inthe City:How toAl-lowforRest-oration

4 downloads 29 Views 698KB Size Report
intheCity:How toAl-lowforRest-oration. Henk Saats. CentreforEnengyand Environmenta1Research. Department of Socialand OrganizationalPsychology.
Man-Environment Man-EnvironmentResearch

Research Association Association

inthe City: How to Al-low forRest-oration

,Stress

Henk Saats CentreforEnengyand Environmenta1 Research Department of Socialand OrganizationalPsychology

LeidenUniversity, the Netherlands

This paperdescribesthe psychological effects ofcity life. Despite the obvious charms and advantages of living ina citM it also has itsdrawbaeks, Major disadvantages are thatliving ina city posesmore demandson information capacity ptocessing

dealing wirh

and on research

oifers

some

ofnature preservation

social stressors, Tb

of city life restorative environment preventor alleviate these taxingconsequences be beneficial forcity residents. Restorativeoptions are oftwo main kinds: ene isthe

insightsthat may inthe

isabout

the other

citM

architectural ancl interior design solutions

human interaction.

thatregulate

Keywords: informationoverload, social stressog restoration, architecture,nature, design

1 ,lntroduction

Complementing the

We livein an people livein

cities

urbanizing

Employment

is becoming

towards

in

scarce

increasingly found in cities, migration

and

urban

This paper

the

disciplines

all

sociologists,

the

urban

places.

from

The

the

of

developed who

in

about

1975), and personalspace

settings,

scales

of

the

which

characteristics

proved

to

urban

A

number

of

options

environment of

compensate

the

will

urban

for

on

on

stressfu1

of

inforrnation overload

of

three

with

by large other,

and

different

(HalL1966), to

have

of

perceptuaVcognitive phenomena applied

and

to

interactionwith

crowding

(Milgram,

1972),territoriality (Stokols, (Altman,

the psychological experience

be discussedin environment

the concepts

1970), crowding

exist to developthe restorative quality possibilities

of urban

city

city

work

differing from each other, Starting from these demographicparameters, psychologists came up

increasing importanceofcities, what

a

the

densitMand heterogeneity of its

with

reflect

that

substantially

lifein cities

te

also

the

of

to

characterized

ispsychologically more demanding than lifein rural and natural areas. For that reason, and especially givcn the itisusefu1

experience

response

i939): acity ischaracterizecl population (Wirth, numbers of people, Iivingclose to each

drawbacks of livingin that

these optiens

layout of the interiordesign of

and

numbers, parameters:

related

and

in

elements

forthe builtenvironment

perspective on the

main

sociologists

- have

environment,

natural

research

solutions

structure

itspsychological has been

a short oyeryiew

agreement

atiect

on

2. Citylifei psychologicalcharacteristics

that the

anthropologists

isfairly strong

is

this 1argescale means

seientists

and psychological benefits

cities. There

includedesign

and

areas

importantas

more

give

and

lifein the urban

conceptualized

the

will

psychologists

way

rural

This

domain for human functioning,with consequences,

more

natural areas, and

explaining

areas.

becornesever

urban environment

of2010

Nationshabitat, 2010). (United

trend will continue

this

in rural

than

environment

restorative

As

werld.

emphasis

were

life.From

city

initiallyapplied

these

developed that

norrns

strangers.

understand

Especially overload to

explain

human

interaction in the largecities. Informationoverload

experiences,

is

18

MERA za3o-Dec,120i2 NII-Electronic NII-Electronic

Library Service

Man-Environment Man-EnvironmentResearch

Research Association Association

1970) (Milgram,

defined

process the much

inabilityto

the

as

inputbecausethere is simply

sensory

itor becauseitchanges

of

situations may

use one

harsh interactions, and

adequately

too

reflex

too fast. People inthose

inyour

a street

They

way),

only

can

Moser,

personal

6, 2008), Apparently their

become

can

to have civility operate

complex

big and too

too

the dominant

as

interaction.

Lofland, a sociologist, formulatedthe fo11owing

to a passive approach:

shift

(G

model.'"

is that cities

conclusion

forpeople directly principleofsocial

attention

also

a

not

November

communication,

decreasetime per input(aquick glance insteadofa thorough observation), or ignore low-prierity input

(whencrossing

by

reactivated

fo11owingstrategies: they

ofthe

politenesshas

of

The paper shows that the disappeared,since itcan be

so on,

initiative insteadof beingproactive, ofthe publicrealm" (1989). The first, ancl most discourage contact by assuming an unfriendly pose,or generalone is civil inattentionigivingenough notice to access let the other know that hefshe has been seen, but also shut out inforrnation altogether by restricting blinds,unlisted telephone numbers), Ultimately communicating that helsheis not a target of special (fences, letothers

"rules

take the

from that, is civility is, in this perspective, curiosity; the second, sternming indifferencein treatment with regard determinedby direct personalrelevance to the individual. towards diversity: the allocation

of

attention

hypothesisderived from this postulateis that helpfulness to strangers should be greater in smail towns

personalcharacteristics as ethnicity, gender. age, dress style, income etc.. Thus, Lofland also emphasized that

A

than

in big

Altman

cities.

1970) devisedan researchers

permissionto use

against a

ina

small

door

of

assistants

to

strangers

people

the

of

for

ask

city

town

size:

were

72%

allowed

ofthe

in urban

strangers

interiors that can

cases

study

bleak27 % inManhattan.

isgue of

civility

in interacting with

publicplacesseems to playa role in be considered public. One example ofa

civility was

on

medical

differentperspective to similar issuesof

slightly

behaviorincities.

This same

balanced for gender

that govern

to a specific set of norms

adhere

social

phone. Helpfulness proved to be

their

determined by

assistants

A

the

on

(inMilgram,

colleagues

in which

experiment

called

strongly

and

to

done by one

doctor'swaiting

room

students:

In a

investigatedwhat

we

distancepatients preferred to

20 10). by Moser and Corroyer(2001). (Vitalis, Arriving patientsselected is that in city life,as eompared to

of my

person present

another

bigcity livingisoffered Their

argument

traditional many an

small

rural

settlements,

inorder to dealwith

people,the norrn of civility developed: impersonalpolitenessto eenciently deaL with

seat

unknown

unknown

people,make

other

persons predictable

and

thus

with

other

social

order.

situations maintain

Civilityalso impliesimpersonalhelpfulness. Moser

entering,

of

the

waiting

and

urban

environment

conviviality

impedes the

behavior,likethe tendency to

avoid

stress, on

urban

to

201O) (Vitalis,

(N=78> 1

Chair2 Chair3 Chair4 Chair5

13 30

21

Chair6 Chair7

of

9 4

O

Chair8

life

interpersonal

contact

that

between themselves

choices

behaviorslike politeness.tndeed, due to

and other dailyhassles,overcrowding turned out to have several effects

showed

Distribution of seating

current

expression

results

Seela2cm/lm

o

purposeofthe paperwas to show histerically the urban way of life was traditionally the politeness,

distributionof

windew

"The

civility and

and

Waitingroom observation study

and

ofa

with

room

7 possible

of

the one other person present (the junior-researcher

this as fbllows:

synonymous

out

isgiven inFigure 1.The

levels.Helpfulness is less in the large city (Paris), current densityis high.They explain especially when that

seat,

participantsleft2 or 3 seats empty

departmentstore fbrthe next person is infiuenced by city size and current density

door

the

Layout

choices

hew helpfulness, in this case holding

Corroyer shew open

choices.

a

Figure 1. Seat

choice

ina

waiting

room

others,

19 MERA

a3o- Decy2oi2

NII-Electronic Library Service

Man-Environment Man-EnvironmentResearch

Research Association Association

inthe

sitting

informedabout

were

the

a

available

regard

with

study

form

participate,given seat

1),After sitting down patients

chair

corner

on

rated

be to choose

there and

pleasantbut less polite.This

considered cornponent

influential: Seat 8

was

was

fbrthat reason.

Apparently there isa

not

reject

completely

not

of

at all,

forcivi[ity

A

coping

to

environment

to

adhering vigilance

et al. (Lederbogen

technique

norms

and

of

self

become

activated

Lederbogen

urban

demanding

from

the

tasks

that caused

disapproving

urban

stress,

distressthan participantsfrom Moreover, results showed children

rural

area

the

in a city, as compared also

other

that people

who

were

of

negative

Replications showed the

social

task

stress

affect

that

and

and

manipulation

not

on

social

dependent the

surroundings,

are making

raised

more

vulnerabLe

findingsthat features.

environmental

in the

urban

those

can

be

deriving from

environment

those

and

design solutions that influence

specific

category

are

given.

substantial

number

of

studies

qualities of nature

in

have looked an

at

the

context.

urban

important being that ofa view and thatofa domain

forleisurebehaviornear the home. Both are important and

on

strongly

(Kaplan,2001; Staats,van

valued

Gemerden, & Hartig,2010). A one

that

has been among the

establishing

was

classic

study,

the most

presumably

influential in

tradition of psychological done by Roger Ulrich and publishedin research

Science(Ulrich, 1984). In that article Ulrichdescribes

urban

bearing the cost of livingin these them

of

research

Nature in the city

most

cognitive

in

adyerse

interaction. En the fbllowingparagraphs examples

restoration,

Apparently people livingand/or

help in attenuating

can

Nature can have decidedlydifferent roles in cities, the

alone.

environments

from

restorative

threat.

environmental was

coming

A

to a small town or

the effect

elements

that

shows

of

raised

to the

that

qualities of environments

restorative

ofeach

signs

but also becausethere is a

beneficialeffects

reacted

manipulation:

suggestive

the

for

partlycompensate

may

knowledge

of

because city life

only

tife.Restorative environment

urban

natural

categories.

differentially sensitive

were

of

Not

that

well

design

cnvironmental

social

towns

Participants

stronger

as

body

recruited

people who had spent part or all of their first 15 years in cities also had more brainactMty stress

attentional

stressi

urban

divided in two general categoriesi

the

of

ofparticipants

offer

substantial

These

social stress

remarks

showed

category

relieve

necessary.

characteristics,

show under

differentlyto the social stress manipulation,

as

and

has over the lastthirtyyears accumulated

brain that

the

cities

the

the

used

> 100,OOO), small (population < (population100,OOO)or from rural areas,

from

indeed,

have painted a bleakpicture of

itsnegative

effects study

to

view

had participantsperfbrm

A generalsample

experimenter.

]ife:this is not

hasmuch

controL

supports

participantsare

colleagues

through

created

and

processesin

study

when

and

cognitively

201I)

be demanding. The to

The foregoingmay

large

c{ty

information and

that city lifemay

fMRt

a

demanding

more

stress

or

how to allow forrestoration

Practicing these can have greatbenefits but may have costs too. A quite spectacular findingwas published recently

noise

that,

suggests

leading to potentially

3. 0ptionsto preventor

from the foregoingcan be thatcity Iife

interaction require

social

This

environment.

by

explained

like

life implies living in a

urban

life

with city

imposes demands on itsinhabitants. Dealingwith of

be

cannot

specific stressors,

very

home

erowded

effects

fatigue.

conclusion

amounts

to

to

interactionthat applies potential

butespecially thatthe effects

symptoms,

the participants,

exposure

normative

manykindsofsettings.

2. Costs of

stress

to be generic for]ife in the city. Given the samples

seem

was

chosen

norm

underlies

that seat.

furtheraway

a seat

methods

be to

The importance

settlements.

paper isnot only that ituses very sophisticated which demonstratethat actual brainactivity

ofthis

each

how pleasantitwould

to

to

agreed

they

which

how politeitwould Interesting was that choosing sit

ifthey

and,

than inhabitants ofsmaller

how the view

to stressors

recovery

from a hospitalwindow

ofpatients

who

had

undergone

playsa a

role

inthe

gall bladder

20

MERA

gg3oe Dec.f2o12 NII-Electronic NII-Electronic

Library Service

Man-Environment Man-EnvironmentResearch

Research Association Association

operation.

matched Carefu11y

variables

age, (e.g.,

were a

weight,

in a

recovering

therapeutic value

of

a

in the tree-view

recovering

lesscomplications,

with

lessnurse

support.

confirmed

in other

value

of

nature

view

on

rooms

recovered

a

had

who

the

a

view

of

cognitive

important

very

study

done

was

were

Su]livan They had a (2001).

unique

by Kuo to

opportunity

green versus barren surroundings housing.Their research designwas so special effects of

of

new

blocks. The

apartments

and

barren,

either

somewhat

that

only

assignment

possible

somewhat

because

these

of

natural,

be

could

were

on

the household.Kuo

causal.

towards

Sullivan

setting

The

the

of

members

in terms

outcomes

on (1995)

syntax.

how

much

spaces

one

interactionthrough

They had two residents

ofthese

parentfemales,might would therefore be more

from

suffer

and

inclined to act aggressively

towards their family.They that mental

more inhibition, easily leadto

difflcult. Therefbre aggression

than in people who was hypothesis

self contro],

are

in

can

fatiguedpersons rested. Thc{r second

study.

that the

two

hypotheses were confirmed

Residentsofthe

apartment

negative the

by

and

by Evans

study

of the home, quaLities

to

opportunities easy

hypotheses

main

regulate

ofthe

with

nuinber

between

study

of

of

were

(2)the by social

Both high density.

with

Thus,

showed

that

countered

by

results

high densitycould be

leading to less stress the interior,

withdrawal.

the Ironically

the environment

of

leads to

rooms),

ismediated

stress

that

number

greater depth,and

confirmed. of

social

physicalseparation

more people have better,

that when

efllects

structure

social

in their

blockssurrounded

must

but only in homes

hypotheseswere

more

presence of nature provides rest responsible for to the directedattention mechanism The inhibition.

reduction

stress

theory, Depth quantifies passthrough in order to get

betweendensityand

withdrawal,

mentally

mentally

of

structural

inhabitantsdiyided by the

relation

specifically

conflicts

greater

atibrds

lessstress in homes

out thisby pointing

explained

fatiguemakes

mental

that

studies

beingthe (1)highdensityin a home (density

fatigue

single

one

The inhabitants,

the firstwas that the hypotheses: apartment blocks.usually low-income

main

highlighttwo

place to another one. Greaterdepth in a home

beneficialeffects the potential

surroundings.

qualityof

architecturat

an

from

natural

be

can

restorative

The first one is a

restoration.

Theory (Kaplan, 1995; Kaplan & Kaplan, Restoration about the causes of aggression and 1989)to hypothesize of

to

want

outcomes

in particular on the degree of privacy provided by depthofthe home. Depth is a concept derivedfrem

space

Attention

employed

and

Lepore

and more

stress, crowding,

stressors whose

we

there

although

between specific attributes of the physical

relationships

or

Here

in

particularlypromising in that these studies show

attention

barren

considered

settings.

seem

implied

dealingwith

the forguidelinesto increase

these

or

studies

and other urban

used

that

tradition

restoration

probably many

are

vegetation.

surroundings,

aggression

and

small

quality of urban isthrough the designof buildings and {nteriors.

noise

concrete,

to apartments

ofpeople

effects

effects studied

of

consisting

increase restorative

to

the environmenta]

blocks were

apartment

to

contributed

For this

This isa domain thathas not beenintensivelystudied

the apartment

of

becauseof treesand

natural

The random

and

any

thus

nature

option

settings

study

for the immediate surroundings

identical except were

to

residents

of

and

publichousing a better famity

of

residents

underprivileged

presence

An

tQ implement a true experimental they were ina position design in a real lifesituation, due to the random allocation

for directed attention

and interiordesign Architectutal quaiity

public

of

increases capacity

nature

that presence

conclude

in

betterand

concentrate

authors

by

mediated

life,

restorative

nature

The

betweenquality of

proved to be

aggression

capacity.

group of

later

students

among

This relation

toward

acts

impulseinhibition, leadingto lessaggression.

and

result was

of

less aggressive

reported

and

attentional

patients

less tranquilizers

study

surroundings

faster,and

lookingat the

In

or on

showed

nature;

This spectacular

views.

trees

on

elements

their familymembers.

perform better on tasks (Tennessen & Cimprich,1995).

to

A

out

clearly

requiring

dorrnitories, students able

looked

study

studies

natural

history) patients

medical

that

room

Results of the

walL

confounding potentially

on

results

and

demonstrated

supportive

relationships

being alone. facilitates

Interestingly,this points at

a

quality of social

21

MERA rg3oeDecy2oi2 NII-Electronic Library Service

Man-Environment Man-EnvironmentResearch

Research Association Association

people have

where

important in situations

is especially

that

relationships

a

for recovery:

need

'iego

friend or

a

eAR

(Baumeister,

cast"

controllers,

home

arriving

from familylifefora

withdraw

]

permissionto of hours,with

couple

improved

and

relationships

benefieial

as

e,-

From these studies

of

assurnption

a series

Van Gemerden, (Staats,

der Jagt, 2012).We forvarious

visited

in the

leisure settings

on

prominentamong

but that

these.The

research

We lookedat acafe. In linewith an

restoration

leisureenvironment.

urban

is characterized

above,

and

is

what

expectations

isusually

that a cafe

how

considered

a very

Figure 2. Floorplansofa table inthe

earlier

183).This visitors

a

and

ratings authors

more

to

studies

cafe could

be a

that showed

restorative

ofa

character

that

friendappreciated

We designeda

investigateunder

cafe

what

the cafe much

Xiv ℃

the cafe interior might reading

that

reasonecl

alter

table puts less

the eafe

visited

more

than

implicitly suggests acceptable.

We

that

created

placing a

the

series

had

while

we

preference the

and

a reading

compared

table was

as

rated

more

was

only were

for participants

true only alone.

For people in the

friendthe absence no

choice

when

pleasantthan a floor plan table.But very importantwas our

this

ofa

majority

on

with

people

reading

expectations

emphasis

restorativeness

and

reading

table made

confirrned:

were

imaginingthat they

conditions

The questionthen became how people alone comforted.

a readjng

of

or presence ofa reading difference.Thispatternwas reflected in seat

in the differentconditions:

alone

chose a seat at

a

ofpeople

peopleincompany

the reading

a

table

indifferent(see Table 1).

were

in an initiaLstudy

verified

participantswho

a

company

place fbr people alone. The

was

with

table (see Figure2) and

a reading

a cafe with

of

findingthat

this

consider

with

restorative

without

(1984,p.

they

whether

and

corner

perceived

of

fioorplan

setting, as

determinesin part what

then

fbr restoration,

appropriate

scenario

social

set

experience

setting of

normative

and

Our hypotheses

"The

relatienships........."

without

Our

in this famous quotefrom the French philosopher Bourdieu: cafe isnot a placewhere man goes fbra drinkbuta placehe goes to in order to drinkincompany, he can establish

upper-right

cafe wjthout

partieipantsrate these floor plans.

about

shows

where

]

a cafe,

context.

social

t.:

reasoned

certainly

guidedby the ideasof

were

O b c," C D c{"

be

purposes. we

that

ooeee

--/-r・Te/LtTt/ tt-LLtt.-----.7.rm ・/[/,,'b'c,vvS" e・-de.rp/di-di

are

will

expectations

behavior in

appropriate

fi

o・ eee

/t.........."....4....sH.

by frequent. intensesocial interaction.

This patternof interactioncreates

KI

'

question was

the

ee

L.-..-.l

we

that leisure settings

reasons

zav:[t'"vJ

it-

main

& Hartig, 2010; Staats& Min

reasoned

hA

,,,・,Ht・・

i i !

environment

the physical setting forrestorative

to optimize

that

urban

l'

=:=:===is

/L

situation

This was the quality. of experiments in which

determines its restorative

]

.

combination

the

of

v'

O.・h-Jdect

.i" iEII, IlIL・liIll・li

inferthat the

one can

physical and social characteristics

focused

{-v?V' f#=-i

/t.'v'r'v・,T:..:1'/=.'IF・===L'-=

consequences.

of

ee -LvJ eee"

-,

-"・ ' !・ tt

ab.wvuthd

betterrecovery

e

oeee

II[・//,'illitT・i,Mli・.

tired after their shift,

benefitted greatly from their spouse's

e

l

---]l

rtt-tttttttmL eeoeeeo

Faber, & Wallace, 1999), Repetti reported thatair (1989) traruc

J,---------------r'T==,=,=d'-i :11-.nm-.=,J,

IscLT[HIS

1kil

the shielding

from external demands.This can be done by partner,itis describedas the

'rt,-[・

rww-'um1rl '11IIlf

of

Table 1. Percentage of

a

alone.

upper-right

be

could

table

table

reading

of

in

interactionand

No

is

other

reading

per

the cafe

as a

1; Staats& (Experiment

A

visitors.

behaviorthan socializing floorplans that visualized a

corner

seats

Table

ReadingTable

condition

in the

chosen

function of company

and

Vttnder jagt,2012) .

Alone

With a good friend

20

18

80

16

cafe

22 MERA

ag3ogDec.12ot2 NII-Electronic NII-Electronic

Library Service

Man-Environment Man-EnvironmentResearch

Research Association Association

New Ybrk: 711ie hidden dl'mension. (1966). Doubleday. The nature of the view from home. Kaplan,R. (2001). Environment and Behaviony Psychological benefits. 33,507-542. 77ie experience Kaplan, R,, & Kaplan, S. (1989) of naturer A psychological perspective, New Ybrk: Press. CambridgeUniversity Kaplan, S, (1995). The restorative efTects of nature: Hall, E. T,

4. Discussion Citiesare psychologicallydernanding and create the for restoration. At the same time there is a need multitude

that

settings

of

for

allow

isone

surroundings

be applied to create

that can

of options

obvious

and

In this paper I gave some

design interiorsthat

home

quality ofthe certain

important ways

this need, However, other options

addressing

exist.

Creatingnatural

restoration.

ofthe

urban

served and

ofa

examples

cafe.

to

of ways

the to increase

toward an integrative framework, Jburnal of EnvirontnentatPsychotogy15,169-182. Aggression and Kuo, F., & Sullivan, W. C. (2001). violence in the inner city: Effects of environment

also

restorative

mental fatigue. Environmentand Behaviony33, 543-571. F.,Tbst, H., Lederbogen,F.,Kirsch,P.,Haddad,L.,Streit, Schueh, P., Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2011). City livingand urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans. Nbture, 474,498-501, Lofland, L. H. (1989), Sociallifein the public realm. A Ethnogrqphy 17, review. Jburnatqf Contenu)orary via

More ingeneral I am

in urban that in depthstudy of behaviorpatterns

settings,

both privateand public urban

places, will

previdesuggestions to design restorative qualitiesinto urban settings. The needs fbr restoration of urban populations are

most

in

urban

restoration

likelyincreasing,and settings

an

this

makes

important topic

453-482.

for

Milgram,S. (1970). The

environmentalpsychologicalresearch.

is based

article

of

livingin cities.

Politenessinthe urban Moser,G & Corroyer, D, (2001). with environment. Is city life still synonymeus 33,611-625. civility? Environment andBehaviony on RepettL R. L. (1989). EfTectsof daily workload duringmarital interaction, The subsequent behavior

Author note This

experience

Science,167, 1461-1464.

en

presented at STEEP 2012,the

the second

roles

keynote lectureI Summer

school

of

social

Journal qfPersonality

on

and

withdrawal

spouse

suppert.

Social lvchology57,

and

651-659.

Restorative environments. (2012), of environmental

In S.

Theoriesin Environmentaland Economic Psychologyat 2-6-July,2012. I am gratefu1 to John Aarhus University,

Staats, H.

ThOgersenand histeam forthe organization

Oxford University Press. Choosinga Staats, H,,& Van der Jagt,A. P.(2012), design,conrpato4 in a ecofU: Ezfilects ofinterior

Correspondence addressed

to

regarding

Clayton (Ed.),Hdndbook

ofSTEEP.

this article

should

psychology

eonservation

be

Henk Staats,Socialand Organizational

Psychology, Leiden UniversitM PO Box 9555, 2300 RB

attentional

and

(pp.445-458). 0xfbrd/

Manuscript fotigue.

submitted

seat and

fbr

publication.

Staats,H., Vt}n Gemerden, & Hartig,T. (2010). Interactive Preference for restorative situations:

Leiden, Netherlands.Email [email protected]

effects of and social

References Tlheenvironment andsocial behavior. Altman,I.(1975). Belmont (Ca): Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Baumeister, R. F.,Faber, J. E.,& Wallaee, H, M. (1999). Recovery after the Coping and ego-depletion. Cbping; Tlre In C. R, Snyder(Ed.), coping process.

attentional

state,

ac"vity-in-environment,

Leisure Sciences.32,401-417. between density Stokols, D. (1972), On the distinction and crowcling. Ilsp,ckotogical Revieve70, 275-277. Views to Tennessen, C, M., & Cimprich,B. (1995) nature, Effects on attention. JburnalofEnvironmental Psychotogy15, 77-85. may View though a window Ulrich,R. S. (1984). from surgery. Sbience,224, influencerecovery 420-421. UN-Habitat (2010).State of the VVOrld'sCities 201Of2011: Bridgingthe Urban Divide. http:/lwww. context.

(pp.50-69).Oxford: psychology of what works OxfordUniversityPress, sociale chi La Distinction.Critique Bourdieu, P, (1979), A unhabitat.orgfdocumentsfSOWCIOIR7.pdf Editions de Minuit. (Distinction. jugementParis: Translated on the of taste. social critique (asdisplayedJune1,2011) judgment Vitalis,S, (2010). Deciding where to sit: not too close 1984by R. Nice.London:Routledge) A. (1996). The and not too far!Master thesis in Socialand Evans,G W., Lepore, S. J.,& Schroeder, OrganizationalPsychology, Leiden University. role of interior designelements in human responses Ameriean and Social Wirth,L. (1939).Urbanisrnas a way of life. to crowding. Jburnat of Personatity 44, 1-24. JburnatofSociology 70,4146. lvchology

23

MERA za3ogDecy2Di2 NII-Electronic Library Service