguo jindai jiaoyushi jiaoxue cankao ziliao [Teaching reference materials on Chinese modern history of education]. Beijing, China: People’s Education Press.

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Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge encyclopaedia of language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, D. (1997). English as a global language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. De Wit, H. (1997). Strategies for internationalisation of higher education in Asia Pacific countries: A comparative introduction. In J. Knight & H. De Wit (Eds.), Internationalisation of higher education in Asia Pacific countries. Amsterdam: The European Association for International Education. Fanon, F. (1967). Black skin, white masks. New York: Grove. Fishman, J. A. (1977). The spread of English as a new perspective for the study of language maintenance and language shift. In J. A. Fishman, R. L. Cooper, & A. W. Conrad (Eds.), The spread of English: The sociology of English as an additional language. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Fishman, J. A. (1982). A sociology of English as an additional language. In B. B. Kachru (Ed.), The other tongue: English across cultures. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Goodwin, C. D., & Nacht, M. (1991). Missing the boat: The failure to internationalise American higher education. New York: Cambridge University Press. Gopinathan, S. (1997). Educational development in Singapore: Connecting the national, regional and the global. The Australian Educational Researcher, 24(1), 1-12. Hamp-Lyons, E. (1983). Motivation for learning English as a world language: Integrative and instrumental. World Language English, 2(3), 145-149. Hayhoe, R. (1996). China’s universities 1895-1995: A century of cultural conflict. New York: Garland. Hayhoe, R., & Zhong, W. -H. (1995). Universities and science in China: New visibility in the world community. In A. H. Yee (Ed.), East Asian higher education: Traditions and transformations. Oxford, UK: Pergamon. Huntington, S. P. (1996). The clash of civilisations and the remaking of world order. New York: Simon & Schuster. Jian, B. -Z., & Zheng, T. -T. (1965). Zhongguo tongshi jiaoxue cankao ziliao xiandai juan [Reference materials of Chinese general history (the modern section)]. Beijing, China: Zhonghua Book Company. Johnson, R. K. (1997). Political transitions and the internationalisation of English: Implications for language planning, policy-making and pedagogy. In W. O. Lee & M. Bray (Eds.), Education and political transition: Perspectives and dimensions in East Asia. Hong Kong, China: The University of Hong Kong, Comparative Education Research Centre. Knight, J., & De Wit, H. (Eds.). (1997). Internationalisation of higher education in Asia Pacific countries. Amsterdam: The European Association for International Education.


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Mazrui, A. (1986). From the Semites to the Anglo-Saxons: Culture and civilization in changing communication. Alternatives, 11(1), 3-43. Ndebele, N. S. (1987). The English language and social change in South Africa. The English Academy Review, 4, 1-16. Owens, L. (1998). The meanings and importance of Sino-Australian educational exchanges. Paper presented at the 6th International Conference on Australian Studies, Peking University, China. Pennycook, A. (1996). English, universities, and struggles over culture and knowledge. In R. Hayhoe & J. Pan (Eds.), East-West dialogue in knowledge and higher education. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe. Sheehan, B. A., & Welch, A. R. (1996a). The academic profession in Australia. Canberra, Australia: Department of Employment, Education and Training. Sheehan, B. A., & Welch, A. R. (1996b). The Australian academic profession. In P. G. Altbach (Ed.), The international academic profession: Portraits of fourteen countries. Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Skutnabb-Kangas, T., & Phillipson, R. (1989). Wanted! Linguistic human rights, Rolig Papir 44, Roskilde Universitetscenter. Smith, L. E. (1985). EIL versus ESL/EFL: What’s the difference and what difference does the difference make. English Teaching Forum, October, 2-6. Specter, M. (1996, April 14). World, Wide, Web: 3 English words. The New York Times, pp. 1, 4. Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. New York: Holt, Rinhart & Winston. Sprague, J. (1999, July 30). Mind your language. Asiaweek, 25(30), 28-35. Watson, K. (2001). Globalisation, educational reform and language policy in transitional societies. In T. Mebrahtu, M. Crossley, & D. Johnson (Eds.), Globalisation, educational transformation and societies in transition. Oxford, UK: Symposium. Xiong, J. -C., & Li, R. -Z. (1998). Waiyu shichang jiazhi yu waiyu zhuanye shezhi [Market value of foreign languages in relation to program development for foreign language majors]. Shantou Daxue Xuebao, 14(1), 59-63. Yang, R. (2000a). Internationalisation of higher education in China: A study of Guangzhou. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Sydney, Faculty of Education. Yang, R. (2000b). Tensions between the global and the local: A comparative illustration of the reorganisation of China’s higher education in the 1950s and 1990s. Higher Education, 39, 319-337.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Rui Yang is a lecturer in international education in the Faculty of Education, The University of Western Australia, Perth. Before commencing his doctoral studies at the University of Hong Kong in 1996, he worked as an academic at a Chinese university for 8 years. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Sydney in 2000.

Journal of Studies in International Education Review

Winter 2001

Review

Changing Perspectives on International Higher Education Forty years ago, Title VI of the National Defense Education Act was an important instrument used by the American government to provide aid for foreign languages and area studies development. In April 1998, Indiana University organized a conference in Washington, D.C., to celebrate this 40th anniversary titled “International Education in American Colleges and Universities: Prospect and Retrospect.” Two publications (Indiana University Press) were the result of the conference. The first, Globalization and the Challenge of a New Century: A Reader, edited by Patrick O’Meara, Howard D. Mehlinger, and Matthew Krain, was published in 2000 and is intended for university classroom use. A second publication, Changing Perspectives on International Education, was published in 2001 and edited by O’Meara and Mehlinger together with Roxana Ma Newman. The editors intended to provide university administrators, policy makers, and educational planners with a historical perspective on the accomplishments of Title VI programs and new insights into the directions currently affecting international studies.

Patrick O’Meara, Howard D. Mehlinger, and Roxana Ma Newman (Eds.). (2001). Changing Perspectives on International Education. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. The organizers of the conference “International Education in American Colleges and Universities: Prospect and Retrospect” decided not to publish the conference proceedings, only include some of the conference papers, and add other papers drawn from recently published literature on international education in the book Changing Perspectives on International Education. In doing so, they have composed an interesting reader on the issue of American international education, with 24 papers published mainly in a relatively short period between 1996 and 1999, with the exception of some papers published before (one in 1982, one in 1992, and one in 1994). The reader is divided in five parts: Title VI and International Studies in the United States: An Overview, Current Issues in International Studies and Higher Education, Accomplishments and Challenges in International Programs, International Journal of Studies in International Education, Vol. 5 No. 4, Winter 2001 359-360 © 2001 Association for Studies in International Education

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Education and Global Studies in Elementary and Secondary Schools, and Trends for the Future. In the last part, International Resources, an overview of selected international resources is provided. The publication is a useful source of background information on Title VI and American international education. In particular, the fourth part on international education and global studies in elementary and secondary schools is illustrative, because these levels are rather neglected in the literature on internationalization of education. The guide on international resources, as many of these guides, is limited in its use. Although the authors have attempted to give the guide some structure and have included a lot of interesting resources, including Web sites, a lot is still missing—in particular from non-U.S. sources although the claim of the guide is to be international. On the other hand, several new sources are included that are useful for my own research. In that sense, the guide is informative and supports the need for a more complete bibliography and encyclopedia on internationalization of education. The reader is, as said, helpful as resource material for those interested in the development of international education in the United States, in particular on area studies and foreign languages. In particular, Part I: An Overview and Part II: Current Issues fulfil the objective to provide a historical perspective. What would have been interesting and challenging is a critical introduction to or conclusion to the reader and the provision of a non-U.S., outsider’s perspective. The editors have deliberately chosen to limit themselves to the model of a reader and leave new insights to the authors they have selected. All in all, the reader is informative and useful, not only for practitioners but also for students in the field. Hans de Wit Editor

Journal of Studies in International Education Selected Recent Studies

Winter 2001

Selected Recent Studies in International Education H. W. Maltha, J. F. Gerritsen, and W. Veen (Eds.). (2000). The Means and the Ends, ICT and Third World Higher Education. Amsterdam: NUFFIC Paperback 1, Thela Thesis. Ad Boeren. (2000). Beating the Labyrinth, The Sustainability of International Co-operation Programmes in Higher Education. Amsterdam: NUFFIC Paperback 2, Thela Thesis. Kees Epskamp (Ed.). (2000). Education in the South, Modalities of International Support Revisited. Amsterdam: NUFFIC Paperback 3, Thela Thesis. These first three paperbacks of the Netherlands Foundation for International Cooperation in Higher Education (NUFFIC) published by Thela Thesis in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, address issues related to development cooperation and international education. The first book on ICT and higher education in the Third World provides a collection of articles on information and communications technologies and their implications for developing countries, with a special focus on Africa. The second publication deals with the issue of sustainability of international cooperation programs in higher education, based on the experience of such cooperation programs of institutes of higher education in developing countries with their counterparts in the Netherlands. The author identifies the conditions for success, the constraints, the opportunities, and the threats of such linkages. The third publication provides a critical analysis of the ways in which international support to developing countries is given in the field of education, based on views and contributions from the South. The book, based on a conference with the same title organized by NUFFIC in 1999, reviews, compares, and assesses different policies and modalities for supporting education in the South in the context of the so-called sectorwide approach to development. It analyzes the often-stated principle that development cooperation should be in response to what the South wants rather than what the North believes is good for developing countries. For those interested in issues relevant for international cooperation in education between developing countries and the North, these three publications provide interesting material.


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Farid Elashmawi. (2001). Competing Globally, Mastering Multicultural Management and Negotiations. Boston: Managing Cultural Differences Series, Butterworth Heinemann. This book is a guide for business managers and students, who must enhance their cross-cultural negotiating skills to compete globally. It is also of interest for international educators who increasingly have to deal with cross-cultural negotiation in their daily work.

Journal of Studies in International Education INDEX

Winter 2001

Index to Journal of Studies in International Education Volume 5 Number 1 (March 2001) pp. 1-96 Number 2 (June 2001) pp. 96-178 Number 3 (September 2001) pp. 179-264 Number 4 (December 2001) pp. 265-368

Authors: ADAMS, TONY, see Walters, D. ALTBACH, PHILIP G., and ULRICH TEICHLER, “Internationalization and Exchanges in a Globalized University,” 5. ANDERSON, BARBARA, see Dyjack, D. BOLEN, MELL, “Consumerism and U.S. Study Abroad,” 182. BREMER, LIDUINE, “New Publications on International Student Flows” [Reviews], 91. CANTO, ISABEL, and JANET HANNAH, “A Partnership of Equals? Academic Collaboration Between the United Kingdom and Brazil,” 26. CLARK, JEFFREY W., see Festervand, Troy A. DE WIT, HANS, “Changing Perspectives on International Education” [Review], 359. DE WIT, HANS, “Editorial,” 3, 99, 179, 267. DE WIT, HANS, “Internationalising the Curriculum in Higher Education: Reflecting on Practice, edited by Brian Hudson and Malcom J. Todd,” “Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, edited by Thomas Ricks, Katharine Krebs, and Michael Monahan,” “Higher Education in Europe, papers from UNESCO/CEPES conference, March 16-17, 2000” [Reviews], 255. DYJACK, DAVID, BARBARA ANDERSON, and AMANDA MADRID, “Experiential Public Health Study Abroad Education: Strategies for Integrating Theory and Practice,” 244. FAULKNER, GARY L., see McNamee, Stephen J. FESTERVAND, TROY A., JEFFREY W. CLARK, and TERRY LYNN WHITE, “Teaching a U.S. Graduate Information Systems Course Abroad: Observations and Experiences From France,” 79. GAHUNGU, ATHANASE, “U.S.-Africa Cooperation in Education at Northern Arizona University: Unexpected Lessons,” 146. HANNAH, JANET, see Canto, I. KNIGHT, JANE, “Monitoring the Quality and Progress of Internationalization,” 228. KROEGER, KENT R., see OLSON, C. L. LEASK, BETTY, “Bridging the Gap: Internationalizing University Curricula,” 100. MADRID, AMANDA, see Dyjack, D. MCCABE, LESTER T., “Globalization and Internationalization: The Impact on Education Abroad Programs,” 138. MCNAMEE, STEPHEN J., and GARY L. FAULKNER, “The International Exchange Experience and the Social Construction of Meaning,” 64. Journal of Studies in International Education, Vol. 5 No. 4, Winter 2001 363-365 © 2001 Association for Studies in International Education

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364


Winter 2001

OLSON, CHRISTA LEE, and KENT R. KROEGER, “Global Competence and Intercultural Sensitivity,” 116. TEICHLER, ULRICH, “Changes of ERASMUS Under the Umbrella of SOCRATES,” 201. TEICHLER, ULRICH, see Altbach, Philip G. THORSTENSSON, LIV, “This Business of Internationalization: The Academic Experiences of 6 Asian MBA International Students at the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of Management,” 317. VAN AKEN, DANIËL, “The Time and the Trouble: Mobility Obstacles for Incoming Students From Outside Europe,” 291. VAN DER WENDE, MARIJK, The Business of Borderless Education, by S. Bjarnason, J. Davies, D. Farrington, J. Fielden, R. Garrett, H. Lund, R. Middlehurst, and A. Schofield; and Transnational Education. Providers, Partners and Policy. Challenges for Australian Institutions Offshore, edited by D. Davis, A. Olson, and A. Bohm [Book Reviews], 165. VINCENTI, VIRGINIA B., “Exploration of the Relationship Between International Experiences and the Interdisciplinary Work of University Faculty,” 42. WALTERS, DAVID, and TONY ADAMS, “Global Reach Through a Strategic Operations Approach: An Australian Case Study,” 269. WHITE, TERRY LYNN, see Festervand, Troy A. YANG, RUI, “An Obstacle or a Useful Tool? The Role of the English Language in Internationalizing Chinese Universities,” 341.

Articles: “Bridging the Gap: Internationalizing University Curricula,” Leask, 100. “Changes of ERASMUS Under the Umbrella of SOCRATES,” Teichler, 201. “Consumerism and U.S. Study Abroad,” Bolen, 182. “Editorial,” de Wit, 3, 99, 179, 267. “Experiential Public Health Study Abroad Education: Strategies for Integrating Theory and Practice,” Dyjack et al., 244. “Exploration of the Relationship Between International Experiences and the Interdisciplinary Work of University Faculty,” Vincenti, 42. “Global Competence and Intercultural Sensitivity,” Olson and Kroeger, 116. “Global Reach Through a Strategic Operations Approach: An Australian Case Study,” Walters and Adams, 269. “Globalization and Internationalization: The Impact on Education Abroad Programs,” McCabe, 138. “The International Exchange Experience and the Social Construction of Meaning,” McNamee and Faulkner, 64. “Internationalization and Exchanges in a Globalized University,” Altbach and Teichler, 5. “Monitoring the Quality and Progress of Internationalization,” Knight, 228. “An Obstacle or a Useful Tool? The Role of the English Language in Internationalizing Chinese Universities,” Yang, 341. “A Partnership of Equals? Academic Collaboration Between the United Kingdom and Brazil,” Canto and Hannah, 267. “Teaching a U.S. Graduate Information Systems Course Abroad: Observations and Experiences From France,” Festervand et al., 79. “This Business of Internationalization: The Academic Experiences of 6 Asian MBA International Students at the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of Management,” Thorstensson, 317. “The Time and the Trouble: Mobility Obstacles for Incoming Students From Outside Europe,” van Aken, 291. “U.S.-Africa Cooperation in Education at Northern Arizona University: Unexpected Lessons,” Gahungu, 146.

INDEX

365

Reviews: “The Business of Borderless Education, by S. Bjarnason, J. Davies, D. Farrington, J. Fielden, R. Garrett, H. Lund, R. Middlehurst, and A. Schofield,” and “Transnational Education. Providers, Partners and Policy. Challenges for Australian Institutions Offshore, edited by D. Davis, A. Olson, and A. Bohm”, 165. “Changing Perspectives in International Education,” de Wit, 359. “Internationalising the Curriculum in Higher Education: Reflecting on Practice, edited by Brian Hudson and Malcom J. Todd,” “Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, edited by Thomas Ricks, Katharine Krebs, and Michael Monahan,” and “Higher Education in Europe, papers from UNESCO/CEPES conference, March 16-17, 2000” [Reviews], 255. “New Publications on International Student Flows” [Reviews], Bremer, 91.

Editorial Advisory Board Tony Adams Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

Joseph Mestenhauser University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, U.S.A.

Philip Altbach Center for International Higher Education, Boston College, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Sheri Ranis Social Science Research Council, New York, U.S.A.

Barbara Burn University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Fazal Rizvi RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia

Hilary Callan Royal Anthropological Institute, London, United Kingdom

Sepideh Rouhani International Education Association of South Africa (IEASA), Durban, South Africa

Jane Edwards Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, U.S.A.

Tom Rozzell National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Jocelyne Gacel de Avila Associación Méxicana para la Educación Internacional (AMPEI), Guadalajara, Jalisco, México

Jan Sadlak UNESCO/CEPES, Bucharest, Romania

Guy Haug Senior Advisor CRE, Geneva, Switzerland / Paris, France

Peter Scott Kingston University, London, United Kingdom

Gertrude Humily Ministere de la Defense, Armees, France

Michael Stohl Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, U.S.A.

Barbara Kehm Institute for Higher Education Research Wittenberg, University of Halle, Germany

Jason Tan National Institute for Education, Singapore

Roshen Kishun International Education Association of South Africa (IEASA), University of Natal, Durban, South Africa Jane Knight Ontario Institute of Education, University of Toronto, Canada Karen McBride Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC), Ottawa, Canada Beatrice Merrick The Council for International Education (UKCOSA), London, United Kingdom

Ulrich Teichler Center of Higher Education and Work, University of Kassel, Germany Manfred Thullen Association of International Education Administrators (AIEA), Northern Illinois University, U.S.A. Toru Umakoshi Centre for the Study of Higher Education, Nagoya University, Japan Marijk van der Wende Center for Higher Education Policy Studies, University of Twente, the Netherlands