International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing

International Journal of

Sport Management and Marketing Volume 5, No. 4, 2009

Editor-in-Chief Dr. M.A. Dorgham Publisher’s website: www.inderscience.com Email: [email protected] ISSN (Print) 1475-8962 ISSN (Online) 1740-2808

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The International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing (IJSMM) is a multidisciplinary journal, which aims to provide a unique focus on a wide range of sport management and sport technology topics. The Journal will cover advances in theory, new concepts, methods and applications and case studies. Each issue will disseminate quality sport-related research relevant to sport technology and sport management, examining both hard and soft perspectives in managing sporting organisations in the public and private sectors. The Journal welcomes both academic and practical contributions. Submitted and invited papers will be subject to a doubleblind review process. Special issues devoted to important topics related to sports management will be published occasionally by guest editors. IJSMM is intended for a broad audience such as professionals, academics, researchers, sports managers, marketers and economists, policy makers, and government officials. The Journal publishes original papers, theory-based empirical papers, review papers, case studies, conference reports, book reviews and relevant reports and news, as well as a calendar of international events. Subject coverage The Journal welcomes articles on all aspects of Sport Management and Marketing including:

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HEALTH FITNESS MANAGEMENT: THE ROAD TO WELL-BEING AND PROFITS

Guest Editors: Professor Carlos Pestana Barros Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestão Technical University of Lisbon Rua Miguel Lupi, 20 1249–078 Lisbon, Portugal E-mail: [email protected]

Professor Michel Desbordes ISC School of Management 14, rue du Fort de Vaux 75017 Paris, France E-mail: [email protected]

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Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 5, No. 4, 2009

Contents SPECIAL ISSUE: HEALTH FITNESS MANAGEMENT: THE ROAD TO WELL-BEING AND PROFITS Guest Editors: Professor Carlos Pestana Barros and Professor Michel Desbordes 367

Introduction Carlos Pestana Barros and Michel Desbordes

369

Brand social representations: strategic perspectives for a fitness club Guillaume Bodet, Bernard Meurgey and Marie-Françoise Lacassagne

384

Investigating individual satisfaction in health and fitness training centres Catarina de Barros and Lisa Gonçalves

396

Segmenting fitness centre clients Mário Teixeira and Abel Correia

417

The industry of wellness: the improvement of well-being António Sacavém and Abel Correia

426

Private fitness centres in France: from organisational and market characteristics to micromentalities of the managers Sarah Mischler, Pascal Bauger, Lilian Pichot and Elodie Wipf

450

Expectations, satisfaction and loyalty in health and fitness clubs Vera Pedragosa and Abel Correia

465

The status of the professional development programmes of the health and fitness industry in Turkey Betül Sekendiz, M. Settar Koçak and Feza Korkusuz

Book review 477

Book Review: Aggression in the Sports World: A Social Psychological Perspective by Gordon W. Russell John H. Kerr

479

Contents Index

483

Keywords Index

488

Author Index

International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing (IJSMM) Editor-in-Chief Dr. M.A. Dorgham International Centre for Technology and Management, UK Email: [email protected] Members of the Editorial Board Professor Peter Chen Professor Wladimir Andreff Graduate Institute of Sports Coaching Professor of Economics Science, Chinese Culture University Université Paris 1 Pantheon Sorbonne 55 Hwa Rd., Yang Ming Shan Maison des Science Economiques Taipei 111, Taiwan 106-112 boulevard de l’Hôpital Email: [email protected] 75647 Paris Cedex 13, France Email: [email protected] Professor Fred Coalter Professor of Sports Policy Professor C. P. Barros Department of Sports Studies Professor of Economics University of Stirling Instituto Superior de Economia e Stirling FK9 4LA, UK Gestão, Technical University of Lisbon Email: [email protected] Rua Miguel Lupi, 20 1240-078, Lisbon, Portugal Abel Correia Email: [email protected] Associate Professor Department of Sport Sciences Dr. John Beech Faculdade de Motricidade Humana Head, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Technical University of Lisbon Management, Coventry Business Estrada da Costa School, Coventry University 1495-688 Cruz Quebrada, Portuagl 5 Priory Street, Coventry CV1 5FB, UK Email: [email protected] Dr. Laura Cousens Assistant Professor Terry Byers Department of Sport Management MBA Sport Management Programme Brock University, St. Catharines Manager Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada Principal Lecturer Sport Management Email: [email protected] Faculty of Business, Environment and Society Professor Harry Davakos Coventry University Department of Health, Exercise and William Morris Building, Priory Street Sport Science Coventry CV1 5FB, UK The Citadel, 171 Moultrie St., Email: [email protected] Charleston SC 29409, USA Email: [email protected] Dr. Simon Chadwick Professor of Sport Business Strategy Professor Michel Desbordes and Marketing; Director of CIBS Professor of Marketing (Centre for the International Business of Universitié Marc Bloch and ISC Sport), Coventry University Business School, 14 rue Descartes Business School, Priory Street 67084 Strasbourg cedex, France Coventry CV1 5FB,UK Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

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Members of the Editorial Board (continued) Dr. Geoff Dickson Division of Sport and Recreation Auckland University of Technology Private Bag 92006 Auckland, New Zealand Email: [email protected] John Douvis University of Athens Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, 61, Nafsikas st. 17564 Palaio Faliro-Athens, Greece Email: [email protected] Professor Alain Ferrand Director, Business and Management Research Centre, (CEREGE) University of Poitiers 20 rue Guillaume VII le troubadour BP 639 - 86022 Poitiers, France Email: [email protected] Dr. David Forrest Reader in Economics University of Salford Salford M5 4WT, UK Email: [email protected] Professor Bernd Frick Professor of Business Economics Witten/Herdecke University Faculty of Management and Economics Alfred-Herrhausen-Strasse 50 58448 Witten, Germany Email: [email protected] Professor Frank H. Fu Dean and Chair Professor Faculty of Social Sciences Hong Kong Baptist University Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong (China) Email: [email protected] Dr. Chris Greenwell Associate Professor University of Louisville Department of Health & Sport Sciences Room 103 - HP/Studio Arts Louisville, KY 40292, USA Email: [email protected]

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Dr. Jeremy Howell Associate Professor, Sport Management Graduate Program University of San Francisco 2130 Fulton Street San Francisco CA 94117, USA Email: [email protected] Dr. Brad R. Humphreys Chair in the Economics of Gaming University of Alberta Department of Economics 8-14 HM Tory Building Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H4 Email: [email protected] Professor Steven J. Jackson School of Physical Education University of Otago Dunedin, New Zealand Email: [email protected] Paul Kitchin Department of Business and Service Sector Management London Metropolitan University Stapleton House 277-281 Holloway Road, London N7 8HN, UK Email: [email protected] Professor Thanos Kriemadis Associate Professor Department of Sport Management University of Peloponnese 22100 Tripolis, Greece Email: [email protected] Professor Shaul P. Ladany Abe & Sol Krok Professor of Management, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Ben-Gurion University of the Negev PO Box 653, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel Email: [email protected]

Members of the Editorial Board (continued) Dr. Daniel Mason Associate Professor Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation, University of Alberta W1-16G Van Vliet, Edmonton Alberta T6G 2H9, Canada Email: [email protected] Professor João Carvalho das Neves School of Economics and Management ISEG, Rua Miguel Lupi, 20 1249-078 Lisboa, Portugal Email: [email protected] Professor Paul M. Pedersen, Sport Marketing and Sport Communication Dept of Kinesiology Indiana University 1025 E. 7th St., HPER 112 Bloomington, IN 47405, USA Email: [email protected] Professor Shayne P. Quick Professor of Sport Management Bond University Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine QLD 4229, Australia Email: [email protected] Plácido Rodriguez Professor of University School of Economics, Departamento de Economia (Oviedo University) Avda. Del Cristo s/n 33006 Oviedo (Asturias), Spain Email: [email protected] Dr. Mike Sam University of Otago School of Physical Education P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand Email: [email protected]

Professor Soumodip Sarkar Department of Business University of Evora, Portugal Email: [email protected] Dr Jay Scherer University of Alberta Physical Education and Recreation Faculty, E4-25 Van Vliet Centre Edmonton, AB T6G 2H9, Canada Email: [email protected] Professor David K. Stotlar Director, School of Sport and Exercise University of Northern Colorado Campus Box 39, Greeley, CO 80639 USA Alan Tapp Reader in Marketing Bristol Business School University of West of England Bristol BS16 1QY, UK Email: [email protected] Professor Tracy Taylor Head, Graduate School of Business University of Technology, Sydney PO Box 123, Broadway NSW 2007 Australia Email: [email protected] Professor Benno Torgler Yale Center for International and Area Studies Leitner Program in International Comparative Political Economy 34 Hillhouse Avenue, PO Box 208206 New Haven, CT 06520, USA Email: [email protected] Dr. Jo Van Hoecke Vakgroep SBMA (Sportmanagement) Faculteit LK, Vrije Universiteit Brussel Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussel, Belgium Email: [email protected]


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Introduction Carlos Pestana Barros* Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestão Technical University of Lisbon Rua Miguel Lupi, 20 1249–078 Lisbon, Portugal E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author

Michel Desbordes ISC School of Management 14, rue du Fort de Vaux 75017 Paris, France E-mail: [email protected] Biographical notes: Carlos Pestana Barros is a Professor of Economics at the Technical University of Lisbon, where he teaches sport economics. He has a PhD from the Technical University of Lisbon and has published on sport economics and management in Applied Economics, Economic Modeling, Applied Economic Letters, the Journal of Sport Economics, European Sport Management Review and the International Journal of Sport Marketing and Sponsorship. He serves as the board of the International Journal of Sport Marketing and Sponsorship and the International Journal of Sport Marketing and Management. Michel Desbordes is a Professor of Sport Marketing at the ISC School of Management (Paris, France) and at the University of Paris 11, France. He is a Specialist in Sport Marketing; his research focuses on the management of sport events, sports sponsorship and marketing applied to football. He has published 16 books, 22 refereed papers and 13 chapters in this field. He has been a Keynote Speaker in conferences or an Invited Professor in Canada, China, the USA or Portugal. He also a Consultant in sport marketing and the Associate Director of MX Sports (www.mxsports.fr).

This special issue on fitness sport centres was motivated by the following phenomenon: the number of fitness centres grows each year in order to satisfy the growing demand for sport exercises. This growth signifies that fitness centres are an area of employment creation for sport management. Furthermore, health issues are an area of activity for fitness centres, signifying that it is an activity that complements sports with health and leisure. Confronted with this reality, and observing the almost complete focus on sports

Copyright © 2009 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

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C.P. Barros and M. Desbordes

leagues by the sport management and economic journals, the researchers linked to this special issue aimed to call the attention of the research community to this new sport activity. A call for papers was posted on the website of the International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing. In answer, a small number of papers were submitted. From those, the best papers were selected, resulting in the seven papers that constitute the present special issue, and corresponding to 35% of those submitted. In the first paper, Bodet et al. (2008) present a market analysis of fitness centres, starting with a brand-image analysis, and then identifying social representation in terms of relevant constructs that represent a diagnostic tool for identifying attractive and repulsive aspects of the French fitness centres. This procedure enables the identification of marketing strategies for the fitness centres. In the second paper, Barros and Gonçalves (2008) present an analysis of individual satisfaction with fitness centres. They conclude that almost all attributes identified contribute to individual satisfaction, signifying that fitness centres are an area where individuals have a priori expectations that are easily fulfilled. Teixeira and Correia (2008) present a segmentation study of fitness centre customers and identify three segments: happy consumers, unhappy consumers and unattached consumers. This segmentation may be used for marketing strategies. The fourth paper, by Sacavém and Correia, describes the dynamics of the fitness centre in the context of sedentary habits, obesity and tobacco. The fifth paper, by Mischler et al. (2008), presents an analysis of the relationship between fitness centres and the manager’s profile. The analysis is based on a questionnaire undertaken at the European level and supplemented by a qualitative questionnaire undertaken in the French province of Alsace. The sixth paper, by Pedregosa and Correia (2008), presents a structural equation model to analyse expectations, satisfaction and loyalty among sport fitness clients. The result suggests that satisfaction is an intermediate variable, positively related to various other constructs and of crucial importance in determining the loyalty to health and fitness centres. The seventh and last paper, by Sekendiz (2008), presents the status of professional development programmes in the Turkish health fitness industry. Overall, these papers give a view of fitness centres that permits different aspects. With this special issue, the International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing contributes to the analysis of the sports sector, specifically through fitness centres constituting windows on this activity. Papers from three countries, France, Portugal and Turkey, are presented, revealing a variety of approaches that clarify the role of fitness centres in sports and well-being.


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Brand social representations: strategic perspectives for a fitness club Guillaume Bodet* Institute of Sport and Leisure Policy School of Sport and Exercise Sciences Loughborough University Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK Fax: +44 (0)1509 226301 E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author

Bernard Meurgey and Marie-Françoise Lacassagne Socio – Psychologie et Management du Sport (SPMS) Université de Bourgogne, France E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: The aim of this study was to identify an accurate tool to enable fitness club managers to discover those opinions or stereotypes which represent obstacles to joining their organisations. Starting with brand image, the analysis then considered social representations as relevant constructs for apprehending these opinions or prejudices. The use of a word association task and the model of basic cognitive schemes (Rouquette, 1990; 1994) provided access to the salient elements of the social representations of a particular sport brand and the way they are structured. The procedure combining these two stages represented a diagnostic tool for identifying the attractive and unattractive aspects of a French fitness club brand, which enabled the proposal of advice to the manager in terms of strategic and operational marketing orientations for recruiting new members. Keywords: social representations; brand; communication; health and fitness club; sport. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Bodet, G., Meurgey, B. and Lacassagne, M-F. (2009) ‘Brand social representations: strategic perspectives for a fitness club’, Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp.369–383. Biographical notes: Guillaume Bodet completed his PhD at the Burgundy Centre for Marketing Research (CERMAB) and taught at the Sport Sciences Faculty at the University of Burgundy, France. He has recently joined the Institute of Sport and Leisure Policy, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences at Loughborough University (UK). His research deals with consumer behaviour regarding sport organisations, sporting events and sport brands.


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G. Bodet, B. Meurgey and M-F. Lacassagne Bernard Meurgey belongs to the laboratory of Social Psychology and Sport Management (SPMS). He is currently a Lecturer at the Sport Sciences Department, University of Burgundy, France. His research interests include sport marketing and consumer behaviour. Marie-Françoise Lacassagne manages the laboratory of Social Psychology and Sport Management (SPMS). She is currently a Professor at the Sport Sciences Department, University of Burgundy, France. She has published over 20 academic articles in respected journals such as the Journal of Applied Psychology, Language Sciences, the European Review of Applied Psychology, the Journal of International Business Studies and Psychology and Marketing.

1

Introduction

According to many French observers, significant development has been taking place with sport and physical activities in French society, which is being sportified. However, this increase does not appear to be uniform, and it has mainly been self-organised activities, whether they take place at home or at public facilities, which have benefited from it (Bodin and Héas, 2002; Mignon and Truchot, 2002). The increase in self-organised physical activities, combined with the stagnation and sometimes a decrease of memberships in sport organisations has led some managers of commercial sport organisations to inquire into the reasons, opinions, feelings or prejudices which have hindered both the search for information and the willingness to join of the potential customers. Knowing these obstacles is important for such sport-service suppliers. First, if they appear to be justified, it is important for sport-service managers to adjust their offerings to satisfy their customers; however, if they find that such perceptions are incorrect and unjustified, they may utilise specific and targeted communications intended to change customers’ and potential members’ viewpoints. Clubs in the French health and fitness market have begun to face such challenges. Indeed, this market is young and scattered and the industry’s penetration rate remains relatively low compared to other countries. In 2000, the commercial sector had 19% of France’s fitness participants, or 4.7% of the French population between the ages of 18 and 64, or 2.9% of the total population. This means that the French commercial fitness clubs had about two million members (Viallon, 2002). Although the number of fitness participants continues to increase in France, the number of commercial club members has tended to decrease (Viallon, 2002). An INSEE1 study showed that the number of commercial clubs in France decreased from 3200 in 2000 to 2500 five years later and the industry has a high rate of both entries and exits. In order to address this management problem, we worked with an independent fitness club with a brand license from the first European fitness club network, representing more than 100 000 members. The club’s manager was unwilling to allow the use of his brand name here, so we will call it brand X. We propose that the identification of a social representation with the fitness club’s brand would allow the managers to improve its image. This means that the way the organisation wishes to be presented in the market and its image would be made to correspond more closely with what the customers associate with it (Kotler and Dubois, 2003).

Brand social representations: strategic perspectives for a fitness club

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These managers will also be able to determine the segment of the market upon which their marketing strategy will have to focus on in order to ensure coherence in the current and potential members’ perceptions of their clubs. Although thoroughly studied in the field of social psychology, the concept of social representation has rarely been linked with marketing strategy. This study, however, aims to do just that.

2

A social-representation perspective for the brand

First, we studied the construction of images, especially brand images, under the assumption that a bad brand image can clearly deter people from joining a club, as image provides a shorthand device or means of simplification in conceptualising the service (Keller, 2003). Classically, a brand is defined as an offer, the origin of which is identified (Aaker, 1991; Kotler and Dubois, 2003). Heilbrunn (1997) identified brands as being beyond simple indicators, as they provide branded products and services with meaning through networks, stories, universes, and identities. This study has used the word brand to define both the brands corresponding to particular chains of clubs, whether franchised or licensed, and independent clubs. Brand image can be defined as the characteristics or attributes through which customers evaluate the brand and compare it to others. Brand image depends on the products, or the category of products, because it is linked to a decision-making situation (Ladwein, 1998). As a whole, it also subsumes ideas, opinions, or feelings and their mental connotations when the brand is evoked. A thorough study of the literature reveals a distinction between brand image and brand representation. According to Ladwein (1998), when several brands in competition in one category of products or specific services are compared, it is appropriate to speak about brand image, whereas it is appropriate to speak about brand representation in regard to defining the whole of the beliefs, opinions, and behaviours to which the brand refers, as well as the ways they are connected. Therefore, according to Moliner (1996), social images are produced by social representations and do not have a predictive dimension. Because social representations constitute the production process, Moliner (1996) considered their analyse as a necessary step to develop institutional and media communication strategies. This reasons led us to focus on the representation construct, and more specifically on the social representations construct. Representations can be defined as more or less structured complexes of information which connect several declaratory or procedural aspects of knowledge and their adaptation to daily life situations. These representations allow both the structuring of the environment or the situation and the integration of knowledge, which gives individuals the means to act or react according to their goals (Ladwein, 1999). When they are elaborated by a social group, they are social representations. According to such theoreticians of this school as Moscovici, Jodelet, Flament, Abric, Doise, and Moliner, such representations enable individuals to place themselves in relation to objects that are part of their social field (Ladwein, 1999). In the context of the case considered here, not only are brands created from our experiences with the products or the services, but they are also defined in relation to the information and mind patterns transmitted by tradition and communications in a given socio-cultural context (Michel, 1997; 1998).

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Indeed, taking into account the importance of advertisements and consumption behaviours which are not limited to the private sphere, consumption objects are likely to be socially elaborated and shared representations. In a traditional way, and according to Moscovici’s (1961; 1984; 1988) definition, it is necessary to consider simultaneously the informational elements in relation to the object of representation, the way they are structured and organised and finally the attitudes toward the object to define the representation of this object. The structuring characteristics of representations have two functions; they allow the production of meaning and they organise knowledge. By definition, they are made up of a core, which is supposed to be steady, and of a peripheral system, which is more operational because it has an adaptive function (Abric, 1994; Moliner et al., 1995). The brand fits at the interface between the core and the context. According to Michel (1997; 1998), managers are only able to define specifically the positioning of their brand or brands based on the identification of the core’s associations. It is important to note that all brands do not present a core of central values. Only famous brands in specific socio-cultural contexts present socially elaborated values which permit a great number of people to identify and share them (Michel, 1997; 1998). A focus on the core element of the representation seemed inappropriate for this study for two reasons. First, as mentioned earlier, we had no guarantee that brand X had invested sufficiently in the social area to present it with a central structure. Measurement was possible, but it did not exclude misleading findings if the structure of the social representation was insufficiently salient. Furthermore, such measurement of the core element of social representation can create an unbalanced view in its application because it considers the more connected factors only relatively (Flament, 1981). This means that the method would be unlikely to contribute to an overall and exhaustive understanding of both the attractive and unattractive elements of a specific brand. We therefore chose another methodology which focuses on the relative weight of each element of consumers’ social representation of the brand.

3

Methods

The method we used to reach the social representation of brand X is based on free-association responses to selected words, as demonstrated by Castel et al. (2002) and Lacassagne et al. (2004), whose methodology we generally followed. The population we studied was composed of individuals who do not belong to fitness club X, considering that the social representations of an object are best measured by excluding experts. We randomly selected a sample of 56 French persons living in Dijon, the location of fitness club X and a regional centre with a metropolitan population of 300 000. The measuring instrument initially provided us understanding of the nature of the club’s social representation; a second stage allowed us to define the structure of this representation.


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3.1 Definition of the nature of brand X’s social representation Initially, we asked each respondent to say the first ten words that came to his or her mind when hearing the name of brand X. This free association step was intended to activate the field of the representation, which is composed of the sense units directly connected to the inductive words (Lacassagne et al., 2004). Next, we asked the respondents to explore their memories and produce five verbs, five adjectives, and five nouns they associated with fitness club X. The objective of this step was to encourage the respondents to express themselves about the object of the representation through another relationship with which they associated it. In order to reach a social representation, it is advisable to induce respondents to express themselves on how they see the object and also on how they think the object can be represented. Conceptualising the object associated with verbs, nouns, and adjectives allows this widening towards a socially elaborated and shared representation. From all of the associations the respondents provided, we drew up lists according to the frequency and distribution of the words’ appearances. We kept only the words expressed by at least 10% of the respondents (Lacassagne et al., 2004). The percentages recorded for the words selected corresponded to the percentages of the respondents who expressed them.

3.2 Definition of the structure of brand X’s social representation We established access to the structure of the representation by searching for close connections between the selected and listed elements. We then used an index of similarity based on Kendal’s coefficient. The distance was operationalised as the rank order of the terms produced by each participant. The degree of agreement between each pair of participants was then tested on the basis of their hierarchical classification for each pair of terms (Stewart and Lacassagne, 2005). From these indices of similarity, we carried out an ascending hierarchical classification, inspired by the work of Lacassagne et al. (2004), and illustrated by a graph called dendrogram. This graph is based on the calculation of a distance of aggregation, which is the strength of the bonds which link two words or blocks of words over the shortest aggregate distance, indicating a significant strength between the bonds. The dendrogram also highlights the successive progression of the groups.

3.3 Definition of the nature of the relationships using the basic cognitive schemes model The preceding step enabled us to define the structure of brand X’s social representation, but it did not give us information about the precise nature of the relationships between the inductive object (brand X) and the words induced. We therefore, based on Rouquette (1990; 1994), Lacassagne and Stewart (2003), and Stewart and Lacassagne (2005), used the basic cognitive schemes (SCB) model. Postulating that a finite number of types of relationships exists between the inductive word and the induced answers, this model proposes a formal conception of these types of links. This model was composed of 28 connectors, identified by their function and specifying the nature of the relationship between the two lexical items (in this case, Brand X and all of the words defining the field of the social representation). This

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consisted of submitting propositions corresponding to a part or to the whole of the identified connectors. For each proposition, we asked respondents to decide if they agreed (‘yes’), disagreed (‘no’) or were unable to decide (‘?’). We chose to use an adaptation of the model suggested by Lacassagne and Stewart (2003), using only 20 connectors (see all the connectors selected in Appendix). For example, with the two items brand X and sport, and the connector nor, which specifies the relation in which B is necessary for A, the proposition is ‘Sport is necessary for brand X’. This second investigation was addressed to the original respondents. Our sample was distinct from the preceding one and composed of 55 individuals.

4

Results

4.1 The field of brand X’s social representation The lists included 18 words for the question requiring ten words, and 11 words for the question requiring five verbs, five words for the question requiring five adjectives, and three words for the question requiring five nouns. We noted a significant number of words associated with brand X, which constituted a good representation of the object in the participants’ minds, since many words commonly characterised it. Consequently, it seemed that brand X has indeed infiltrated into the social field. Nearly one respondent in two associated the words sport and to move with brand X, and 40% of them associated the word expensive with it. Together, all of the words defining the field constituting brand X’s social representation were particularly interesting. Nevertheless, it appeared to be even more interesting to compare this field with the way the brand wanted to be perceived in order to see if that field included the priority axis of communication of representations of brand X. Brand X’s self-defined strategy was, according to its French website, to assert itself as ‘the daily health and well-being partner’. The values with which the brand has been seeking to be associated were ‘respect, authenticity, and attention’. Moreover, managers in charge of promotion have enhanced brand X’s state of mind, which consists of ‘being professional but laid-back at the same time, and ensuring customers with attention, friendliness, and quality on all levels’. Moreover, brand X aimed to be the standard for the health-and-fitness club market in terms of activities and product innovation, environment and consumer relationships, and commercial offers. Finally, brand X has a leadership promotion focused on ‘an original angle of attack centred on the promise of everyday well-being and pleasure’, and basing itself on a ‘reinforcement of its friendly, dynamic brand image, open to all’. Our first observation was that the respondents evoked no concepts in the field of brand X’s social representation. Furthermore, we observed a significant difference between the strategy of the brand and the way in which it seems to be represented. Indeed, the club’s management aims for it to be thought of in term of activities and innovation, but the respondents tended to characterise it with words qualifying traditional activities (to move, body building, to develop muscles, to practice sport, fitness, movement, gymnastics and bike). Only swimming-pool, sauna, and to dance characterised an original activity, although this can be debated.

Ten words question

Sport

Club

To move

Body building

Fitness

Expensive

Movement

Health/Fitness

Muscle

Action

Relaxation

Show-off

Gymnastic

Swimming pool

Health

Sauna

Superficial

Bike

Number of words

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

12

12

14

14

16

18

20

24

26

To train

To keep fit

To relax

To have fun

To pay

To dance

To sweat

To meet

To practice sport

To develop muscles

To move

Five verbs question

10

12

14

14

16

16

18

20

20

22

46

Citation rate (%)

Superficial

Young

Tiring

Good

Expensive

Five adjectives question

10

10

12

14

40

Citation rate (%)

Firm

Activity

Club

Five nouns question

10

10

26

Citation rate (%)

Table 1

32

46

Citation rate (%)

Brand social representations: strategic perspectives for a fitness club 375

The brand X’s social representation field

376


Brand X wished to be perceived in terms of its environment and consumer relationships, but in those areas the respondents mentioned the words show-off and superficial. Finally, it wished to appear to be proposing attractive commercial offers, but the adjective expensive was frequently mentioned. In order to complete our analysis of brand X’s social representation, we analysed its structure.

4.2 The structure of brand X’s social representation We only presented the responses of the question requiring ten words because it represents the core of the analysis. We completed it with the results of the questions asking for five verbs. Figure 1

Dendrogram for brand X

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 M O V E M E N T

G Y M N A S T I C

C L U B

B O D Y B U I L D I N G

F I T N E S S

T O M O V E

S P O R T

M U S C L E

R E L A X A T I O N

E X P E N S I V E

S U P E R F I C I A L

S A U N A

s H O W O F F

B I K E

F I T N E S S

S W I M M I N G

H E A L T H

A C T I O N

P O O L

The structure of the brand’s social representation consisted of two unequal blocks. The first block included six items and was articulated around two related compound concepts. These were movement-gymnastics and body building-shape. To move joins the latter; then it is attached to club. This aggregation then joins the first two. The second block contains 12 items, comprised of four small groups. The pairing with the shortest aggregate distance is superficial-sauna, to which show-off is attached. This unit is connected to two other small groupings connected to each other (bike-fitness and health-action, associated with swimming-pool). This sub-block is then connected to another sub-block made up of the pairing relaxation-expensive, to which muscle and sport are attached successively. The association of gymnastics and movement can be interpreted as referring to a certain type of activity that may enhance gracefulness. The association between body building and shape can encourage us to consider shape in the direction of vitality. The association of these two groupings seems to represent a perception of both combining activities in which the realisation of movement is significant, possibly choreographic, and activities involving muscles within the club. The association of relaxation and expensive


377

could be interpreted as the perception of an incompatibility between a state of relaxation, physical relaxation, and fees. The sauna seems to be perceived negatively, being associated with superficial and show-off, and as having little connection with physical and sporting activity. This peripheral service appears to be completely out of place. The association of health and action could be the expression of a concern related to one’s health management, which must be maintained through an activity, which is a directed action, or through joining an organisation, which is an action in the direction of taking action. In this case, membership with health club X could represent a possibility in participants’ mind; the conclusion of this possibility still remains random. It appears that all activities do not involve health, whilst some others, such as swimming pool, fitness, and bike, do. This dendrogram does not seem to emphasise clear dimensions sufficiently in the representation, but rather associations between some words connected with brand X. We did not consider the interpretations derived from this graph to be satisfactory enough, and therefore focused on the dendrogram of selected verbs. Figure 2

Dendrogram verbs brand X

4,5 4,0 3,5 3,0 2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 TO RELAX

TO SW EAT

TO HAVE FUN

TO PAY

TO KEEP FIT

TO PRACTICE SPORT TO DEVELOP M USCLES

TO M EET

TO TRAIN

TO M OVE TO DANCE

The pairing with the shortest aggregate distance is that of to relax-to have fun. It joins two other pairings, to practice sport-to develop muscles, and to pay-to keep fit, to which to sweat is attached. These elements form the first block. The second block is organised around the pairing to dance-to move, connected with another pairing, to meet-to work out. Brand X appears to be strongly regarded as a source of pleasure (to relax, to have fun). It also seems that the respondents associated the brand with the body, (to sweat, to keep fit), and with various body improvements (to practice sport, to develop muscles), keeping in mind that this implies a financial element.

378


The second block appears to lead to non-sporting but nevertheless generally stimulating activities directed towards movement and grace (to move, to dance). It seems as if these activities both demand training and socialising (to meet). This unit can be interpreted as referring to the collective classes offered by brand X. With this interpretation, brand X seems to carry positive connotations (to relax, to have fun), and appears to be positively perceived as offering sports activities centred on the body, as well as such activities related to movement as choreography.

4.3 Analysis of the elements’ relationships based on the SCB model This analysis was only carried out on the words induced by the ten-word question. We only retained the results here which seemed relevant from a managerial point of view. To move (98%), movement (96.5%) and shape (94.5%) are significantly desirable for brand X. Four elements, sauna (43.6%), show-off (12.7%), expensive (11%), and superficial (9%), are undesirable. However, these four elements did not all seem to be significantly undesirable through having strong negative connotations. Indeed, only superficial (58%), show-off (56.4%), and expensive (52.7%) can be considered strongly undesirable, whereas only 14.5% of the participants saw sauna as undesirable, findings which tend to moderate our previous interpretation. Therefore, less than one respondent out of two evaluated the sauna as well as such other features as swimming-pool, body building, and bike as necessary to brand X. The asymmetry between the results of the positive and negative evaluations seems to reveal that show-off, expensive, and superficial are not desirable, but that people remain relatively lenient about their presence. Expensive is thought to be usual for brand X with 43% of the respondents, but this evaluation decreases by nearly 30% for show-off and superficiality. About the same proportion, or one-third, of the respondents, saw these terms as synonymous. Sixty percent of the respondents associated health as an effect or a consequence of brand X, and many regarded shape (72.7%) and health (62%) as requisite to brand X. Fifty-five percent of the respondents perceived brand X to be a source of relaxation, and 71% perceived it as a means of relaxation.

5

Discussion and implications

Our first finding is that a significant difference exists between the way brand X wishes to be perceived and its actual social representation, leading us to tend to conclude that a significant gap exists between its strategic ambitions and its promotion methods. From a more practical point of view, it appears that brand X is regarded as a source of pleasure and relaxation, which Crossley (2006) identified as two main motives for gym-goers. However, our respondents regarded it this way through traditional but relatively unattractive activities, although the brand wants to be the market leader for activities and product innovation. The manager of brand X claimed to consider that the respondents’ perceptions were inappropriate, as the gym provided innovative and often renewed activities, as well as numerous uncommon peripheral services such as hiking and canoeing. The problem therefore seems to be a communication issue, and it would seem advisable for the organisation to communicate more about the availability of physically stimulating activities based on movement that are different from traditional fitness-club activities.


379

The club’s membership is composed of more than just body builders and individuals wishing to train for particular sport, as the club provides a social environment based on convivial and simple relationships so that less intense members also feel welcome. Indeed, the issue of relationships between members is a crucial one, although it is often underestimated in promoting health and fitness clubs (Crossley, 2006; Guenzi and Pelloni, 2004). One of the reason for so little emphasis on the social aspects of club membership may be found in the complexity and diversity of customer expectations. Indeed, some members do look for social encounters, although some try to avoid them and others prefer a particular form of social relationship composed of the presence of others without real contact; or being alone together (Ernst and Pigeassou, 2005). The club’s main asset, then, is the significant range of activities it offers, including new and innovative activities which are not offered in non-profit sport clubs, and a variety of stimulating activities based on the concept of body movement. However, the treatment of this point is somewhat delicate, as it represents a significant part of brand X’s social representation for probably a relatively significant portion of the club membership. Promotional strategy confronts marketing strategy here. What about these members? Does the health club’s positioning strongly target this population? Do managers try to keep, attract, or marginalise them? In any case, the possible promotional message must be articulated around a social activity based on simple and modest relationships, in which working on one’s body is most of all for oneself, in order to like it and to feel healthy, as opposed to aiming to show it off ostentatiously. Another point relates to the need for joining a brand X club. Most people consider that fitness and health are necessary. It would therefore be advisable to promote the club as a means of achieving these ends, without requiring their presence before joining. This would counter the perception that, “It’s not for me; you have to be a sportsman or really fit to join this type of club” by emphasising that it offers pleasure and everyday well-being accessible to all. Finally, we were surprised by some respondent evaluations obtained through the SCB model concerning the word ‘expensive’. Indeed, as opposed to what one might consider at first analysis, we may think that a high price does not appear to hinder brand X, even though it carries a negative connotation. As noted by Bodet (2006), the standing, reputation, and image of health and fitness clubs are key elements in the formation of their members’ satisfaction. Therefore, a high price can be considered normal if it corresponds to the positioning of the club as upmarket or upper-middle market. In this case, it is strongly recommended to communicate clearly that the size of the fees is an indication of quality, one of brand X’s objectives, in order to avoid misunderstandings.

6

Conclusion, limitations and future research

This work has had a dual purpose. Initially, it was to produce a tool for managers to identify the opinions, prejudices, or feelings which can inhibit prospects from deciding to join club X. Our further aim was to identify relevant and effective means of promotion likely to solve, to some extent, the club’s problem of significantly lower membership than might be expected from the increasing of number of French sporting participants.

380


The use of the concept of the social representation of a particular brand enabled us to determine which elements could represent obstacles to joining fitness club X, whilst identifying the positive elements, representing assets, in the public’s perceptions of the club. Although the method of measuring social representation that we used is robust and relevant and constitutes a helpful tool for sport managers, the second phase of measurement, based on basic cognitive schemes, appears more problematic, as the size and the format of the questions could be tiresome. It would therefore be interesting to reconsider this stage in order to facilitate the realisation of its goals. Furthermore, hierarchical structures sometimes seem vague and would benefit from being simplified by taking into account the thresholds in their statistical distributions. Finally, it may be interesting to check if brand X indeed has a core and to establish whether it has a consistent structure. This work does not constitute a finalisation, but rather the starting point of more consequential work intended to be even more precise in its analysis. We will therefore try to investigate further the questions this work has uncovered about the marketing of brand X. Moreover, it seems worthwhile to increase the size of our samples in order to be able to segment the studied population with accuracy. This should enable us to discover the social representations of sub-groups within our population, as well as to enable deeper analysis. The determination of brand X’s social representation within specific demographic groups segmented by such classical characteristics as gender, age, and geographic location, or by behavioural characteristics, represents a real step forward for managers in their efforts to create an effective communication strategy. It would also be interesting to compare the results obtained by previous advertisement campaigns in order to see if the slogans or advertisements use express the most desirable social representation. Social representation could therefore also be used as an evaluation tool by establishing and comparing pre- and post-promotion social representations. Finally, we would like to try to measure the social representations of physical activity, and more exactly, the social representation of health and fitness clubs, in order to determine if brand X offers characteristics associated with fitness clubs, and if is the public perceives it to be the market standard, as its management desires. These findings should enable brand X to plan to join other brands in communicating its offerings.

References Aaker, D.A. (1991) Managing Brand Equity, New York: Free Press. Abric, J.C. (1994) ‘Représentations sociales: aspects théoriques [Social representations: theoretical aspects]’, in J.C. Abric (Ed.), Pratiques sociales et représentations [Social Practices and Representations], Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, pp.1–35. Bodet, G. (2006) ‘Investigating customer satisfaction in health and fitness context by the application of the Tetraclasse model’, European Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp.149–165. Bodin, D. and Héas, S. (2002) Introduction à la sociologie des sports [Introduction to Sports Sociology], Editions Chiron. Castel, P., Lacassagne, M-F. and Salès-Wuillemin, E. (2002) ‘Categorical points of view in social representation’, Language Sciences, Vol. 24, pp.667–678.


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Crossley, N. (2006) ‘In the gym: motives, meaning and moral careers’, Body and Society, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp.23–50. Ernst, A. and Pigeassou, C. (2005) ‘“Etre seuls ensemble”: une figure moderne du lien social dans les centres de remise en forme [“Being alone together”: a modern figure of social link in health and fitness clubs]’, Science et Motricité, Vol. 56, No. 3, pp.65–74. Flament, C. (1981) ‘L’analyse de similitude: Une technique pour les recherches sur les représentations sociales [Similarity analysis: a technique for research on social representations]’, Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive, Vol. I, No. 4, pp.375–395. Guenzi, P. and Pelloni, O. (2004) ‘The impact of interpersonal relationships on customer satisfaction and loyalty to the service provider’, International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp.365–384. Heilbrunn, B. (1997) ‘Marque [Brand]’, in Y. Simon and P. Joffre (Eds.) Encyclopédie de gestion [Business Administration Encyclopaedia], Economica. Keller, K. (2003) Strategic Brand Management: Building, Measuring, and Managing Brand Equity, 2nd ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kotler, P. and Dubois, B. (2003) Marketing Management, in D. Manceau (Ed.), Paris: Pearson Education. Lacassagne, M-F., Bouchet, P., Weiss, K. and Jebrane, A. (2004) ‘Analyse comparative des représentations sociales du sport en France et au Maroc: Valeurs modernes et post-modernes chez des étudiants en sciences du sport [Comparative analysis of social representations of sport in France and Morocco: modern and post-modern values for sport sciences students]’, Revue Internationale des Sciences du Sport et de l’Education physique (STAPS), Vol. 65, pp.97–110. Lacassagne, M-F. and Stewart, I. (2003) ‘The study of social representations as a diagnostic tool for intercultural management’, Proposal for the Euro Workshop I: Theory and Methods in the Study of Intercultural Knowledge and Interaction, Eisenstadt, Austria, 11–14 May. Ladwein, R. (1998) ‘Stratégies de marques et concepts de marques [Brand strategy and brand concepts]’, Décisions Marketing, Vol. 13, January–April, pp.17–24. Ladwein, R. (1999) Le comportement du consommateur et de l’acheteur [Customer and Buyer Behaviour], Paris: Economica. Michel, G. (1997) ‘L’impact de l’extension de marque sur la marque: contribution de la théorie du noyau central à l’analyse de la structure interne de la marque [The impact of brand extension on the brand: contribution of the core element theory to the brand internal structure]’, Thèse de Doctorat, Université Panthéon-Sorbonne, IAE de Paris. Michel, G. (1998) ‘Gestion de l’extension de marque et de son impact sur la marque-mère [The brand extension and its impact on the original brand]’, Décisions Marketing, Vol. 13, January–April, pp.25–35. Mignon, P. and Truchot, G. (2002) Les pratiques sportives en France: Résultats de l’enquête menée en 2000 par le ministère des Sports et L’INSEP [The Practices of Sport in France: Results from the Survey Led in 2000 by the Sports Ministry and the National Institute of Sport and Physical Education], Paris: Ministère des Sports – INSEP. Moliner, P. (1996) Images et représentations sociales [Images and Social Representations], Grenoble: Presses Universitaires de Grenoble. Moliner, P., Joule, R.V. and Flament, C. (1995) Essai contre-attitudinal et structure des représentations sociales [Counter-attitudinal Essay and Social Representations Structure], Cahiers Internationaux de Psychologie Sociale, Vol. 27, pp.44–55. Moscovici, S. (1961) La psychanalyse, son image, son public (Psychoanalysis, Its Image, Its Public), Paris: PUF. Moscovici, S. (1984) ‘The phenomenon of social representations’, in R.M. Farr and S. Moscovici (Eds.) Social Representations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.3–69.

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Moscovici, S. (1988) ‘Notes toward a description of social representations’, European Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 18, pp.211–250. Rouquette, M.L. (1990) ‘Sur la composition des schèmes [On the composition of the schemes]’, Nouvelles Etudes Psychologiques, Université de Bordeaux II, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp.17–25. Rouquette, M.L. (1994) ‘Une classe de modèles pour l’analyse des relations entre cognèmes [A class of model for analysing the relationships between ‘cognèmes’]’, in C. Guimelli (Ed.) Structures et transformations des représentations socials, Neuchâtel: Delachaux and Niestlé, pp.153–170. Stewart, I. and Lacassagne, M.F. (2005) ‘Social representations as a diagnostic tool for identifying cultural and other group differences’, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 22, No. 9, pp.721–738. Viallon, R. (2002) ‘Le Fitness’, in AFRAPS/RUNOPES (Ed.) L’emploi sportif en France: Situation et tendances d’évolution [The Sport Employment in France: Situation and Evolution Tendencies], pp.119–130.

Note 1

INSEE is the French National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies.


383

Appendix Connectors of the basic scheme model selected We will symbolise by ‘A’ the brand X and by B, one of the words defining the field of the brand X’s social representation. SYN:

B is a synonym of A

ANT:

B is the opposite of A

DEF:

A can be defined as B

TEG:

A is an example of B

TES:

B is an example of A

COL:

A and B are examples of the same thing

COM:

A is constituent, component of B

DEC:

B is constituent, component of A

ART:

A and B are constituents of same thing

OUT:

A is a means to do B

UST:

B is a means to do A

CAR:

A is always characterised by B

FRE:

A is often characterised by B

SPE:

A is occasionally characterised by B

NOR:

B is necessary for A

EVA+: B is desirable for A EVA–: B is undesirable for A HAB:

B is usual for A

COS:

A is an effect or a consequence of B

EFF:

B is an effect or a consequence of A.

384


Investigating individual satisfaction in health and fitness training centres Catarina de Barros* University of Madeira Rua Colégio dos Jesuítas Madeira, Funchal, Portugal E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author

Lisa Gonçalves Instituto de Terapias Globais Rua do Hospital Velho Madeira, Funchal, Portugal E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: This paper analyses individual satisfaction in Health and Fitness Centres (HFCs) on the main Portuguese island of Madeira, based on a questionnaire survey conducted in 2007. A regression-ordered probit model is used to analyse preference determinants. The conclusion is that almost all of the attributes measured contribute to satisfaction, signifying that this is an area in which customers have high a priori expectations that are easily fulfilled. The policy implications are derived. Keywords: consumer; Health and Fitness Centres; HFCs; satisfaction; Madeira. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: de Barros, C. and Gonçalves, L. (2009) ‘Investigating individual satisfaction in health and fitness training centres’, Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp.384–395. Biographical notes: Catarina de Barros has a Master’s degree in Sports Management from the Technical University of Lisbon. Her research focuses on Madeira sports management issues. Her work has appeared in such journals as the European Sport Management Quarterly, Sport Marketing Quarterly and the International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing. She has also contributed articles on sports to books published by Elsevier. Lisa Gonçalves has a degree in Physical Education, specifically in Prescriptive Health and Exercise, from the University of Madeira. She is presently working in a gymnasium, where she teaches a variety of group classes. In addition, she is a personal trainer in the Institute of Global Therapies. She specialises in functional training and exercise dynamics.


Investigating individual satisfaction in health and fitness training centres

1

385

Introduction

The practice of physical exercise activities has an important influence on the consumer’s quality of life. A thorough understanding of the components of satisfaction in Health and Fitness Centres (HFCs) is essential for an effective provision of health-promoting physical exercise services to consumers. Consumer satisfaction is recognised as a key driver of positive organisational performance. Furthermore, an up-to-date knowledge of the role of the attributes contributing to satisfaction is a prerequisite for the development of an effective HFC marketing strategy. Consumer satisfaction in sports has been investigated by Bodet (2006), Beccarini and Ferrand (2006), Alexandris and Palialia (1999) Alexandris et al. (2004) and Afthimos et al. (2005), among others, and is considered to be a crucially important determinant of service quality. The present paper contributes to the literature in this specific domain by analysing satisfaction in HFCs with an ordered probit model based on a questionnaire survey carried out in Madeira in 2007. The paper is organised as follows: Section 2 describes the contextual setting. Section 3 presents a review of the literature. Section 4 examines the theoretical framework of consumer satisfaction and explains the design of the present research. Section 5 presents the methodology. Section 6 presents the data and results. Finally, Section 7 comprises a discussion of the findings and our concluding remarks.

2

Contextual setting

The archipelago of Madeira consists of two inhabited islands (Madeira with approximately 300 000 inhabitants and Porto Santo with 4000 inhabitants) and two uninhabited groups of islands that are nature reserves (Desertas and Selvagens). With regard to its political administration, Madeira is an autonomous region within the Republic of Portugal. Madeira’s population has a long tradition of participation sports, with substantial financial support and investment from the autonomous regional government. The islands’ younger generations have ample access and opportunity to practise sports. Adult citizens of all ages, conscious of the benefits of exercise to their fitness and health, constitute a demand for HFC facilities and resources, which is met in various ways by both the public and private sectors. According to the Sports Institute of Madeira (IDRAM), there are 84 HFCs currently operating on the two islands: 79 on Madeira Island and five on Porto Santo. They are divided into two branches: federations/leisure and tourism. The federation HFCs serve the athletes and members of all clubs registered in the respective national sports associations while leisure HFCs mostly serve the demand for physical exercise activities presented by the general population. As is self-explanatory, the tourism branch serves Portuguese and foreign holidaymakers by means of facilities constructed in the luxury hotels as a supplementary service for guests. It should be taken into account that tourism is the mainstay of Madeira’s economy. Despite the above-described segmentation, some hotels offer the possibility of subscription to their HFC to local inhabitants, while certain leisure branch HFCs are reserved for local bodies or groups, such as the police or the elderly. As our aim was to

386

C. de Barros and L. Gonçalves

study the satisfaction among the general population of Madeira, rather than any single segment, we chose to investigate the private-sector, commercially oriented HFCs providing services to the population in general. The health and fitness sector in Madeira has experienced rapid growth over the last decade, particularly in the last five years, during which period many new private-sector fitness centres with the latest equipment and facilities have opened for business, bringing strong market competition and choices for the island’s health consumers. Illustrating this pattern of growth, in 1986 there were 17 HFCs on the whole island of Madeira, 15 of which were in Funchal. By 2001, the number of fitness centres on the island had risen to 55. Today, by far the greatest concentration of fitness centres is found in the island’s capital city, Funchal, with 55 HFCs, the remainder being distributed throughout the island. Hence, we chose to focus our study on Funchal. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that the regional government is implementing a policy to encourage the opening of HFCs in the other towns on the island. In Table 1 below, we present demographic and HFC characteristics in relation to the islands of Madeira and Porto Santo. Table 1

Main characteristics of the health and fitness sector in Madeira and Porto Santo in 2007 Health and fitness centres

Municipalities

Population

Tourist sector

Federation/Leisure sector

Total

Calheta

13 005

1

2

3

Câmara De Lobos

31 476

0

4

4

Funchal

161 977

22

33

55

Machico

22 016

0

7

7

Ponta do Sol

8756

0

1

1

Porto Moniz

3432

0

1

1

Ribeira Brava

13 170

0

2

2

Santa Cruz

23 465

6

3

3

Santana

10 302

0

1

1

7695

1

1

2

São Vicente Porto Santo Total

4706

5

0

5

2 300 000

35

55

84

Sources: Regional demographic statistics and the Association of Fitness Clubs

The concept of Significant Areas for Sports (SASPs) in relation to the number of inhabitants is a field that is attracting increasing research interest in several European countries. Amongst other points, it shows the relationship between the SASP and the number of inhabitants served, depicted in the ratio inhabitant to SASP (in square metres). The ratio of number of inhabitants to HFC, in the case of Funchal, is 210 inhabitants per HFC. This suggests that, theoretically, there are 11 550 inhabitants enrolled in the 55 HFCs of Funchal, or 10% of the population of this municipality.


387

However, we must take into account the fact that these values do not reveal whether HFCs in the tourism branch or those not open to the general population are included. Therefore, both values are open to question. Table 2

Main characteristics of the Funchal health and fitness sector

Funchal

Total

Population

115 403

Total HFCs

55 2

SASP average dimensions (m )

9272.00

Inhabitant/SASP rating (m2)

8,03

Number of inhabitants/HFC

210

3

Literature review

Research into sports satisfaction is an area of active investigation in marketing (Brady and Robertson, 2001; Cronin and Taylor, 1994; Parasuraman et al., 1985; 1988). Research concentrating on the attendance of HFCs includes Bodet (2006), Beccarini and Ferrand (2006), Alexandris et al. (2004), Murray and Howat (2002) and Alexandris and Palialia (1999). However, research into sports satisfaction has as yet attracted little attention, though meriting expansion. Service organisations have different management models and characteristics from those for goods. The characteristics that distinguish services from goods are intangibility; heterogeneity; variations in performance depending on time, place, user and encounter; and inseparability of production and consumption, making it difficult to balance the demand, since services cannot be stored in the way that goods are. These characteristics impose difficulties on the evaluation of services (Costa et al., 2004). There can be many reasons for the increasing need for services on the part of consumers and organisations in developed countries, for example, socioeconomic alterations, creating more free time and the desire for higher standards of the quality of life, or increasing numbers of knowledgeable consumers with new demands, stimulating organisations to satisfy their needs. Cunha (2002) emphasises that services have a unique nature that has to be considered. An organisation is seen as an open system that interacts constantly with its surroundings. The company that provides a service is more attached to the client, so that the connection between provider and client is stronger than in the case of a goods supplier. This proximity is one of the characteristics that define the difference between the goods and services industries. So, the logic of a service is more client oriented (Cunha, 2002). This means that the service consumed has the same importance as the atmosphere in which the service is created. As mentioned above, another characteristic of services is that they are engaged in the transaction of an intangible. What is of prime importance to the companies that provide services is the interaction with people, in which the human component is essential for the success of the transaction.

388


Health clubs are service organisations that sell experiences, not goods. The service sector has become increasingly important in recent decades (Cunha, 2002). According Cunha (2002), the main characteristics in services are intangibility and the consumer’s simultaneous participation in the production. Following Cunha (2002), it is expected that a small number of fitness attributes play significant roles in consumer satisfaction.

4

The consumer satisfaction model

What is consumer satisfaction? There is little consensus on the definition of consumer satisfaction. Nonetheless, two general concepts of consumer satisfaction have been adopted (Vilares and Coelho, 2005), that is, satisfaction as a specific transaction (in which consumers’ satisfaction is seen as a postpurchase assessment judgement) and satisfaction as a cumulative process (in which satisfaction represents the global evaluation throughout the time of the service experience). The first concept of satisfaction provides information on a particular product or service, whereas the second concept gives a global evaluation across the time of the consumer’s experience of the product or service. Whilst the literature contains significant differences in the definition of satisfaction, the definitions do share some common elements. Giese and Gote (2000) examined the definitions as a whole and three general components were identified: 1

Consumer satisfaction is a response (emotional or cognitive).

2

The response pertains to a particular focus (expectations, product, consumption experience, etc.).

3

The response occurs at a particular time (after consumption, after choice, based on accumulated experience, etc.).

To summarise, satisfaction comprises three basic components, a response pertaining to a particular focus determined at a particular time. The study of consumer loyalty often appears as an alternative to the study of consumer satisfaction. However, although they are related, they differ as concepts. While satisfaction is specifically connected to the product or service (or their attributes) and can be dynamically measured, loyalty is a broader, static concept mainly connected to the provider company. Loyalty is the intention or predisposal of the consumer to repeat the purchase (Vilares and Coelho, 2005). A study that measured the satisfaction of tourists found that the measurement of satisfaction provides some indication of the degree of customer loyalty (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005). However, the relationship between customer satisfaction and loyalty is not clear. There seems to be mixed evidence regarding this relationship; while some researchers found a positive relationship between consumer satisfaction and loyalty, others found weak correlations between the two (Pappu and Quester, 2006). Despite this, the predominant belief is that satisfied consumers are often loyal and engage in repeat purchases (Cronin and Taylor, 1994; Pappu and Quester, 2006).


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An analysis of the consumer’s perception can help in identifying factors contributing to the success or failure of the marketing strategy, and consequently enable the improvement of an enterprise’s product or service image in target markets (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005). According to Pappu and Quester (2006), both high satisfaction and dissatisfaction levels can generate strong associations in consumers’ minds, as is the case with HFCs. Highly satisfied consumers may recall the name of the health club readily, but the same will apply in the event of their dissatisfaction. Hence, consumers are more likely to have favourable and strong associations towards a health club when their experience is highly satisfactory than when they report low satisfaction levels that have created a negative image of the HFC in their minds. The image of the health club can have some impact on attributes such as satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Ibrahim and Gil (2005) found that measuring an image by evaluating a list of attributes was significantly correlated to satisfaction with the services offered. Quality and consumer satisfaction is strictly associated with the evolution of quality concepts. The measurement of perceived quality is based on the opinions and perceptions of the consumers. The continuous focus on perceived quality, and subsequently consumers’ opinions, is a theme that has increased the interest in studies on consumer satisfaction. This is supported by the fact that a relationship has been found between consumer satisfaction and quality of service (Kouthouris and Alexandris, 2005). A consumer with positive perceptions of the service quality is likely to report high levels of satisfaction (Cronin and Taylor, 1994; Kouthouris and Alexandris, 2005; Pappu and Quester, 2006). All of these authors believe that satisfied consumers are more likely to have favourable perceptions of quality when compared with less satisfied consumers. That is, with regard to HFCs, satisfaction has a positive impact on the associations related to quality in the consumer’s mind.

4.1 Research design Consider the preferences of Funchal HFC consumers. The choice underlying the utility defines the following null hypotheses: Hypothesis 1 (Expectations): A consumer who chooses a fitness club bases his/her decision on expectations of full satisfaction. Expectations appear in the literature as the probability that a certain attitude will lead to a positive or negative outcome, thus allowing the isolation of determining factors of behaviour and, furthermore, specifying how expectations and values can be combined in choices (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1980). This hypothesis will be tested by the attribute expectation. Hypothesis 2 (Equipment): A consumer who chooses a fitness club is attracted by its equipment attributes. This is also a traditional hypothesis in demand models, that is, the individual’s assessment of the degree to which a service’s performance is perceived to have met his/her desires and expectations influences his/her satisfaction (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005). Equipment attributes will affect satisfaction positively. This hypothesis will be tested by the attribute equipment.

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Hypothesis 3 (Well-being): Individuals who have a high sense of well-being in HFCs are those who evaluate their experience positively, thus indicating satisfaction. Well-being and positive experiences influencing satisfaction have been researched by Diener and Lucas (2000). The happier a consumer, the more satisfied he/she feels. This hypothesis will be tested by the attribute happy. Hypothesis 4 (Experience): The individual’s experience of the HFC positively impacts on satisfaction. This hypothesis will be tested by the attribute fitness experience. Hypothesis 5 (Motivations): A consumer who chooses a fitness centre is motivated by drive motives such as physical appearance. Physical appearance is a main drive in fitness centres’ attendance and so positively impacts on satisfaction. This hypothesis will be tested by the attribute physical appearance. Hypothesis 6 (Return): A consumer who chooses a fitness centre and is satisfied tends to return. Evidence of the relationship between satisfaction and intentions to repeat the purchase has been studied by Cronin and Taylor (1994) and Pappu and Quester (2006). The Return hypothesis impacts positively on the consumer’s satisfaction. This hypothesis will be tested by the attribute return. Hypothesis 7 (Recommend): A consumer who is satisfied with his/her choice of HFC tends to recommend it to others. This hypothesis has not previously been analysed in sports. The willingness to recommend impacts positively on satisfaction and will be tested by the attribute recommend. Hypothesis 8 (Psycho attributes): A consumer at an HFC feels active, but not afraid or alone. Therefore, an active lifestyle impacts positively on satisfaction. This hypothesis will be tested by the attributes active, afraid and alone.

5

Methodology

As the dependent variables are discrete, multiple and ranked, we used an ordered probit estimation. This is a straightforward extension of the binary probit model (Ben-Akiva and Lerman, 1985). In this case the dependent variable takes five values (1 to 5). First we must subtract from all values so that they become 0 to 4. The dependent variable Y takes the values 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4. Similar to the binary probit model, we start by defining an unobserved index function Y* as: Y* = X β + ε and assume that: Y = 0 if Y* < k1, Y = 1 if k1 ≤ Y* < k2, Y = 2 if k2 ≤ Y* < k3, Y = 3 if k3 ≤ Y* < k4, Y = 4 if k4 ≤ Y*,


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where k1, k2, k3 and k4 are ‘cut points’ and k1 < k2 < k3 < k4. Then, the conditional probabilities Pr(Y = 0 | X), Pr(Y = 1 | X), Pr(Y = 2 | X), Pr(Y = 3 | X) and Pr (Y = 4 | X) can be written as: Pr(Y = 0 | X) = Pr(X β + ε < k1) = Pr(ε < –X β + k1) = F(–X β + k1), Pr(Y = 4 | X) = Pr(X β + ε > k4) = Pr(ε > –X β + k4) = 1 – F(–X β + k4), Pr(Y = 2 | X) = Pr(kq ≤ X β + ε > k 2) = F(–X β + k2) – F(–X β + k1), and so on, where F is the cumulative distribution function of residual ε. In the ordered probit model, we assume that the residual ε has the standard normal distribution N(0,1). Thus, F is the cumulative function of N(0,1). We then use the maximum likelihood procedure to obtain the results.

6

Data and results

The data were obtained from a random questionnaire survey distributed in HFCs in Funchal, Madeira. We randomly selected four HFCs with an estimated population of 1000 clients. Three hundred questionnaires were randomly stratified by the four HFCs, based on the number of clients. The researchers first approached the technical directors of each selected HFC, asking for authorisation to distribute a questionnaire on consumer satisfaction. The questionnaires were delivered to clients by the receptionist, adopting a random procedure of selecting every third client entering the centre. The questionnaires returned totalled 150, from which 130 completed questionnaires were retained for the present analysis, which represents a response rate of 43.3% of the sample chosen. This corresponds to a sampling error of 2.7% with a confidence interval of 95%. The remaining questionnaires returned but not considered for the present research were discarded because of incomplete fields or incorrect completions (Dillman, 1978). To ensure the validity and reliability of the data, several steps were taken. First, the point of departure was a questionnaire already applied in tourism (Correia et al., 2007) which was adapted for the present purpose, ensuring that prior research in another field was considered and face validity established. Second, all relevant literature was taken into consideration. Third, the questionnaire was pretested on students of sport management at the University of Madeira. Following the administration of the final survey, a stratified random subset of 50 respondents was contacted by telephone a second time to check if any problem persisted, but none was reported. These procedures ensure the validity of the questionnaire, meaning that it measures what it was intended to measure. Fourth, the random sample for the questionnaire had a response rate of 43.3%, which was considered an acceptable sample of respondents (Dillman, 1978). This procedure ensures the generalisability of the data, meaning that the findings are applicable to a more general population. Fifth, the reliability of the data was examined, analysing it extensively with alternative methods and reaching the same conclusions (Teixeira and Correia, 2008). The extensive examination of the survey validity, reliability and generalisability leads to the inference that there is nothing in the evaluation to suggest that it is either invalid or unreliable.

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The response rate does not differ significantly from the sample in terms of age (Chi-square = 8.53, p = 0.05) or gender (Chi-square = 7.55, p = 0.05). Hence, it can be asserted that the 300 individuals who completed the questionnaire are representative of Funchal HFC clients. The majority of the respondents are male (52%), with an average age of 33. This profile leads to an overall definition of the respondent as male, early middle-aged and middle class, with a family that includes one child. Other characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 3. The objective was to evaluate the satisfaction of Funchal HFC consumers. To pursue this objective, the questionnaire was structured according to this table. The survey has three types of variables: dichotomous, continuous and qualitative (7-item Likert scale). The set of explanatory variables considered in this study attempts to capture the key determinants of the decision process, based on the theoretical framework and the literature review. The characteristics of the variables (description, minimum, maximum, mean and standard deviation) used in the analysis are presented in the table below. Table 3

Characterisation of the variables

Variable

Description

Satisfaction

Indicate your satisfaction regarding the fitness centre (1 – low …. 5 – highly satisfied)

Mina

Maxb

Mean

Std. dev

3

5

4.089

0.665

1

5

3.853

0.685

2

5

3.934

0.732

Expectation hypothesis Expectations

What were your expectations of the fitness centre (1 – low … 5 – high)

Equipment

The quality of the equipment (1 – poor … 5 – very good)

Equipment hypothesis

Well-being hypothesis Happiness

I feel happy when I am at the fitness centre (1 – strongly disagree … 5 – strongly agree)

2

5

4.333

0.816

Fitness experience

I evaluate my fitness centre experience as being positive (1 – strongly disagree … 5 – strongly agree)

2

5

4.439

0.780

Loyalty

If given the choice, I wouldn’t change the fitness centre for another (1 – strongly disagree … 5 – strongly agree)

1

5

4.188

1.015

0

1

0.121

0.328

1

5

1.349

0.735

2

5

4.512

0.728

1

3

1.113

0.408

2

5

3.739

0.876

0

4

1.186

0.548

Motivation hypothesis Physical appearance

Dichotomic variable defining the motivation to use the fitness centre Returning hypothesis

Return

Will return to the fitness centre (1 – no … 5 –yes) Recommend hypothesis

Recommend

Would you recommend the fitness centre to others? (1 – no … 5 – yes) Affect hypothesis

Afraid

Indicate the intensity of emotion felt in the fitness centre (1 – none … 5 – extreme)

Active Alone

Notes:

a

Min – Minimum; bMax – Maximum.


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In the table below, we present the direction and significance of results of the ordered probit estimation. The comparison individual is a female, aged 30, with 12 or fewer years of education attending a Funchal HFC. Table 4

Ordered probit model (dependent variable: satisfaction) Variables

Coefficients

(z-Stat)

Satisfaction Expectations

0.7259

*3.42

Equipment

0.449

*2.23

Happiness

0.882

*3.76

Fitness experience

0.800

*2.69

Loyalty

0.705

*3.52

Physical appearance

1.492

*2.88

Return

0.495

*2.41

Recommend Afraid

0.725

*3.07

–1.907

*–3.29

Active

0.438

*2.50

Alone

–0.670

*–2.70

Cut1

11.670

*7.604

Cut2

14.853

*10.321

Nobs

122

LR chi2(11)

117.74

Log likelihood

–62.119

Pseudo R2 Note:

0.4866

*Means statistically significant at the 1% level.

According to the results, the probability of being satisfied is significantly positively affected by all attributes, with the exception of fitness experience, afraid and alone. All variables are statistically significant at the 1% level. According to the Pseudo R2 statistic, the model explains 48.66% of the variance, which is significant for survey data. Moreover, the LR statistic and the log likelihood statistic are statistically significant, meaning that the model describes the data accurately.

7

Discussion and conclusions

In this paper, we have analysed the determinants of the probability of consumer satisfaction in HFCs, using data from a questionnaire survey carried out in Funchal, Madeira in 2007. With regard to the hypotheses expressed in Section 4.1, we accept the null of Hypothesis 1, based on the result for the expectation attribute, showing evidence in its favour. We also accept the null of Hypothesis 2, since the equipment attribute is positive and statistically significant. We accept Hypothesis 3, since the happiness attribute is

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positive and statistically significant. We accept Hypothesis 4, because fitness centre experience is positive and statistically significant. We accept Hypothesis 5, because physical appearance is positive and statistically significant. Hypothesis 6 is accepted, because the return attribute is positive and statistically significant. We accept Hypothesis 7, because recommend is positive and statistically significant. Finally, we accept Hypothesis 8, because afraid and alone are negative, while active is positive. The general conclusion is that the probability of satisfaction with the HFC increases with expectations, equipment, happiness, fitness experience, loyalty, physical appearance, return intention, recommend intention and active lifestyle, but decreases with afraid and alone. The significance of these findings is that all of the attributes contribute positively to satisfaction, with the exception of two attributes (afraid and alone), which contribute negatively (Alexandros and Jaffry, 2005). The present paper has limitations, which should be addressed in future research on this topic. First, it is not clear from our research whether other factors could affect the probability of satisfaction negatively. Second, we have not taken into account socioeconomic variables to explain satisfaction. Finally, the data set is short and therefore the generalisability of the results is disputable. However, since this research is an exploratory study, the intention was not to obtain definitive results for direct use by HFC management. Rather, the research calls attention to the value of identifying and analysing preferences among fitness centre consumers and developing new business strategies accordingly. In order to draw more generalised conclusions, a larger data set would be necessary.

References Afthimos, Y., Theodorakis, N.D. and Nassis, P. (2005) ‘Consumers’ expectations of service in Greek fitness centres’, Managing Service Quality, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp.245–258. Alexandris, K. and Palialia, E. (1999) ‘Measuring customer satisfaction in fitness centres in Greece: an exploratory study’, Managing Leisure, Vol. 4, pp.218–228. Alexandris, K., Zahariadis, P., Tsorbatzoudis, C. and Grouios, G. (2004) ‘An empirical investigation of the relationship among service quality, customer satisfaction and psychological commitment in a health club context’, European Sport Management Quarterly, Vol. 4, pp.36–52. Alexandros, A. and Jaffry, S. (2005) Stated Preferences for Two Cretan Heritage Attractions, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 32, No. 4, pp.985–1005. Beccarini, C. and Ferrand, A. (2006) ‘Factors affecting soccer club season ticket holders’ satisfaction: the influence of club image and fans’ motives’, European Sport Management Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp.1–22. Ben-Akiva, M. and Lerman, S. (1985) Discrete Choice Analysis: Theory and Application to Travel Demand, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Bodet, G. (2006) ‘Investigating customer satisfaction in a health club context by an application of the tetraclass model’, European Sport Management Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp.149–165. Brady, M.K. and Robertson, C.J. (2001) ‘Searching for a consensus on the antecedent role of service quality and satisfaction: an exploratory cross-national study’, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp.53–60. Correia, A., Santos, C. and Barros, C.P. (2007) ‘Tourism in Latin América. A choice analysis’, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp.610–629.


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Costa, G., Glinia, E., Goudas, M. and Antonioi, P. (2004) ‘Recreational services in resort hotels: customer satisfaction aspects’, Journal of Sport Tourism, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp.117–126. Cronin, J. and Taylor, S.A. (1994) ‘Servpf versus Servqual: reconciling performance-based and perceptions – minus – expectations measurement service quality’, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 58, No. 1, pp.125–131. Cunha, M.P. (2002) Introdução à Qualidade de Serviços-a perspective da gestão de recursos humanos, 1st ed., ISPA Press, September. Diener, E. and Lucas, R. (2000) Handbook of Emotions, Chapter in M. Lewis and J.M. Haviland (Eds.) 2nd ed., New York: Guilford, pp.325–337. Dillman, D. (Ed.) (1978) Mail and Telephone Surveys: The Total Design Method, New York: Wiley. Fishbein, M. and Ajzen, I. (Eds.) (1980) Predicting and Understanding Consumer Behavior: Attitude Behavior Correspondence, Prentice Hall. Giese, J.L. and Gote, J.A. (2000) ‘Defining consumer satisfaction’, Academy of Marketing Science Review, Vol. 2000, http://www.amsreview.org/articles/giese01-2000.pdf. Ibrahim, E. and Gill, J. (2005) ‘A positioning strategy for a tourist destination, based on analysis of customers’ perceptions and satisfactions’, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp.172–188. Kouthouris, C. and Alexandris, K. (2005) ‘Can service quality predict customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions in the sport tourism industry? An application of the SERVQUAL model in an outdoors setting’, Journal of Sports Tourism, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp.101–111. Murray, D. and Howat, G. (2002) ‘The relationship among service quality, value, satisfaction, and future intentions of customers at an Australia sports and leisure centre’, Sport Management Review, Vol. 5, pp.25–43. Pappu, R. and Quester, P. (2006) ‘Does customer satisfaction lead to improved brand equity? An empirical examination of two categories of retail brands’, The Journal of Product and Brand Management, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp.4–14. Parasuraman, A., Zeithami, V.A. and Berry, L. (1985) ‘A conceptual model of service quality and its implications for future research’, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 49, No. 4, pp.41–50. Parasuraman, A., Zeithami, V.A. and Berry, L. (1988) ‘SERVQUAL: a multiple-item scale for measuring customer perceptions of service quality’, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 64, No. 1, pp.12–40. Teixeira, M. and Correia, A. (2008) ‘Segmenting fitness centre clients’, Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing (this issue). Vilares, M.J. and Coelho, P.S. (2005) Satisfação e Lealdade do Cliente-Metodologias de avaliação, gestão e análise, Lisbon: Escolar Editora.

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Segmenting fitness centre clients Mário Teixeira* Department of Sport and Health University of Évora Pavilhão Gimnodesportivo da Universidade de Évora Prolongamento da Rua de Reguengos e Monsaraz, No. 14 7000–727 Évora, Portugal Fax: (+351) 266 769521 E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author

Abel Correia Faculty of Human Movements Technical University of Lisbon Estrada da Costa 1495–688 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal Fax: (+351) 214 144 712 E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: This study segments the clients of fitness centres in the Portuguese island of Madeira based on cluster analysis. A questionnaire with 121 observations is used to examine the motivation profiles. The findings reveal that there are three segments in the data: the first is denominated as the ‘happy consumer’ segment. The second segment consists of the ‘unhappy consumers’ and the third are composed of the unmarried, unattached consumers. The managerial implications of the results are derived. Keywords: sport cluster analysis.

management;

fitness

centre;

marketing

strategy;

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Teixeira, M. and Correia, A. (2009) ‘Segmenting fitness centre clients’, Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp.396–416. Biographical notes: Mário Coelho Teixeira currently teaches Sport Management in the Department of Sport and Health at the University of Évora, Portugal. He is a PhD student and has a Master’s degree in Sports Management from the Technical University of Lisbon. His teaching experience covers public and private higher education institutions at the Bachelor degree, Postgraduate and Master’s levels in Portugal and Spain (Universidad de Extremadura). He has taught in various areas that include public administration, municipal management, strategic planning, leisure and sports tourism, public sports policy, regional development, large-scale event organisation, management of sports facilities, marketing, communication and public relations. He has finished a specialist course in Public Administration Senior Management and has occupied a post as a Municipal Director in the Lisbon City Hall. He was a member of the Advisory Board of the Sociedade Portugal 2004 (UEFA Euro 2004 Football Championships, hosted in Portugal). Copyright © 2009 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Segmenting fitness centre clients

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Abel Correia has a PhD in Human Movements, specialising in Sport Sciences, at the Human Movements Faculty of the Technical University of Lisbon (FMH-UTL). As an Associate Professor working in the Sport Sciences Department, he teaches Sports Organisation and Sports Marketing in the FMH-UTL’s degree course in Sports Management. His interests include sports organisational strategy and sports marketing management.

1

Introduction

This study adopts cluster analysis to segment the client profiles in fitness centres based on the data obtained from a questionnaire survey conducted in Madeira in 2007. This study is of interest not only to fitness centres in general, but also to health administrators, who can gain insights into the health demand through sports activities and apply the estimated cluster to segment the population into groups. The motivation for the present research is based on three issues. First, fitness centres are increasingly providing a location for the practice of sports and physical exercise in Portugal, involving franchising as the means of commercial exploitation and providing employment for sports management graduates. Therefore, research in this field is needed in order to understand its dynamics. Second, it is of interest to identify the consumer preferences in relation to this type of sport activity in order to design and implement the appropriate marketing strategies. Finally, clustering the sport and fitness consumers allows the management to segment the market, which is the first step in any marketing plan. Cluster analysis in sports was adopted by Luna-Arocas and Tang (2004), who analysed the motivations and satisfaction of the consumers at fitness centres in Spain. This study is organised as follows: the contextual setting is presented in Section 2. Section 3 surveys the relevant literature. Section 4 highlights the theoretical framework. Section 5 explains the methodology. Section 6 displays the data, while Section 7 presents the results; Section 8 discusses the results, Section 9 considers the limitations and possible extensions of the paper and finally, Section 10 concludes.

2

The contextual setting

Sports have come to occupy a position of prominence, both economically and socially, in the Portuguese island of Madeira. This stems from the fact that the autonomous regional government has long made sports an investment priority so that the younger generations are accustomed to practising sports. As a result, the island’s citizens are clearly aware of the benefits of fitness to their health, therefore, the supply of facilities must meet the demand. The first fitness centre in Madeira was constructed in a luxury hotel, providing an optional service to the guests. The managers were quick to observe the opportunity to offer these facilities and services to the local community, which had formerly lacked such a provision. Nowadays, in addition to the hotel-based facilities, there is a growing number of private and independent fitness centres on the island.

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M. Teixeira and A. Correia

There are currently 84 health and fitness centres in the main island of Madeira. The local health and fitness sector has been developing throughout the last ten years, with its particularly rapid growth in the last five years reflected in the construction of new, better equipped and more modern centres, thereby creating market competition for health sports consumers. Another interesting aspect is that most of the fitness centres are situated in Funchal, the capital of Madeira. According to the most recent census, the population of this city stands at approximately 104 000. However, an effect of the regional government policy of decentralisation, which promotes more balanced development throughout the island, is that fitness centres are now appearing in other smaller towns, for example, in Machico and Caniço.

3

Literature survey

The literature of direct relevance to the present study is surveyed in several strands, based on each variable used to segment the consumers.

3.1 Demographic variables Research suggests that men are more competitive than women and young people are more competitive than their older counterparts (Cashdan, 1998). Young and single people are keen to exercise, improve their physical image, meet people of the opposite sex and satisfy their social needs (Maslow, 1970; Tang and West, 1997). However, as one grows older, physical appearances may be harder to maintain due to the lack of time and motivation, the inconvenience and the additional responsibilities arising from one’s job and family (Biddle and Smith, 1991; Duda, 1991). For married and older people, improving one’s physical image (extrinsic motivation) and social needs are likely to become less important. Undoubtedly, physical exercise (intrinsic motivation) can improve the quality of life. Nonetheless, an individual’s survival is not necessarily jeopardised immediately by a lack of physical exercise. Moreover, it is not necessarily important for all demographic groups at the same level. However, at an extreme, the lack of physical exercise may cause many major physical problems, such as obesity, high blood pressure, coronary heart disease, etc. It may reasonably be argued that physical exercise is somewhat important for all age groups.

3.2 Sport motivation In the literature on motivation, researchers have examined human needs (Maslow, 1970), intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan, 1985; Gupta and Shaw, 1998; Herzberg et al., 1959; Pfeffer, 1998; Ryan and Deci, 2000), achievement motivation (McClelland, 1984) and many other theories. Researchers in the domain of sports have investigated the athletes’ needs, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation in different sports, age groups and competition levels (McDonald et al., 2002; Greenwell et al., 2002). In addition, various means of measuring sport motivation are found in the literature, for example, the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) (Pelletier et al., 1995), the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) (Duda, 1993), the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) (McAuley et al., 1989) and the Youth Sport Motivation (Green, 1997).


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3.3 Human needs and sport The theoretical and empirical contributions of this research relate to the hierarchy of human needs (Maslow, 1970) within the context of fitness centres. Human needs are dynamic. As an individual’s age, income, marital status, family, number of children, physical strength, energy and appearance changes, his/her needs, values and motivations may alter accordingly. Satisfied needs are not motivators, but unsatisfied needs are (Maslow, 1970). With regard to human needs, two contrasting processes are involved: (1) satisfaction and progression and (2) frustration and regression (Alderfer, 1972; Maslow, 1970). Over time, the importance and satisfaction of needs will evolve (e.g., Tang and West, 1997; Tang et al., 2002). Next, we will examine some selected demographic variables that may have an impact on the people’s motivation to exercise.

3.4 Sport motivation and fitness centres Most fitness centre consumers take no part in competitions as registered or professional athletes. Activities at the fitness centres are considered to be leisure pursuits. The interest of leisure is ‘in the individual, not the activity’ (Tinsley and Tinsley, 1982, p.105). These authors studied subjective feelings, motivation and the psychological benefits of sport. However, thus far, very little research has examined the motivational drivers (motives) of the fitness centre clients. Among the few papers which include the latter objective, we find Kim and Kim (1998) and Luna-Arocas (1999). The present study adopts the Motivation in Sport Scale (MISS/Sport Centre) developed by Luna-Arocas (1999). According to the Self-Determination Theory (SDT), the social contexts that satisfy the psychological needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness nurture the development of more self-determined regulations which, in turn, underpin task persistence and psychological well-being (Deci and Ryan, 1985; Ryan and Deci, 2000). The motives for exercise may range along a continuum, from being highly controlled (e.g., prescribed by doctors) to volitionally endorsed. One frequently cited motive for embarking on an exercise programme is health improvement (Castellani et al., 2003). The intrinsic motivation for physical exercise is significantly related to attendance and the subjects’ confidence in their intentions to continue exercising beyond the completion of the programme, in addition to their perceptions of being competent, experiencing enjoyment and making an effort (Oman and McAuley, 1993). Other individuals value the important benefits associated with exercising, e.g., the psychological well-being, the positive subjective feelings and emotions, coping with stress, relaxation, meeting people and social support (Biddle and Smith, 1991; Duda, 1991). The consumers who participate for less controlling motives or higher enjoyment will have high self-esteem and intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, the individuals who participate in a fitness programme for highly controlled reasons may have low self-esteem and intrinsic motivation. These people are concerned at the prospect of others’ negative evaluation of their physical selves in fitness environments such as gyms, exercise classes and weight rooms, i.e., the places that are conducive to manifestations of such anxiety, given that a significant proportion of their raison d’être is the improvement of body image (Gray, 1977). The individuals’ desire to look better in the eyes of others has been found to be a major motivational reason for taking up exercise. In the exercise domain, external regulation represents the least

400


self-determined form of extrinsic motivation and involves exercising to satisfy an external demand. Exercise may offer extrinsic values, e.g., competition, entertainment and an enhanced body image. To sum up, the intrinsic reasons for exercise may include pleasure and enjoyment, whereas the extrinsic reasons may stem from direct or subtle pressure from others, or may be based on fitness or appearance motives (e.g., Frederick and Morrison, 1996; Frederick and Ryan, 1993).

3.5 Sport consumption, motivation and satisfaction In the present paper, we examine the Madeira fitness centre consumers’ motives using the 26-item, eight-factor MISS/Sport Centre, developed specifically for fitness centres by Luna-Arocas (1999). This author classifies the eight motives of the MISS/Sport Centre into two general categories: the intrinsic motives (i.e., positive effect, physical exercise, coping strategy and social contact) and extrinsic motives (i.e., competition, personal challenge, body image and entertainment). We apply cluster analysis to identify the motivation profiles of the fitness centre consumers, using the eight motives of the MISS/Sport Centre (Luna-Arocas, 1999). Each consumer may score high, median or low on each of these eight motives. By combining the high, median and low scores of these eight motives, we can group the consumers into three to five clusters. The number of clusters is selected on the basis of a priori criteria, practical judgement, common sense and theoretical foundations. Furthermore, we will be able to arrange all these clusters from the most positive cluster (have high scores on several motives), to neutral clusters and on to the most negative cluster (have low scores on several motives). We assert that there will be three to five clusters of consumers based on the eight motives of the MISS/Sport Centre (cf. Luna-Arocas and Tang, 2004). The consumers’ satisfaction with a service is influenced by the combination of price, the quality of service, the employees’ responsiveness, convenience and other factors (e.g., Ostrom and Iacobucci, 1995). Sport marketers must focus on the factors that are fully or partially controllable by the service provider, while accepting the fact that certain elements will be beyond their control. We adopt a 15-item measure of Consumer Satisfaction with the Sport Centre (CSSC) (Luna-Arocas, 1999) using three factors: consumer interaction (five items), administration of the gym (five items) and the general perceptions of the gym (five items). For example, the administration of the gym involves pricing (Daniel and Johnson, 2004), communication with the consumers, social activities, the selection of services and activities and the reputation (brand image) of the fitness centre. We argue that the MISS/Sport Centre is related to one’s positive disposition or affect (cf. Judge, 1993; Staw et al., 1986). The theory of reasoned action (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) states that behaviour is determined by intention, which is a function of the attitude towards behaviour and the subjective norms. Hence, those with positive dispositions are more willing to change their lives proactively (cf. Judge, 1993; Staw et al., 1986). Positive attitudes and positive behaviour are highly correlated. We hypothesise that the consumers in the most positive cluster, with many high scores on the different motives of the MISS measure, are likely to have more positive dispositions that, in turn, may lead to their proactively changing their lives (Judge, 1993) and a higher satisfaction with the fitness centre than those in the most negative or neutral motivation clusters.


401

3.6 Quality In recent years, a marked increase has taken place in the number of fitness centres offering a wide range of sports activities. The raising of the standards of education of the clients and the globalisation process in relation to information, together with the increased competition among the private organisations operating in the sports sector, have stimulated the demand for top-quality services. The preoccupation with quality has always been inherent in the human condition. It can be considered that the quest for quality originated in the era when the population consumed only what it produced (Pires et al., 2004; Pires, 2000). From the commercial perspective, the term ‘quality’ appeared in the 19th century in order to ensure that the large-scale manufacture of industrial goods respected the standards required by the market. In the present day, the importance of quality should not be underestimated, since it plays a fundamental role in determining the functioning and success of every organisation (Murray and Howat, 2002; Alexandris et al., 2001; Chelladurai and Chang, 2000; Lindon et al., 2000; Cruz and Carvalho, 1998; Zeithaml et al., 1996). The services based on high standards of quality are crucial to the survival of any enterprise, regardless of the sector in which it is active. By defining this strategic orientation, the company benefits by gaining clients and retaining their loyalty, in addition to ensuring the profitability of its services and obtaining a competitive advantage in the market, which is decisive in gaining victory over its rivals (Quaresma, 2003; Kotler, 2000).

3.7 The expectations and perceptions In view of their particular characteristics of intangibility, heterogeneity, inseparability and durability, which distinguish them from products, the services of high quality could be conceived as a type of attitude that results from the comparison between the clients’ expectations and perceptions of the performance of an organisation (Parasuraman et al., 1988). Recently, given the immense market competition, the quality of the services as perceived by the client has become one of the principal areas of interest to all enterprises, including fitness centres. However, most specialists in this domain argue that the quality of the service is a multidimensional construct (Theodorakis et al., 1998). Confronted by the difficulty in reaching a consensus on a definition of the quality of service, the researchers appear to agree that the term ‘quality’ refers to the client’s perception of the form and content of the service provided (Theodorakis and Kambitsis, 1998; Zeithaml and Bitner, 2000). Hence, various differing viewpoints are found on this issue. Correia (2000) considers that the quality of the service corresponds to the quality perceived by the client. Therefore, there is a dependence, firstly, on the expectations raised in relation to the service, which are constructed on the basis of previous experience, secondly, on the communication processes between the service provider and the client and thirdly, on the client’s personal interests and needs (Teixeira, 2000).

402


According to Grönroos (2000), the quality of the service means the extent of efficiency with which the service meets the expectations of the client. The respective effect and satisfaction will be obtained by means of two mechanisms: the perception of the quality of the service and the comparison with the client’s prior expectations. As Parasuraman et al. (1988) indicated, the quality of the service perceived by the client arises from the difference between the service as expected and the service as it is perceived. The management of the quality of the service must concentrate its efforts on the gaps that allow the identification of the common causes of dissatisfaction among the clients of the service providers. The main obstacles that prevent an enterprise from providing services at a level of quality that would be satisfactory to its clients can be identified with the use of a model conceived for this specific purpose, which is known as a ‘gap model’.

3.8 Satisfaction and loyalty The quality of a service is, by its nature, a subjective concept, so that insight into the client’s thinking on quality is a fundamental prerequisite for effective management (Rust and Oliver, 1994). Thus, the quality of a service represents a strategic factor in the development of organisations, which is known to be related to the other key concepts in marketing, in particular, client satisfaction, value for money and the retention and behavioural intentions of loyalty (Theodorakis et al., 1998). Whilst the quality of service and client satisfaction are highly related, this is not to undervalue the existence of the other external dimensions that influence or determine quality (Rust and Oliver, 1994), given that the client’s satisfaction or dissatisfaction is the result of his own analysis, by which he compares the quality of the service experienced in reality with the quality expected a priori. Satisfaction can be described as a summary psychological state resulting from the moment at which the expectations of a service merge with the feelings produced in the consumer after experiencing the service (Oliver, 1981, in Parasuraman et al., 1988). It appears beyond much doubt that when clients perceive the quality of the service, they will, in turn, feel satisfied and thus, will tend to remain loyal to the service provider. Furthermore, studies on the marketing of services argue that the quality of the service is the decisive factor that accounts for client satisfaction and loyalty (Chang, 1998). Scientific evidence has been produced in support of the positive influence that is generated by the perceptions of quality and satisfaction on the behavioural intentions of the clients. This affirmation is supported both by the results of the research conducted by Cronin and Taylor (1992), who show that there is a positive correlation between the quality of the service, satisfaction and client loyalty, and by the later study of Anderson and Fornell (1994), who concludes that an enterprise that provides a level of quality that satisfies its clients generates a competitive advantage in the form of the loyalty earned from those same clients (viz. Figure 1 below). On the other hand, the research carried out by Grönroos (2000) points to a nonlinear relationship among these three dimensions. In spite of the fact that the provision of quality service assumes great importance in the satisfaction of the clients, there is no guarantee that either quality or satisfaction will ensure their loyalty. In the author’s view, only the extremely satisfied clients are likely to produce stable levels of loyalty.

Segmenting fitness centre clients Figure 1

403

The causes and effects of client satisfaction

Motivation and needs

Quality and expectations

Client satisfaction

Client loyalty

Source: Adapted from Anderson and Fornell (1994)

Chang (1998) went as far as to develop a systemic model for the quality of fitness services. The author’s specific study on quality, client satisfaction and loyalty by means of the characteristics of the services provided in fitness centres allowed for three basic notions to be associated: 1

quality precedes satisfaction, which precedes loyalty in a logical sequence

2

quality results from the interaction between the products, services, consumers, processes and environment, from the perspective of the system of production and the consumption of the services

3

quality that incorporates the perceptions and reactions of the clients to all of the service distribution processes within a context of global evaluation.

4

Theoretical framework

The theoretical framework supporting the present research is Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1980) theory of reasoned action (Baker and Crompton, 2000) as applied in management and economic research and the role theory of sport behaviour (Cohen, 1972; Pearce, 1985; Yannakis and Gibson, 1992) from the perspectives of sociology and ethnography. Both theories take into account different variables to explain sport choices, namely the motivations, expectations and socioeconomic variables that attempt to explain the heterogeneity of each sport choice. The fitness sport consumer is regarded as a rational individual who decides to visit a sports facility according to its attributes and his/her own motivations, conditioned by previous experience (Howarth and Sheth, 1969). This assumption highlights the importance of motivations and information sources in the choice of a fitness centre. Figure 2 represents this relationship. Figure 2

The choice of fitness centres Expectation

Needs

Perception

Motivation

Quality

Consumption

Satisfaction

Loyalty/ Retention

404

5


Methodology

The data was obtained from a random questionnaire distributed in fitness centres in Funchal, the capital city of Madeira (Barros and Gonçalves, 2007). Four randomly selected fitness centres with an estimated total population of 1000 clients were used. Around 300 questionnaires were randomly stratified by the four fitness centres based on the number of clients. A total of 150 questionnaires were returned by the respondents, of which 130 completed questionnaires were retained for the present analysis, thus representing a response rate of 43.3% of the sample chosen. This corresponds to a sampling error of 2.7%, with a confidence interval of 95%. The remaining questionnaires (not considered for the present research) were discarded, owing to the uncompleted fields or errors detected in the responses. The sample variables used in the analysis are presented in Table 1. The objective was to evaluate the motivations, expectations and perceptions of quality as the drivers of satisfaction among Madeira’s fitness centre consumers. To pursue this objective, the questionnaire was structured according to this table. The survey has three types of variables: dichotomous variables, continuous variables and qualitative variables (seven-item Likert scale). The set of explanatory variables considered in this study attempts to capture the key determinants of the decision process based on the theoretical framework and the literature review.

6

Data

Table 1 presents the set of variables used in the analysis. Table 1

The characterisation of the variables Descriptive statistics

ID A

Variable

Description

N

Min

Max

Mean

Std. deviation

Age

Age of the respondent

123

14

82

32,59

11,490

Gender

Gender of the respondent

123

0

1

0,46

0,500

Single

Unmarried, unattached

121

0

1

0,56

0,498

N children

Number of children

121

0

1

0,21

0,407

Nationality

Nationality of the respondent

123

0

1

0,98

0,155

Professional

Occupational status: working or not

123

0

1

0,80

0,398

Income

Average income of the respondent

121

0

1.900

966,94

508,288

B1

Expectations

Expectations related to the fitness centre

123

1

5

3,85

0,686

B2

Friends

Choice of the fitness centre based on friends’ recommendation

120

1

5

3,13

1,089

Advertising

Choice based on advertising

120

1

5

2,92

1,042

Book/Photos

Choice based on book or photos

118

0

5

2,25

1,047

Articles

Choice based on newspaper/ magazine articles

117

0

5

2,62

1,057

Segmenting fitness centre clients Table 1

405

The characterisation of the variables (continued) Descriptive statistics

ID

Variable

Description

E-mail

Choice based on information via e-mail

N

Min

Max

Mean

Std. deviation

118

0

5

2,27

1,099

Doctor

Choice based on medical advice

118

0

5

2,98

1,267

Internet

Choice based on information found on the internet

117

0

5

2,56

1,156

Entertainment

Choice based on the additional entertainment offered (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

120

1

5

3,03

1,049

Transport

Choice based on accessibility (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

120

1

5

3,06

1,279

Local

Choice based on its location (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

1

5

3,93

0,873

Facilities

Choice based on its facilities (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

120

1

5

4,06

0,802

Equipment

Choice based on the quality of the equipment (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

2

5

4,15

0,760

Friendliness

Choice based on the friendliness of the staff (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

2

5

4,19

0,756

Activities

Choice based on the services offered (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

2

5

4,11

0,772

Hygiene

Choice based on the cleanliness of the premises (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

120

2

5

4,40

0,726

Safety

Choice based on the approach to safety (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

120

2

5

4,16

0,830

Life style

Choice based on the lifestyle of the clients (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

120

1

5

3,15

1,214

Distance

Choice based on the distance from home or work (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

1

5

3,60

1,137

Competence

Choice based on the competence of the instructors (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

1

5

4,31

0,865

Open/Close

Choice based on its opening and closing times (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

1

5

4,02

0,831

Hours

Choice based on the timetable of activities (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

115

0

5

3,90

1,076

Atmosphere

Choice based on its atmosphere (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

2

5

3,91

0,856

Traffic

Choice based on the traffic conditions (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

1

5

3,50

0,967

406


Table 1


ID

B3

N

Min

Max

Mean

Std. deviation

Choice based on the parking facilities (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

1

5

3,65

1,054

Variety

Choice based on the variety of services offered (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

1

5

3,83

0,869

Price

Choice based on economic factors, i.e., subscriptions, charges (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

1

5

3,60

1,005

Clients

Choice based on the number of clients (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

1

5

2,82

1,088

Reputation

Choice based on its reputation (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

1

5

3,37

1,058

Caring

Choice based on the attitude and approach of the staff (1-not important; 5-extremely important)

121

0

5

3,81

0,859

Looks

Satisfaction of the respondent with the appearance of the staff (1-very low; 5-very high)

121

3

5

4,07

0,660

Staff friendliness

Satisfaction with the staff’s friendliness (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

3

5

4,33

0,636

Staff competence

Satisfaction with the competence of the staff (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

2

5

4,18

0,630

Waiting in reception

Satisfaction with the waiting time in the reception (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

1

5

3,57

1,028

Waiting for classes

Satisfaction of the respondent with the waiting time for class sessions (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

1

5

3,49

1,100

Waiting for equipment

Satisfaction with the waiting time for the use of equipment (1-very low; 5-very high)

121

1

5

3,58

1,023

Equipment

Satisfaction with the equipment (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

2

5

3,98

0,721

Hygiene

Satisfaction with the cleanliness of premises and staff (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

2

5

4,00

0,761

Safety

Satisfaction with the safety measures (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

1

5

3,93

0,821

Facilities

Satisfaction of the respondent with the facilities (1-very low; 5-very high)

121

2

5

4,02

0,713

Services

Satisfaction with the services offered (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

3

5

4,08

0,699

Variety

Satisfaction with the range of activities (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

2

5

3,99

0,722

Variable

Description

Parking


407


ID

B4

C1

N

Min

Max

Mean

Std. deviation

Satisfaction with the opening and closing times (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

0

5

4,13

0,749

Class time

Satisfaction of the respondent with the class times (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

3

5

4,08

0,650

Atmosphere

Satisfaction with the general atmosphere (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

2

5

4,01

0,674

Party

Satisfaction with the parties organised by the fitness centre (1-very low; 5-very high)

120

1

5

3,64

0,924

Parking

Satisfaction with the parking facilities (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

1

5

3,80

0,953

Age equipment

Satisfaction with the age of the equipment (1-very low; 5-very high)

122

2

5

3,93

0,736

Prices

Satisfaction with the centre’s prices (1-very low; 5-very high)

123

1

5

3,37

0,987

Clients

Satisfaction with the number of clients (1-very low; 5-very high)

121

1

5

3,38

0,839

Declaration 1

I feel happy when I am in the fitness centre (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

123

2

5

4,33

0,816

Declaration 2

I am satisfied with the fitness centre (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

123

2

5

4,38

0,741

Declaration 3

All of my expectations of the fitness centre have been fulfilled (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

123

2

5

4,15

0,830

Declaration 4

My evaluation of my experience in the fitness centre is positive (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

123

2

5

4,44

0,780

Declaration 5

If I had the choice, I would not change to another fitness centre (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

5

4,19

1,015

SWLS1

My life is as I wish it to be (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

123

1

5

3,70

0,949

SWLS2

My life conditions are very good (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

5

3,75

0,921

SWLS3

I am satisfied with my life (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

123

2

5

3,98

0,854

SWLS4

I have achieved all the primary goals I set for my life (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

123

1

5

3,91

0,992

SWLS5

If I could begin my life again, I would not change anything (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

123

1

5

3,54

1,196

Variable

Description

Open/Close

408


Table 1


ID

Variable

N

Min

Max

Mean

Std. deviation

Interested (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

123

2

5

3,76

0,872

Enthusiastic (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

123

1

5

3,74

0,886

Description Emotions related to the fitness centre:

C2 Interested Enthusiastic Excited

Excited (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

121

1

5

3,21

1,034

Inspired

Inspired (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

5

3,41

1,074

Determined

Determined (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

5

3,75

0,950

Proud

Proud (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

5

3,30

1,113

Active

Active (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

2

5

3,74

0,880

Delighted

Delighted (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

5

3,20

1,105

Warm

Warm (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

121

1

5

3,00

1,204

Surprised

Surprised (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

5

2,70

1,218

Disturbed

Disturbed (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

4

1,32

0,707

Distraught

Distraught (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

4

1,23

0,614

Intimidated

Intimidated (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

4

1,16

0,498

Frightened

Frightened (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

3

1,11

0,411

Nervous

Nervous (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

4

1,24

0,576

Shaky

Shaky (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

3

1,14

0,451

Regretful

Regretful (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

4

1,16

0,515

Guilty

Guilty (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

4

1,13

0,480

Angry

Angry (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

3

1,16

0,464

Disgusted

Disgusted (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

3

1,10

0,373

Alone

Alone (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

0

4

1,19

0,550

Abandoned

Abandoned (1-I do not agree; 5-I strongly agree)

122

1

4

1,12

0,456

123

0

1

0,60

0,492

Motivations to use the fitness centre: D1 Physical strength

To gain physical strength

Health

Health

123

0

1

0,36

0,481

Entertainment

Entertainment

123

0

1

0,09

0,287

Aesthetic

Aesthetical

123

0

1

0,12

0,329


409


ID

Max

Mean

Std. deviation

0

1

0,19

0,391

Variable

Description

N

Min

Stress

Stress relief

123

Conviviality

Conviviality

123

0

1

0,14

0,347

Well-being

Well-being

123

0

1

0,19

0,391

Professional

Career-related

123

0

1

0,02

0,127

D2

Constant

This motivation is constant or evolves with time

123

0

1

0,32

0,467

D3

Monthly spending

Monthly expenditure in the fitness centre

123

50

300

72,40

30,298

D4

Payment

Payment method in the fitness centre (monthly=1, otherwise=0)

123

0

1

0,19

0,391

D5

Group

Class type: group

123

0

1

0,62

0,488

Cardio

Class type: cardio

123

0

1

0,41

0,493

Muscle

Class type: muscle building

123

0

1

0,56

0,498

SPA

Class type: SPA

123

0

1

0,10

0,298

PT

Class type: Personal Training

123

0

1

0,06

0,233

Aquatic

Class type: water sports or therapy

123

0

1

0,11

0,319

D6

Frequency

Frequency of attendance at the fitness centre per week

123

1

8

4,20

7,875

D7

Activity duration

Fitness activity duration (minutes)

123

0

130

77,12

24,603

D8

Second person How many persons accompany the respondent to the fitness centre

123

0

20

1,33

2,644

D9

Alone

Does the respondent go to the fitness centre alone?

123

0

1

0,52

0,502

Spouse

Does the respondent go to the fitness centre with husband/wife?

123

0

1

0,07

0,261

Family

Does the respondent go to the fitness centre with other family members?

123

0

1

0,04

0,198

Friends

Does the respondent go to the fitness centre with friends?

123

0

1

0,34

0,476

D10 Other gym

Has the respondent used another fitness centre?

123

0

1

0,40

0,492

D11 Return to other

Does the respondent intend to return to a previously used fitness centre? (1-no; 5-highly probable)

123

1

5

1,35

0,735

D12 Recommend

Would the respondent recommend the present fitness centre to family and friends?

123

2

5

4,51

0,728

D13 Satisfaction

The respondent’s global satisfaction with fitness centre (1-low; 5-very high)

123

3

5

4,09

0,665

It can be verified that the sample includes 123 observations, which is short for a questionnaire survey, but adequate for a study of a small island. The variables used are listed in the table and defined according to the literature review and the theoretical framework.

410

7


Results

The results of the principal component analysis with Varimax rotation using SPSS software are presented in Table 2. Table 2

The principal component analysis – rotated component matrix

ID

Variable

A

Age Gender Single N children Nationality Professional Income Expectations Advertising Book/Photos Articles E-mail Doctor Internet Friends Entertainment Transport Local Facilities Equipment Friendliness Activities Hygiene Safety Lifestyle Distance Competence Open/Close Hours Atmosphere Traffic Parking Variety Price Clients Reputation Caring

B1

B2

Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

–0,368 0,005 0,095 0,024 –0,086 0,154 –0,005 0,355 0,204 –0,112 0,122 –0,066 –0,161 0,055 0,451 0,174 0,369 0,363 0,543 0,617 0,562 0,579 0,515 0,564 0,383 0,391 0,503 0,541 0,416 0,515 0,517 0,438 0,575 0,384 0,378 0,266 0,516

–0,182 0,236 0,061 –0,034 0,007 0,017 0,038 –0,017 –0,005 –0,287 –0,213 –0,124 –0,123 –0,169 –0,118 –0,082 0,015 –0,041 –0,145 –0,097 –0,132 –0,042 –0,001 –0,040 0,014 –0,064 –0,039 –0,145 –0,115 –0,037 –0,004 –0,099 –0,138 0,048 0,076 –0,101 –0,211

0,526 –0,317 –0,650 0,405 –0,157 0,318 0,559 –0,095 0,019 –0,101 –0,093 –0,191 –0,125 –0,110 –0,010 0,010 –0,277 –0,213 0,042 0,033 0,003 –0,002 –0,041 –0,013 0,034 –0,052 –0,048 –0,043 0,148 0,043 0,039 0,209 0,056 –0,148 –0,062 –0,026 0,021


The principal component analysis – rotated component matrix (continued)

ID

Variable

B3

Looks Staff friendliness Staff competence Waiting in reception Waiting for classes Waiting equipment Equipment Hygiene Safety Facilities Services Variety Open/Close Class time Atmosphere Party Parking Age equipment Prices Clients Declaration 1 Declaration 2 Declaration 3 Declaration 4 Declaration 5 SWLS1 SWLS2 SWLS3 SWLS4 SWLS5 Interested Enthusiastic Excited Inspired Determined Proud Active Delighted Warm Surprised Disturbed

B4

C1

C2

411

Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

0,669 0,691 0,715 0,173 0,151 0,205 0,580 0,576 0,544 0,527 0,601 0,588 0,455 0,560 0,569 0,549 0,365 0,516 0,457 0,419 0,692 0,651 0,551 0,606 0,549 0,476 0,405 0,486 0,439 0,286 0,698 0,662 0,667 0,634 0,654 0,626 0,659 0,675 0,529 0,502 –0,085

0,084 0,104 0,050 –0,176 –0,119 –0,104 0,044 –0,076 –0,109 0,005 –0,017 –0,094 –0,024 –0,099 0,029 –0,077 –0,069 –0,104 –0,004 0,058 0,158 0,143 0,169 0,087 –0,021 –0,134 –0,120 –0,123 –0,104 –0,156 0,203 0,144 0,297 0,256 0,146 0,253 0,182 0,292 0,373 0,342 0,679

–0,104 –0,079 –0,093 –0,436 –0,412 –0,469 –0,004 –0,201 –0,212 –0,036 –0,177 –0,115 0,054 0,053 –0,058 –0,015 0,063 0,022 –0,193 –0,226 –0,012 0,081 0,088 0,127 0,086 0,317 0,395 0,318 0,262 0,343 0,096 –0,100 0,065 –0,057 0,115 –0,079 0,090 –0,110 –0,043 –0,134 0,112

412 Table 2 ID

D1

M. Teixeira and A. Correia The principal component analysis – rotated component matrix (continued) Variable

Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

Distraught

–0,132

0,793

0,012

Intimidated

–0,084

0,899

0,036

Frightened

–0,075

0,907

0,087

Nervous

–0,059

0,790

–0,050

Shaky

–0,092

0,924

0,067

Regretful

–0,084

0,913

0,037

Guilty

–0,101

0,880

0,071

Angry

–0,026

0,784

–0,014

Disgusted

–0,061

0,858

0,049

Alone

–0,050

0,833

0,012

Abandoned

–0,105

0,867

0,096 –0,292

Physical strength

–0,090

0,183

Health

–0,095

–0,028

0,414

Entertainment

0,280

0,014

0,160

Aesthetic

0,030

–0,004

–0,201

Stress

0,081

–0,217

0,215

Conviviality

0,080

0,012

0,287

Well-being

0,038

–0,057

0,281

Professional

0,070

0,279

0,019

D2

Constant

–0,165

0,078

–0,215

D3

Monthly spending

0,238

0,036

0,393

D4

Payment

0,069

–0,200

0,323

D5

Group

0,135

0,044

0,269

Cardio

–0,189

0,141

–0,108

Muscle

–0,132

0,137

–0,397

0,070

0,031

0,418

SPA PT

0,183

0,006

0,204

Aquatic

0,012

0,008

0,401

D6

Frequency

D7

Activity duration

D8

Second person

D9

D10

0,171

–0,048

–0,057

–0,016

0,117

–0,032

0,048

–0,015

0,139

Alone

–0,327

–0,008

–0,114

Spouse

0,162

–0,069

0,112

Family

0,098

–0,104

–0,016

Friends

0,260

0,100

0,065

Other gym

0,217

0,137

0,056

D11

Return to other

–0,093

0,026

0,054

D12

Recommend

0,109

–0,185

0,010

D13

Satisfaction

0,517

0,182

–0,033


413

Three principal components emerge from the results, the first of which depicts the satisfaction with the fitness centre. The variables that define this factor are: staff members’ friendliness, staff members are helpful, the instructors are competent, I feel happy when I am at my fitness centre, I am satisfied with my fitness centre, interested, enthusiastic, excited, determined, active and delighted. The second component reveals the dissatisfaction with the fitness centre. This factor is defined by the following variables: disturbed, distraught, intimidated, frightened, nervous, shaky, regretful, guilty, angry, disgusted, alone and abandoned. The third component is the unmarried, unattached consumer, which is defined by the variable single.

8

Discussion

How do we interpret this result? There are three independent factors, namely, one for happiness, another for unhappiness and the third, for the single persons. Therefore, it is concluded that there are three independent segments evident in Madeira’s fitness centres. The first segment consists of the satisfied individuals, who are very positive in their approach to life. The second segment comprises the unhappy individuals, whose approach is very negative. Finally, there are the unmarried, unattached individuals. This result signifies that there are three strongly distinct groups of individuals practicing sports in the fitness centres of Madeira, but since the distinctions are of a psychological nature, they are difficult to observe in reality. These findings lead to the following question: how can the fitness centre managers benefit from the findings? The answer is that the management can target any of these segments by adopting an homogenous policy towards their potential clientele with regard to fitness training.

9

Limitations and extensions

At this juncture, it is appropriate to consider the contribution of our paper to the economics management literature on sport, as well as the study’s limitations and possible extensions. The key contribution is its application of the principal component model to the fitness industry, supported by a theoretical model of economic behaviour. This paper has two sets of limitations: firstly, those related to the data set and secondly, those that arise as a result of the methodology. With reference to the data set, the fact that the data set is short signifies that the conclusions are limited. In order for the latter to be more generalised, we would need to have a larger panel data set. Reducing the number of observations in the factor variables increases the likelihood that we would obtain unreliable results. Turning to the factor model, the limitations stem from the fact that factor analysis does not impose any functional form on the data, nor make any distributional assumptions for the variables. However, it is a technique that is used in marketing to segment clusters. A variety of extensions can be undertaken in relation to this paper. Firstly, survival analysis can measure the determinants of the time spent in the fitness centre. Structural equation models can also be used to analyse the functional relationships between the variables.

414


10 Conclusions In this paper, we have analysed the segments in a representative sample of fitness centre consumers based on a questionnaire survey conducted in Madeira in 2007. The principal components model identifies three distinct segments in the data. The first is the ‘happy’ segment, the second is the ‘unhappy’ segment and the third is comprised of the single, unattached consumers. We conclude that the management of the fitness centres can benefit by devising the appropriate marketing strategies aimed towards these groups of consumers. More research is needed to confirm these results.

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The industry of wellness: the improvement of well-being António Sacavém* Solinca Health & Fitness Clubs – SONAE Rua Viriato, nº13 – 1º 1069–315 Lisbon, Portugal E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author

Abel Correia Faculty of Human Movements Technical University of Lisbon Estrada da Costa – Cruz Quebrada 1495–688 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal Fax: (+351) 214 144 712 E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: The purpose of this article is to analyse the dynamics of the well-being market. We also intend to describe the main tendencies of this industry and the need to develop a healthy lifestyle, in order to inspire all those who are interested in turning a good opportunity into an excellent business. In this context, health plagues such as sedentary habits, obesity and tobacco smoke will be referred to as well. Keywords: industry of wellness; fitness; lifestyle; health and fitness club. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Sacavém, A. and Correia, A. (2009) ‘The industry of wellness: the improvement of well-being’, Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp.417–425. Biographical notes: António Sacavém completed his Masters in Organisational Behaviour at the Superior Institute of Applied Psychology (ISPA), Lisbon, and has a degree in Sport Sciences from the Human Kinetics Faculty of the Technical University of Lisbon (FMH-UTL). Recently, he finished the International Executive Education – IHRSA University Programme, at the IESE Business School, the University of Navarra, Barcelona. As Business Director of Solinca, a large chain of health clubs (Iberia), he directs the operation in Portugal and Spain. He is also a member of the social organs of the Portuguese Health Club Association (AGAP). Nowadays, he is attending an Executive MBA in ISCTE Business Scholl, Lisbon. Abel Correia has a PhD in Human Kinetics and is specialising in Sport Sciences at the Human Kinetics Faculty of the Technical University of Lisbon (FMH-UTL), Portugal. As an Associate Professor working in the Sport Sciences Department, he teaches Sports Organisation and Sports Marketing in the FMH-UTL’s degree course in Sports Management. His interests include sports organisational strategy and sports marketing management. He has published in the European Sports Management Quarterly and in the International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing.


417

418

1

A. Sacavém and A. Correia

Introduction

The wellness market consists of delivering services or selling products in a proactive way to healthy people (without any diagnosed pathology), which would encourage the reduction of the ageing effect, prevent the occurrence of diseases and add to the improvement of one’s self-esteem and body image. The wellness desire has started to influence the buying decisions of most well-informed consumers. For this very reason, supermarket shelves tend to have more and more space to receive the so-called light products. Some of the biggest ones (superstores) even have genuine shops containing health products within their own facilities. Besides this, the spreading of health and fitness clubs is also a meaningful sign of the emergence of certain worries concerning health, which are intimately related to the perspective of a strong and powerful body and mind. Despite the appearance and increase of these concerns, we can infer, for instance, that the burden of the obesity plague on the public expenditure of the European Union (EU) has assumed worrying proportions, which can be translatable into economic problems, measured in euros. There is plenty to do in order to give people the wellness they are entitled to. In this context, the article is divided into a set of parts. First, we will debate the plagues of sedentary habits, obesity and tobacco smoke, discussing also their economic impact. We will give elements about the dynamics of this market, giving leads that we consider to be real business opportunities. Finally, we will approach the main tendencies of the wellness market.

2

Lifestyles and the importance of wellness

In November 2006, health ministers and other high dignitaries of the health department of 48 European countries studied the increase of the obesity problem in the continent, at a conference of the World Health Organization (WHO) in Istanbul. According to WHO, in Europe, one in two adults and one in five children suffered from overweight. The information presented in Istanbul about the advance of the disease alarmed the European authorities. “In the countries where studies took place, the predominance of overweight cases goes from 32 per cent to 79 per cent, among the male population, and from 28 per cent to 78 per cent in what concerns the female population”, according to the synthesis prepared for this meeting. The most obese are the inhabitants of Tirana (Albany), followed by those of Bosnia and Scotland. The thinnest Europeans are the Norwegians. Portugal and Malta are the two EU countries with the highest rate of obesity among children less than 11 years old, which anticipates the increase, in the medium term, of the global numbers of people with obesity; this will turn the disease into one of the most serious public health problems in the country. The importance of the obesity plague on EU public expenditure has taken on large proportions. In 2002, the annual total costs (directly and indirectly connected to the obesity issue in the EU-15) exceeded 32,8 thousand million euros each year. In 2005, the costs related to the obesity were estimated in 0,3% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the EU-15. If we extend these numbers to the 25 EU countries, the direct and indirect

The industry of wellness: the improvement of well-being

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costs related to obesity can be estimated in 40,5 thousand million euros and the combined costs (obesity/overweight) can reach the sum of 81 thousand million euros (Livro Branco da Comissão ao Parlamento Europeu e ao Conselho, 2007). In Portugal, according to the ADEXO, the obese population and the number of overweight people continue to rise. The numbers are enlightening: 58% of the Portuguese population suffer from overweight; 15% are obese; 3,5% have morbid obesity; 31,6% of Portuguese children are obese. In fact, we are witnessing the rising of the first generation of children who might actually die before their own parents. For a better understanding of the extent of this problem, in Portugal, the direct and indirect costs associated with the plague of obesity will exceed 570 million euros (ADEXO, 2007). So, we can clearly distinguish two socioeconomic groups: those who are anxious to adopt an active and healthy lifestyle, and all the others who have decided to follow a life of sedentary habits, ruled by defective and poorly nourishing food (example: junk food). Besides, the junk food industry is ruled by what specialists on this type of business have named the ‘chips marketing equation’, which means that 90% of the sales of this type of product are produced by 10% of its consumers. In the USA, consumers belonging to these 10% are usually obese people of low social class. The target population of obese people is especially profitable, since each of these individuals eat, on average, two times more than a person considered to have an ordinary weight. We fear that in Europe and in Portugal the situation will follow the same path, considering the already mentioned statistics. According to Pilzer (2007), a vast majority of junk food producers are studying the target population, the same way mice are studied in laboratories. Consumer studies reveal their tastes, hopes, dreams, desires, etc. Obese individuals are invited to take part in focus groups, where they are asked to try new products, to analyse marketing messages and to give suggestions. If this segment of the population shows a particular interest in a certain celebrity, that person, eventually, will show up on the radio or on TV, encouraging consumption of the new junk food product that is about to be released. A defective nutrition and sedentary habits are responsible for the increase of the obese population and for the increase of overweight people. Obesity is considered to be, among others, a factor of risk, namely concerning the development of cardiovascular diseases, according to the Portuguese Cardiology Foundation. However, obesity is not the only risk factor. In fact, every year, more than half a million people die in the EU, as a direct or indirect result of tobacco smoke. The impact of passive tobacco smoke on the health of nonsmoker Europeans has increased. It has been estimated that 25% of the total deaths caused by cancer and 15% of all the deaths in the EU are caused by tobacco smoke (Special Eurobarometer Report, 2007). Smoking also constitutes an important risk factor for arterial vascular diseases. It is known that 20% of the mortality from coronary diseases has its cause in tobacco smoke (according to the Portuguese Cardiology Foundation). It has been estimated that 32% of the EU-25 are smokers and that 21% have stopped smoking. Based upon a study that took place country by country, the results showed that Portugal has the best performance among the member states, considering that 64% of the population never smoked. Portugal is followed by Slovakia (with 59% nonsmokers) and Malta (with 57% nonsmokers). On the other hand, Denmark shows the smallest percentage regarding nonsmokers in all of the EU (with 39% of nonsmokers), followed by the Netherlands (with 40% of nonsmokers) and by Greece (with 41% of nonsmokers) (Special Eurobarometer Report, 2007).

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Attempting to face the tobacco plague, the EU started over two years ago a campaign against smoking called ‘HELP: for a life without tobacco’, addressed to young nonsmokers, to passive smokers and to those who smoked but intended to leave the habit behind. The EU nowadays is fully encouraging a policy of nonsmoking among the member states, through publicity on the media, on TV and on the internet (Special Eurobarometer Report, 2007). Sedentary habits or physical inactivity, typical of an unhealthy lifestyle, has proved to be another risk element that can cause several diseases. Sedentary habits are associated with a low quality of life, with high risk of hospitalisation and with the increase of obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, osteoporosis, fractures, colon cancer, breast cancer, prostate gland cancer and psychiatric diseases, according to Varo et al. (2003). Also based on the same authors, the rate of sedentary lifestyle in Europe fluctuates between 43.3% (in Sweden) and 87.8% (in Portugal). Countries such as the Scandinavian ones, when compared to the ones in the Mediterranean, have a low rate of sedentary lifestyle. The senior population, the obese, the smokers, the divorced, the widow/widower and the less educated strata of society present higher rates of sedentary habits in Europe. Portugal has an inactivity rate of 87.8%; only 4,8% of the Portuguese work out in health and fitness clubs (IHRSA, 2005). The extent of the challenges reported above justifies the need for the development of the wellness industry. The services delivered by the wellness industry, as well as the products, are an evident solution to preventing the problems we have just referred to. Services provided by health and fitness clubs, the selling of natural supplements, cosmetic and plastic surgery services, preventive medicine and health nutrition products will be the main resources of this industry for the coming years. In the next section, we are going to analyse the dynamics of the wellness market.

3

The dynamics of the wellness industry

The wellness industry, generally speaking, is progressing. In the USA, in 2002, this industry was worth 200 billion US dollars and now, five years later, is estimated to be worth more than 500 billion US dollars. Renowned economists, such as Pilzer (2007) – author of the book New Wellness Revolution – estimate that the wellness industry in the USA, in 2012, might be worth 1 trillion US dollars (an amount that rises above the UK gross domestic product). The niches related to health nutrition, natural supplements and fitness workouts in health and fitness clubs present themselves as the main devices to obtain the estimated increase. In Europe, the health and fitness industry (health and fitness clubs) is worth nearly 13 billion euros and it presents a potential increase (comparative to the European medium penetration rate – 5,5%) of 1,7 billion euros (IHRSA, 2005). In Portugal, the prediction is 288 million euros (penetration rate of 4,8%) as to what the fitness industry might be worth; the Portuguese market presents a potential increase estimated at 42 million euros. The Portuguese fitness market is expected to increase strongly, considering that the penetration rate is below the European average (–0,7%) (IHRSA, 2005). Following there is a comparative study (USA, Europe and Portugal) of the main contents to be considered is this business.


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More recent elements, still under study, suggest that among the European countries, the Netherlands is the leader when we talk about the fitness penetration rate (17%), followed by Spain (with 15,3%) and then Sweden (with 14,3%). On the other side, countries like Slovenia (0,4% penetration rate), Slovakia (0,4% penetration rate) and Lithuania (0,6% penetration rate) present the lowest levels of fitness penetration. In Portugal we figure that the penetration rate has increased by 0,5% between 2005 and 2007, which means it increased from 4,8% to 5,3%. The same source shows us that in the EU-25, the business amount is 18 billion euros, with the UK and Germany being the leaders of this race, with 4,2 billion and 3,5 billion, respectively. Portugal shows an amount of business roughly estimated at 288 millions (The IHRSA Global Report, 2007). When we focus upon the people who are not overweight, we can notice that an increasing number of individuals are adopting a healthier lifestyle everyday, especially through balanced diets and workouts. This group of people who have decided to invest in their wellness includes opinion makers and celebrities, such as famous athletes and artists whose professional lives literally depend on their wellness level and on their looks. This group of people have embraced, quietly, a new way of being, centred on a healthy diet, physical exercise, natural supplements, prophylactic medicine and the evolution of their emotional intelligence. In ancient Greece, physical force, health and beauty were just as important elements to obtain excellence as creative talents, the intellect or moral character. Indeed, the outer beauty was seen as a reflection of the inner beauty. In a certain way, history repeats itself and the growing group of people who invest in their own wellness have three main goals: to improve their looks/image and their energy levels, to retard the ageing process and to prevent the occurrence of diseases. However, only in the last few years have we seen the emergence of efficient wellness products and services available to the general population. Before that, only the wealthy were able to have access to wellness services and products. Nowadays it is possible to practise a physical activity at health and fitness clubs for a reasonable price and we can find healthy food as well as natural supplements in the ordinary supermarkets, available to all consumers. A rising number of daring people are investing in the wellness industry and by doing so, they are creating a solution for what is mainly an economic and social problem (please consult the above costs of obesity in Portugal). Baby boomers, people whose ages now are situated between 43 and 61 years old, will be the socioeconomic group that will invest more, when we talk about the developed countries in what concerns wellness services and products. Actually, this target has started to be more and more attractive to the health and fitness clubs. There are at least two considerable reasons for the main health and fitness operators to consider this target so desirable: 1

economic power

2

fidelity to the brands.

About the first item, we have to emphasise that, in the USA, baby boomers represent 28% of the population and 50% of the gross domestic product. In other words, boomers represent 7 trillion US dollars, looking at an economy that is worth 14 trillion (Pilzer, 2007). Referring to the second topic, it is important to start by mentioning the fact that

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the health and fitness industry suffers from what is called Churn Rate, commonly named in this market Attrition Rate, around 40% (McCarthy, 2004). The decrease of the churn rate or, in other words, the rise of the retention rate, will be the main challenge for this industry in the years to come. This being the case, it is crucial to win a certain target that by nature shows better numbers in matters of fidelity.

4

Main tendencies within the wellness market

4.1 Customer relationship management When referring to the retention of clients, it is important to mention that one of the main tendencies of the health and fitness industry is the development and the massive implementation of advanced Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems – with a strong focus on technological novelty. Using sophisticated hardware and software, health and fitness clubs will be able to know, in detail, the preferences of their members and that will also allow them to develop creative relationship marketing actions (Peppers and Rogers, 2004). Once we are referring to a market which is getting more and more competitive, the focus on the CRM is of extreme importance for the health and fitness organisations, if they want to reach the desirable profitability levels, as well as long-term success. Even more, the leaders of these corporations will realise, in the medium term, the importance of relationship marketing in order to build profitable relationships with each client and to increase the global value of operators of this market. Investing in relationship marketing will promote, on the one hand, the decrease of the churn rate and, on the other hand, the increase of the medium gain per member, these being achieved by stimulating the added-value consumer services (such as personal training, day SPA, special programmes, outdoor activities, etc.). For instance, members who would participate more often in body/mind/spirit activities would receive a special card of the yoga club and discount offers for massage sessions. Moreover, regular clients at cycling classes would be invited to join the BTT club, which would promote bicycle walks during weekends. Health and fitness clubs will know which clients are better consumers of extra services and will be able to predict future investment. Probably there will be micro-targets (Loveman, 2003) – for example, the gold clients (who would wait less in the queue), the platinum clients (who would not wait too much) and the diamond clients (who would never have to wait) – and incentive systems will be developed to reward those members who would make extra investments at the club (for example, offering the locker for a period of time, giving them some privileges regarding the acquisition of tickets for the most wanted classes, clearing up sessions for the VIP clients). Finally, the impact from the implementation of the CRM system is, apparently, unlimited and could produce a remarkable outcome.

4.2 Global wellness services In the 1980s, people went to the butcher to buy meat, to the supermarket to buy vegetables and fish, to the ready-made store to buy clothes, to the bank to manage their account and to the travel agency to book their holidays. All these products/services


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were bought in different places, which required a considerable waste of time. Today, consumers go to a shopping centre and find all these products/services together at the same place; most of the time, they pay less than they used to and they do it in a faster way. It is predictable that the same will happen at the health and fitness clubs. Clients will tend to desire to take care of their wellness as a whole, without leaving the facilities of their own favourite club. So, it is of importance that operators make a strong bet on providing global wellness services. Thus, in the future, health and fitness clubs will be adapted management centres concerning wellness and the personal look, where clients will find a wide offering of wellness products and services. For example, it is usual that a weight control programme will come to include the following products and services: •

personal training or group personal training sessions

•

cellulites treatment sessions

•

external nutrition products (skin treatment)

•

natural supplement products

•

nutritional counselling sessions

•

time management sessions and wellness coaching

•

personal development sessions

•

activity and ancestral massage sessions of body/mind/heart/spirit, within the context of the day spa

•

personal finance management sessions

•

personal image management sessions.

The wide offering of products and services will allow the clients to enjoy an unforgettable experience of complete wellness. Consequently, health and fitness operators will have the chance to increase the medium profit per member and of reducing the churn rate.

4.3 Focus on the extremes: ‘no frills’ versus ‘high end’ Markets situated at the extremes of a continuum seem to have the best increase potential for the coming years. According to this, we predict that success will be obtained by those who will decide to choose the ‘no frills’ market (low cost, simplicity, style) and the ‘high-end’ market (quality, fineness, distinction). In Portugal there is plenty of room for the health and fitness operators to invest under the ‘no frills’ concept. To reach this market segment, it is predictable that brands come to make the access to the health and fitness clubs easier, namely by decreasing the prices of the basic services (monthly fees) and by removing the entrance fees (or by charging a mere symbolic value).

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There will appear more flat organisational structures and the services offered together with the monthly fee will be restricted. There will be only services which consumers consider to be indispensable (simplifying). Operators should keep in mind that, when reducing unnecessary expenses, they should do it without putting at risk the reputation of a style image.

4.4 Franchising small dimension places for the female population Over the past few years we have seen the emergence of a quiet and significant number of neighbourhood health and fitness clubs, not too big, exclusively created for the female public. Under the concept of mantra – a complete workout in scarcely 30 min – these health and fitness clubs have managed to conquer a critical mass of the population who was not identified with the idea of fitness at large spaces or even at the traditional neighbourhood health and fitness clubs. They are addressed to a target that has not been exploited yet by the big fitness industry companies, meaning overweight women, unhappy with their bodies and who usually do not work out. This kind of health and fitness club is the answer, in a simple way, for one of the goals of those women: to lose weight through a fast workout programme, at a welcoming environment where they can feel fully integrated. The fact that usually such facilities are not far from home or from work and the specificness of the workout are the strongest points attached to the concept. One of the most well-known brands in this segment exists in 50 countries, serves four million women and makes an invoice of roughly 725 million euros every year. Their aim is to go from 10 000 units to 30 000, in only ten years. This goal shows exactly the increasing potential of the concept, which predictably will represent a considerable share of the business volume of the fitness area in Europe during the next few years.

5

Conclusion

Most obese people do not possess the indispensable energy levels to make the best of their own lives, their work and their family in a complete kind of way. They lose a significant part of their lives by needing medical care. When they seek answers, what they often hear is that all they have are ‘the signs of the times’, until one of these persons makes the happy decision to invest in his/her own wellness. What starts them off are three main goals: to improve their image and their energy levels; to retard the ageing process and to prevent the appearance of diseases. More than half a million people die in the USA as a direct or nondirect consequence of tobacco smoke. The impact of passive tobacco smoke on the health of nonsmoker Europeans has increased. It has been estimated that 25% of the total deaths caused by cancer and 15% of all the deaths taking place in the EU are caused by tobacco smoke. Furthermore, the rate of sedentary lifestyle in Europe fluctuates between 43.3% (in Sweden) and 87.8% (in Portugal). The extent of the challenges reported above justifies the need for the development of the wellness industry. The services delivered by the wellness industry, as well as the products, are an evident solution to preventing the problems we have just referred to.


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Services provided by health and fitness clubs, the selling of natural supplements, cosmetic and plastic surgery services, preventive medicine and health nutrition products will be the main resources of this industry for the coming years. Given this scenario, the more adventurous have found the right moment to turn a big opportunity into an excellent business. As far as the wellness business will progress, something very significant will happen to the general society: people will start to live their lives in a healthier way. Stronger will become the idea of an absolute wellness: physical, psychological, emotional and spiritual.

References ADEXO (2007) ‘Os Custos da Obesidade em Portugal’, www.adexo.pt – consultado a 1 de Maio. Fundação Portuguesa de Cardiologia (2007) http://cardiologia.browser.pt/PrimeiraPagina.aspx – consultado a 1 de Maio. Goleman, D. (2006) Emotional Intelligence: 10th Anniversary Edition; Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, Bantam. International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association (IHRSA) (2005) European Market Report. Livro Branco da Comissão ao Parlamento Europeu e ao Conselho (2007) ‘Uma estratégia para a Europa em matéria de problemas de saúde ligados à nutrição, ao excesso de peso e à obesidade’, Documento de trabalho dos serviços da comissão das comunidades europeias. Loehr, J. and Schwartz, T. (2003) On Form, Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Loveman, G. (2003) ‘Diamonds in the data mine’, Harvard Business Review, May. McCarthy, J. (2004) IHRSA’s Guide to Membership Retention. Industry Lessons on What and What Not to Do, International Health & Racquet Sports Association (IHRSA). Peppers, D. and Rogers, M. (2004) Managing Customer Relationships: A Strategic Framework, Wiley. Pilzer, P. (2007) The New Wellness Revolution, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Powter, S. (1993) Stop the Insanity: Change the Way You Look and Feel – Forever, Simon&Schuster. Special Eurobarometer Report (2007) Attitudes of Europeans Towards Tobacco, European Commission. The IHRSA Global Report (2007) The State of the Health Club Industry. Varo, J., Martinez-González, M., Irala-Estévez, J., Kearney, J., Gibney, M. and Martínez, J. (2003) ‘Distribution and determinants of sedentary lifestyles in the European Union’, International Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 32, pp.138–146.

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Private fitness centres in France: from organisational and market characteristics to micromentalities of the managers Sarah Mischler, Pascal Bauger, Lilian Pichot* and Elodie Wipf Marc Bloch University of Strasbourg UFR STAPS Équipe d’accueil en sciences sociales du sport (EA1342) 14, rue Descartes, 67084 Strasbourg Cedex, France E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author Abstract: From a quantitative survey carried out in the fitness sector at a European scale, and supplemented by a qualitative complementary study in Alsace, this article highlights the link between fitness services and managers’ profiles. It gives socioeconomical characteristics of fitness provision in the commercial private sector in France. It specifically highlights that the context of fitness clubs (types of services proposed, competences of the employees, etc.) is constrained by the market and is tightly linked to the owner’s/managers’ professional and sporting background, and also to their own identity. Based on a sample of fitness companies from Alsace, this article will aim to elaborate a ‘profiles typology’ of the fitness clubs’ managers/owners. It will highlight in particular that the range of services can be explained by the logic behind actions and specific marketing strategies related to their micromentalities. Keywords: company; fitness; service; logic of action; micromentality; sporting profile. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Mischler, S., Bauger, P., Pichot, L. and Wipf, E. (2009) ‘Private fitness centres in France: from organisational and market characteristics to micromentalities of the managers’, Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp.426–449. Biographical notes: Sarah Mischler is a Doctor in Sociology of Sport, associated with the research team ‘Sport and Social Sciences’ of the University of Strasbourg UFR STAPS. She is in charge of studies in ‘Adéquation’ (Association of Councils for the Development of Sporting Organizations). Her researches relate to the management of sporting organisations. Pascal Bauger is a Research Manager in the Regional Observatoire of Employment and Training (OREF) of Lorraine (Nancy) and Associate Researcher in the ‘Sport and Social Sciences’ laboratory of the Marc Bloch University of Strasbourg. He is involved in the sporting employment topic, is also part of the Management Board of the European Observatoire of Sport and Employment (EOSE) and is active in several European projects.


Private fitness centres in France

427

Lilian Pichot is a Lecturer in Sociology of Sport at the Marc Bloch University of Strasbourg. His research interests are on sporting consummations and sporting organisations. His research work is published in many refered reviews like Leisure and Society. He is a member of the Lecture Comite of Revue Européenne de Management du Sport, Sports Europe Stratégie. Elodie Wipf is the Outdoor Sports Policy Officer at Bas Rhin Local Authorities. She is a PhD student at the Marc Bloch University of Strasbourg and at the University of Lausanne. Her research interests are focused on public management and outdoor sports governance. She is also involved in researches led by the ‘APS and Social Sciences’ laboratory of the University of Strasbourg.

1

Introduction: paradox of the demand growth of fitness activities and the decrease in the number of fitness centres

During the last 35 years, the provision of fitness activities has been greatly transformed (Bessy, 1987; 1990; 2002; Travaillot, 1998, 2001, 2002a–b). Traditional gymnasiums, where voluntary gymnastics was developed in the 1970s, preceded the first standardised fitness centres that appeared through the 1980s and the 1990s, followed by some large fitness companies (Gymnase Club, Gymnasium, Jean de Beauvais, etc.). More recent fitness facilities offer a greater variety of services when compared to those in the past. From the 1980s to now, fitness was built on the health cult largely dominant in Western societies (Travaillot, 1998, 2001, 2002a–b). Indeed, the need for being or appearing, or for feeling or claiming to be in shape became a pertinent issue for society. Thus, in France, according to the Sofres1 in 2000, 25% of the population from 18 to 64 years old, which represents 9,2 million people, declared that they were “regularly maintaining physical activity such as weight lifting, fitness or any other type of gym activity in professional facilities, or at home”. In 2005, 27% of this same population declared partaking of this type of activity, which represents between 12 and 13 million participants. Activity at home has also increased. Fifty-two percent of fitness participants were active at home in 2005 against 48% in 2002. That explains the positioning of the fitness manufacturers on the ‘home fitness’2 market (Hillairet, 2002) and also the increase in the number of hotels with health and fitness facilities (Redelsperger, 2001). If the people’s participation in fitness is based upon the pursuit of a healthy body and general wellness,3 the supply of services seems to have overlooked such demand, which demonstrates a clear gap between the supply and demand. So, since the beginning of the millennium, Viallon and Chiocci (2002) have identified a ‘slow down growth’ phenomenon, or even a ‘starting point stagnation’, supported by the low growth (+1,4%) of the number of fitness centres from 1998 to 2000. Even if the first ‘fitness networks’ such as the Gymnase Club chain have been able to develop around 150 fitness centres, the decline of a majority of the fitness groups is more than evident. For example, in Alsace, in a period of three years, Moving closed down three of their clubs, and from 1995 to 2004, the analysis of the number of private and commercial fitness clubs in the Strasbourg urban unit4 shows a slight decrease: only eight of the 15 clubs listed in 1995

428

S. Mischler, P. Bauger, L. Pichot and E. Wipf

were still active in 2004, to which we have to highlight the addition of three new fitness clubs.5 Even though some new centres are created in the fitness sector, it is important to notice that many of them have ceased to operate. The last national survey (Bauger et al., 2006) recording the number of commercial fitness clubs in France unequivocally states that less than two thousand facilities were estimated in 2005, whereas there were more than 2500 five years before (Viallon and Chiocci, 2002). This article gives socioeconomical characteristics of fitness provision in the commercial private sector in France. It specifically highlights that the context of fitness clubs (types of services proposed, competences of the employees, etc.) is constrained by the market and is tightly linked to the owner’s/managers’ professional and sporting background, and also to their own identity. Based on a sample of fitness companies from Alsace, this article will aim to elaborate a ‘profiles typology’ of the fitness clubs’ managers/owners. It will highlight in particular that the range of services can be explained by the logic of actions and specific marketing strategies related to their micromentalities. The paper is organised as follows. Following the Introduction (Section 1), which highlights the gap between the supply and the demand inside the fitness market in France, Section 2 mentions the link between services and managers’ profiles. Then, Section 3 presents the conceptual framework and in Section 4, quantitative and qualitative data are used to describe the reality of the fitness offer in France. In Section 5, we propose to present and display the results and to summarise, in Section 6, we present our concluding remarks.

2

Problem: services strategies and managers’ profile

The management of a sporting company does not only depend on economical parameters but also on environmental and territorial considerations. It also reflects the social and cultural dispositions of the managers (Bourdieu and Wacquant, 1992). Indeed, if their conception about services and products offered, or their relation with customers are impressively ‘marketed’, (in terms of being determined by the influences of the moment) – with diversification of leisure services (Mischler and Pichot, 2005) and rise of self-service economy (Gershuny, 1978), especially – it is also socioculturally determined. Thus, the supply of services is linked to the managers’ professional and sporting background. In a context of intra- and extra-sectoral competition (competition with indoor sporting leisure activities like squash or badminton, or outdoor activities like rollerblading, jogging or VTT), it is needed to seize culturally constituted managers’ micromentalities. We need to consider this in order to establish how they organise their workforce with regard to the existing social and economic pressures. Our research aims to put in relation the supply of services, not only with dominant trends of the market – especially with the various consumers’ expectations6 – but, above all, with the managers’ profile. Put differently, we will analyse the way managers shape the characteristics of their organisation in the context of external pressures (Burns and Stalker, 1966; Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967).


3

429

Conceptual framework: management of social actors under economic pressure

Although primarily concerned with profit, the management of a fitness club is undertaken with more than economic interest in mind. The search for recognition, status, or even power can be factors influencing a club manager in the way he/she runs his/her business (Weber, 1971). So, we may distinguish that the economic activity can be guided in theory by other factors than those being related to profit (Roulleau-Berger, 1999). In this sense, fitness club managers adhere to values which control their manners of thinking and of acting. Moreover, the social dimension of the economic action is not an obstacle with the expression of a maximising rationality which, in its absence, could fully and freely be exerted. Callon (1999) affirms that the will, the intentions and the projects of the actor concerned cannot be reduced to their interests in isolation. The actor is even ‘with variable ontology’, which means that he is not equipped with stable preferences in reference to values or standards which would be given once and for all. His identity is constantly evolving and “these reconfigurations are narrowly correlated with the interactions network in which he exists” (Callon, 1999, p.409). Within this socioeconomic theoretical framework (Granovetter, 2000), the functional approach of services innovation proposed by Normann (1985) can be useful. The environment of a facility allows for innovation. For example, outdoor areas and surrounding fitness centres can allow various activities (beach volleyball, jogging in the forests, tennis, etc.). In the relationship between supply and demand, new manners of servicing the customer have emerged; they reveal new combinations between existing services and the creation of new roles (e.g., personalised coaching) (Dumoulin et al., 1991). Necessarily dependent on the changes of the socioeconomic environment, central and peripheral services offered by fitness clubs not only occur due to the way a manager considers his trade, but also to match customer demands. In other words, a fitness club’s identity is forged on the strategic type of management adopted by the person(s) in charge (Martinet, 1984). Within a sporting organisation such a fitness club, the adopted strategy will depend on the goals of the manager, the history and the culture of the company (Chantelat, 1999), but also on the capacity of the leader to make his employees adhere to the aims of the company. Thus, these ‘logics of action’ (Amblard et al., 2005) put the emphasis on the influence of the environment on the fitness club’s management. It also leads us to suggest that the weight of the internal attributes (profile of the manager, work environment, human and financial resources, etc.) of such organisations manifests in terms of services. Within a given environmental context, a fitness club’s identity is built gradually and is shaped by the professional culture in which the manager operates (Bouhaouala, 1999).

4

Methodology

From the 2400 fitness clubs listed in France (in the phone book) and after the extraction from this database of every not-for-profit facility, we estimate that there are 1975 (5% margin of error) commercial fitness centres. Because of the clubs which are not inscribed in the phone book, and because of the clubs which are mentioned in the phone book but

430


are no longer active and, finally, because of the clubs recently created (during the last six months) which are not inscribed in the phone book yet, the target sample (n = 1033) to which the questionnaire has been sent represents a little less than half of the fitness companies and their representative fitness clubs in France according to the geographical variable (statistical weight of the region). The survey, after making reminders (phone and mail), records a 14,5% return assessment, that is, a result sample of 150 questionnaires. In order to obtain an overall picture of the health and fitness clubs in France, the questionnaire has been developed through the following themes: general information about the club (name, date of creation, statutes, surface area, number of clients, workforce), club’s services (services provided, facilities available), the organisation of labour within the club (paid/unpaid workforce, permanent/seasonal, full-time/part-time), the relationship with vocational education and training, the professional and sociological characteristics of the workforce (age, gender, level of qualification), main and secondary skills and competences required for the workforce, difficulties in filling vacancies and recruitment. We supplemented the national quantitative investigation by a qualitative complementary study in Alsace. We carried out ten semistructured interviews with the managers of small and very small enterprises. They described the organisation of work in their club, the missions and the tasks of each category of personnel, and finally the competences and the qualifications necessary. Table 1

Economic and legal characteristics of the ten clubs studied in Alsace in 2005

Name of the fitness club

Date of creation

Legal statutes

Surface (m²)

Number of salaries (*)

Griffon Club

1987

Self-employed

1400

5

Opus Form

1989

Ltd (1)

Cour de Honau

1991

PLC (2)

Vita Tonic

1992

Natural Form

1996

Magic Fitness Center

1996

400,000

220

1

50,000

4000

10

1,200,000

Ltd

450

3

120,000

Ltd

600

5

300,000

Ltd

600

4

250,000

Fitness K

1998

Ltd

Club du Parc La Forme

1999

Ultd (3)

Fit et Forme

2002

Aqua Fitness

2004

Notes:

Turnover (in euros) (4)

500

3

130,000

3000

6

600,000

Ltd

650

3

100,000

Ltd

1500

5

450,000

(*) Including the manager – (1) Private Limited Company, (2) Public Limited Company, (3) Private Unlimited Company (ULTD), (4) All taxes included.

Firstly, we propose a diagnosis of the legal and economic situation of the fitness centres in France. Secondly, we present the central and the peripheral services offered. Then, starting from the examination of ten commercial clubs in Alsace, we try to highlight how the manager’s socioprofessional and sporting profile influences the offer of services. Following this, we propose a typology of the managers and their company.


5

431

Results: quantitative and qualitative data

This updated census reveals a real (significant) fall in the number of fitness clubs in France from 2000 to 2005. It is enough to compare this data with the estimates provided by the Sports Ministry services which enter the declared establishments. For example, they count 388 establishments in Ile-de-France, whereas our investigation corrects this data and estimates 298 establishments in Ile-de-France. In addition, the number of franchised establishments listed as national chains seems overestimated. Actually, there are less than 100 franchised establishments which are counted, i.e., 4,5% of the market of fitness clubs in France. Indeed, considerable franchised fitness centres were listed as independent structures. Lastly, the construction of the sample and the development of the database of the commercial fitness clubs in France show great disparities between regions (20 clubs in Champagne-Ardennes and 54 clubs in Poitou-Charentes, against 145 in Aquitaine and 240 in Rhone-Alps). Figure 1

Number of commercial fitness clubs in France in 2005 (see online version for colours)

Nord-Pasde-Calais

62

38 Picardie

HauteNormandie 40 20 Ile-de-France Lorraine Normandie Champagne298 52 Ardenne

23 Basse75 Bretagne

Centre

Pays-dela-Loire

54 PoitouCharentes

FrancheComté 31

Bourgogne 45

75

99

Limousin 25

40 Auvergne

39 Alsace

Rhone-Alpes

240 Aquitaine

291

145 Midi-Pyrénées

135

136

Provence-AlpesCote d'Azur

LanguedocRoussillon

Corse 14

5.1 Identity card of the fitness clubs In reference to the legal status of the fitness clubs, we observe the prevalence of very small companies and of microcompanies.

432 Table 2

S. Mischler, P. Bauger, L. Pichot and E. Wipf Legal statute of the clubs

Legal statute of the clubs

Number of fitness clubs

Private Limited Company (Ltd) Independent worker

Percentage (%)

103

68,6

30

20,0

Private Unlimited Company (Ultd)

3

2,0

Public Limited Company (PLC)

7

4,7

Others

7

4,7

Total

150

100

One hundred three answers out of the 150 obtained come from Private Limited Companies (Ltd), which represents 68,6% of the sample; this legal status is in the majority, which does not present real characteristics in so far as it is the most widespread status for commercial companies. On the other hand, the share of the independent workers is relatively important (20,0%); this statute concerns 30 fitness clubs in the study. The Public Limited Company (PLC) statute relates to only 4,7% of the clubs studied, undoubtedly because it requires a relatively important capital at the time of the creation of the company. Thus, the most widespread legal statute for fitness clubs is that of the private limited company, undoubtedly because this statute does not require an important capital contribution and limits the financial risks. This statute is very widespread for the majority of the companies, whether they are sporting or not. This characteristic is thus not particular in the fitness clubs; it is necessarily ‘common’ to the commercial world.

5.1.1 Decline of franchised fitness clubs with the profit of independent structures The great majority of the fitness clubs are not franchised and thus do not belong to large national groups. Indeed, 90% of the fitness clubs of the study do not belong to a national chain. The remaining 10% are distributed in the following way, in descending order: Moving (3%), Amazonia (1%), Fitness First (1%), Garden Gym (1%), Euro Fitness Federation (1%), Forest Hill (1%), Formed Polished (1%) and Océades (1%). Figure 2

Three-quarters of the fitness clubs have a surface area from 200 to less than 1000 m² (see online version for colours)

4% 12%

6%

5%

less than 200 m2

34%

from 200 to less than 500 m2 from 500 to less than 1000 m2 from 1000 to less than 1500 m2 from 1500 to less than 2000 m2

39%

more than 2000 m2


433

Thirty-nine percent of the fitness clubs have a surface area ranging between 500 m2 and less than 1000 m2, and 34% of them a surface area ranging between 200 m2 and less than 500 m2; the clubs whose surface area lies between 1000 m2 and less than 1500 m2 represent 12% of the clubs. The ‘large clubs’ of more than 2000 m2 represent only 6% of the total. This report is probably due to the absence of franchised clubs. Clubs of 1500 m2 to less than 2000 m2 (4%), like those of less than 200 m2 (5%), are not very significant. Figure 3

Two-thirds of the fitness clubs have from 250 to less than 1000 customers (see online version for colours)

9%

2%

13%

less than 250

11%

from 250 to less than 500 from 500 to less than 1000 from 1000 to less than 1500

37% 28%

from 1500 to less than 2000 more than 2000

We can observe that 37% of the fitness clubs have between 250 and less than 500 customers, and 28% of them 500 to less than 1000. It is interesting to notice that this fork (between 250 and 1000) represents two-thirds of the fitness clubs involved in the survey. Eleven percent of them have between 1000 and less than 1500 customers, and 9% between 1500 and less than 2000; cumulated, one out of five clubs of the survey have more than 1000 customers. Fitness clubs having less than 250 customers are 13% of the total and only a few of them (2%) have more than 2000 customers. To summarise, 69% of the fitness clubs are private limited companies and 20% of them are managed by independent workers. They are mainly not franchised (91%) and do not belong to a national group (86%), which is obvious because being franchised means to belong to a group. Only 9% are franchised and half are Moving establishments (a European network of French origin, number one in France with 63 clubs). Seventy-four percent of the fitness clubs have a surface ranging between 200 m2 and less than 1000 m2. There is a smaller number of ‘huge clubs’: more than 1500 m2 (10%), just like the small ones – less than 200 m2 (4%). Two-thirds of the fitness clubs involved in the survey have between 250 and less than 1000 customers; 37% of them have 250 and less than 500 clients, and 28% have between 500 and less than 1000 customers.

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Standard fitness clubs are nonfranchised private limited companies, with a surface varying between 200 m2 and less than 1000 m2, and having between 500 and less than 1000 customers.

5.2 Central and peripheral services supply Fitness clubs propose on the one hand ‘leader’ services and on the other hand peripheral services as attractive products and services.

5.2.1 Central services Almost all fitness clubs (96% of the sample) are equipped with a weight training area. The case is the same for the cardio-training area (96%) and for muscular strength training classes (96% also), which are services offered by almost all the fitness clubs. Moreover, 88% of them propose cardio-training classes and 81% wellness and well-being. On the other hand, 80% of the clubs do not propose any aqua-fitness and swimming. Clubs which have a swimming pool have a surface area greater than 500 m2. Concerning the ‘sporting leisure activities’ proposed by the fitness clubs, dance is offered in 26% of the clubs, and sports of combat (boxing fitness, martial arts fitness) in 19%. Finally, outdoor activities, like jogging or tennis, are absent in almost all clubs (only 8% have them). These are the clubs whose surface area lies between 500 m2 and less than 1000 m2 which offer the broadest array of services. Figure 4

Aqua fitness and swimming pool (see online version for colours)

45,0% 40,0% 35,0% 30,0% 25,0% 20,0% 15,0% 10,0% 5,0% 0,0%

42,4%

21,2%

18,2% 12,1%

3,0% less than 200 m2

3,0% from 200 from 500 from 1000 from 1500 to less than to less than to less than to less than 500 m2 1000 m2 1500 m2 2000 m2

more than 2000 m2

Private fitness centres in France Figure 5

Weight training area (see online version for colours)

45,0% 40,0% 35,0% 30,0% 25,0% 20,0% 15,0% 10,0% 5,0% 0,0%

40,3% 32,6%

12,5% 4,2% less than 200 m2

Figure 6

4,2% from 200 from 500 from 1000 from 1500 to less than to less than to less than to less than 500 m2 1000 m2 1500 m2 2000 m2

6,3%

more than 2000 m2

Cardio training area (see online version for colours)

45,0% 40,0% 35,0% 30,0% 25,0% 20,0% 15,0% 10,0% 5,0% 0,0%

40,6% 32,2%

12,6% 4,2%

less than 200 m2

Figure 7

435

4,2%

from 200 from 500 from 1000 from 1500 to less than to less than to less than to less than 500 m2 1000 m2 1500 m2 2000 m2

6,3%

more than 2000 m2

Muscular strength training classes (see online version for colours)

45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0%

41,3% 33,6%

12,6% 2,1% less than 200 m2

4,2%

from 200 from 500 from 1000 from 1500 to less than to less than to less than to less than 500 m2 1000 m2 1500 m2 2000 m2

6,3%

more than 2000 m2

436


5.2.2 Peripheral services Hierarchically, peripheral services offered by the fitness clubs are as follows: •

dietetic products sales (64%)

•

a bar (49%)

•

UVA (39%)

•

night clubbing (34%)

•

clothes sales (22%)

•

beauty and health treatments (21%)

•

cosmetics sales (16%)

•

massage (14%)

•

restaurant and cafeteria (11%)

•

childcare (10%)

•

weight machine sales (5%).

5.2.3 Facilities In order to identify clubs’ services, a census of what is provided to customers has been made. Their distribution in decreasing order appears as follows: •

muscle-development room with weights and machines: 94%

•

aerobic and dance room: 86%

•

sauna: 74%

•

proximity services (car park): 58%

•

solarium: 37%

•

hammam: 32%

•

jacuzzi: 26%

•

swimming pool: 21%

•

squash and badminton courts: 9%

•

outdoor tennis courts: 3%

•

synthetic courts: 1%.

Fitness clubs focusing on specific fitness activities included muscle-development rooms with weights and machines as well as aerobic and dance rooms. Otherwise, a service such as a car park seems to be a competitive advantage for the clubs. Indeed, most fitness clubs are far from the city centre and having a car park allows customers to save time.


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Obviously, this sort of peripheral service is a competitive advantage and a reason to make more customers join. Few fitness clubs offer other principal services than those mentioned.

5.3 From global to local: different offers of services proposed by fitness clubs Until the 1990s, clubs have had to adopt new attractive strategies and have been engaged in a servuction process (Eiglier and Langeard, 1987). Most of them have tried to get differing services to give a personalised and adapted innovation content to their innovating strategies. Indeed, fitness clubs are now engaged in an innovation of specification process (see Table 3). Table 3

Synoptic table of development logics of fitness clubs in Alsace

Name of the club (number of adherents)

Logic of development

Distinctive qualities

Cour de Honau

Innovation of specification

Swimming pool (aqua fitness and aqua gym), outdoor courts (tennis, running course, beach volley), well-being area, body care

Aqua Fitness (1000)


Swimming pool (aqua fitness and aqua gym) and beauty institute

Fitness K (500)


Paramedical cares

Vita Tonic (500)

Institutional logic

Collective classes areas

Natural Form (600)


Weight training area

Griffon Club (1400)

Proximal competition logic (competitive club nearby)

Weight training area and two collective classes areas

Magic Fitness Centre (700)

Technological logic

Various activities and reinforcement of cardio-training area

Opus Form (150)


Weight training area and outdoor activities

Club La Forme (1000)

Technological logic

Collective classes areas, wide collective classes areas

Fit et Forme (400)

Innovation of specification and institutional logic

Collective classes and dance rooms

(2000)

Differing services that allow personalised and adapted facilities are essentially for sports: muscle development and reinforcement, swimming pool with aqua gym and aqua-fitness, collective lesson rooms and dance rooms. Innovation could refer to a complementary sports service, for example, the possibility of outdoor sports practice (tennis, beach volley, running and others). Finally, specific innovations are more and more focused on well-being and health, while integrating body care services (massage and nutritional advice). The innovation of the specification process concerns more fitness clubs located in noncompetitive areas.

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This gives an additional advantage to the strategy of attracting customers. For many clubs, product definition is based on the club’s technical capital, facilities, and specific machines mostly located in cardio-training and weight training areas. In opposition to this logic of technological development, clubs with faithful customers share a community spirit which is typical of little clubs with limited floor space. Their development is predominantly based on group lessons. Built mostly since the club creation, this institutional logic is embodied by the leader of the club. It corresponds to the construction of traditions and standards of working. It differs from an economic positioning strategy built on proximal competition.

5.4 Influence of the managers’ professional and sporting background on the workforce management The socioprofessional profile of the fitness club managers is decisive in the management strategy of the company. The values that managers declare do not have to be taken for granted. They should not be considered as the real operating values which show in everyday employee behaviour; they should not be considered as the real shared values neither (Argyris and Schön, 1978). To explain their type of managing, it is needed to view the managers’ professional and sporting background. Indeed, it appears that the manager’s appreciation of his employee’s competences is a direct consequence of his personal conception of the organisation, and, as a last resort, of his own professional and sporting background. Sporting managers – former sportsmen competitors – requested to take responsibility for the physical preparation of the professional sporting teams of the region, tend to recruit fitness instructors having a strong sporting background and a sporting image. Managers having a commercial management background will be sensitive to the relationships and the commercial qualities of the instructors they recruit. In the fitness clubs which single out weight training, managers tend to recruit persons qualified in weight training. Feminine fitness club managers offering large collective classes range will try to reinforce their instructors team with polyvalent profiles. Most of the time they prefer to recruit people with technical, gymnastics and choreographic skills. According to Mintzberg’s (1981) mutual adjustment concept, informal relationships have a vertical and horizontal coordination function in the organisation. Fitness clubs have changed and they no longer format people to their structure (the right man at the right place concept). They are now conscious that they have to structure their activity towards people employed in their club, to exploit their human resources to the maximum and to face the various customers’ requests. Part of the malfunctions observed in the organisations are often due to a clear gap between the workforce needed and the competences of the employees (Alexander, 1985). Thus, Mintzberg and Quinn (1982) emphasise the manner in which employees are chosen and participate in the organisational development. They are fully part of the organisational culture of the structure and they are at the crossroads of the identity, economic and cultural stakes of the activity. The evaluation of the competences managers need has become a decisive step of the strategic management.

Private fitness centres in France Table 4

439

Managers’ profile and organisational choices

Name of the club Cour de Honau

Socioprofessional and sporting profile of the manager Former high-level sportsman (judoka in the Bataillon of Joinville) Physical trainer in a professional basketball team Assistant manager of a familiar fitness company.

Aqua Fitness

Nonspecialist of the fitness sector (no diploma in the sector) Building trade training programme.

Work organisation

Competences required

Specialisation of the tasks: fitness instructors are responsible for fitness activities; commercial for selling; hostesses for welcoming; technicians for maintenance.

Relational competences: communication skills, commercial attitude.

Specialisation of the tasks: fitness classes, commercial, selling, welcoming, etc.

Fitness technical polyvalent competencies Relational competences: charismatic, pedagogical, communication and commercial skills Be passionate.

Fitness K

Assistant Manager (physiotherapist) Nonspecialist of the fitness sector.

Polyvalence of the employees regarding fitness and management activities.

Both technical and management competences (reception, commercial, cashing, etc.) Physiological and anatomical competences.

Vita Tonic

Sporting management of the fitness club Fitness diploma from the state (Brevet d’Etat) Former dancer.

Natural Form

Manager of a familiar fitness company Former body-building competitor Fitness state diploma.

Griffon Club

Counting and commercial training programme Former body-building competitor Former national-level handball player Fitness state diploma.

Every fitness instructor is responsible for some management, reception and commercial tasks.

Technical competences

Fitness instructors are only responsible for fitness activities and not for management or commercial tasks.

Main technical competence in weight training

Fitness instructors are also responsible for administrative, commercial and maintenance tasks.

Fitness technical polyvalent competences;

Relational competences Regular practise.

Relational competence: listen to the customer.

Management and commercial competences.

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Table 4

Managers’ profile and organisational choices (continued)

Name of the club Magic Fitness Center

Socioprofessional and sporting profile of the manager Manager of the fitness club Former body-building competitor Fitness diploma from the state (Brevet d’Etat) Ski instructor Black belt (judo).

Opus Form

Autodidact Polyvalent sportsman Fitness diploma from the state (Brevet d’Etat)

Work organisation

Competences required

Specialisation of the tasks: fitness instructors are not responsible for administrative or commercial tasks; administrative and commercial staff are not involved in fitness activities.

All fitness instructors have to be trained in the Mills (prechoreographed collective classes)

Simple structure: the manager is responsible for all the tasks.

Sociology, psychology and kinesiology competences

Advanced work organisation: fitness instructors, hostesses of reception, commercial and administrative staff all have a department manager.

Polyvalent technical competences in collective classes

Instructors are responsible for fitness activities

Polyvalent technical competences in collective classes

Management and commercial tasks are ensured by specific personnel.

To be involved in the whole company’s project.

Fitness technical polyvalent competences.

Be passionate.

Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) training programme Personal trainer. Club La Forme

Business school diploma Manager of the fitness club integrated in the sporting leisure park of Décathlon Nonspecialist of the fitness sector.

Fit et Forme

Fitness diploma from the state (Brevet d’Etat) Professional experience as commercial Sociology complementary training Personal trainer.

Commercial and convivial welcoming; customer service.

5.5 Tentative of typology for the fitness club managers In the light of the empirical data collected, we can highlight a typology of the fitness club managers’ profiles. Through the analysis we can identify four major types of managers, which correspond to four different types of service offers. These managers are distinguished by some logics of action and specific marketing strategies corresponding to their micromentalities.


441

The passionate independent manager (case of Opus Forme) is characterised by an artisanal behaviour centred on sport passion. Managing a microcompany (in most of the cases he/she is on his/her own or with only one employee), he/she is at the same time the creator and the owner of his/her club. This type of manager is faithful to the social project aiming at privileging a good quality of life while living out its passion. His/her personal behaviour is built on a singular hedonist logic and a production and marketing strategy centred on ‘himself/herself’ and his/her passion. This kind of leader puts in place a marketing strategy not oriented towards the market or the client. This particular strategy can be characterised by a clear specialisation in a fitness activity corresponding to his/her own passion (for example weight strength training through individual classes). The specialisation of the activity is also related to the manager’s wider competences such as anatomy, physiology, kinesiology, psychology, nutrition and dietetics. Extract of interview: Opus Forme manager: “Me, I will never solicit new client at all costs who comes to get informations about my club, I have a clear vision of my activity and convictions on the products I offer in my fitness centre. If the proposed product is appropriated to the wish of the new client he is going to adhere, if not he can move towards another club. I do not have a quantitative objective but a qualitative one, I offer a personalised service to the person.”

The independent manager is characterised by an entrepreneurial behaviour centred on the product (cases of Fitness K, Vita Tonic, Fit et Forme). The objective of ‘realisation of oneself’ applied to each employee of the fitness centre constitutes the fundamental element of the logic of action of this type of manager. The development and the controlled growth of the company seem to be the direct translation of this entrepreneurial logic. The precise analysis of the type of marketing of this independent manager reveals a behaviour directed towards the production process and the range of services offered (sports activities, sporting framing, organisation of events, etc.) and, to a lesser extent, towards the client and the market. To summarise, his/her commercial strategy is clearly different from a traditional marketing logic. His/her specific logic is more based on the valorisation of the creativity, the experience (sporting and entrepreneurial) and the control of the production process. This conception of the service mobilises the employees around a collective project. In this direction, the independent manager does not correspond to the image of the ‘marketer’ (Marion, 1995). He is in fact closer to ‘the fabulous technician manager’ (Bauer, 1993). Guided by a desire for achievement, his strategy to elaborate sporting services is influenced by his thirst for creation, innovation and collective achievement. Extract of interview: Vita Tonic manager assistant: “We are a very small and restricted team of instructors with a fundamental investment of each employee in the life of the club from A to Z. It means that if the housework has to be made, we do it, it is a familiar investment playing on the sensitivity of everybody involved in the fitness centre (...) it is important to teach a corporal education to our clients.”

Extract of interview: Fitness K manager assistant (physiotherapist):

442

S. Mischler, P. Bauger, L. Pichot and E. Wipf “In our club, the instructor has to be polyvalent, he assures classes, he gives advice on dietetic aspects, he is a commercial (...) he must be able to welcome the customer and to understand the reason of his venue in our club. The most important element is the high quality of its classes, a performing technical knowledge of the training, he has to be somebody with a very positive attitude, with a good human contact, and should also be able to adapt himself to specific clients with pathologies.”

Extract of interview: Fit et Forme manager: “Today I manage a team where I have to tighten the values. I do that for two major reasons. An economic reason. And to rest very close to my initial project (...) I want reliable instructors on a human and technical point of view, and moreover, who are motivated to obtain new knowledge, who are active and involved in the project of the company.”

The rational manager is characterised by a managerial behaviour centred on the market (cases of Aqua Fitness, Cour de Honau, Club du Parc, Griffon Club, Magic Fitness Center). The strategies installed by this type of managers are built on social (maintenance of employment) and economic (financial balance and growth of profitability) objectives proposed by his company. The rational manager has a commercial conception of the sport and adopts a marketing strategy directed towards the customers and the market. In other words, contrary to the independent manager who focuses his/her strategy on services development, the rational manager runs his marketing strategy on the on the market parameters (production costs, feasibility, competition, requests expressed by the demand) while taking care of the social dimension of his/her company. This type of manager fits in a sociomanagerial logic: the products have to be sold and for this reason it must answer the competition criteria and the customers’ requests. The rational managers propose a service of personalised coaching in response to a request for follow-up from a council of the users. In this category of leaders, we can distinguish those which have a raised financial capacity (Court of Honau, Club of the Park, Aqua Fitness) and those who have chosen, for example, to install a swimming pool which answers to the request for water activities (ludic matter, weight training) by the senior and sedentary public. These leaders decided to diversify their sporting and peripheral services (creation of body care services and restaurant). Other structures (Griffon Club, Magic Fitness Center) remained positioned on basic fitness activities (aerobic collective classes, cardio-training and muscular reinforcement) while developing personalised coaching. Every decision-maker of these clubs underlines the obligation to follow the outstanding evolutions of the consumption demand and their attachment to the concept of service customer: “If we are there and still well there, it is because we have been able to adapt ourselves to the market trends, to the demand. People are more and more worried about their health and they want to be advised, dealt with. We have set up services which answer to what people want.” (Cour de Honau Manager Assistant)

More precisely, managers of large clubs engaged in a differentiation strategy (Desbordes, 2000) and accommodating many customers are very sensitive to the conveyed image and the commercial attitude of their employees.


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Extract of interview: La Cour de Honau manager: “To be pleasing and smiling in front of the customers, to be grateful, to be able to recognise the customers and to call them by their name, to be polished, kindness too, answer courteously to be present also, the presence… in our club they are sometimes three at the reception the evening because one or two people are not enough. It is not good when you have people who come at the reception while there is nobody or that they have to wait one hour before having a key, a dressing gown or a towel, it is not well. Thus it is the concept of service. It is that.”

Extract of interview: Aqua Fitness manager: “Animation is not only being able to give a course and being good in the course contents, it is not only that, there is the charisma, the charisma that the person can have and that takes part of the animation. What is necessary, is the sympathetic side (...) he must also be able to be a commercial. But I think that this commercial side they must have it with passion.”

Extract of interview: Club La Forme (Décathlon) manager: “First of all, we consider that they are not fitness instructors, but fitness animators. We have a vision of the fitness which is certainly a little bit different from the other fitness clubs. That means that we are going to try to touch Decathlon’s customers – everyone makes sport – therefore we need fitness animators. We are also going to ask them – that is a particular role required in our fitness clubs – to control the number evolution of the people taking part in the classes (...) We will also ask them to convey the image of the club we wish to give.”

Fitness club managers centred on the basic services (collective classes and weight training) are attached to the technical performance of their instructors and to their investment in the club. Extract of interview: Magic Fitness Center manager: “Today, the instructor who has not been formed to the Mills (pre-choreographed collective classes) are dedicated to work less and less hours (...) we want instructors who make themselves available, who are neat, respectful and who are able to deal with the customers on the weight training and cardio-training classes.”

Extract of interview: Griffon Club manager: “I want them to be serious, to be on time, to be close to the customers, to be reactive when I ask them something (...) I want them to be involved in the company and to be professional, rigorous when they work out training plans.”

In all the cases, the adaptation to the various customers’ requests is built on a regular collection of information, based on simple but rationalised and objectively reliable techniques. Information is taken directly from the level of the customers, by direct communication with the person in charge of groups, or by questionnaires to individual customers. Thus, in opposition to the passionate independent manager who appreciates the work according to his/her own personal feeling and to his/her friendly relationships with the participants, the quality standards are not estimated subjectively by the leaders.

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The patrimonial conservative manager (case of Natural Form) is characterised by a traditionalist behaviour centred on the family patrimony. The analysis of the marketing strategy of this type of manager reveals some clear contradictions between the targeted objective (growth, economical rentability) and the concrete commercial behaviour. Indeed, the ‘traditionalist’ strategy of production is not oriented to a pure research of growth in terms of market shares. It is more centred on the perpetuation of the family inheritance (capital and interests, know-how, etc.). The patrimonial production logic cannot be reduced to only the short-term research of benefits. The patrimonial conservative manager targets a financial rentability that permits increasing his/her own benefits/interest and preserving the company inside the family circle. The strategies developed and put in place allow him/her to decrease the financial risks and to avoid some future evolutions which would lead his/her fitness club to a managerial or entrepreneurial model. Contrary to the independent manager, he looks for a high frequentation rate of clients without carrying out huge and uncertain investments which could lead him/her to a dependent situation with the capitals market. The process of production is based on some specific skills built patiently and on a traditionalist vision of the reality of the occupation and services. The essential elements characterising his/her individual strategy are the quality of the services the quality, of the welcome, the satisfaction of the ‘clients’ and the short-term financial profitability. The estimation of these standards of quality is usually done according to some traditional standards of appreciation validated by the occupation. Extract of interview: Natural Form manager, managing a family company with his two brothers: “An instructor is a person working hard for the company, who cleans if it is necessary, who wants to put all his energy in the activity of the company. The instructor must be an example and motivate people to be involved strongly (…) he has to go to find the clients. A fitness instructor is not an animator. He needs to have an easy contact and a good relationship with people, that means to be able to listen and understand them.”

6

Discussion and future perspectives

The manager of a fitness centre is a key player in the company; he/she is defined by a personal identity to work and a reference to specific values. Each actor is also integrated into a space-temporal dimension. The actor acts according to opportunities and constraints from a local socio-organisational system and according to potential evolutionary strategies (contingency of the strategies). The methodology used by the fitness centre to manage, in the best way, the tension between the requirements of differentiation (specialisations, diversifications) and the concerns of integration of its staff and resources strongly depends of the profile of the owner. Sporting managers – former sportsmen competitors – are focused on maintaining and, if necessary, developing basic sporting services. The diversification of services is often defined under social pressure. Guided sometimes by the passion for sport, sometimes by the entrepreneurial project in which we can find the logic of service to the person, managers are not willing to disavow values to which they are attached for part of an economic success more hoped for than acquired.


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The manager also registers his/her action in a symbolic and cultural reference to experiments of the identities in work situations and out of work. It means that questions related to business management and strategic planning (implementation strategy) are a direct consequence of the person (Hussey, 1990). The identity references are, in this respect, relatively stable. To summarise, it is a complex alchemy between interests and passions (Hirschmann, 1977), or between reason and passion, which gives the possibility to managers to insufflate a dynamic, to involve the whole staff in the same direction and to manage their organisation in a long-term perspective. Beyond invariants imposed by the demand, the proposed offer inevitably refers back to cultural and economical dispositions, and to the ethics of the director of the club. Some lifestyle cultures connected to the occupation, to others or to the universe of the ‘boss’ are developing within fitness clubs. The manager of the club carries some specific practices, attitudes, social interactions in reference to a social order, some values, and an ethic which are registered within a coherent identity. This reflects the interest in capturing paths of life that reflect a way of being, some professional practices and a specific management method.

Acknowledgements We would like to express warm thanks to Mr. Aurélien Favre, Mr. Allan Pilkington and Mr. Mike Burrows for their contribution to the translation of the article into English.

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Bourdieu, P. and Wacquant, L. (1992) Réponses. Pour une anthropologie réflexive, Paris: Seuil. Burns, T.R. and Stalker, G.M. (1966) The Management of Innovation, Tavistock. Callon, M. (Ed.) (1999) ‘La sociologie peut-elle enrichir l’analyse économique des externalités? Essai sur la notion de cadrage-débordement’, in D. Foray and J. Mairesse (Dir.) Innovations et performances. Approches interdisciplinaires, Paris: Editions de l’Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales. Chantelat, P. (1999) ‘Introduction de la 4ème partie: ‘La stratégie des organisations sportives’, in G. Lacroix and A-M. Waser (sous la dir.) Le Management du sport. 15 études de cas corrigés, Editions d’Organisation, pp.269–272. Desbordes, M. (2000) Gestion du sport, Paris: Vigot. Dumoulin, C., et al. (1991) Entreprises de services. Sept facteurs clés de réussite, Paris: Les Editions d’Organisation. Eiglier, P. and Langeard, E. (1987) La servuction. Le marketing des services, Paris: McGraw-Hill. Gershuny, J. (1978) After Industrial Society? The Emerging Self-Service Economy, Londres: Mac Millan. Granovetter, M. (2000) Le marché autrement. Les réseaux dans l’économie, De Boeck Université. Hillairet, D. (2002) Economie du sport et entrepreneuriat, Paris: L’Harmattan, coll. ‘Economie et Innovation’. Hirschmann, A. (1977) The Passions and the Interests, Princeton: Princeton University Press. Hussey, D.E. (1990) ‘Developments in strategic management’, International Review of Strategic Management, Vol. 1, pp.3–25. IPSOS Opinion/Groupe 76 SA (2002) Enquête “Les Français et leur salle de remise en forme”. Lawrence, P.R. and Lorsch, J.W. (1967) Organization and Environment. Managing Differentiation and Integration, Boston: Harward Business School. Marion, G. (1995) ‘Le marketing management en question’, Revue française de gestion, Vol. 102, pp.15–30. Marketing Intelligence (MINTEL) (1999) The European Market for Health and Fitness Clubs, London: Mintel Publications Ltd. Martinet, A.C. (1984) Management stratégique, organisation et politique, Paris: Ediscience International. Mintzberg, H. (1981) The Structuring of Organizations: A Synthesis of the Research, Prentice Hall. Mintzberg, H. and Quinn, J.B. (1982) The Strategy Process, Concepts and Contexts, Englewood Cliffs : NJ Prentice Hall. Mischler, S. and Pichot, L. (2005) ‘La nécessaire diversification des politiques de salles de fitness. Les logiques d’action des entreprises de la forme en Alsace’, Loisir et société/Leisure and Society, Presses de l’Université du Québec, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp.239–263. Normann, R. (1985) Services Management: Strategy and Leadership in Service Businesses, Chichester: John Wiley. Pichot, L. (2003) ‘Clubs de football et salles de “fitness”: deux exemples d’entreprise sportive’, in W. Gasparini (Coord.) L’Organisation sportive, Paris: Editions Revue EP.S, coll. ‘Pour l’action’, pp.69–86. Redelsperger, A. (2001) Etude de la clientèle de l’espace forme à l’hôtel La Verte Vallée à Munster, Mémoire de licence STAPS, mention Sciences Sociales et Management du sport, sous la direction de C. Faber, Laboratoire APS et Sciences Sociales, Université Marc Bloch, Strasbourg. Roulleau-Berger, L. (1999) Le travail en friches. Les mondes de la petite production urbaine, La Tour d’Aigues: Editions de l’Aube. SOFRES (2000) ‘Enquête Mondial Body Fitness’, Les Français et la remise en forme, 28 February.


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Travaillot, Y. (1998) Sociologie des pratiques d’entretien du corps, Paris: PUF. Travaillot, Y. (2001) ‘A la conquête de son corps’, Revue EPS, No. 289, pp.82–83. Travaillot, Y. (2002a) ‘Les Français à la conquête de leur corps’, Sciences Humaines, No. 132, pp.24–27. Travaillot, Y. (2002b) ‘Le monde culturiste face aux gymnastiques aérobiques dans la première moitié des années 1980: les conceptions divergentes des acteurs du système d’offre’, STAPS, No. 57, pp.39–52. Viallon, R. and Chiocci, C. (2002) ‘Le marché du fitness en France: état des lieux et perspectives d'évolution’, Revue juridique et économique du sport, No. 63, pp.73–81. Weber, M. (1971) Economie et société, Paris: Plon. Plus précisément lire la section ‘les catégories sociologiques fondamentales de l’économique’, pp.61–217.

Bibliography Belleflamme, C., et al. (1986) Innovation and Research and Development Process Analysis in Service Activities, IRES, rapport FAST-CEE. Bessy, O. (1993) ‘Les stratégies marketing des centres de mise en forme’, in A. Loret (Dir.) Sport et management: de l’éthique à la pratique, Paris: Dunod, pp.234–247. Chantelat, P. (2001) ‘Les stratégies identitaires des dirigeants d’associations sportives. Apports et limites d’un concept’, in P. Chantelat (Dir.) La Professionnalisation des organisations sportives. Nouveaux enjeux, nouveaux débats, Paris: L’Harmattan, pp.315–335. Desbordes, M., Ohl, F. and Tribou, G. (1999) Marketing du sport, Paris: Economica. La Voix du Nord (2002) Qui est derrière le marché du fitness?, 28 January. Nys, J-F. (2002) ‘Informations économiques’, Revue Juridique et Economique du Sport, 63, pp.82–87. Pigeassou, C. (1999) ‘La stratégie marketing d’un centre de loisirs et de remise en forme’, in G. Lacroix and A-M. Waser (sous la dir.) Le Management du sport. 15 études de cas corrigés, Editions d’Organisation, pp.347–383. Pigeassou, C. and Bousige, M. (1997) ‘Les services sportifs: de la production à l’innovation’, in C. Pigeassou and C. Garrabos (sous la dir.) Management des organisations de services sportifs, Paris: PUF, pp.178–214. Pociello, C. (2000) Sports et sciences sociales. Histoire, sociologie et prospective, Paris: Vigot, coll. ‘Repères en éducation physique et en sport’. Ramanantsoa, B. and Thiery-Basle, C. (1989) ‘Histoire et identité de l’entreprise’, Revue Française de Gestion, No. 72, pp.107–111. Tribou, G. (1994) ‘Le marché de la remise en forme: stratégies marketing. Le cas de l’agglomération strasbourgeoise’, Revue Française du Marketing, No. 150, pp.35–46. Tribou, G. (1999) ‘Les politiques de communication externe des prestataires de services sportifs’, Chapter 6, in M. Desbordes, F. Ohl and G. Tribou (Eds.) Marketing du sport, Paris: Economica, pp.256–324. Viallon, R. (2002) ‘Le fitness’, in J. Camy and N. Le Roux (Dir.) L’Emploi sportif en France: situations et tendances d’évolution, Co-édition AFRAPS-RUNOPES, pp.119–130. Viallon, R. (2003) Analyse comparée de la dynamique de construction des identités professionnelles dans le secteur du fitness en France et au Royaume-Uni, Thèse de doctorat STAPS, Université de Lyon 1.

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Notes 1 2 3

4 5

6

The Sofres is the French Survey Studies Society. This survey was realised in 2000 at the request of World Salon of Body Fitness organisers. According to a survey realised by Sport Première Magazine (No. 225, April 2003), the home fitness market was estimated at 110 millions of euros in 2001. According to the yearly survey realised during the World Salon of Body Fitness – the IPSOS Opinion survey/Group 76: “Les Français et leurs salles de remise en forme” – in 2005, health is the first motivation for fitness practitioners (84% of them, against 79% in 2002) and 78% of the practitioners are attracted by well-being services. The Strasbourg urban unit corresponds to the Strasbourg Urban Community (CUS), which covers 24 cities and a population estimated at 460 000 inhabitants. It is interesting to notice that the creations of commercial fitness clubs are more located in the periurban spaces than in the central town of the big cities of Alsace (Strasbourg, Mulhouse and Colmar). “Les motivations des pratiquants sont très diverses: s’entretenir, perdre du poids, sculpter son corps, se préparer physiquement en complément d’une autre activité sportive, se renforcer musculairement, prévenir le vieillissement, établir des relations sociales durables notamment” (Pichot, 2003, p.84).


449

Appendix Number of fitness centres and fitness participants in the main European member states in 2000 EU Country

Number of fitness centres

Number of people who practise fitness (in millions)

Germany

6000

4,3

Italy

6000

2

UK

2500

2,5

France

2500

1,75

Spain

2000

1,56

The Netherlands

1500

1

Belgium

600 Sources: MINTEL (1999) and Viallon and Chiocci (2002)

0,4

450


Expectations, satisfaction and loyalty in health and fitness clubs Vera Pedragosa* and Abel Correia Faculty of Human Kinetics Technical University of Lisbon Estrada da Costa, 1495–688 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal Fax: (+351) 214 144 712 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author Abstract: The study of satisfaction has been the focus of much research in the area of marketing, in particular, on the nature of the relationships fostered by satisfaction between the service and the consumer. In the present study, global satisfaction, measured in the long term, is evaluated with respect to three constructs: expectations, facilities and loyalty. Expectations are considered as an innovative construct in their relationship with the consumer satisfaction in the Health and Fitness Clubs (HFC). Facilities are measured in the short term in order to evaluate the satisfaction by attributes, that is, all of the aspects encountered in using the various services provided by the HFCs. Loyalty is analysed by means of repeat purchases, recommendations to third parties and the frequency of use. The sample from a questionnaire comprises 463 respondents who are clients of two HFCs in the Greater Lisbon suburb of Oeiras, Portugal. The results suggest that satisfaction is an intermediate variable that is positively related to various other constructs and of crucial importance in determining the loyalty in HFCs. Keywords: expectations; satisfaction; loyalty; Health and Fitness Clubs; HFC. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Pedragosa, V. and Correia, A. (2009) ‘Expectations, satisfaction and loyalty in health and fitness clubs’, Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp.450–464. Biographical notes: Vera Pedragosa is the CEO of the Bioritmo Health Club and will soon conclude her PhD in Sports Management at the Human Kinetics Faculty of the Technical University of Lisbon (FMH-UTL), Portugal. Her interests include sport marketing management, sport event organisation and sports organisational strategy. Abel Correia has a PhD in Human Kinetics and is specialising in Sport Sciences at the Human Kinetics Faculty of the Technical University of Lisbon (FMH-UTL), Portugal. As an Associate Professor working in the Sport Sciences Department, he teaches Sports Organisation and Sports Marketing on the FMH-UTL’s degree course in Sports Management. His interests include sports organisational strategy and sports marketing management. He has published in the European Sports Management Quarterly and in the International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing.


Expectations, satisfaction and loyalty in health and fitness clubs

1

451

Introduction

The principal aim of this paper is to study satisfaction from a global perspective (measured in the long term) in relation to other constructs, namely, expectations, facilities (the satisfaction by attributes, measured in the short term) and loyalty. As an extension of our research, we also seek to locate the quality of service in relation to the consumer’s satisfaction. The evaluation and understanding of these relations is of fundamental importance, calling for the use of appropriate measures. Recently, an increasing body of literature has sought to apply the concepts and measurement techniques of service quality, consumer satisfaction and client loyalty to sports organisations (Alexandris and Palialia, 1999; Howat et al., 1996; Murray and Howat, 2002; Papadimitriou and Karteroliotis, 2000; Robinson, 1999; Theodorakis et al., 2001). Our study aims to expand the literature by incorporating expectations into the relation between satisfaction and loyalty, which is innovative with regard to fitness industry studies. Moreover, we attempt to distinguish between global satisfaction and the satisfaction by attributes, measuring the relations between the two. With regard to our review of the literature, to the best of our knowledge, no previous study of the fitness industry has measured expectations as a function of satisfaction or has made the distinction between global satisfaction and the satisfaction by attributes with a model that measured their effects and relations. Sports managers, particularly those in the Health and Fitness Clubs (HFC) sector, must be concerned not only with identifying what satisfies the consumers in order to earn their loyalty, but also what is, in effect, the starting point on the road to satisfaction: the prior expectations of the service to be consumed. To this end, satisfaction must be disaggregated into all of its potential component attributes which, once identified, must then be measured. The remainder of this article is organised as follows: Section 2 presents the contextual setting and Section 3 surveys the literature, considering three relevant subsections. In Section 4, we explain the analytical model and Section 5 presents the results. In Section 6, we discuss the results and their implications and in Section 7, we consider the limitations of the present paper and the possible extensions of this research. Finally, in Section 8, we make our concluding remarks.

2

Contextual setting

The need to improve and speed up the development of the fitness industry arises from the knowledge of the market trend characteristics, which attempt to respond to the trends themselves. A sedentary lifestyle is one of the social characteristics associated with inferior health quality, inducing a high risk of hospitalisation due to the increase of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, heart diseases, osteoporosis, bone fractures, colon cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer and psychiatric diseases (Varo et al., 2003). In contrast to these effects and their associated risks, the acknowledged benefits of regular sports activity translate in physical terms into better weight control, articular flexibility, physical resistance, bone densitometry, muscle strength and lower blood pressure. The influence on the psycho-social profile is also clearly positive, reflected in increased

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V. Pedragosa and A. Correia

self-esteem, reduced stress, diminished social isolation, increased well-being and improved self-image (Saba, 2001). Today, we can observe a worldwide concern (e.g., governmental campaigns) to raise mass awareness to the need to replace the present bad lifestyle habits with more healthy habits. The approach to raising awareness focuses on three main areas: nutrition, aesthetics and sport. The sports industry, in general, and the fitness industry, in particular, emerges as a business opportunity for investors who seek to provide quality services that target satisfaction levels centred on and allied to the health and wellness of the consumers. The supply-side role to be played by the HFCs with respect to the consumers’ lifestyle-driven demand is clear. Historically, there has never been so much provision, even in proportional terms, of facilities dedicated to the practice of sports and physical exercise. Furthermore, the observed acceptance and embrace of these activities as a means of achieving well-being and quality of life has never been so great (Saba, 2001). Throughout the industrialised world, the fitness industry is experiencing large-scale growth. In the USA, there are currently 29 100 HFCs serving 41.3 million members, with an average market penetration rate of 15.7% (IHRSA, 2006). In Europe (EU-25),1 there are 33 800 HFCs with a total of approximately 36.9 million members, the average market penetration rate being 8.13% (IHRSA, 2006). When the latter figures are compared with those for 2005, a significant increase is observed. There were 26 800 HFCs in the USA, with 40 million members and an average penetration rate of 14.2%, while Europe (EU-16)2 had 27 100 HFCs, with 21.5 million members and an average penetration rate of 5.5% (IHRSA, 2005). It is estimated (Pilzer, 2007) that the fitness industry in the USA could be worth one trillion USD by 2012 (a value superior to the actual GDP of the UK). In Europe, the fitness industry is worth approximately 13 billion euros and presents a growth potential – relative to the average penetration rate in Europe (EU-16) of 5.5% – of 1.7 billion euros (IHRSA, 2005). In 2005, the fitness industry in Portugal was worth 288 million euros, with the market presenting a growth potential estimated at 42 million euros (IHRSA, 2005). In the coming years, intense growth in the Portuguese fitness industry is expected, taking into consideration the fact that the present average penetration rate is below the European mean (–0.7%) (IHRSA, 2005). Portugal currently has 1100 HFCs, with 480 000 members and an average penetration rate of 4.8% (IHRSA, 2005). The dimensions, characteristics, trends and potentialities of the fitness industry oblige fitness investors to combine the best-practice techniques with the constant development and innovation of the services offered in order to prevail in the market. The expectations must be constantly met or even exceeded in a market in which the information is globally available and the competition, aggressive. The consumers’ loyalty to the service provider must be evaluated in advance in order to ensure the HFCs’ profitability. The consumers’ global satisfaction and their satisfaction with the HFCs’ attributes are two concepts experiencing constant market adaptation and evolution based on the aim of positively influencing consumers.


3

453

Literature review

One of the great themes in market research is consumer satisfaction. This satisfaction is understood as a key construct, both for the managers and researchers interested in the relations that are established between services and the consumers. This observation is based on the numerous studies that demonstrate positive results in this respect. The results show that the profitability of the service organisations increases when the clients are satisfied. Classically, the definition of satisfaction is based on the nonconfirmation of the expectations model (Oliver, 1980) and views satisfaction as a result of the fulfilled prepurchase expectation, which constitutes a reference standard compared with the perception of the service provider’s performance. When the perception of the service provider’s performance is high compared with the standard, the result is satisfaction; conversely, when it is low, the result is dissatisfaction. Thus, the definition of satisfaction is generally supported by the consumers’ evaluation of the service provided, as compared to their prior expectations (Jones and Suh, 2000; McDougall and Levesque, 2000). The concept of satisfaction and its relation with other concepts has frequently been a subject of debate in the literature. Various themes or questions have emerged, for example, Rosen and Suprenant’s (1998) question of whether satisfaction can be considered as a specific transaction or a global phenomenon. Robinson (2006) examined the influence of the consumers’ expectations on the obtained satisfaction. The relations between service quality and satisfaction were considered by Parasuraman et al. (1988). Finally, the relation between satisfaction and consumer loyalty was analysed by McDougall and Levesque (2000). In the next pages, we consider more closely the three strands of literature mentioned above.

3.1 The relation between the quality of service and consumer satisfaction The quality of service has long been an important topic in marketing literature, since the perceptions of service quality are strongly related to consumer satisfaction and loyalty (Zeithaml and Bitner, 2003; Zeithaml et al., 1996). Consumer satisfaction appears to be a different concept from quality, an issue that has given rise to some debate (e.g., Rosen and Suprenant, 1998). Moreover, some authors argue that the two concepts differ with respect to their positioning (Buttle, 1996; Crompton and MacKay, 1989; Oliver, 1993). There has also been considerable discussion as to whether satisfaction is an antecedent or a consequence of service quality. Most of the literature tends to support the notion that satisfaction is a result of service quality (Cronin and Taylor, 1994; Parasuraman et al., 1994b; Taylor and Baker, 1994), with various researchers arguing that these two concepts are also distinct (Parasuraman et al., 1988; Spreng and McKoy, 1996; Taylor and Baker, 1994). Going further, some studies in the literature on the marketing of services defend that these two concepts, while distinct from each other, are nonetheless strongly related (Cronin and Taylor, 1994; Spreng and McKoy, 1996). According to Zeithaml and Bitner (2003), satisfaction is the affective response to the consumption of the service. This is a view in which the characteristics of the service produce a high level of affective pleasure from its consumption during the transaction between the supplier and the consumer. The same authors suggest that while satisfaction

454


is a global concept, the judgements of service quality are specific concepts and that the corresponding evaluation focuses specifically on the dimensions of service quality. This perspective suggests that the perceptions of service quality influence the consumer’s satisfaction. Thus, a consumer who has positive perceptions of the components of quality is likely to report high satisfaction levels from the global perspective. In any event, satisfaction can also be influenced by factors that are not related to service quality, such as the weather or the demeanour of the organisation’s employees. These factors may attenuate the relations between quality and satisfaction. This thinking points us towards the analysis of satisfaction from a global, long-term perspective in relation to the HFCs’ provision of the entire range of their services. On the other hand, Crompton and MacKay (1989) have argued that service satisfaction is distinguished from service quality by the clients’ experience of the service, which cannot be restricted to the dimensions of service quality. Clearly, these dimensions are evaluated, but the consumer’s encounter with the service frequently dictates which of the components of the service in the consumer’s experience are the most important (Winstead, 1999). In this view, service quality perception is generally accepted as a notion based on long-term performance, with the evaluation of the global service and consumer satisfaction as short-term measurements, i.e., a specific transaction based on experience (Cronin and Taylor, 1994; Parasuraman et al., 1994a; Wong, 2004). This approach suggests the analysis of satisfaction through transactional encounters in relation to the performance of the HFC, evaluated through its disaggregated attributes and from a short-term perspective. Hence, we identify two distinct but interrelated approaches to the evaluation of satisfaction (Oliver, 1993): one from a long-term perspective (global satisfaction) and the other from the short-term perspective (the satisfaction by attributes). In both, the service quality is an antecedent of satisfaction, whether global or by attributes. In the present paper, we will consider and evaluate both perspectives of satisfaction. By the term ‘satisfaction’, we mean that our consideration of the concept is comprehensive and, as such, generalised (long-term mode). When using the term ‘facilities’, we signify that our analysis of satisfaction employs a disaggregated approach (short-term), i.e., the satisfaction by attributes, in which the consumer’s level of satisfaction with each of the specific attributes of the service is identified and evaluated. The attributes considered in our evaluation of the ‘facilities’ dimension emerged from the sessions conducted with HFC client focus groups. As a result of this process, the five most valued attributes were retained for our analysis and the remainder were rejected.

3.2 The relation between the consumers’ expectations and satisfaction The consumers’ expectations are influenced by past experiences, personal needs, word of mouth, market communications, price and image (Robinson, 2006). The knowledge of what the consumers expect from sports organisations makes it possible to identify the importance of a service’s attributes (Crompton and MacKay, 1989; Theodorakis et al., 2001). It is also necessary to understand the level of expectations that the consumers have of a global service and of its diverse attributes. It is generally accepted that consumers use their expectations to determine whether the service is provided at an acceptable level of quality and satisfaction (Gronroos, 1984; Parasuraman et al., 1985; 1994a; Robledo, 2001).


455

The perceptions of the quality of service tend to be evaluated through the consumer’s fixed experience. The results permit the weaknesses in the service quality to be identified and the improvements introduced in it. However, it is apparent that the consumers of sports services generally have greater expectations than what their a posteriori perceptions tell them they have received. Research conducted by Howat et al. (1996) on the consumers of sports centres in Australia and Theodorakis et al. (2001), on the consumers of professional basketball in Greece, have shown that the consumers aim their a priori expectations at a much higher level than the service quality perceptions of what they receive. In research carried out in the UK on sport and leisure public services, Robinson (1999) discovered that the constant improvement of the services offered and delivered leads the consumers to expect continuous improvements. Subsequently, the current level of quality can act as a motor in itself to oblige the managers to raise the standard in order for this improvement in quality to meet the consumers’ raised expectations. Eventually, these rising expectations will become problematic for the service providers (Coye, 2004; Robinson, 1999; Robledo, 2001), since a point will be reached at which further improvements in quality are likely to be impossible or financially unviable (Robinson, 2006; Rust and Oliver, 2000). In Robinson’s (2006) view, consumers have two different types of expectations regarding the services that they purchase: the expectations of the service’s quality and the expectations of satisfaction with this service. Firstly, consumers purchase services that supply certain attributes and use their expectations to judge the quality of the service (Gronroos, 1984; Parasuraman et al., 1985; 1994a–b). For example, an HFC that offers a wide range of sporting activities compared to other HFCs will thus be perceived as offering services of high quality. If the HFC does not have its own parking facilities, it will be viewed as a low-quality service provider compared to those HFCs that do have a car park, despite the fact that it has an extensive range of activities. The HFC staff and instructors are important parameters of quality. In this respect, they are expected to be helpful, at the least. If this is not the case, then the HFC management is rather restricted in what it can do to eradicate the poor quality or the perceptions of it, for which its human resources have been responsible. The second type is the expectations of the consumers with regard to each encounter with the service and the level of satisfaction experienced as a result of those encounters (Coye, 2004; Murray and Howat, 2002; Wong, 2004). These expectations are of a perceptional nature, since the satisfaction with a service is determined by the consumer’s positive perception of the encounter with the service, rather than with any other attribute supplied by the service. For example, although the HFC has a car park, if the consumer is obliged to park some distance away from the centre’s premises and arrives late for his class as a result, he will possibly become dissatisfied because the perception of the parking facilities fails to meet his expectations. Alternatively, in spite of him not missing the start of the scheduled class, the fact that he had to park at an inconvenient distance away is likely to have little or even no impact on his satisfaction with the encounter with the service. The distinction between these two concepts arose from the argument that the expectations that lead to satisfaction consist of what consumers think the HFC must offer, while the expectations that lead to the perceptions of the quality of service stem from what consumers feel the HFC might offer (Parasuraman et al., 1994b). On this basis, satisfaction can be understood as a sentiment that emerges from the experience of the service, while the quality of a service is concerned with the nature of its attributes (Crompton and MacKay, 1989).

456


As previously stated, the purpose of our research is to measure the effect of global expectations on global satisfaction and its relation to the satisfaction by attributes, which the HFC must offer. This is innovative insofar as the introduction of the concept of expectations is introduced into an analytical model in the context of the HFC.

3.3 Consumer satisfaction and loyalty One of the main factors of the HFC’s strategic development is founded on the need and efforts to ensure the consumers’ loyalty to its services. The success of sports organisations as service providers depends largely on the means employed by the management to gain and retain client loyalty (Backman and Crompton, 1991a–b). A consumer’s loyalty to an organisation implies his indifference and/or resistance to the competition’s efforts to attract him with low prices and substitution opportunities (Hoffman and Bateson, 1997). Consumer loyalty should be a fundamental target for any sports organisation, as loyal consumers can provide not only the economic support base for a particular programme, but moreover, constitute a solid platform for all of the organisation’s objectives. Rosenberg and Czepiel (1983) estimated that it was six times more costly to attract a new consumer than to maintain an existing one. In the past, marketers were more concerned with the development of strategies to win new clients and creating stimuli for the sales department than consolidating long-term relationships with existing clients. Nowadays, the focus has shifted to incorporating strategies for building loyalty into the marketing mix. This reflects changes in thinking, both in the the organisational culture and in the reward systems (Kotler, 2000). Loyalty in the domain of sports activities has been studied by many sports and leisure researchers (Alexandris et al., 2004; Murray and Howat, 2002; Park and Kim, 2000; Robinson, 2006). These works integrate theories in diverse disciplines, including consumer behaviour, organisational behaviour, sociology and psychology. It is pertinent to suggest that the study of consumer satisfaction yields information on consumer loyalty and behaviour relating to the services (McDougall and Levesque, 2000; Taylor and Baker, 1994). Bitner et al. (1990) and Jones and Suh (2000) discovered that global satisfaction exerts a direct influence on the consumers’ repurchase of services. Similarly, McDougall and Levesque (2000) posited a causal chain in which the service quality influences the sentiments of satisfaction that, in turn, influence behaviour and future purchase intentions. Howat et al. (1999) discovered that the sport and leisure centre consumers’ satisfaction is clearly related to their recommendations of a centre to third parties. The indicators of consumer retention that are invariably utilised to represent loyalty are: •

the level of the consumers’ repeat purchases

•

their willingness to recommend the service to other potential consumers

•

their intentions to increase their frequency of attendance (Howat et al., 1999).

In our research, loyalty is evaluated across these three indicators, with the aim of analysing the effect that global satisfaction exerts on the consumers’ loyalty.


4

457

Methodology

4.1 Sample The data source for our study was a questionnaire distributed to a sample of 542 individuals based on a confidence interval of 95% and with a sample error of 4%. The sample was randomly selected from a total number of 5600 members of two private HFCs situated in the municipality of Oeiras (near Lisbon), Portugal. Both clubs are well established in the market in the Oeiras area. Of the 542 questionnaires distributed, 463 were completed and returned. The average age of the respondents is approximately 36 years (standard deviation = 13.53) and the majority are female (64%) and single (52%).

4.2 Instruments The instruments used were based on a ten-item battery representing each of the individual measures of the constructs discussed in this paper: expectations, facilities, satisfaction and loyalty. The responses to all questions were given in a typical five-point Likert scale. The psychometric quality was analysed with the support of Cronbach’s alpha, the values being presented in global terms with an alpha > 0.7 (reference value), which represents a good psychometric quality. The item ‘expectations’ was measured by means of a question constructed with the objective of evaluating the level at which the respondents’ expectations were satisfied through a positive perception of the encounter with the services in the short term (the satisfaction by attributes) and in the long term (global satisfaction). The ‘facilities’ dimension is composed of five attributes: the timetable of activities/services, hygiene, security, infrastructure and the condition of the equipment used. This dimension aimed to evaluate the respondents’ level of satisfaction during the occurrence of a specific transaction, measured in the short term, between the respondent and a specific attribute of the facilities (alpha of .80 > .70). As mentioned earlier, in selecting the attributes for the ‘facilities’ dimension, we took into account those tangible characteristics which were of most value to the users, according to the feedback from our sessions with focus groups, in order to study the encounter with the service. The item ‘satisfaction’ was measured by means of a ‘top of the mind’ question, the objective of which was to evaluate the global satisfaction, measured in the long term, of the respondents in relation to the global services of the HFC. The ‘loyalty’ dimension consists of three attributes: repeat purchases, recommendations to third parties and the frequency of use. This dimension was designed with the aim of providing insights into the respondents’ future intentions regarding the HFCs.

4.3 Strategy for data analysis The purpose of the conceptual model is to study the effects established among expectations, satisfaction and loyalty. The pertinence of evaluating the effects of the expectations and their relation to global satisfaction/the satisfaction by attributes emerged from our survey of the literature, since its theoretical importance with respect to the fitness industry was emphasised (Robinson, 2006). The global expectations are evaluated and measured in our model. In addition, satisfaction is evaluated in our model on two

458


levels: in the encounter with the service by attributes (short-term measure – item ‘facilities’) and in its entirety (long-term measure – item ‘satisfaction’). In so doing, we seek to verify, in the fitness industry and particularly in the HFCs, the effects that the intermediate item ‘satisfaction’ establishes with the item ‘expectations’, with the ‘facilities’ dimension and with the ‘loyalty’ dimension. We considered the following hypotheses: •

expectations establish a positive effect with global satisfaction

•

there is a positive relation between expectations and facilities

•

facilities have a positive effect on global satisfaction

•

global satisfaction has a positive effect on loyalty.

Structural equation models were chosen specifically for the present study due to their capacity to deal with complex models and the fact that they permit us to work with both latent and manifest variables. These models are integrated into a group generally called simultaneous equation systems. The latter are found among the dependency methods, with multiple relations among the independent and dependent variables and the possibility that some of the model’s variables are latent and as such, are not directly observable (Reis and Salgueiro, 2000). By means of a confirmative approach to the theoretical structure, we seek to analyse the variables of most importance in the explanation of loyalty (a latent construct). The model was analysed with the support of a covariance matrix of the various manifest variables. The analysis was conducted using the statistical software AMOS 7.0 (Byrne, 2001). Figure 1

The conceptual model


5

459

Results

The results of our model present a standardised solution and all the variables have a unitary variation. With regard to the quality of adjustment of the analytical model, we verify that the model presented good adjustment indices (CFI = .971; GFI = .972; RMSEA = .047). We also verify that the total explained variance by this model is approximately 70% (R2 = .70). With reference to the constructs indicated in this paper, we obtained the following results. The item ‘expectations’ had a positive direct effect on the item ‘satisfaction’ of about .40 and an indirect effect of .12 on the dimension ‘loyalty’ through the dimension ‘satisfaction’. The dimension ‘facilities’ had a positive direct effect of .34 on the item ‘satisfaction’ and an indirect effect of .18 on the dimension ‘loyalty’ through the item ‘satisfaction’. The item ‘satisfaction’ had a positive direct effect of .83 on the dimension ‘loyalty’. In addition to these results, we could also verify that a positive, though not very significant, relation of about .30 occurs between the item ‘expectations’ and the dimension ‘facilities’. Figure 2

6

The standardised results

Discussion and implications

Based on a quantitative approach, we elaborated an analysis of how loyalty can be explained through satisfaction and expectations. The results suggest an important contribution from both of these concepts to the study of consumer loyalty.

460


With regard to the item ‘expectations’ and according to Coye (2004) and Wong (2004), consumers have expectations of each encounter with the service, in which the sentiments of satisfaction are formed. Expectations that lead to satisfaction consist of what consumers think that the HFC must offer. This study presents a positive relation between global expectations and facilities and an effect, which is also positive, between global expectations and global satisfaction (Robinson, 2006). Another interesting result relates to the ‘facilities’ dimension, in which we attempted to verify the satisfaction level during an encounter with the service, measuring its effect on global satisfaction. Global satisfaction is considered by Zeithaml and Bitner (2003) as the affective response to the consumer’s service consumption, suggesting that satisfaction is a global concept (long-term evaluation). On the other hand, Crompton and MacKay (1989) argued that the satisfaction with a service should be evaluated through the experience of the service. Cronin and Taylor (1994) and Parasuraman et al. (1994a) corroborated the latter and argued that satisfaction is a short-term measure and a specific transaction within the experience. We verified the relation between these two arguments: the item ‘satisfaction’ (long-term measure) and the dimension ‘facilities’ disaggregated into attributes (short-term measure). We also verified that the dimension ‘facilities’, besides being a distinct concept, is interconnected with global satisfaction through the revealed positive effect (Oliver, 1993). In evaluating the item ‘satisfaction’ in the dimension ‘loyalty’, we verified the existence of a strong causality between both variables, which sheds light on loyalty and the consumers’ behaviour in relation to the services (McDougall and Levesque, 2000; Taylor and Baker, 1994). The existence of a positive effect of satisfaction on the respondents’ loyalty to the HFC once again confirms the value of analysing satisfaction as a variable with a strong impact on loyalty (Howat et al., 1999). The findings of our research raise both theoretical and practical implications. At the theoretical level, the results suggest that global satisfaction is an important variable for the understanding of consumer loyalty. The verification of a strong relation between satisfaction and loyalty had already been confirmed in past studies (Alexandris et al., 2004; Cronin and Taylor, 1994; Murray and Howat, 2002), in which satisfaction was demonstrated to be the most important factor influencing consumer loyalty. On the other hand, the introduction of expectations into our model points to the need for researchers to extend the investigation of this construct in HFC studies. At the practical level and of particular value to the HFC managers, the research suggests that the management must be constantly aware of the need to evaluate their clients’ global satisfaction, both as a separate construct and in relation to other constructs (expectations, facilities, loyalty). Secondly, and of significance in relation to one of the managers’ fundamental concerns, namely, the organisation’s profitability, the evaluation of the clients’ global satisfaction level is a means of monitoring these clients’ future intentions with regard to the HFC (Alexandris and Palialia, 1999; Alexandris et al., 2004; Jones and Suh, 2000). In addition, those attributes that lead to loyalty also require the management’s constant evaluation and modification as and when necessary (Howat et al., 1999), namely, repeat purchases, recommendations to third parties and the frequency of attendance. The expectations must be identified and measured, comparing the effect that they exert on satisfaction and ultimately influence, indirectly via satisfaction, the loyalty to the HFC.


7

461

Limitations and extensions

In the course of our analysis, we have verified certain limitations that serve to provide a direction for future research. In the present work, we considered two HFCs that have operated in a local market over a long time. We suggest that the future studies include other variables, such as the facility dimensions and the types of services offered. Furthermore, the investigation should be extended to a larger number of HFCs. The expectations have been evaluated from a global perspective, measuring their effect on global satisfaction and their relation with the facilities. It would be interesting to disaggregate the expectations and to verify the effects and relations that they establish with global expectations, global satisfaction and the satisfaction by attributes. As suggested by Robinson (2006), the consumers’ expectations are influenced by past experiences, personal needs, word of mouth, market communications, price and image. In our study, great emphasis was placed on the ‘facilities’ dimension. In future studies, it might be of interest to augment the number of services under analysis. According to several authors (Graaf, 1994; Chelladurai et al., 1987), the a priori subdivision and categorisation of services would increase the possibility of evaluating the respondents’ encounters with the service. Furthermore, the relation with global satisfaction can be more broadly understood. The insights gained into expectations and global satisfaction and the satisfaction by attributes can furnish us with clues as to the reasons for the clients’ loyalty to their HFC. The innovation in the present study has been to measure the effects and relations of expectations on satisfaction which, in turn, indirectly produce positive effects on loyalty. Future research should proceed to construct and develop a model that could explain the consumers’ loyalty to the HFC.

8

Conclusions

The present research has led us to conclude that global satisfaction assumes an intermediate variable role in relation to the other studied constructs, namely, expectations, facilities and loyalty. The effects and positive relations presented above always take satisfaction into consideration as an intermediate variable through the verification of the four presented hypotheses. The consideration of expectations permits us to affirm the indispensability of their inclusion in the models that study their effect on and relation to satisfaction which, in turn, indirectly influences loyalty. The inclusion of the effects of expectations and their relation is innovative and of benefit to the fitness industry. Nevertheless, the scope of their measurement in this paper has been limited and thus, requires future extension and consolidation. We also conclude that global satisfaction plays a significant role in the issue of loyalty, as does the satisfaction by attributes (facilities), although the effect is indirect. Finally, we emphasise the assertion that the satisfaction by attributes and global satisfaction, despite being distinct concepts, are interconnected and that both concepts influence loyalty.

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Notes 1 2

The figures for the EU-25 do not include Luxembourg, Malta and Cyprus, due to the absence of data on these countries. EU-16 = Norway, Sweden, Holland, Switzerland, Spain, Austria, Greece, Ireland, the UK, Germany, Portugal, Italy, Belgium, Denmark, France and Finland.


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The status of the professional development programmes of the health and fitness industry in Turkey Betül Sekendiz* Health Sciences and Medicine Faculty Bond University Gold Coast, QLD 4229, Australia E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author

M. Settar Koçak and Feza Korkusuz Physical Education and Sports Department Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine the status of the professional development programmes of the health and fitness industry in Turkey. The instrument was the ‘Survey of the Health and Fitness Industry’ (Deane Mantia, 2000). Frequency and percentile rankings were used to analyse the responses (267) of the two subgroups (61% fitness professionals, 39% consumers). The results demonstrated that the professional development programmes and the fitness industry were not complementary and the fitness certifications were underrated by the health and fitness industry professionals. It was recommended that a governing body should be established to develop standardisation for the professional development programmes of the health and fitness industry and the universities should be encouraged to open fitness management programmes to protect the industry from abuse. Keywords: standardisation; health certifications; fitness professionals.

and

fitness

industry;

licensing;

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Sekendiz, B., Koçak, M.S. and Korkusuz, F. (2009) ‘The status of the professional development programmes of the health and fitness industry in Turkey’, Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp.465–476. Biographical notes: Betül Sekendiz is currently undertaking a PhD in Sports Management, at Bond University in Australia. She completed a Master in Sports Management degree at Middle East Technical University, Turkey, in 2005. This study built upon the findings of her Master’s thesis which addressed the status of the health and fitness industry in Turkey. Her current research is focused on litigation and risk management issues in the health and fitness industry. M. Settar Koçak is an Associate Professor and Vice Chairperson at the Physical Education and Sports Department at Middle East Technical University in Turkey. Copyright © 2009 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

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B. Sekendiz, M.S. Koçak and F. Korkusuz Feza Korkusuz is a Professor and Chairperson at the Physical Education and Sports Department at Middle East Technical University in Turkey.

1

Introduction

In the last decade of the 20th century, the fitness industry, ‘a multifaceted phenomenon’ (Parks, 1990, p.71), took the USA by storm and still continues to capture the imagination of not only the Americans, but the whole world. In the 1980s, the fitness craze resulted in the abundance of health and fitness centres that emerged to answer the increasing demand for exercise programmes. By that time, numerous health and fitness centres had also been opened in Turkey and the popularity of fitness has continued to increase ever since. According to the sport system in Turkey, the fitness industry is controlled by the General Directorate of Youth and Sports (GSGM), which has established regulations for the licensing of the private health and fitness centres under the control of the Youth and Sport Provincial Directorates (GSIM, 2004). Despite the fact that the number of the licensed health and fitness centres has reached over 2000 all over the country, only 25% of the fitness centres are licensed, leaving over approximately 1500 of the fitness centres out of control (Hürriyet, 2002). So far, few studies have been conducted to analyse the status of the professional development programmes of the health and fitness industry (Deane Mantia, 2000; Deluca, 2000). The objective of this study was twofold. The primary objective of this study was to determine the status of the professional development programmes in Turkey, and the secondary objective was to identify the credentials of the fitness professionals working in the health and fitness industry. The paper is organised as follows: in Section 2, a review of the literature about the status of the training, certification and education of the health and fitness industry is provided. In Section 3, the methodology provides information about the sample, instrumentation and statistical procedures of this study conducted for the analysis of the data. In Section 4, the results of the analysis are displayed and in Section 5, the results of this study are discussed. Finally, in Section 6, the concluding remarks and implications of this study for future research are presented.

2

Training, certification and education

With respect to the fact that the fitness management system of the USA has pioneered the fitness professional movement in many European and Asian countries (Wu, 2002; Deane Mantia, 2000; Lee, 1991) and no previous research has been conducted in Turkey regarding this issue, this section gives some brief background information about the training and education of the fitness professionals and the status of the certification organisations of the health and fitness industry in the USA, in comparison to the system in Turkey. A striking remark was made on the status of the health and fitness industry in the west by Deane Mantia (2000), who suggested that the benefits of being a fitness instructor had charmed many people with the ease of the working hours, free memberships and the lack of an academic degree and certification prerequisites. The only qualification expected of

The status of the professional development programmes

467

a fitness leader was “a fit, good looking body with good stereo system” (Deane Mantia, 2000, p.4). Moreover, “Many have remarked, ‘I get paid for doing what is essentially my hobby!’” (Stedman, 2001, p.4). As Parks (1990) demonstrated, “In 1988, less than 25% of the estimated 100,000 fitness instructors in the United States had formal training” and the “Lack of standard qualifications has resulted in confusion and injury” (p.71). In turn, the alarmingly high injury rates and the lack of quality and standards have made the need for the certification of the fitness instructors and regulation in this field evident and inevitable (Deane Mantia, 2000). During the 1950s, numerous organisations took initiatives in the education of the general public about the consequences of low fitness levels. Since then, several agencies have been involved in the promotion of fitness, such as the American Health Association (AHA), the American Medical Association (AMA), the American Association for Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAPHERD) and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) (Dalleck and Kravitz, 2002). Among these institutions, the ACSM has been accepted as the leading health, fitness and exercise science authority in the world since 1954, which has recognised the importance of providing health and fitness facilities with standards and guidelines for delivering quality physical activity programmes and services to the consumers, holds health and fitness and clinical certification programmes (ACSM, 2007). According to Nash (1985, p.142): “certification tells the consumer that the instructor has demonstrated a certain standard of knowledge and competence. Certification also assures health club owners that their instructors have satisfied state or nationally accepted criteria for safety awareness, injury prevention, and knowledge of anatomy and exercise physiology.”

Following the ACSM, the Aerobic and Fitness Association of America (AFAA) was established in 1983 by a nurse called Ms. Pfeffer, who realised that there were no qualifications required for a fitness leader after she experienced a serious injury during an aerobics class. She assembled a group of allied health professionals and developed the Aerobic and Fitness Association of America (AFAA) to train and certify leaders in fitness. Following AFAA, the yielding potential of the training organisations was realised and many other certifying bodies had emerged in the mid-1980s, claiming to be the first and the best within the health and fitness industry (Deane Mantia, 2000). Despairingly, many of these organisations, such as the International Fitness Association (IFA), the American Council on Exercise (ACE) and the International Sports Science Association (ISSA) were accused of being inadequate in providing practical skills as well as theoretical knowledge (Deane Mantia, 2000). In Turkey, the General Directorate of Youth and Sports (GSGM) is the major certifying organisation of the fitness professionals. As previously stressed by Sekendiz (2005), one of the major problems of the system is that certifications are not standardised. Another problem is that licensing regulations are established for the sport centres in general, and do not specify a standard for health and fitness centres in particular. As suggested by Sadi (2004), licensing chief of the Youth and Sport Provincial Directorates (GSIM), the lack of standardisation resulted in insufficient inspections at the facilities in terms of not only the infrastructure of the facility, but also the employed fitness professionals. Prior to standardisation in the health and fitness industry, the current status of certification programmes and credentials of the fitness professionals in the health and fitness industry has to be determined. Therefore, the objectives of this study are set in this respect for the healthy and quality development of the industry.

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3

B. Sekendiz, M.S. Koçak and F. Korkusuz

Methodology

3.1 The setting and population The setting was the health and fitness centres in Turkey. The fitness professionals and the sport consumers of the private health and fitness centres in Turkey were the population. The sample (N = 267) consisted of the fitness professionals (n = 163) (the fitness instructors and the managers) and the consumers of exercise (104) in the licensed private health and fitness centres who volunteered to participate in the study. The health and fitness centres were selected randomly from the list obtained from the GSGM (2004).

3.2 Instrumentation In this study, the ‘Survey of the Health and Fitness Industry’ (SHFI) (Deane Mantia, 2000) was used as the instrument after an adaptation process into Turkish (SHFI-T). There were two different questionnaires for the fitness professionals and the exercise consumers. Among the nine categories of the questionnaire, the SHFI-T for the fitness professionals included the categories ‘professional information’ (i.e., certifications held, level of education) and ‘professional development’ (65 items) that covered items about the status of the professional development programmes of the health and fitness industry. The SHFI-T consumer version included only the category ‘professional development’. The respondents were asked to use a four-point Likert scale as: strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree.

3.2.1 Reliability and validity The external validity of the SHFI-T was conducted by translation techniques following a standardised procedure suggested by Brislin (1980; 1986), in which the inventory items and scale were translated from English to Turkish by a bilingual English language expert. Thereafter, the translated inventory was back-translated by a jury of independent and proficient bilingual academicians who were experts in the sport management field. The back-translated versions were then compared with the original English version and any inconsistencies, errors, biases and incongruences were highlighted. As Bracken and Barona (1991) recommended, these inconsistencies were removed in a further translation and the back-translation comparison process was repeated until the versions were identical. Furthermore, the translated instrument was independently reviewed by the jurors to confirm whether each item served the purpose of the instrument (Brislin, 1993). The internal consistency reliability of the SHFI-T data was measured by Cronbach’s alpha that was 0,7.

3.3 Data collection The surveys were distributed to two major populations: the fitness professionals (owners, managers and instructors) and the consumers of exercise. The surveys were distributed to the subjects at the health and fitness centres, who volunteered to participate in the study. The instructions for completing the surveys were explained to the participants in detail by the researcher. During the six-month data collection period, a total of 267 surveys were collected out of 370 surveys distributed to the 26 licensed private health and fitness centres in Ankara.


469

3.4 Data analysis The demographic data and responses to the surveys were analysed in an SPSS 10.0 statistical package. The Likert scale responses (strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree) were assigned a numerical value, with 1, 2, 3 and 4 used respectively, so that the scores could be statistically analysed by frequency and percentile ranking.

4

Results

In this study, the results of the ‘professional development’ and ‘professional information’ categories of the SHFI-T data were used. The number of the total responses from each group are provided in Table 1. Table 1

The number of responses to the types of surveys

Types of surveys (SHFI-T)

Subject groups

n

Survey for the fitness professionals

Managers

58

Instructors

105

Consumers

104

Survey for the consumers of exercise Total

267

4.1 The qualifications of the fitness leaders The owners, managers and instructors were asked to identify the qualifications necessary to perform the role of a fitness leader, including knowledge (100% agreed), practical skills (100% agreed), interpersonal skills (98% agreed) and management skills (87% agreed). Around 62% of the instructors and 64% of the managers emphasised that they had a good understanding of the job requirements before entering their positions in fitness. A total of 68% of the managers and 70% of the instructors reported that the staff at their facility are aware of the international standards of the industry. Yet, only 54% of the managers and 51% of the instructors agreed that their staff follows the international guidelines.

4.2 Initial training The fitness professionals were requested to list the source and duration of training prior to their entry into the fitness industry. Some 38% of the respondents indicated that they received training from the Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation of the GSGM. Two (8%) of the survey participants identified themselves to be graduates of a physical education and sports university degree as a source of initial preparation for their position in fitness and the rest of the respondents (25%) identified ‘gym experiences’ as training. The ranking of the sources of training as identified by the fitness professionals can be seen in Figure 1.

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Figure 1

The initial training sources identified by the fitness professionals

0

20

40

60

80

100

In-house training

Fitness Professionals

GSGM University (PES) Gym experience

4.3 The certification of fitness professionals Certification does not seem to be accepted as a measure of competency in fitness by the fitness professionals. According to 93% (71,4% strongly disagreed and 21,4% disagreed) of the managers, certification is not an indication of a well-qualified fitness professional. A total of 85% (50,5% strongly disagreed and 34,3% disagreed) of the instructors also disagreed with the statement that certification is an indication of a well-qualified fitness professional. However, the consumers were more optimistic about this statement, with 63% agreeing (33% agree and 30% strongly agree) (see Figure 2). Figure 2

The rating of certification as a competency 0

Who disagreed that 'certification is an indication of a well-qualified fitness professional'

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

M anagers Instructors Consumers

In the survey for the fitness professionals, the personal information section asked the respondents “I hold a(n)____________ certification from ____________ organisation” and to list additional certifications. Only 8% (11% of the fitness instructors and 29% of the managers) of the 163 fitness professionals responded to this item. Around 12 of the fitness professionals (4% of the instructors and 14% of the managers) identified ‘bodybuilding and fitness trainer certification’ from the Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation and two of the fitness instructors (2%) and two of the managers (4%) listed ‘step and aerobics trainer certification’ from the Turkish Gymnastics Federation. Five of


471

the fitness instructors (7% of all the fitness instructors) listed unrelated certifications with their positions, such that two of the fitness instructors (2%) listed ‘tennis coach certification’, two listed (2% of the fitness instructors) ‘football coach certification’ and one listed ‘massage certification’ (see Figure 3). Figure 3

The certification status of the fitness professionals

100 80

Certified

60

Noncertified

40

Certified from unrelated fields

20 0

Instructors n = 105

Management n = 58

4.4 The value of the certifying organisations Despite the fact that the fitness professionals stated that there was a need for more standardisation (70%) and professionalism (74%), 80% agreed (5% strongly agreed and 75% agreed) that ‘in a cost-benefit analysis, certification is valuable to the industry’. Only 56% of the fitness professionals agreed with the statement that the major certification organisations helped in the development and growth of the industry and 53% disagreed that the certification organisations helped to promote health and fitness to inactive populations.

4.5 Additional certifications held by fitness professionals Around 71% of the survey respondents agreed with the statement that ‘as long as the fitness staff holds one certification, they are not required to pursue further certifications’. According to the responses to the question concerning additional certifications, only three (2%) of the surveyed fitness professionals (n = 163) could identify themselves as certified in First Aid and CardioPulmonary Resuscitation (CPR). This is in contrast to the statement that the staff at their fitness facility maintained current certifications in First Aid and CPR, with a response rate of 40% of the managers and 27% of the instructors agreeing.

4.6 Academic preparation The fitness professionals were asked to describe their level of education and field of study. Among the 163 fitness professionals who answered this item, 14 (9%) listed Bachelor’s degrees. Eight of the respondents (5%) described a Bachelor’s degree in the field of physical education and sports. Six of the fitness professionals (4%) listed areas of study in other fields. A total of 91% of the fitness professionals (n = 149) had no academic degree listed (see Table 2).

472


Table 2

The level of education of the fitness professionals

Level of education Bachelor’s degree No academic degree

5

Field of study

f

%

Physical education and sports

8

5

Other fields

6

4

149

91

Discussion

The primary aim of this study was to investigate the status of the professional development programmes of the health and fitness industry in Turkey. According to the results of this study, the value of the certification organisations was denounced. Nearly half of the fitness professionals stated that the certifying bodies were not helping in the development and growth of the industry (44%) and were not helping to promote health and fitness to inactive populations (53%). This was in contrast to what Deane Mantia (2000) had proposed in her study about the value of the certification organisations to the industry, as 96% of the fitness professionals agreed that the major certification organisations helped in the development and growth of the industry and 76% still agreed that the certification organisations helped to promote health and fitness to inactive populations. These results also showed that only 54% of the managers and 51% of the instructors agreed that their staff follows international guidelines. From this standpoint, it seems that the certifying bodies of the health and fitness industry in Turkey have to set some standards with regard to the standards of the international certifying bodies. What is more, not only should their primary motive be to develop and aid in the growth of the industry, but also to assist in the education of the sedentary and inactive populations to develop and maintain healthy and active lifestyles. Another result of this study that is worth mentioning is that the fitness instructors and the managers did not believe in the credibility of the certifications. In contrast to the findings of Deane Mantia (2000), who reported that the majority of the fitness professionals and consumers in the USA believed that ‘certification is an indication of a well-qualified fitness professional’, this study revealed that the fitness professionals in Turkey did not believe that certification is a measure of competency and an indication of a well-qualified fitness professional. The disenchantment with the fitness certifications and the certifying bodies by the fitness professionals may be due to the fact that the Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation, which is the governing body of the fitness instructor certification in Turkey, is deplored by the media and is notorious for running many illegal activities in the distribution of the certifications (Yüksel, 2003). “Training is everything. The peach was once a bitter almond; cauliflower is nothing but cabbage with a college education” (Twain, 1986, p.84). According to Palmer (1999), this connotation by Twain suggests that although training is important, the content and level of detail in training are issues that are supposed to be questioned. From this perspective, it may be suggested that if we want the certification providers to prepare allied and qualified fitness professionals, the solution is within the industry itself to set standards for the certification agencies in order to prevent the certificates from being mere pieces of paper (Parks, 1990). This is why the GSGM should take some regulatory precautions to avoid the negligent behaviour of the certifying bodies and establish a health and fitness commission to set standards for the certification providers. Henceforth,


473

it would be noteworthy to set up a commission consisting of academicians and delegates of the international certifying bodies to investigate the content, quality and trustworthiness of the education and the examinations of the certification providers in order to provide the standardisation of the certificates. The secondary aim of this study was to identify the credentials of the fitness professionals. When the fitness professionals were asked to identify the qualifications necessary to perform the role of a fitness leader, all of the respondents agreed that knowledge comes first, that is, followed by practical skills (100% agreed), interpersonal skills (98% agreed) and management skills (87% agreed). However, this was quite contradictory to the fact that according to the results of this study, only 10% hold a health and fitness-related certification and among the fitness professionals who have a Bachelor’s degree (9%), 5% of them hold university degrees from fields other than physical education and sports. This might have been due to the fact that the physical education and sports departments of the universities in Turkey do not have any fitness-related branches, such as fitness management or a fitness trainer that can prepare physical education and sports graduates to be employed in the health and fitness industry. Therefore, in order to set standards and protect the fitness industry from abuse by unqualified and uneducated employees, the universities should be encouraged to open fitness management programmes and ally with the GSGM. In turn, this could prepare the students for career opportunities in the health and fitness industry. In the words of Parks (1990, p.72), if “…stringent certification standards become accepted nationwide, the industry will become more professionalized and the more highly qualified candidates should get the jobs”. The results of this study also depicted that 71% of the health and fitness professionals agreed with the statement that ‘as long as the fitness staff holds one certification, they are not required to pursue further certifications’. This was supported by the licensing chief of the sport centres in the Provincial General Directorate of Youth and Sport (GSIGM), who stated that the current regulations could not prevent the certificates from merely being pieces of paper, as it was enough for the owner of a health and fitness facility to employ only one trainer who has a certification granted by the GSGM in order to be able to get the licence of a health and fitness centre (Sadi, 2004). According to Van der Smissen (1990), most liability cases in programmatic situations are due to allegations of injury due to inadequate or wrong supervision, as lack of qualified professionals may decrease the quality of the service provided (Casey et al., 2004). According to Chundepall (2000), the sport and recreation managers are not aware of the legal liabilities and what the consequences may be if a plaintiff accuses the fitness instructors or the facility of negligent behaviour that resulted in injury. Quite similar to the previous findings of Deane Mantia (2000), who found that 2% of the fitness professionals were certified in First Aid and 12% were certified in CPR, the results of this study also depicted that only 2% of the fitness professionals in Turkey were certified in First Aid and CPR. However, First Aid and CPR certifications are accepted as one of the vital guidelines in the risk management practices of the health and fitness facilities (Cotten and Cotten, 2001). Viewed in this light, it is doubtlessly essential for the health and fitness centre owners to make sure that their fitness staff have the necessary training and holds the relevant certifications, especially First Aid and CPR, as a precaution in order to minimise the risk of injury of the customers and avoid the possible legal liabilities due to negligent behaviour.

474

6


Concluding remarks

This study showed that the professional development programmes of the health and fitness industry in Turkey were not standardised and were disrespected by the fitness professionals. However, this problem cannot be resolved only by nationwide implementations. As Parks (1990) suggests, in order to prevent the certificates from merely being pieces of paper, protection should come within the industry itself to set standards for the certification agencies of the health and fitness professionals. From this perpective, firstly, it can be suggested that there could be a single body, such as a health and fitness council consisting of top-level members selected from well-established certification organisations and academicians from the physical education departments of the top 100 universities in the world, to govern the health and fitness industry all over the world. This council could develop standardisation for the certifications and give accreditation to the certifying organisations of the health and fitness industry. Secondly, each country could have its own health and fitness commission, consisting of academicians and delegates of the international council to investigate and regulate the content, quality and trustworthiness of the education and the examinations of the certification providers in order to provide standardisation of the certificates and of the health and fitness industry. Another striking outcome of this study was about the credentials of the health and fitness professionals, as 91% of them do not have a university degree and only 10% hold a health and fitness-related certification. This might have been due to the fact that the physical education and sports departments of the universities in Turkey do not have any fitness-related branches, such as fitness management, or a fitness trainer who can prepare physical education and sports graduates to be employed in the health and fitness industry. Thus, it can be recommended that the universities could be encouraged to open fitness management and fitness trainer programmes and ally with the GSGM, which is the certifying body of the health and fitness professionals, to prepare the students as qualified fitness professionals to be employed in the health and fitness industry and to protect the industry from abuse by unqualified fitness professionals. To conclude, this study showed that the certifications of the health and fitness industry in Turkey lacks standardisation and are underrated by the health and fitness professionals. This issue appears to be a phenomenon that needs to be treated with the mutual commitment of the academia, government and the international certifying bodies in a single governing body working for a standardised, safe and quality health and fitness industry. The implication of this study for future research may be to develop a standardisation model for the certification providers of the health and fitness industry and test its validity and reliability. Another implication for future research may be to conduct a risk management analysis in the health and fitness industry.


475

References ACSM (2007) ACSM’s Health and Fitness Facility Standards and Guidelines, 3rd ed., USA: Human Kinetics. Bracken, B.A. and Barona, A. (1991) ‘State of the art procedures for translating, validating, and using psychoeducational tests in cross-cultural assessment’, School Psychology International, Vol. 12, pp.119–132. Brislin, R.W. (1980) ‘Translation and content analysis of oral and written materials’, in H.C. Triandis and J.W. Berry (Eds.) Handbook of Cross – Cultural Psychology, Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon Inc., Vol. 2. Brislin, R.W. (1986) ‘The wording and translation of research instruments’, in W.J. Lonner and J.W. Berry (Eds.) Field Methods in Educational Research, Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp.137–164. Brislin, R.W. (1993) Understanding Culture’s Influence on Behavior, Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, Brace and Johanovich. Casey, M., Finch, C.F., Mahoney, M. and Townsend, M. (2004) ‘Sport safety policies and practices in two rural Victorian communities’, J Sci Med Sport, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp.226–231. Chundepall, S. (2000) ‘Tertiary sport and recreation: playing it safe’, Dissertation, South Africa: Uni. Pretoria. Cotten, D.J. and Cotten, M.B. (2001) Waivers and Releases for the Health and Fitness Club Industry, 3rd ed., USA: Sport Risk Consulting. Dalleck, L.C. and Kravitz, L. (2002) ‘The history of fitness’, IDEA Health and Fitness Source, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp.26–33. Deane Mantia, P.L. (2000) ‘An analysis of the status of the fitness industry’, Doctoral thesis, Boston University School of Education, UMI No. 9965669. Deluca, L.A., Jr. (2000) ‘Defining and analyzing the professional responsibilities of personal trainers’, Unpublished Doctoral thesis, Boston University. GSGM (2004) Gençlik Spor Genel Müdürlüğü Spor Kuruluşları Daire Başkanlığı Özel Spor Salonları Listesi (General Directorate of Youth and Sports Private Sport Centers List), Ankara: GSGM. GSIM (2004) ‘15 October 1999 Gün ve 23847 Sayılı Resmi Gazete Özel Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Tesisleri Yönetmeliği (Private physical education and sports facilities regulation)’, http://www.ankaragsim.gov.tr/ozelsportesisi.htm (retrieved 26 September 2004). Hürriyet, Varoş Vücut Timi (Bodybuilder ghettos) (2002) 16 November, http://www.hurriyetim .com.tr/haber/0.,tarih-2002-11-16m@nvid-197891,00.asp (retrieved on 10 October 2007). Lee, I.S. (1991) ‘A comparative study of fitness management between Taiwan and the United States’, Journal of Fitness, Vol. 8, pp.23–24. Nash, H.L. (1985) ‘Instructor certification: making fitness programs safer?’, The Physician and Sportsmedicine, October, pp.142–155. Palmer, R. (1999) ‘The identification of organizational and individual training and development needs’, in J.P. Wilson (Ed.) Human Resource Development: Learning and Training for Individuals and Organisations, Herndon, VA: Stylus Publishing. Parks, J.B. (1990) ‘Directory of fitness certifications’, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, pp.71–75. Sadi, M. (2004) Conversation with Mehmet Sadi, the Chief of the Licencing Office, Provincial Directorate of Youth and Sport, 17 October. Sekendiz, B. (2005) ‘A pilot study in determining the status of the health and fitness industry in Turkey’, Unpublished Master’s thesis, Middle East Technical University, Ankara. Stedman, G. (2001) The Ultimate Guide to Sports Marketing, 2nd ed., Blacklick, OH: McGraw-Hill Companies.

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Twain, M. (1986) Pudd’nhead Wilson and Those Extraordinary Twins, UK: Hazell Watson & Viney Ltd. Van der Smissen, B. (1990) Legal Liability and Risk Management for Public and Private Entities, Cincinnati, OH: Anderson. Wu, C.J. (2002) ‘An analysis of management and development structure of fitness centers in Taiwan’, Dissertation for the Doctor of Philosophy, The University of the Incarnate Word, UMI No: 3061465. Yüksel, M. (2003) ‘Vücut geliştirmede sahte imza şoku (Fake signature shock in bodybuilding)’, Electronic Version, Zaman, 23 October, http://arsiv.zaman.com.tr/2003/10/23/spor/h12.htm (retrieved 31 March 2008).


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Book Review: Aggression in the Sports World: A Social Psychological Perspective by Gordon W. Russell Reviewed by John H. Kerr Toin University Yokohama, Japan E-mail: [email protected] Published 2008 by Oxford University Press, New York. 273pp. ISBN: 978-0-19-518959-9 Keywords: book review. Reference to this book review should be made as follows: Kerr, J.H. (2009) ‘Aggression in the Sports World: A Social Psychological Perspective by Gordon W. Russell’, Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp.477–478. Biographical notes: Dr. John H. Kerr is a Sport Psychologist with interests in human aggression and violence in sports. His Doctorate was awarded by the University of Nottingham (UK). Currently, he is a member of the British Psychological Society. Among his published books is Rethinking Aggression and Violence in Sport (2005), Routledge. The book utilises the innovative character of the reversal theory in proposing a fresh point of view to understand aggression in the context of sports.

Professor Russell’s new book is a timely addition to the minimal literature that is currently available on aggression in sports. The first part of his title, Aggression in the Sports World, suggests that his scope is not limited to aggression on the football field or on the ice hockey rink. He also includes aggression amongst sports fans and how that can be influenced by situational and environmental factors, how riots and panic in sports crowds can develop and how the media handles aggression and violence in sports. In fact, he leaves no stone unturned in his quest to cover the topic in an all-inclusive, comprehensive manner. Although he adopts a social-psychological perspective in his text, he is not bound by it and often deviates into other territory to bring out a point or elaborate on an example. As might be expected from someone who has researched the subject of aggression for over 30 years, his writing is backed by scientific evidence from numerous studies, including many of his own findings on a wide range of factors that are associated with aggression in ice hockey fans. Where it is relevant, he also brings in colourful stories and examples from media articles and other sources, which means that his writing is both scholarly and enjoyable. Copyright © 2009 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

478

Book Review

Within his seven chapters, there are some little-known rare jewels of information about sports aggression, which may come as something of a surprise to others who work in the field and general readers. For example, who would have known that a fight broke out at an altitude of 8848 m on a recent ascent of Mount Everest because so many different climbing teams converged on the summit at the same time? Who would have thought that a business entrepreneur could have brought together a group of ice hockey ‘enforcers’, known for their aggressive and violent fighting with opponents during games, in a World Wrestling Entertainment-style, on-ice fight show with real fighting and cash prizes? How could the finger length ratio be related to physical aggression between people or the ions in the atmosphere be related to sports crowd disturbances? How many people would know that there are some parallels between the way ants behave when trying to escape under panic conditions and the way humans behave when caught up in panic at sports events? Finally, all of the research evidence suggests that engaging in aggressive behaviour leads to an increase in aggression. Yet, a study of young juvenile delinquents who followed a course of training in Tae Kwon Do, the highly aggressive traditional Korean martial art with its philosophical underpinnings, showed a decrease in aggression. Parenthetically, the decrease in their aggression was attributed only to the philosophical component of the sport. In an interesting deviation from the usual convention of beginning this type of academic book with an opening chapter or chapters that summarise and comment on the accepted views and the major theoretical contributions of other academics, Russell plunges the reader straight into the heart of the subject. Instead, his final chapter serves the purpose of reviewing the other approaches to understanding aggression, as well as some sections on the methodologies and measures that were used in the studies on aggression. After the first reading, I thought that this might have been a mistake, but later I came to realise that it actually works quite well and saves the reader from the trouble of trolling through sometimes heavy reading about other theoretical perspectives right at the start of the book. If I had to be critical, then it may be that in producing this comprehensive book on aggression in the sports world, Russell has tried to cover too much ground and some of his subsection descriptions are a little short. However, this is a minor criticism and I have no doubt that this quality publication will make a valuable contribution to the extant literature on sports aggression.

479

International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing

CONTENTS, KEYWORDS AND AUTHOR INDEXES FOR VOLUME 5

Contents Index

Volume 5, 2009

Issue Nos. 1–2 SPECIAL ISSUE: MANAGEMENT AND MARKETING OF ICE HOCKEY Guest Editor: Professor Norm O’Reilly 1

Still on their honeymoon: a five year case study of an American Hockey League team and the reasons for their continued success Kimberly L. Bogle, Douglas D. Blais and Jeff Eisenberg

15

Do fans care about hot dogs? A satisfaction analysis of French ice hockey spectators Guillaume Bodet and Iouri Bernache-Assollant

38

The aftermath of the latest labour conflict in the National Hockey League: the impact on brand equity Francois Marticotte and Serge Carrier

55

Perceptions of constraints to NHL spectatorship Jonathan M. Casper, Michael A. Kanters and Jeffrey D. James

73

Analysing motives of minor league hockey fans: the introduction of violence as a spectator motive Damon P.S. Andrew, Gi-Yong Koo, Rob Hardin and T. Christopher Greenwell

90

Symbolic isomorphism and legitimacy: New Zealand’s Ice Blacks and Ice Fernz Sean Phelps and Geoff Dickson

101

The Puck Stops here: a brief report on National Hockey League fans’ reactions to the 2004–2005 lockout Frederick G. Grieve, Elizabeth L. Shoenfelt, Daniel L. Wann and Ryan K. Zapalac

480

Contents Index

115

A comparison of motivational factors affecting attendance between avid and casual fans at minor hockey games Jinbae Hong

132

Differences in motives and points of attachment by season ticket status: a case study of ACHA Donghun Lee, Galen T. Trail and Dean F. Anderson

151

Agenda-setting in minor league hockey: a strategic justification and practical guide Galen Clavio and Kimberly S. Miloch

162

If brand equity matters, where is the brand strategy? A look at Canadian hockey teams in the NHL Andre Richelieu and Frank Pons

183

Where did National Hockey League fans go during the 2004–2005 lockout? An analysis of economic competition between leagues Daniel A. Rascher, Matthew T. Brown, Mark S. Nagel and Chad D. McEvoy

196

The impact of team identification on ice hockey brand associations Stephen D. Ross, Patrick Walsh and Heather D. Maxwell

211

Literature review on brand equity in professional team sport: a German perspective on ice hockey Christina Suckow

226

The marketing of a NHL hockey team Kenneth C. Teed, Lisa Delpy-Neirotti, Scott R. Johnson and Benoit Seguin

Issue No. 3 SPECIAL ISSUE: STRATEGIC ISSUES IN THE MANAGEMENT OF SPORT FIRMS AND ORGANISATIONS: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES Guest Editors: Dr. Miltiadis D. Lytras, Dr. Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos and Dr. Maria Mitre 247

Foreword Miltiadis D. Lytras, Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos and Maria Mitre

251

Introducing FOrNeX: a composite index for the intangible resources of the football club Andreas Andrikopoulos and Nikolaos Kaimenakis

Contents Index

481

267

Coaching education: staff development strategies for the adult learner Gregory S. Sullivan

277

Developing winning baseball teams: a neural net analysis Owen P. Hall Jr. and Samuel L. Seaman

295

Auditing performance management practices: a comparison of Canadian sport organisations Joanne MacLean

310

Managing assets in the field of sports special events: a proposal for a new methodological and analytical approach Lionel Maltese

330

The power of sports marketing Maria Mitre and Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos

338

Factors and focuses in the strategic decisions of sporting organisations: empirical evidence in sports associations Jorge Soares and Abel Correia

355

The quality of the relationships between fitness centres and their customers Pinelopi Athanassopoulou and John Mylonakis

Issue No. 4 SPECIAL ISSUE: HEALTH FITNESS MANAGEMENT: THE ROAD TO WELL-BEING AND PROFITS Guest Editors: Professor Carlos Pestana Barros and Professor Michel Desbordes 367

Introduction Carlos Pestana Barros and Michel Desbordes

369

Brand social representations: strategic perspectives for a fitness club Guillaume Bodet, Bernard Meurgey and Marie-Françoise Lacassagne

384

Investigating individual satisfaction in health and fitness training centres Catarina de Barros and Lisa Gonçalves

396

Segmenting fitness centre clients Mário Teixeira and Abel Correia

417

The industry of wellness: the improvement of well-being António Sacavém and Abel Correia

482

Contents Index

426

Private fitness centres in France: from organisational and market characteristics to micromentalities of the managers Sarah Mischler, Pascal Bauger, Lilian Pichot and Elodie Wipf

450

Expectations, satisfaction and loyalty in health and fitness clubs Vera Pedragosa and Abel Correia

465

The status of the professional development programmes of the health and fitness industry in Turkey Betül Sekendiz, M. Settar Koçak and Feza Korkusuz

Book review 477

Book Review: Aggression in the Sports World: A Social Psychological Perspective by Gordon W. Russell John H. Kerr

483

Keywords Index

Volume 5, 2009

Indexing is based on the keywords and phrases, title and abstract on the first page of each paper. Page references are to the first page of the paper or report. A ACHA National Tournament adult learning agenda-building agenda-setting AHL American Collegiate Hockey Association American Hockey League andragogy athletic services attendance analysis attendance barriers attendance motivation avid fans

132 267 151 151 1 132 1 267 355 15 226 73, 226 115

B behavioural intentions BIRGing brand brand associations brand awareness brand equity brand image brand management brand strategy brands building brand equity

73 101 369 196 38 38, 162 38 196 162 330 211

C Canada Canadian teams casual fans certifications clubs cluster analysis coaching education cognitive loyalty communication community involvement community role company competition competitor evaluation competitor identification

162 162 115 465 330 396 267 132 369 115 151 426 183 183 183

484

Keywords Index

concessions consumer consumer behaviour consumption behaviour coping strategies CORFing corporate identity customer satisfaction customer segmentation customer-brand relationships

226 384 55 55 101 101 90 226 73 211

D DEL demand demographic

211 183 151

E evaluation expectations

295 450

F fan behaviour fan characteristics fan identification fan loyalty fan perceptions fitness fitness centre fitness centres fitness professionals football management Football Organisation Nexus Index ForNeX France G gender German Hockey League Germany H Health and Fitness Centres health and fitness club Health and Fitness Clubs health and fitness industry HFC HFCs hierarchical models honeymoon effect human resources

101 1 115 101, 115 151 417, 426 396 355 465 251 251 251 15 73 211 211 384 369, 417 450 465 450 384 277 1 267

Keywords Index I Ice Blacks Ice Fernz ice hockey image augmentation image reinforcement industry of wellness institutional theory intellectual capital intercollegiate club hockey intercollegiate ice hockey L labour relations legitimacy licensing lifestyle lockout logic of action loyalty M Madeira managerial skills manipulation of resources marketing strategy media coverage media relations micromentality minor league hockey minor league ice hockey motivational factors N National Basketball Association National Hockey League national sports teams NBA networked coverage neural nets new stadium New Zealand Ice Hockey Federation newspapers NHL NHL lockout O organisational management P perceptions of constraints

485

90 90 15, 162, 211 196 196 417 90 251 132 196 38 90 465 417 101 426 450 384 310 310 396 151 151 426 115, 151, 183 73 115 183 38, 55, 101, 162, 183, 226 90 183 38 277 1 90 151 38, 55, 101, 162, 226 183 277 55

486

Keywords Index

performance appraisal performance management political dimensions professional baseball professional ice hockey professional sports public image public perception public relations purchasing decisions

295 295 338 277 226 162 151 151 151 226

R RBV reflective learning regression analysis relationship marketing relationship quality relationships relevant markets relocation Resource-Based View

310 267 183 355 355 355 183 1 310

S satisfaction season ticket holders segmentation service service attributes single game ticket purchase social representations spectator constraints spectator motivation spectator satisfaction sponsoring sport sport branding sport event attendance sport industry sport management sport marketing sport organisation sporting profile sports associations sports directors sports event sports fans sports marketing stadium novelty effect staff development

384, 450 132, 196 15, 115 426 15 132 369 55 55, 73, 115, 132 15, 226 330 369 211 15 295 396 1, 38, 55, 73, 90, 101, 115, 132 151, 162, 183, 196, 226 295 426 338 338 310 15, 132, 151 330 1 267

Keywords Index

standardisation strategic decisions symbolic isomorphism T target marketing team branding team identification team performance team sport marketing team support televised sports coverage television tetra-class models ticket holder types ticket levels ticket pricing ticket revenue ticket status ticket type transformative learning TV sports viewers V violence W workshops

487

465 338 90 115 162 15, 55, 101, 132, 196 151 211 151 38 38 15 55 55 226 183 132 73 267 38 73 267

488

Author Index Anderson, D.F. 132 Andrew, D.P.S. 73 Andrikopoulos, A. 251 Athanassopoulou, P. 355 Barros, C.P. 367 Bauger, P. 426 Bernache-Assollant, I. 15 Bodet, G. 15, 369 Bogle, K.L. 1 Blais, D.D. 1 Brown, M.T. 183 Carrier, S. 38 Casper, J.M. 55 Clavio, G. 151 Correia, A. 338, 396, 417, 450 De Barros, C. 384 De Pablos, P.O. 247, 330 Delpy-Neirotti, L. 226 Desbordes, M. 367 Dickson, G. 90 Eisenberg, J. 1 Gonçalves, L. 384 Greenwell, T.C. 73 Grieve, F.G. 101 Hall, O.P., Jr. 277 Hardin, R. 73 Hong, J. 115 James, J.D. 55 Johnson, S.R. 226 Kaimenakis, N. 251 Kanters, M.A. 55 Kerr, J.H. 477 Koçak, M.S. 465 Koo, G-Y. 73 Korkusuz, F. 465 Lacassagne, M-F. 369

Volume 5, 2009 Lee, D. Lytras, M.D. MacLean, J. Maltese, L. Marticotte, F. Maxwell, H.D. McEvoy, C.D. Meurgey, B. Miloch, K.S. Mischler, S. Mitre, M. Mylonakis, J. Nagel, M.S. Pedragosa, V. Phelps, S. Pichot, L. Pons, F. Rascher, D.A. Richelieu, A. Ross, S.D. Sacavém, A. Seaman, S.L. Seguin, B. Sekendiz, B. Shoenfelt, E.L. Soares, J. Suckow, C. Sullivan, G.S. Teed, K.C. Teixeira, M. Trail, G.T. Walsh, P. Wann, D.L. Wipf, E. Zapalac, R.K.

132 247 295 310 38 196 183 369 151 426 247, 330 355 183 450 90 426 162 183 162 196 417 277 226 465 101 338 211 267 226 396 132 196 101 426 101