Disaster Advances
Vol. 10 (11) November (2017)
Intervention strategies to mitigate risk in adventure tourism: A Haddon matrix perspective Piramanayagam Senthilkumaran* and Seal Partho Pratim Welcomgroup Graduate School of Hotel Administration Ringgold Standard Institution – Tourism, Manipal University, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, INDIA *
[email protected]
at least two of the following three elements: physical activity, natural environment and cultural immersion”. Buckley8 defines the adventure tourism as “guided commercial tours where the principle attraction is an outdoor activity that relies on features of the natural terrain, generally requires specialized sporting or similar equipment, and is exciting for the tour clients”.
Abstract Adventure tourism is a rapidly expanding tourism activity around the world. The risk in adventure tourism is very real which may lead to tragedies. There is an increasing number of people involved in adventure tourism without prior knowledge and level of risk. The management of risk in adventure tourism is critical for its sustainability. If the risk has not managed efficiently, it will lead to loss of firms’ reputation, money and customer confidence.
Adventure tourism is classified into two types: hard and soft.16,19,22 The main difference between hard and soft tourism is the level of perceived risk, the level of commitment and the skills required for an activity. In the hard adventure, the level of risk is high that needs intense commitment and advanced skills.
The objective of this research is to develop a framework which may help tourism planners and adventure tour operators in the identification of risk and to develop strategies to mitigate and minimize the risk by applying Haddon matrix.
Adventure tourism works on the paradigm of thrill and risk. The prime motive of adventure tourism is pursuing excitement with a possible threat to life. In hard adventure tourism, the risk is the attraction too28. The risk has gradually reduced in the developed world but there is an increase in risk taking prevalent in modern society principally in adventure tourism. Service providers in adventure tourism have to maintain an equilibrium between the risk and safety of the tourists. The risk in adventure tourism is very real which may lead to tragedies. The management of risk in adventure tourism is critical for its sustainability. Management of risk is a major issue for all the organization such as trekking organizations, adventure sports centers and the tour operators involved in adventure tourism29.
Keywords: Adventure tourism, Risk mitigate, Haddon matrix.
Introduction The tourism industry contributes about 10% of the world GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and generates 1 out of every 11 jobs in the world. It is one of the major sources of foreign exchange for a country and also has an impact on the countries balance of payment. Tourism industry growth in the year 2015 was 4.6 % with the international tourist arrival of 1184 million and the forecasted arrival in the year 2030 to be 1.8 billion.34
Risk management in adventure tourism includes safety of travelers and so as to evade litigations if accidents occur33. If the risk is not managed efficiently, it will lead to loss of firms’ reputation, money, customer confidence and employees29. There is an increasing number of people involved in adventure tourist.14,19 without prior knowledge and level of risk13. A content analysis done by Bentley and colleagues4 reveals that frequency, severity and the cost of injuries in adventure activity varied by type of adventure activity undertaken, motive, gender and age of the participant. Injuries and deaths among adventure tourist are prevalent across the world.10,12,16,21,30
Overwhelming popularity and acceptance of adventure tourism paved the way for commercially viable adventure tourism activities accompanied by lifestyle and fashion that become important to the world economy. Adventure tourism activity requires physical and mental endurance that creates the interaction and bonding between human and nature. Adventure tourism is a rapidly expanding and growing tourism activity around the world29. The main motives of adventure tourist are to seek innovative and exciting experiences by physically and mentally challenging themselves3. The market size of the global adventure tourism in the year 2010 was about US$ 89 billion and it increased to US$ 263 billion in the year 2013 with a whopping growth of 195% in last three years. This growth attributed to increased international departures, an increased interest towards adventure trips and increased spending on adventure tourism33. Adventure tourism is defined by Adventure Travel Trade Association as “a trip that includes
There are underreportings of minor, fatal accidents, inconsistency in reporting, usage of inappropriate methods for data collection and analysis in adventure tourism.10,15,26 The operators of adventure tourism adapt a ten step procedure proposed by Priest and Gass23 in the context of outdoor education to identify, assess, minimise and mitigate the risk29.
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Disaster Advances
Vol. 10 (11) November (2017)
The framework of Priest and Gass23 does not address the source of dangers, remedial measures if an injury happens and the post – medical care of the injured. The REACT model by Brown7 narrates the risk management process by following the sequence of Recognition, Evaluation, Adjustment, Choice and Transfer of risk. This model also lacks in addressing issues in managing post-injury, and rehabilitation of the injured. Hence, there is a need for a comprehensive tool that addresses the risk in different stages of the event, the epidemiological factors that lead to injuries during the event, the strategies to minimize the risk and postinjury rehabilitation of the injured in various adventure activities.
which may cause injury. For example an agent is a boat or raft in a white-water rafting.
Haddon matrix is a framework used to conceptualize the risk factors of injury and potential preventive measures.23,31 Haddon matrix is developed by William Haddon Jr15 to create countermeasures to minimize and mitigate the injuries in roadside accidents35. Later Bahr and Maehlum1 used the matrix for injury prevention in sports.
The second row “the event” determines on the causes of injury, its nature, and its severity after an injury takes place. The third-row “post-event” encompasses all the details on necessary post injury, first aid, treatment and rehabilitation of the injured.
The third column is focusing on the physical environment which includes the location, surface, weather, or geographical nature of the place where the adventure tourism takes place. The fourth column refers to norm, policies, rules and the practices followed in the particular adventure tourism activity. The three rows of the matrix refer to pre-event, event and the post event. The “pre-event” is about the factors that may act as an antecedent of injury before the event takes place.
Haddon Matrix for identification of Risk in Adventure Tourism: Identification of the causes of injury before any adventure activity will help in reducing the injury to a greater extent18. It is known as primary prevention or pre-event prevention of an injury. The major cause of injury in an event is attributed to four epidemiological factors such as host, agent/ equipment, physical and social environment.
William35 recognized that the cause for most of the injuries in an event is attributed to the abnormal transfer of mechanical energy which happens during an event or an accident. Based on this fact, he developed a tool in the form of a matrix. The matrix helps to reduce injury by preventing these mechanical forces to reach the people or potential victims or a tourist by increasing the injury threshold and so minimize the consequence of injury. He emphasized to include various actions and strategies that targeted towards the people/ tourist, agent or equipment which leads to injury, the physical and social environment that occurs before, during and after the injury. Haddon Matrix is a comprehensive tool that discourses the risk in multiple perspectives in injury prevention.
Existing literature throws light on various host-related factors that may cause injury in a specific adventure tourism activity.3-5,27 Some of the causes of major injuries are hosts’ poor health, fitness, chronic medical ailments, past injuries, poor communication skills, perceived level of risk, attitude towards the adventure activity, the overconfidence of the host, inappropriate clothing, consumption of psychotropic drug or alcohol, fear and trauma after an event.
The objective of this research is to develop the tools which are used for the identification of risk and help in developing strategies to minimize the risk in adventure tourism applying Haddon matrix. The research proposes a matrix for identification of risk in adventure tourism and to formulate strategies for injury prevention that ensure maximum safety for an adventure tourist.
Equipment or vehicle used in the adventure activity may also be a source of an injury. The main causes of injury attribute towards the equipment’s poor design, inappropriate choice of material, substandard equipment, poor maintenance or malfunctioning of equipment, the mismatch between user and equipment regarding size, shape and strength.
Haddon Matrices for Injury Prevention and Risk Mitigation: The Haddon matrix has four columns and three rows. The columns in the matrix relate to the factors that lead to injury generally known as epidemiological factors. The rows of the matrix represent the various stages of the particular event or experience. The first column represents the host or the tourist or the person at the risk of injury in an activity.
Other than this source of injury, the intermediaries or guides or a team leader, who are conducting the event also pose the risk of injury because of their skill, the level of training, leadership and wrong decisions during the event.4,17 The environment factors which leads to injury are unexpected weather conditions, unforeseen surface, lack of rules, policies of the trade, communication infrastructure, trauma care, emergency services and rehabilitation service available in the place of adventure activity4. The matrix (figure 1) presented below describes the epidemiological factors that may act as a precursor for injury during preevent, event and post-event.
The second column narrates about the agent/ equipment or vehicle or vector which carries or transmits the mechanical/thermal or electrical energy to host or tourist
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Disaster Advances
Vol. 10 (11) November (2017) Epidemiological Factors
Preevent
Event
Postevent
Host (Adventure Tourist) Poor Fitness Poor Training about risk Chronic Respiratory and cardiac problems Overconfidence Previous injuries Language difficulties Poor navigation skills
Agent or Vehicle (Equipment used in Adventure Tourism) Design of equipment (poor material, low quality) Poor maintenance of the equipment User – equipment mismatch Untrained guides
Inappropriate clothing Malfunctioning of Activists knowledge in equipment managing emergency Poorly designed Loss of balance equipment Loss of conduct with Equipment failure due to members weather Protective gears unused consumption of alcohol and psychotropic drugs Non-compliance of instructions Fear and trauma Malfunctioning of Social situation equipment
Physical Environment (Location, where adventure tourism takes place) wrong season Unexpected weather Altitude risk Low lighting Temperature extremes Potential risk from the physical environment Wild Animal related hazards Weather condition Cloud Burst Avalanche Snowfall Atmospheric pressure slip, trip or fall due to the surface
Hypothermia Poor emergency communication system Lack of emergency services
Social Environment (Norms, Policies, and Rules in Adventure Tourism) Rules and Policies Incorrect information Attitude toward mountaineering Lack of equipment design regulation Non-regulation of operators Lack of code of practice Commercial pressure Lack of communication infrastructure No specific regulations and statutory norms on safety
Lack of trauma care Location of medical facility Lack of emergency transport system Insurance support for mountaineering Lack of rehabilitation
Figure 1: Haddon Matrix for Identification of Risk in Adventure Tourism Strategies for Mitigation of Risk in Adventure Tourism: Mitigation becomes easy when operators of adventure tourism identify and understand the causes of injury. The figure 1 gives a clear view of the factors of risk in an adventure event. It is the responsibility of the tour operator to develop a risk management system that is relevant to particular adventure activity.
of the host. Developing a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for purchase, operation, maintenance will help to mitigate the risk to the larger extent. The safe recovery procedure during an emergency must be communicated with the team leader. A careful analysis of physical environment where the adventure activity takes place is essential before launching an event. Adventure Tour operator must give enough attention to weather condition, weather forecast, altitude, availability of communication infrastructure, availability of the emergency services, location and proximity to the emergency medical care facilities in the vicinity.
Pre-screening of the host by the tour operator on physical fitness, chronic illness, past injuries and communication capabilities must be given priority while developing the risk management system. Tour operators must communicate the real risk involved in the activity to the host and train them on protecting themselves from potential risks, navigation skills, fall arrest system and first aid. The operator must ensure that activities are conducted in the presence of a certified, trained and experienced tour guide/ team leader.
Adventure tourism activities must be regulated by the local authority or government or by an official organization that sets the norms, policies and rules to regulate the industry. Before encouraging any adventure activity, the local authority or the regulator of the event must invest on the necessary supportive systems such as communication, transport, emergency support service and hospitals.
Appropriate agencies must certify equipment or vehicle or agents used in the adventure activity. Preventive maintenance of all equipment is essential to ensure the safety
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Disaster Advances
Preevent
Event
Postevent
Vol. 10 (11) November (2017)
Host (Adventure Tourist) Tourist briefed about the risk in mountaineering raining on Risk Management Ensuring the necessary fitness by certified medical practitioner
Certified and trained guide Teach the activist to protect them from potential risk Train the activist about navigation skills Fall Arrest system CPR and First Aid Counselling
Epidemiological Factors Agent or Vehicle Physical Environment (Equipment used in (Location, where adventure Adventure Tourism) tourism takes place) Appropriate Plan the activity based upon mountaineering weather forecast equipment Knowledge of Surface or Equipment to be Terrain certified by UIAA* or Deciding altitude/ weather/ EU** surface for expedition Preventive Identification and maintenance of developing mitigating equipment strategies related to the surface or environment All equipment in Tools for communication functional condition Periodical weather reports Safe procedure for the Right use of equipment recovery of activist Provision for emergency Appropriate personal shelter clothing and crampon Carrying Essentials (Food boot for the host & water) Easy to operate equipment Proper Insulating Jackets
Provide easy access to emergency service Proximity to trauma and hospitals Avoid being wet *Union International de Alpine Association and ** European Union
Social Environment (Norms, Policies, and Rules in Mountaineering) Operator must registered with Adventure Tour Operator Association of the country Transparency in information on potential risk in mountaineering Insure the life of the tourist
Evacuation support Walkie-Talkie Radio Accessibility to evacuate Alert systems
Rehabilitation Building Supportive system for emergency Transfer of risk by insuring the tourist
Figure 2: Strategies for Risk Mitigation in Adventure Tourism 4. Bentley T., Page S.J. and Laird I.S., Safety in New Zealand’s Adventure Tourism Industry, The Client Accident Experience of Adventure Tourism Operators, Journal of Travel Medicine, 7, 239245 (2000)
The regulator must ensure that there is transparency in advertisement and promotion done by the operators to attract the demand. The following matrix (figure 2) presents various strategies that are essential to reduce and mitigate the risk in adventure tourism.
5. Bentley T.A., Page S.J. and Walker L., Safety Experience of New Zealand Adventure Tourism Operators, Journal of Travel Medicine, 11(5), 280-286 (2004)
Conclusion Adventure tourism is gaining more preference among tourist across the world. For exciting and authentic adventure experience, the tourist is ready to pay a premium price. Adventure experience always carries the risk of physical and property security. Operators of each adventure activity are responsible for identification of risk and also formulate strategies to mitigate it. The Haddon matrix recommended in this research addresses the issues of identification of risk and the strategies to minimize and mitigate the risk in adventure tourism systematically.
6. Brown J., Son’s Death Leads Family to Seek Reform in Commercial Rafting Regulation, Death on The River: Drowning Raises Questions, The Denver Post (2016) 7. Brown T.J., Adventure Risk Management, Miles J.C. and Priest S., Adventure Programming, Pennsylvania, Venture Publishing, 273-284 (1999) 8. Buckley, R, Adventure Tourism, Cambridge, CABI (2006) 9. Carter C.I., Playing with Risk? Participant Perceptions of Risk and Management Implication in Adventure Tourism, Tourism Management, 27, 317-325 (2006)
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(Received 31st July 2017, accepted 06th October 2017)
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