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Evaluation of carrying capacity with particular reference to firewood and fodder resources in Central Himalaya: a case study of Baliya catchment a

b

S. K.S. Rathore , S. P. Singh & J. S. Singh

c

a

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Paryavaran Bhawan, C.G.O. Complex, Lodi Road , New Delhi, 110003, India b

Department of Botany , Kumaun University , Naini-Tal, 263002, India

c

Department of Botany , Banaras Hindu University , Varanasi, 221005, India Published online: 02 Jun 2009.

To cite this article: S. K.S. Rathore , S. P. Singh & J. S. Singh (1995) Evaluation of carrying capacity with particular reference to firewood and fodder resources in Central Himalaya: a case study of Baliya catchment, International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 2:4, 285-293, DOI: 10.1080/13504509509469909 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504509509469909

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Int.J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol. 2 (1995)285-293

Evaluation of carrying capacity with particular reference to firewood and fodder resources in Central Himalaya: a case study of Baliya catchment

Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 20:53 04 February 2015

SICS. Rathore', S.P. Singh2 andJS. Singh3 'Ministry of Environment a n d Forests, Paryavaran Bhawan, C.G.O. Complex, Lodi Road, New Delhi-110003, India 2Department of Botany, Kumaun University, Naini-Tal-263002, India 3Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India Key words: animal unit, net primary production, forage production, sustainable harvest, private support area, wood production

SUMMARY The dwindling forests of the Central Himalaya are suffering from serious losses, threatening the subsistence population of the region. This study analyses the rate of consumption of fodder and firewood in a Central Himalayan catchment and estimates the carrying capacity of the catchment for these resources. Estimates indicate that the carrying capacity of the natural ecosystemsand agroecosystems,in terms of availabilityof fodder and fuelwood resources, has already been exceeded.

INTRODUCTION

agricultural economy is becoming less viable (Singh and Singh, 1991). The agricultural extension in the Kumaun hills seems to have started in 1823, when the British decided to expand the amount of arable land and, by the late 1860s, the area of cultivated land was more than doubled. The 1823 settlement established the basic modern system for control of wasteland, including both grazing lands and forests. Under the rationalized administration of the British, village boundaries were demarcated in 1823, remote villagers were guaranteed unrestricted use of the wasteland and were encouraged to bring under the plough new lands adjacent to existing croplands. Once established by the revenue authorities, the system for turning

Though the impact of man on natural ecosystems is being felt all over the world, mountains are among the worst affected areas. The Central Himalaya in India is the cradle of the perennial Gangetic river system that has built up one of the most fertile plain areas of the world. The primary occupation of 90% of the rural population is agriculture,which isanimalbased. The cultivated land is the nucleus of human settlements and serves to increase both the human and livestock populations in a positive feedback manner, grabbing land from forest at an everincreasing rate (Pandey and Singh, 1984). The lifesupport system in this mo.intain region is currently impaired severely, so that the age-old subsistence

Correspondence: Dr S.K.S. Rathore, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Paryavaran Bhawan, C.G.O. Complex, Lodi Road, New Delhi-110003, India

285

Rathore, Singh and Singh

Carrying capacity in Central Himalaya


30"

k

5 '0

Figure 1 Sketch map showing location of the study area together with the adjacent regions in the Indian Central Himalaya (altitudes shown are in metres)

waste into ploughed land remained in place until 1955; it was the first key to forest depletion in subsistence rights in the 20th century (Tucker, 1993).Recent studies on energy-flowrelationships indicate that agriculture in Central Himalaya is a special type of pre-industrial agriculture, and although labour-intensive, far greater than the human and animal labour is the share of manure energy (largely derived from the forest) in the total import of energy to cropfields (Singh et al., 1984). Since humans in the Himalayan region have traditionally maintained subsistence living, the relationship between man and natural vegetation is very intimate. Settled subsistence agriculture is a predominant life-style below 2000 m elevation, where most people live. In this agriculture, natural vegetation, mainly forest and grassland, is used to support agronomic production and other needs of livestock and humans. Every environment has a natural limit to the maximum number of individuals which it can sustain without degrading its life supporting system. The sustainable number of individuals is termed the carrying capacity of that environment (National Research Council, 1982). Sustainability is relative; a given management practice would be more or less

286

sustainable for a certain area and time than the existing one (Carpenter, 1994). In this study, an attempt has been made to calculate the carrying capacity of the Baliya catchment of the Kumaun Himalaya in terms of firewood and fodder consumption and to suggest measures for sustainability.

THE STUDY AREA T h e Central Himalayan region, varying in elevation from 300 to over 7000 m, encompasses an area of about 51000 km2,from 29'30' to 31'30' N in latitude and from 77' to 81' E in longitude. Our focus is on the agricultural zone between 800 and 1800 m elevation of the Central Himalaya, often called the 'problem zone' or 'populated zone', as most of the human population and agricultural activities are found there (Khanka, 1985). The area of the present study was the Baliya catchment (between 29'17'-29'25' N and 79'25'-79'35' E) which is situated between 600 m and 2610 m elevation, within an aerial distance of about 10 km (Figure 1). The catchment area is 7783 ha. Because the Main Boundary Fault passes through the Baliya catchment, the hill slopes are remarkably unstable and susceptible to shattering

International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology

Canying capacity in Central Himalaya

Rathure, Singh and Singh

Table 1 Population, forest types and irrigation level in study villages across the elevational gradient Population Site No.

Village name

Altitude

(4

Aspect

Irrigation level

1981

1991

cmus

cmus

Forest

(%I

chirpinemixed broadleaf banj oakchirpine

50

50


High-elevation villages

1

Belwakhan

1400-1800

south facing

3090

2706

2

Gethia

1580

east facing

1295

1486

Mid-elevation villages 3 Jeolikot

1300

698

754

4

1280

northeast facing north to northeast facing

393

501

chirpinemixed broadleaf chirpine

Bhaluti

25

70

Lowelevation vi1lage.s 5

Dogda

800

northeast facing

250

291

sal

100

6.

Dolmar

800-900

northeast facing

176

178

sal

75

and shearing of rocks, and to earthquakes (Valdiya et al., 1984). In such a geologically active zone, land with gentle slopes, suitable for cawing out field terraces is limited. Only on less steep land, particularly on landslide debris, is agriculture possible (19.6% of the total area, as recorded by Rathore in 1994). The climate of the study area is influenced by the monsoon. The year is divisible into three seasons: the winter - a cold and relatively dry season extending from mid-December to midMarch; the summer - a warm and dry season extending from April to mid-June, and the rainy season or monsoon - a warm and wet season extending from mid-June to midSeptember. The mean daily relative humidity is high, generally remaining above 50%. T h e mean annual temperature in the Central Himalaya declines at a lapse rate of 0.44"C/lOO m (Singh et al., 1994). In the Baliya catchment, the mean annual temperature was 19.6"C at 800 m and 15.2"C at 1800 m elevation. Thus, temperatures are moderate enough to allow crop growth round the year. From higher to lower elevations, the

major forest types are banj oak (QUITCUS leucotrichophora), chirpine ( P i n u s roxburghii), chirpine-mixed broadleaf, chirpine, and sal (Shorea robusta) forest (Table 1).

METHODS Sixvillage siteswere selected within the catchment, representing the elevation range 800-1800 m. Above 1800 m, there were no villages as much of the area is within the Naini Tal township. Study villages were divisible into three groups of two villages each. The groups represented elevational belts; low, intermediate and high (Table 1).The two villages of each elevational belt differed in population size, one having a small and the other a large population.

Estimation of forest resource contribution To determine the amounts of firewood and fodder collection from the forest and private support

InternationalJournal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology

287

Ruthore, Singh and Singh


Canying capaci9 in Central Himalaya

area (PSA, includes noncultivated land within the village area and consists of community forest land having grasses, scrubs and trees raised on private land, mostly around cropfields etc.) , field checks were done in addition to collection of data by means of questionnaires, following the method of Ashish (1983). A complete inventory of the sources and requirements of fodder for the livestock population, and the sources and requirements of fuel for humans was made for each village. A survey (household) was conducted in order to ascertain the numbers of persons and livestock. In the questionnaire, specific queries were made regarding the areas under cropfields, fodder trees and fruit trees raised by villagers. Selection of the parameters in the questionnaire were based on the studies of Pandey and Singh (1984), Metz (1989, 1991), Sharma (1989), Singh (1989) and Ralhan et aL (1991). Households were sampled over a period of 12 months fromJuly 1991 toJune 1992. The household samples accounted for 3035% of the total households in the relatively large villages (Belwakhan and Gethia) and up to 65% in the remaining small villages. The samples included all sizes of households and levels of income. Livestock numbers were converted into animal units following the method of Singh et aL (1988): 1 sheep = 1 animal unit (AU), 1 cow = 4 AU, 1 buffalo = 6 AU and 1 goat = 1.5 AU.

Production Tree biomass for specific sites (of the forest from where villagers extract resources) and the biomass of the whole catchment were estimated. For sitespecific estimates, traditional methods were used: biomass estimation equations from regression with circumference at breast height (cbh), and for the assessment of the whole catchment biomass, non-traditional techniques were used (remote sensing). In brief, trees were divided into different girth (cbh) classes. The mean cbh of the girth classes was used in regression equations, developed earlier by Chaturvedi and Singh (1987) for Pinus roxburghii, Rawat and Singh (1988) for Quercus leucotn'chophoraandother species, and Rana (1985) for Shorea robusta, Mallotus philippensis and other species, to derive an estimate of the mean biomass (by components) for trees of different girth

288

classes. Stand biomass was calculated by summing the biomass values across cbh classes. Aboveground net primary production was determined by measuring the increase in cbh of marked individuals (Chaturvedi and Singh, 1987; Rawat and Singh, 1988). For shrubs, five individuals, o r all individuals when there were less than five, ranging from the smallest to the largest, were harvested in each site and the fresh weight of the woody parts, such as the stem and branches, and the leaves was determined separately. Samples of about 500 g of each component were brought to the laboratory and ovendried at 80°C to constant weight and the weight recorded. The mean dry biomass (component-wise) of individuals, multiplied by density, yielded the total biomass of shoots and foliage separately. Aboveground biomass of the herb layer was determined at the time of peak biomass, i.e. in the first week of September. Three 1 x 1 randomly distributed quadrats were harvested from each of the sample stands, i.e. least disturbed, moderately disturbed and highly disturbed, from the sampling area. The standing crop present in the entire catchment was estimated following the method of Tiwari and Singh (1984). The areas under different land uses, including forest crown-cover classes, were interpreted from the study area subscene 512 pixel x 512 lines from one IRSlA (Indian Remote Sensing Satellite), LISS-I (linear imaging self scanning sensor) scene (path 27 and row 47) acquired on March 1, 1989 (Rathore, 1994). The biomass was estimated for each crown cover class, i.e. c 20%, 21-40%, 41-60%, 6 1 4 0 % and > 80% for bole and total above-ground biomass. The biomass values were estimated in terms of total biomass (x lo4t) .The biomass for each crowncover class was estimated by summing the value of biomass in that crown cover class for each forest type. T h e tree fodder production value was computed as follows: area x aboveground net primary production (ANPP) x fraction of foliage in ANPP (Singh et al., 1988). Because only broadleaf species provide tree leaf fodder, coniferous forests were not considered. For wood production, leaves were excluded from the above-ground net primary production (Singh et aL, 1988), and the value derived was multiplied by the accessible forest area, which




included the area of forest accessible to villagers. It was assumed that forests with a crown density > 60% were not subjected to disturbance, i.e. collection of firewood and grazing. Estimates of wood production from the private support area (trees grown around cultivated area) were taken from Singh et al. (1988),as being 75 t ha-’ of cultivated land. Regression was used to estimate fodder tree biomass following the method of Khosla et al. (1992):for the bole, Y = 0.540X- 1.08 ( r =0.97, pc0.05); for branches, Y = 0.160X - 0.415 ( r =0.97,p, < 0.05),where Y is the dry weight of the component (kg) and Xis the cbh (cm) of the tree. The yield of fodder trees was calculated following the method of Toky d al. (1989a,b).

Consumption Firewood consumption for average individuals was calculated in terms of dry weight following the method of Nautiyal and Barbor (1985) assuming a 40% moisture content. Headloads of fodder and firewood were weighed in the field (15headloads in each of the different seasons in each village) for crosschecking the questionnairebased information. For estimating the values of food intake of animals during grazing, data collected in the Baliya catchment by Joshi (1991) were used. Joshi (1991)has measured grazing patterns in all types of grazing lands found in the villages of our study (based on period of total grazing, actual grazing, bite size, bite rate, etc.). All valueswere multiplied by energy equivalents (Table 2) and all calculations were made per hectare of cropfield area. Mean values for the study villages were extrapolated to give whole catchment estimates. For the purpose of estimating the total livestock population and consumption of fodder by 1 AU, the values for Jeolikot and Bhaluti were excluded because they were exceptional villages. Jeolikot and Bhaluti have extremely low areas of cultivated land, as they are quite urbanized, being on the main road from Haldwani to Naini Tal.

RESULTS The areas under different land uses in the Baliya catchment are given in Table 3.About 47% of the

Rathme, Singh and Singh

Table 2 Energy equivalents for fodder and firewood. (Based on Mitchell (1979) and M.G.Jackson (personal communication)

Material Green fodder Tree, shrub leaves Legume hay Rice straw Other straw Rice hulls Firewood

Energy equivaht (kJ kg’fresh weight)

3937.56 4184.18 14 914.24 8090.86 13 919.40 8451.96 19 679.44

geographical area was under forest (including scrub) and, among the non-forest categories, agriculture and wasteland/grassland were predominant. Tables 4 and 5 quantify the sources and consumption of fodder and firewood in the case study villages. The total fodder production in the Baliya catchmentwas 23.5x lo5kJ year-’ (Table 6).This production included tree leaf fodder from the forest area, grassland production, the production of leaves of fodder trees around cropfields and crop residues. The average ANPP of the forest area was 12.6 t ha-’ y r l and foliage production was 4.4 t ha-’ yr-’ (35% of ANPP). Herbaceous production from forest and from grassland accounted for 17% of total fodder production, compared to 45% for the entire Central Himalaya, as reported by Singh et al. (1988). The Central Himalayan value also included alpine meadows, which occurred in an area of about 2000 km2. Such meadows were absent from the study area, because of lower elevations. The carrying capacity of the catchment (Table 7) comes to 7.8X 1O‘AU when the maximum sustainable harvest (MSH) is taken as 100% for the crop residue, 50% of the tree foliage production and 50% of the ANPP of grassland. Thus the present livestock population is 1.2 times higher than the calculated carrying capacity (Table 7). The estimates of carrying capacity for firewood are given in Table 8. The human population size is 1.5 times greater than the calculated carrying capacity, assuming that 30% of the annual wood production can be safely harvested for use as firewood. However, the present population is three times larger than the carrying capacity if only naturally fallen wood were to be collected for firewood.


289


Carrying capacity in Central Himalaya

Table 3 Land use in Baliya catchment Area (ha)

Land use _____


~~

Total fmest/non-foest

Total area

(5%)

(%I

~~

Nonfmest: Agriculture Habitation Wasteland/grassland Eroding land Water bodies Metalled road Total non-forest

1521.9 553.2 1093.9 279.7 457.2 239.3 4145.2

36.7 13.34 26.4 6.8 11.0 5.8

19.6 7.1 14.0 3.6 5.9 3.8

Fmest: Shmea robusta (sal) Mixed sal Pinus roxburghii Pine-mixed broadleaf Oak Mixed oak Cupessus tmulosa Plantation (Popllus) Scrub

383.8 343.7 1031.3 669.6 274.5 109.4 43.8 9.4 772.0

10.6 9.4 28.3 18.4 7.6 3.0 1.2 0.3 21.2

4.9 4.4 13.3 8.6 3.5 1.4 0.6 0.1 9.9

Total forest including scrub

3637.5 7782.7

Total area ~

~

~~~

_

~~~

_

_

_

_

~

Table 4 Livestock pressure and fodder consumption in study villages Collectionfiom

'

Graringfiom

fnivate

Village name

Animal units

F'vate

forest

area

Crop residue'

SUppaTI

'

forest

suppd area

Total

'

High-ekwationvillages Belwakhan Gethia

74 38

565 276

225 119

838 694

1061 323

173 121

2862 1533

Mid-elevation villages Jeolikot Bhaluti

373 113

4771 1160

431

1031 1112

730 749

297 234

6829 3686

Low-ekwationvillaga Dogda Dolmar

58 49

639 593

144 187

1543 1410

214 263

75 92

2615 2545

121k51

1334f697

184f58

1105k133

165f35

3345f752

Total k 1 SEM

557f39

' x 1P kJ ha-' year' DISCUSSION The carrying capacity ofthe BaliYa catchment in terms offirewood and fodder resources Seems to have already been exceeded. In the present catchment, the forest stock has declined over the past 16 years at the rate of 18 000 t year-' (Rathore 1994). Our calculations

290

indicate that about 50% of the above ground net primary production of the forest is being harvested and this is not sustainable as forest stock is declining. At the current rate of harvest of forest aboveground net primary production, the present livestock and human demands are not sustainable. The removal of foliage from the forest also occurs in the form of litter, which eventually ends up as


Rathwe, Singh and Singh

Carrying capaci9 an Central.Himalaya

Table 5 Human population and annual firewood collection

Collationj v m '


Village name

Human population

fmat

private support area

Total'

3544.4 1072.3

High-ehation villages Belwakhan Gethia

2706 1486

2886.7 806.1

657.7 266.2

Midelevation uillaga Jeolikot Bhaluti

754 501

31 605.2 5284.6

625.9

31 605.2 5910.5

Lowlevation village-s Dogda Dolmar

291 178

1815.7 2759.6

199.5 138.5

2075.1 2898.1

Total f 1 SEM

7526.3f 4853.9

-

314.6f 109.6*

7850.9f 4797.3

x l@kJ ha-' year'; %rewood purchased from market in the village of Dolmar

Table 6 Fodder production in Baliya catchment

Source

Forest tree fodder' Grassland production Forested area Partly deforested area Deforested area Production of leaves of fodder trees around cropfield Crop residue'

Net production (1) (t ha-')

Area ( 2 ) (ha)

Total net prima? production (1 x 2) (X 104 t)

4.4

1183.7

0.5

2.0

1.5 2.3 3.7 0.48

1534.0 931.4 1865.9 1521.9

0.2 0.2 0.7

4.0

0.1

0.4

1521.9

1.6

17.1

3.3

23.5

10.5

Total

Production in energy

tmnr (x 10" kJ year')

'Production value was computed by multiplying the area, above-ground net primary production and fraction for foliage followingthe method of Singh el aL (1988).Since only broadleaf species provide leaf fodder, coniferous forests were excluded. In chirpine-mixed broadleaf forest, it was assumed that only 50% of the leaf production has use as fodder T h e leaf production of fodder trees raised by villagers around their cropfields is equal to 0.48 t dry matter year' for each hectare of cultivated area

Table 7 Carrying capacity of the fodder system for livestock population

Availability of fodder on sustainable basis

Crop residue Net primary production of forest in foliage (total x 0.5) Above ground net primary production of grassland (total x 0.5) Foliage production of fodder trees around cropfield (total x 0.5) Total availability of fodder on a sustainable basis Total livestock population' Consumption of fodder by average 1 AU' Carrying capacity

lhy matter

Energy

(x 10' t)

(x 1O'O kJ)

1.6 0.3 0.6 0.1 2.6 9.1 x 104 AU

17.1 1.0 2.0 0.2 20.3 26.1 x lo5kJ

7.8x 1 0 4 AU

lFor the purpose of estimating the total livestock population, the values from Jeolikot and Bhaluti have been excluded *For consumption of fodder by 1AU (animal unit), the values ofJeolikot and Bhaluti have been excluded; consumption has been calculated on a dry-weightbasis


291



Table 8 Wood production and carrying capacity of the Baliya catchment with regard to firewood consumption L3r~matter ~

~~~~~~~~

Wood production net primary production from forest from private support area (trees grown around cultivated area) total Per capita annual firewood consumption Total human population Carrying capacity of region when 30% of the net wood production is considered as an harvest when annual wood fall is considered as the sole source of fuel

2.0 x 104 t 0.1 x 10't 2.1 x 104 t 316 kg year-'

3.9 x 10" kJ year' 0.2 x lo'] kJ year' 4.1 x 10" kJ year' 6.2 x lo6 kJ year'

30 000

-

1.2 x 10"/6.2 x lo6 (= 20 000 individuals)

0.5 x 101'/6.2 x lo6


(= 20 000 individuals)

manure in cropfields. Since leaves contain 5-20 times more nutrients than wood (Singh et al., I988),the nutrient loss from the forest due to foliage collection should be far greater than the loss in terms of dry matter. Furthermore, lopping of branches drastically changes the light regime in the crown. As a consequence, parasitic angiosperms infest the trees in greater numbers, eventually leading to tree mortality. The shadedemanding epiphytes are particularly exposed to extinction. Loss of photosynthesis due to lopping and exposure of lopped trees to diseases result in depletion of carbohydrate reserves and impaired regeneration due to lack of seed production, and change in soil character (Singh and Singh, 1992). The carrying capacity of a system, and that of the sustainable rate of harvest, are difficult to assess because of several constraints, including the fact that the natural systems are very complex and they change in time (Ludwig et al., 1993). There are aspects of forest harvest and forest degradation which cannot be measured in terms of quantity of biomass; for example, loss of a tree seedling due to trampling or grazing by an animal is negligible in terms of biomass but can have a serious effect on forest regeneration. Damage caused by lopping of branches and consequent infestation of trees with parasites cannot be measured in terms of harvest rate, but it can cause serious damage to the forest, including change in species composition. These are some of the problems which can be tackled with better management practices, but more importantly

292

these problems emphasize the complexity of natural systems and the limitations of researches in asessing the carrying capacity and sustainability (Ludwig et al., 1993). Furthermore, a given rate of forest exploitation may not affect forest production and nutrient cycling, but may lead to a loss in biological diversity. The goal of sustainability can be achieved partially by promoting stall feeding a n d prohibiting grazing in the forest during dry seasons,when the impact of grazing and trampling is most severe. A study has indicated that the grazers meet 60% of their requirement from grazing in the forest during the rainy season (Joshi, 1991). In spite of grazing, a sufficient herbage cover is maintained until the end of rainy season. Winter and summer grazing provides little nutritious material to animals, but severely impairs the structural integrity of the grazinglands. Since only a small fraction of potential bullock labour is utilized in agriculture, sharing of the bullock is possible to agreat extent (Singh e t a l , 1984). Hence the current practice of large livestock size of poor quality needs to be replaced with small livestock size of high quality. Unfortunately the trends are contrary to this and in the villages studied the livestock size per unit area of agriculture is far greater than generally observed in Central Himalaya. Man-made forests, particularly in the wastelands, and canopy enrichment of degraded forest through aggressive forestry (thus keeping the targeted optimum level offirewood production higher than the demand of the people) are possible and need to be encouraged.





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Mitchell,R. (1979). TheAnalysis ofIndian Agroewsystm (New Delhi, India: Interprint) National Research Council (US) (1982). US Science and Technologyfor Development: A Contribution to the LNConfmence. (WashingtonDC: National Research Council) Nautiyal, J.C. and Barbor, P.S. (1985). Forestry in Himalaya: how to avert an environmental disaster. Interdisciplinaly Science Review, 1 0 , 2 7 4 1 Pandey, U. and Singh, J.S. (1984). Energy flow relationship between agro- and forest-ecosystems in Central Himalaya. Environmental Conservation, 11,45-53

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