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Provision of sport psychology services to Taiwan archery team for the 2004 Athens Olympic Games a

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Tsung‐Min Hung , Tse‐Chuan Lin , Chia‐Ling Lee & Ling‐Chun Chen

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Department of Physical Education , National Taiwan Normal University , No.162 Ho‐ping E. Rd.Sec.1, Taipei, Taiwan Fax: E-mail: b

Taipei Physical Education College , Taiwan

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Taipei Municipal University of Education , Taiwan Published online: 28 Feb 2011.

To cite this article: Tsung‐Min Hung , Tse‐Chuan Lin , Chia‐Ling Lee & Ling‐Chun Chen (2008) Provision of sport psychology services to Taiwan archery team for the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6:3, 308-318, DOI: 10.1080/1612197X.2008.9671875 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2008.9671875

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IJSEP, 2008, 6, 308-318 © 2008 West Virginia University

Provision of Sport Psychology Services to Taiwan Archery Team for the 2004 Athens Olympic Games Tsung -Min Hung1, Tse-Chuan Lin2, Chia-Ling Lee2, 1

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and Ling -Chun

Chen3

National Taiwan Normal University Taipei Physical Education College, Taiwan Taipei Municipal University of Education, Taiwan

Abstract

Taiwan organized a sport science team that included a sport psychology team for its archery team in preparation for the 2004 Athens Olympic Games. For approximately one and a half years prior to the 2004 Olympic Games, the sports psychology team cooperated with the coaches. Within this time period, the Taiwan archers achieved significant improvement in performance. This accomplishment was particularly impressive considering both the inexperience of the team and its modest level of performance in the past. This report intends to provide a personal account of how sport psychology was applied to enhance the archers’ performance. Specifically, given a background of general rejection to sport scientists’ involvement in the sport training by the coaches, this paper will report how these obstacles were overcome and what experiences were gained that may be useful for other countries organizing and trying to integrate a sport psychology team in cooperation with sport teams. Keywords: applied sport psychology, psychological skill training, archery

Introduction

There are quite a few reports on applying sport psychology to athletes prior to and during major international competitions (Gould, Murphy, Tammen, & May, 1991; Gould & Roberts, 1989; Halliwell, 1989; Hardy & Parfitt, 1994; Kirschenbaum, Partham, & Murphy, 1993; Loehr, 1990; McCann, 2000; Murphy, 1988; Murphy & Ferrante, 1989; Nideffer, 1989; Orlick & Partington, 1987; Partington & Orlick, 1987; Rotella, 1990; Van Rattle, 2003). The application experience might differ because of the difference in types of sports, the background of coaches and athletes, and the general climate of sport science in the country. Thus, it is the intention of this paper to provide a personal account of sport psychology service provided to the Taiwan archery squad prior to the 2004 Athens Olympic Games. Corresponding author: Tsung-Min Hung, Department of Physical Education, National Taiwan Normal University, No.162 Ho-ping E. Rd.Sec.1 Taipei, Taiwan. Fax: +886-2-23634240, Email: [email protected]

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Sport Psycholog y Services to Taiwan Archery Although the application of sport psychology to enhance athletes’ performance has been documented for decades, it was not until the last 10 years or so that psychological service was formerly introduced to the top athletes in Taiwan. The service is usually provided a few months prior to a major competition such as the Olympic Games or Asian Games. The sport psychology services mainly consist of psychological education, assessment of athletes’ psychological strength, and counseling. The 2000 Sydney Olympic Games represented a landmark in sport psychology service because of the change in thinking in sport science service. This change has led to the formation of sport teams that involve sport scientists much earlier before a major international competition. In the 2004 Olympics, Taiwan archers won a silver medal in the men’s team event, a bronze in the women’s team event, fourth and sixth places in the women’s single events, and seventh place in the men’s single event. This was a significant improvement worthy of further study, given that the team had not won any Olympic medals in several decades. The successes of the team were primarily due to the intense training of coaches and athletes. Nonetheless, sport science—and sport psychology in particular—also played an important role. Cooperation between the sport scientists and the coaches started about a year and a half before the 2004 Olympic Games. The sport psychology service provided to Taiwan’s 2004 Olympic athletes was not intended to be an academic endeavor. However, with the traditional attitude toward sport science, the problems encountered and experience gained in this process may be valuable to other countries that plan to integrate sport psychology into their sport programs. This report describes how we incorporated sport psychology within the preparation of the archery team at our national training center (NTC). The general attitude of the coaches and athletes toward sport science is discussed, as well as the approaches that the sport scientists took to win their support. The procedures used to assess archers’ psychological states and intervention programs are explained, and the results of evaluation after psychological interventions are presented. The report concludes with the sport psychologists’ self-reflections on the application experience.

Preparation Winning support from coach and athletes Although sport psychologists and other sport scientists have tried in the past to help athletes in their training and during their competition, the results didn’t meet expectations of sport psychologists or the athletes/coaches. Several factors could contribute to this disappointment. First, the attitude of coaches toward sport psychology is neutral at best. Most coaches acknowledge the importance of psychological factors in training and competition. However, many of them believe that athletes either have it or they don’t. As a result, many coaches are reluctant to find ways to improve athletes’ psychological weakness. Second, coaches often look for a quick fix for psychological weakness. They lose patience and question sport psychology’s effectiveness if no significant change in the athletes is observable after only a few sessions of psychological intervention. Thirdly,

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and most importantly, coaches are concerned about losing authority when sport psychologists or other sport scientists know more about the team. This perceived threat to authority prevents the coaches from forming a close, cooperative relationship with sport psychologists. Furthermore, Chinese society traditionally values mental/intellectual property over physical ability. While sport scientists are seen as practicing a profession that utilizes higher intellectual ability and are thus respected, coaches are not. This difference in social status adds to coaches’ insecurity when working with sport scientists. In order to alleviate the coaches’ insecurity, we invested a great amount of time in communicating with the coaches on the roles a sport psychologist has when working with a sport team. We used the model of a combative squad to exemplify the sport team. Figure 1 illustrates the major structure of a sport team. The concept of teamwork in a modern sport competition was introduced. The supportive role of sport scientists and the leading role of coaches was particularly emphasized, and we tried to employ a nonthreatening approach throughout the work. Earning trust from both coaches and athletes is a very important step in ensuring an effective working relationship. In order to achieve this, we focused on two key components. Firstly, we worked to establish an image that we were willing to help. At the beginning of our involvement we spent a lot of time talking to the coaches and watching their training. There was emphasis on both the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards of winning the Olympic Games for coaches and sport psychologists alike. The focus on the mutual benefit for the coaches and the sport psychologists pulled us together towards a common goal. Secondly, we tried to convince the coaches about our capability to enhance their performance. To achieve this, our team took several steps. First, we provided scientific

Think Tank & Logistic Support

General

Warrior

Head coach Sport scientist: psychologist, physiologist, biomechanics expert, nutritionist, sport medicine

Athletes

expert, etc.

Manager and Administrator

Figure 1. The major structure of a sport team exemplified by a combative squad.

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Sport Psycholog y Services to Taiwan Archery evidence to support the effectiveness of psychological intervention on performance enhancement. Then we presented an in-depth analysis on psychological factors that are critical to archery performance, especially in competition. An analysis of the athletes’ possible psychological problems in Olympic Games was also provided. Finally, we presented our credentials in research on closed-skill sports and our prior experience at the NTC. In the end, our efforts to create a bond with the coaches were successful.

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K now the sport and the people involved It is better to know the psychological factors pertaining to the nature of the sport and the people engaging it before moving to provide any effective advice. Archery is a closedskill sport that requires fine motor control and puts high demand on the athlete’s ability to concentrate and inhibit distraction. Athletes in this type of sport are particularly vulnerable to the debilitating effect of stress due to possible over arousal (Hillman, Apparies, Janelle, & Hatfield, 2000). In addition, the way archery competitions are structured in the Olympics creates even more psychological pressure for the athletes. The “Olympic Round” is different from a regular archery round in that it is a true elimination round; it puts the archers under extremely high pressure, especially during the 12-arrow elimination round match. The archer must focus while shooting one arrow at a time, knowing that every arrow truly counts. The question faced by both the coaches and the Taiwan archery team was twofold: What is the best strategy for shooting during the elimination rounds? What is the best training approach for Olympic rounds? The archery team was led by one head coach and two assistant coaches, one for the male team and another for the female team. The coaches came from different athletic institutions that would traditionally compete against each other. Thus, how to turn a mental competition into cooperation became an imminent task for both the coaches and the sport psychologists. The mentality of rivalry versus partnership among coaches also applied to the athletes. The archery team was composed of six archers, three males and three females. Although the archers began training at NTC one and a half years before the Games, the formal members of the archery team were not finalized until approximately four months prior to the Olympic Games. Although these archers trained at the same field under the supervision of the same coach, they were competing against each other for the limited spots. As a result, the period before the final tryout was a challenge for the sport psychologists since the climate of insecurity and competition was salient among the archers. Another issue related to the interpersonal relationship in the archery team was the trust between the coach and the athletes. Most archers prefer to work with their own coach. However, only two archers had their habitual coach since one of the assistant coaches was from the NTC. The other archers had to work with coaches that were not of their choice, which posed some problems in regards to trust and unfamiliarity with the style of coaching. Given the difficulty of interpersonal relationship within the teams, teambuilding efforts were emphasized throughout the training process. Several steps proposed by Beckhard (1972) were employed. We endeavored to build consensus among the team

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T. Hung, T. Lin, C. Lee, and L. Chen members through group meetings and individual meetings. The head coach and the two assistant coaches met in the presence of a sport psychologist to define their roles and responsibilities. The way to approach communication with the athletes was also discussed. Additionally, we used the project adventure activity to enhance the feeling of unity within the team.

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E ducation on sport psychology service The sport psychology support started with an introductory session on applied sport psychology. The concepts covered included anxiety/arousal and its relationship with archery performance, confidence, concentration, and psychological skill training. The main purpose of the introductory stage was to establish the important psychological variables that could affect archery performance. Another goal of the session was to establish a working relationship with the archers and the coaches. We began by presenting the credentials of the sport psychology team, followed by an educational lecture lasting about 40 minutes. We concluded with the scheduling of future sessions.

A ssessment To understand the athletes’ psychological strength and weakness, we used psychological scales and interviews. Although many psychological scales are recommended for the profiling of athletes, most of these tools are in languages other than Chinese. Given such constraints, we selected those that were available. However, the scarcity of available scales did not limit our evaluation of the athletes. The sport psychologists used the questions in the scales as topics to further explore the athletes’ psychological conditions. The quantitative and qualitative approach we took proved successful; the scores in the scales were not only more reliable, but they also had detailed information that was more individualized and contextually meaningful. The psychological scales used included the Athletic Psychological Skills Inventory (APSI; Chiu & Chi, 2001), the Chinese version of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEPSQ; Chi, 1993), and the Chinese version of the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT; Lu, 1990).

I ntervention programs The intervention started after the assessment was completed and a summary of the psychological profile for each archer was created. An individualized intervention program had been planned but the special selection procedures complicated the original plan. Ten tryouts for the team were spread equally throughout the period between midyear 2003 to midyear 2004. The final decision on the team members was not determined until four months prior to the Games. This resulted in the archers’ general reluctance to take up new training approaches that may have required drastic changes in their routines. Therefore, we dropped the comprehensive intervention program that was planned and replaced it with a subset of the psychological skill-training plan. The shortened

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intervention program consisted mainly of breathing exercise and mental imagery, competition simulation, sleep deprivation, and project adventure. Breathing exercise. Proper breathing is relaxing, and it facilitates the steady rhythm that is particularly important in archery performance. We introduced general breathing exercises to the archers such as complete breath, sighing with exhalation, rhythmic breathing, 1:2 ratios, 5-to-1 count, and concentration breathing (Williams & Harris, 2001). In addition to exercises during our meetings with them, the archers were encouraged to use the breathing exercises during training in the field. They were asked to choose one preferred breathing exercise and practice the exercise before every shot during training. The benefit of doing this was to not only relax the archer right before each shot but also to facilitate a consistent pre-performance routine that was beneficial to archery performance, especially during critical competition. As can be seen in Figure 2, the aiming time recorded in a major domestic competition and international championship indicated some consistent patterns for the archer. The aiming time for poor performance characterized a significant deviation from the others in both competitions. This data was used to help the archers work on a consistent pre-performance routine in which breathing exercise could be particularly helpful. Mental imagery. One month after the introduction to the breathing exercise, we added a mental imagery technique to the psychological skill program. First, the archer was introduced to the basic process of mental imagery and the difference between internal and external imagery. Then came the breathing exercise, followed by mental imagery. The process continued with the practice of basic imagery training on vividness and controllability of imagery (Vealey & Greenleaf, 2001). Imagery on archery-related motor action followed progressively.

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Sport Psycholog y Services to Taiwan Archery

Domestic Competition

4

Asia Championship

2 0 10

9

8

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Correspondent Score Figure 2. Time between bow pull and arrow release during local and international competition.

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Competition simulation. The simulation incorporated several features such as audience noise, English announcements, significant others serving as spectators, bus transportation from the warming up field to the competition field, and a windy environment. The mock competition had some effect on the archers, with most archers expressing a feeling of pressure in the simulation. They felt, however, that the experience taught them how to handle pressure for future competitions. Sleep deprivation. Sleep deprivation sessions were added in response to the possible debilitating effect of insomnia on archery performance. Archery is a sport that is more vulnerable to loss of concentration, as sleep deprivation impairs cognitive function (Durmer & Dinges, 2005). Thus, insomnia may be more debilitating to archery than to those sports that require less concentration. Furthermore, if archers believe that adequate sleep is necessary to their archery performance, insomnia on the night before competition could shake their confidence in performing well. Since some archers had complained about insomnia due to competition stress, it seemed important to address the issue in their training regimen. We held a two-day workshop on chronobiology that covered issues such as insomnia, jet lag management, and fluctuation of psychological vigilance throughout a day. In addition to the sleep hygiene advice provided to both the coaches and the archers, there were two sessions of sleep deprivation, one during a regular training day and another during a competition abroad, so that archers would experience the stress of insomnia. Another issue related to insomnia is jet lag. Since there is a time difference between Taiwan and Greece, we covered the chronobiological aspect of sport performance such as jet lag advice and psychological alertness with the help of a sport chronobiologist (Postolache, Hung, Stiller, Soriano, Montes, & Rosenthal, 2005). Several days before our departure to Athens, we recommended brief procedures to reduce the effect of jet lag. They included progressively shifting the daily schedule toward Athens time, sleeping during the flight and the first few days upon arrival, and advising times to stay awake. Both the coaches and the athletes felt that these procedures facilitated their adjustment to a new time zone. Project adventure. Given the fact that it was the archers’ first time competing in the Olympics, it was beneficial to expose both coaches and archers to new challenges that required courage, self-presentation, and determination, which is applicable to a major competition event such as the Olympics. The project adventure, a popular physical activity program in western society, was integrated into our training program. The archers were oriented before going to the field, with the purpose of participation clearly stated, and they were encouraged to take the challenges to their limit. Additionally, the sport science team and media personnel acted both as participants and as spectators to simulate the competition situation. This innovative training program was well received by all participants. In a post-activity interview, they expressed interest in the activity and stated that they believed the activity had greatly improved their understanding of self.

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We conducted the psychological scale post-assessment approximately one month before the Olympic Games. For psychological skills (Figure 3), the archers as a group showed improvement on four of the five subscales in APSI. Motivation was the only subscale that showed no improvement, while concentration was the most improved psychological skill. Although motivation in APSI showed no improvement, it is interesting to note that as illustrated in Figure 4, both task and ego orientation of TEPSQ scored higher after the intervention. SCAT was lower (Figure 5), and both the archers and the coaches considered the sport psychology service helpful. They stated that the service helped them bond together through the long and stressful preparation time before the Games. It became clear as time went by that team cohesion increased. The sense of unity and team spirit was sustained throughout the Olympic Games.

Score

Psychological Skills 5 4 3 2 1 0

Pretest Posttest Peaking under pressure and coping with adversity

Motivation

Coachability

Concentration

Confidence

Domain Figure 3. Comparison of Athletic Psychological Skills Inventory between pre-intervention and post-intervention.

Goal Orientation 4

Score

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Post-intervention evaluation

3.8 Pretest

3.6

Posttest

3.4 3.2 Task

Ego

Figure 4. Comparison of Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire Orientation between pre-intervention and post-intervention.

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Score

SCAT 2 1.95 1.9 1.85 1.8 1.75 1.7 1.65 1.6

pretest

posttest

Figure 5. Comparison of Sport Competition Anxiety Test between pre-intervention and post-intervention.

Discussion

The intent of this report was to provide a personal account on the application of sport psychology to the training of an archery team, which eventually achieved its best ever result in the 2004 Olympic Games. We took an educational approach in our services to the archers. The success of sport psychology intervention rests largely upon the cooperation of coaches. Their willingness to cooperate is determined by their attitude toward sport psychology. Consequently, educating the coaches was the first step in ensuring an effective intervention. The resistance or reluctance to the assistance of sport psychologists mainly comes from a lack of knowledge about our field. Furthermore, the lack of successful models of cooperation between sport psychologists, the so-called scholar, and coaches, the field expert, in Taiwan also fuels coaches’ unwillingness toward accepting help from outside their expertise. In order to change these attitudes, we addressed this issue by constantly providing education on what services sport psychologists can provide to assist coaches. The resulting interaction between the sport psychologists and the service recipients suggests that the education was useful. The psychological intervention program included traditional psychological skill training such as breathing exercises, mental imagery, and competition simulation. The sleep deprivation and the project adventure were due to the special make-up of the archery team. The program also proved to be successful in its effect on performance enhancement and for motivating the archers toward psychological skill training. However, we were unable to analyze the intervention package to determine the specific effect of each and every component. The feedback from the archers suggested that every component of the program contributed to the overall success of our service. Although there was positive feedback from both the athletes and the coaches along with a significant improvement in performance, there were several aspects of psychological skill training that were not included in our intervention program. Media skill and post-game recovery, in particular, should have been considered. The archers received

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Sport Psycholog y Services to Taiwan Archery much media attention after the Games; they were invited to several television shows and were offered commercial deals. Increased publicity may have a positive effect on the development of a mature athlete if properly prepared. Without appropriate preparation, the athletes may lose sight of their athletic goals. The long-term sport psychology service obtained some positive results according to both the performance outcome and the recipients’ feedback. In addition to the inspiring outcome at the Olympics, the experience we gained from working with the archery team is useful for sport psychologists working in a similar environment. Future psychological intervention programs should incorporate not only performance-enhancing psychological skill training but also the training for a wider spectrum of life skills.

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