Man-Environment Man-EnvironmentResearch
Research Association Association
inthe City: How to Al-low forRest-oration
,Stress
Henk Saats CentreforEnengyand Environmenta1 Research Department of Socialand OrganizationalPsychology
LeidenUniversity, the Netherlands
This paperdescribesthe psychological effects ofcity life. Despite the obvious charms and advantages of living ina citM it also has itsdrawbaeks, Major disadvantages are thatliving ina city posesmore demandson information capacity ptocessing
dealing wirh
and on research
oifers
some
ofnature preservation
social stressors, Tb
of city life restorative environment preventor alleviate these taxingconsequences be beneficial forcity residents. Restorativeoptions are oftwo main kinds: ene isthe
insightsthat may inthe
isabout
the other
citM
architectural ancl interior design solutions
human interaction.
thatregulate
Keywords: informationoverload, social stressog restoration, architecture,nature, design
1 ,lntroduction
Complementing the
We livein an people livein
cities
urbanizing
Employment
is becoming
towards
in
scarce
increasingly found in cities, migration
and
urban
This paper
the
disciplines
all
sociologists,
the
urban
places.
from
The
the
of
developed who
in
about
1975), and personalspace
settings,
scales
of
the
which
characteristics
proved
to
urban
A
number
of
options
environment of
compensate
the
will
urban
for
on
on
stressfu1
of
inforrnation overload
of
three
with
by large other,
and
different
(HalL1966), to
have
of
perceptuaVcognitive phenomena applied
and
to
interactionwith
crowding
(Milgram,
1972),territoriality (Stokols, (Altman,
the psychological experience
be discussedin environment
the concepts
1970), crowding
exist to developthe restorative quality possibilities
of urban
city
city
work
differing from each other, Starting from these demographicparameters, psychologists came up
increasing importanceofcities, what
a
the
densitMand heterogeneity of its
with
reflect
that
substantially
lifein cities
te
also
the
of
to
characterized
ispsychologically more demanding than lifein rural and natural areas. For that reason, and especially givcn the itisusefu1
experience
response
i939): acity ischaracterizecl population (Wirth, numbers of people, Iivingclose to each
drawbacks of livingin that
these optiens
layout of the interiordesign of
and
numbers, parameters:
related
and
in
elements
forthe builtenvironment
perspective on the
main
sociologists
- have
environment,
natural
research
solutions
structure
itspsychological has been
a short oyeryiew
agreement
atiect
on
2. Citylifei psychologicalcharacteristics
that the
anthropologists
isfairly strong
is
this 1argescale means
seientists
and psychological benefits
cities. There
includedesign
and
areas
importantas
more
give
and
lifein the urban
conceptualized
the
will
psychologists
way
rural
This
domain for human functioning,with consequences,
more
natural areas, and
explaining
areas.
becornesever
urban environment
of2010
Nationshabitat, 2010). (United
trend will continue
this
in rural
than
environment
restorative
As
werld.
emphasis
were
life.From
city
initiallyapplied
these
developed that
norrns
strangers.
understand
Especially overload to
explain
human
interaction in the largecities. Informationoverload
experiences,
is
18
MERA za3o-Dec,120i2 NII-Electronic NII-Electronic
Library Service
Man-Environment Man-EnvironmentResearch
Research Association Association
1970) (Milgram,
defined
process the much
inabilityto
the
as
inputbecausethere is simply
sensory
itor becauseitchanges
of
situations may
use one
harsh interactions, and
adequately
too
reflex
too fast. People inthose
inyour
a street
They
way),
only
can
Moser,
personal
6, 2008), Apparently their
become
can
to have civility operate
complex
big and too
too
the dominant
as
interaction.
Lofland, a sociologist, formulatedthe fo11owing
to a passive approach:
shift
(G
model.'"
is that cities
conclusion
forpeople directly principleofsocial
attention
also
a
not
November
communication,
decreasetime per input(aquick glance insteadofa thorough observation), or ignore low-prierity input
(whencrossing
by
reactivated
fo11owingstrategies: they
ofthe
politenesshas
of
The paper shows that the disappeared,since itcan be
so on,
initiative insteadof beingproactive, ofthe publicrealm" (1989). The first, ancl most discourage contact by assuming an unfriendly pose,or generalone is civil inattentionigivingenough notice to access let the other know that hefshe has been seen, but also shut out inforrnation altogether by restricting blinds,unlisted telephone numbers), Ultimately communicating that helsheis not a target of special (fences, letothers
"rules
take the
from that, is civility is, in this perspective, curiosity; the second, sternming indifferencein treatment with regard determinedby direct personalrelevance to the individual. towards diversity: the allocation
of
attention
hypothesisderived from this postulateis that helpfulness to strangers should be greater in smail towns
personalcharacteristics as ethnicity, gender. age, dress style, income etc.. Thus, Lofland also emphasized that
A
than
in big
Altman
cities.
1970) devisedan researchers
permissionto use
against a
ina
small
door
of
assistants
to
strangers
people
the
of
for
ask
city
town
size:
were
72%
allowed
ofthe
in urban
strangers
interiors that can
cases
study
bleak27 % inManhattan.
isgue of
civility
in interacting with
publicplacesseems to playa role in be considered public. One example ofa
civility was
on
medical
differentperspective to similar issuesof
slightly
behaviorincities.
This same
balanced for gender
that govern
to a specific set of norms
adhere
social
phone. Helpfulness proved to be
their
determined by
assistants
A
the
on
(inMilgram,
colleagues
in which
experiment
called
strongly
and
to
done by one
doctor'swaiting
room
students:
In a
investigatedwhat
we
distancepatients preferred to
20 10). by Moser and Corroyer(2001). (Vitalis, Arriving patientsselected is that in city life,as eompared to
of my
person present
another
bigcity livingisoffered Their
argument
traditional many an
small
rural
settlements,
inorder to dealwith
people,the norrn of civility developed: impersonalpolitenessto eenciently deaL with
seat
unknown
unknown
people,make
other
persons predictable
and
thus
with
other
social
order.
situations maintain
Civilityalso impliesimpersonalhelpfulness. Moser
entering,
of
the
waiting
and
urban
environment
conviviality
impedes the
behavior,likethe tendency to
avoid
stress, on
urban
to
201O) (Vitalis,
(N=78> 1
Chair2 Chair3 Chair4 Chair5
13 30
21
Chair6 Chair7
of
9 4
O
Chair8
life
interpersonal
contact
that
between themselves
choices
behaviorslike politeness.tndeed, due to
and other dailyhassles,overcrowding turned out to have several effects
showed
Distribution of seating
current
expression
results
Seela2cm/lm
o
purposeofthe paperwas to show histerically the urban way of life was traditionally the politeness,
distributionof
windew
"The
civility and
and
Waitingroom observation study
and
ofa
with
room
7 possible
of
the one other person present (the junior-researcher
this as fbllows:
synonymous
out
isgiven inFigure 1.The
levels.Helpfulness is less in the large city (Paris), current densityis high.They explain especially when that
seat,
participantsleft2 or 3 seats empty
departmentstore fbrthe next person is infiuenced by city size and current density
door
the
Layout
choices
hew helpfulness, in this case holding
Corroyer shew open
choices.
a
Figure 1. Seat
choice
ina
waiting
room
others,
19 MERA
a3o- Decy2oi2
NII-Electronic Library Service
Man-Environment Man-EnvironmentResearch
Research Association Association
inthe
sitting
informedabout
were
the
a
available
regard
with
study
form
participate,given seat
1),After sitting down patients
chair
corner
on
rated
be to choose
there and
pleasantbut less polite.This
considered cornponent
influential: Seat 8
was
was
fbrthat reason.
Apparently there isa
not
reject
completely
not
of
at all,
forcivi[ity
A
coping
to
environment
to
adhering vigilance
et al. (Lederbogen
technique
norms
and
of
self
become
activated
Lederbogen
urban
demanding
from
the
tasks
that caused
disapproving
urban
stress,
distressthan participantsfrom Moreover, results showed children
rural
area
the
in a city, as compared also
other
that people
who
were
of
negative
Replications showed the
social
task
stress
affect
that
and
and
manipulation
not
on
social
dependent the
surroundings,
are making
raised
more
vulnerabLe
findingsthat features.
environmental
in the
urban
those
can
be
deriving from
environment
those
and
design solutions that influence
specific
category
are
given.
substantial
number
of
studies
qualities of nature
in
have looked an
at
the
context.
urban
important being that ofa view and thatofa domain
forleisurebehaviornear the home. Both are important and
on
strongly
(Kaplan,2001; Staats,van
valued
Gemerden, & Hartig,2010). A one
that
has been among the
establishing
was
classic
study,
the most
presumably
influential in
tradition of psychological done by Roger Ulrich and publishedin research
Science(Ulrich, 1984). In that article Ulrichdescribes
urban
bearing the cost of livingin these them
of
research
Nature in the city
most
cognitive
in
adyerse
interaction. En the fbllowingparagraphs examples
restoration,
Apparently people livingand/or
help in attenuating
can
Nature can have decidedlydifferent roles in cities, the
alone.
environments
from
restorative
threat.
environmental was
coming
A
to a small town or
the effect
elements
that
shows
of
raised
to the
that
qualities of environments
restorative
ofeach
signs
but also becausethere is a
beneficialeffects
reacted
manipulation:
suggestive
the
for
partlycompensate
may
knowledge
of
because city life
only
tife.Restorative environment
urban
natural
categories.
differentially sensitive
were
of
Not
that
well
design
cnvironmental
social
towns
Participants
stronger
as
body
recruited
people who had spent part or all of their first 15 years in cities also had more brainactMty stress
attentional
stressi
urban
divided in two general categoriesi
the
of
ofparticipants
offer
substantial
These
social stress
remarks
showed
category
relieve
necessary.
characteristics,
show under
differentlyto the social stress manipulation,
as
and
has over the lastthirtyyears accumulated
brain that
the
cities
the
the
used
> 100,OOO), small (population < (population100,OOO)or from rural areas,
from
indeed,
have painted a bleakpicture of
itsnegative
effects study
to
view
had participantsperfbrm
A generalsample
experimenter.
]ife:this is not
hasmuch
controL
supports
participantsare
colleagues
through
created
and
processesin
study
when
and
cognitively
201I)
be demanding. The to
The foregoingmay
large
c{ty
information and
that city lifemay
fMRt
a
demanding
more
stress
or
how to allow forrestoration
Practicing these can have greatbenefits but may have costs too. A quite spectacular findingwas published recently
noise
that,
suggests
leading to potentially
3. 0ptionsto preventor
from the foregoingcan be thatcity Iife
interaction require
social
This
environment.
by
explained
like
life implies living in a
urban
life
with city
imposes demands on itsinhabitants. Dealingwith of
be
cannot
specific stressors,
very
home
erowded
effects
fatigue.
conclusion
amounts
to
to
interactionthat applies potential
butespecially thatthe effects
symptoms,
the participants,
exposure
normative
manykindsofsettings.
2. Costs of
stress
to be generic for]ife in the city. Given the samples
seem
was
chosen
norm
underlies
that seat.
furtheraway
a seat
methods
be to
The importance
settlements.
paper isnot only that ituses very sophisticated which demonstratethat actual brainactivity
ofthis
each
how pleasantitwould
to
to
agreed
they
which
how politeitwould Interesting was that choosing sit
ifthey
and,
than inhabitants ofsmaller
how the view
to stressors
recovery
from a hospitalwindow
ofpatients
who
had
undergone
playsa a
role
inthe
gall bladder
20
MERA
gg3oe Dec.f2o12 NII-Electronic NII-Electronic
Library Service
Man-Environment Man-EnvironmentResearch
Research Association Association
operation.
matched Carefu11y
variables
age, (e.g.,
were a
weight,
in a
recovering
therapeutic value
of
a
in the tree-view
recovering
lesscomplications,
with
lessnurse
support.
confirmed
in other
value
of
nature
view
on
rooms
recovered
a
had
who
the
a
view
of
cognitive
important
very
study
done
was
were
Su]livan They had a (2001).
unique
by Kuo to
opportunity
green versus barren surroundings housing.Their research designwas so special effects of
of
new
blocks. The
apartments
and
barren,
either
somewhat
that
only
assignment
possible
somewhat
because
these
of
natural,
be
could
were
on
the household.Kuo
causal.
towards
Sullivan
setting
The
the
of
members
in terms
outcomes
on (1995)
syntax.
how
much
spaces
one
interactionthrough
They had two residents
ofthese
parentfemales,might would therefore be more
from
suffer
and
inclined to act aggressively
towards their family.They that mental
more inhibition, easily leadto
difflcult. Therefbre aggression
than in people who was hypothesis
self contro],
are
in
can
fatiguedpersons rested. Thc{r second
study.
that the
two
hypotheses were confirmed
Residentsofthe
apartment
negative the
by
and
by Evans
study
of the home, quaLities
to
opportunities easy
hypotheses
main
regulate
ofthe
with
nuinber
between
study
of
of
were
(2)the by social
Both high density.
with
Thus,
showed
that
countered
by
results
high densitycould be
leading to less stress the interior,
withdrawal.
the Ironically
the environment
of
leads to
rooms),
ismediated
stress
that
number
greater depth,and
confirmed. of
social
physicalseparation
more people have better,
that when
efllects
structure
social
in their
blockssurrounded
must
but only in homes
hypotheseswere
more
presence of nature provides rest responsible for to the directedattention mechanism The inhibition.
reduction
stress
theory, Depth quantifies passthrough in order to get
betweendensityand
withdrawal,
mentally
mentally
of
structural
inhabitantsdiyided by the
relation
specifically
conflicts
greater
atibrds
lessstress in homes
out thisby pointing
explained
fatiguemakes
mental
that
studies
beingthe (1)highdensityin a home (density
fatigue
single
one
The inhabitants,
the firstwas that the hypotheses: apartment blocks.usually low-income
main
highlighttwo
place to another one. Greaterdepth in a home
beneficialeffects the potential
surroundings.
qualityof
architecturat
an
from
natural
be
can
restorative
The first one is a
restoration.
Theory (Kaplan, 1995; Kaplan & Kaplan, Restoration about the causes of aggression and 1989)to hypothesize of
to
want
outcomes
in particular on the degree of privacy provided by depthofthe home. Depth is a concept derivedfrem
space
Attention
employed
and
Lepore
and more
stress, crowding,
stressors whose
we
there
although
between specific attributes of the physical
relationships
or
Here
in
particularlypromising in that these studies show
attention
barren
considered
settings.
seem
implied
dealingwith
the forguidelinesto increase
these
or
studies
and other urban
used
that
tradition
restoration
probably many
are
vegetation.
surroundings,
aggression
and
small
quality of urban isthrough the designof buildings and {nteriors.
noise
concrete,
to apartments
ofpeople
effects
effects studied
of
consisting
increase restorative
to
the environmenta]
blocks were
apartment
to
contributed
For this
This isa domain thathas not beenintensivelystudied
the apartment
of
becauseof treesand
natural
The random
and
any
thus
nature
option
settings
study
for the immediate surroundings
identical except were
to
residents
of
and
publichousing a better famity
of
residents
underprivileged
presence
An
tQ implement a true experimental they were ina position design in a real lifesituation, due to the random allocation
for directed attention
and interiordesign Architectutal quaiity
public
of
increases capacity
nature
that presence
conclude
in
betterand
concentrate
authors
by
mediated
life,
restorative
nature
The
betweenquality of
proved to be
aggression
capacity.
group of
later
students
among
This relation
toward
acts
impulseinhibition, leadingto lessaggression.
and
result was
of
less aggressive
reported
and
attentional
patients
less tranquilizers
study
surroundings
faster,and
lookingat the
In
or on
showed
nature;
This spectacular
views.
trees
on
elements
their familymembers.
perform better on tasks (Tennessen & Cimprich,1995).
to
A
out
clearly
requiring
dorrnitories, students able
looked
study
studies
natural
history) patients
medical
that
room
Results of the
walL
confounding potentially
on
results
and
demonstrated
supportive
relationships
being alone. facilitates
Interestingly,this points at
a
quality of social
21
MERA rg3oeDecy2oi2 NII-Electronic Library Service
Man-Environment Man-EnvironmentResearch
Research Association Association
people have
where
important in situations
is especially
that
relationships
a
for recovery:
need
'iego
friend or
a
eAR
(Baumeister,
cast"
controllers,
home
arriving
from familylifefora
withdraw
]
permissionto of hours,with
couple
improved
and
relationships
benefieial
as
e,-
From these studies
of
assurnption
a series
Van Gemerden, (Staats,
der Jagt, 2012).We forvarious
visited
in the
leisure settings
on
prominentamong
but that
these.The
research
We lookedat acafe. In linewith an
restoration
leisureenvironment.
urban
is characterized
above,
and
is
what
expectations
isusually
that a cafe
how
considered
a very
Figure 2. Floorplansofa table inthe
earlier
183).This visitors
a
and
ratings authors
more
to
studies
cafe could
be a
that showed
restorative
ofa
character
that
friendappreciated
We designeda
investigateunder
cafe
what
the cafe much
Xiv ℃
the cafe interior might reading
that
reasonecl
alter
table puts less
the eafe
visited
more
than
implicitly suggests acceptable.
We
that
created
placing a
the
series
had
while
we
preference the
and
a reading
compared
table was
as
rated
more
was
only were
for participants
true only alone.
For people in the
friendthe absence no
choice
when
pleasantthan a floor plan table.But very importantwas our
this
ofa
majority
on
with
people
reading
expectations
emphasis
restorativeness
and
reading
table made
confirrned:
were
imaginingthat they
conditions
The questionthen became how people alone comforted.
a readjng
of
or presence ofa reading difference.Thispatternwas reflected in seat
in the differentconditions:
alone
chose a seat at
a
ofpeople
peopleincompany
the reading
a
table
indifferent(see Table 1).
were
in an initiaLstudy
verified
participantswho
a
company
place fbr people alone. The
was
with
table (see Figure2) and
a reading
a cafe with
of
findingthat
this
consider
with
restorative
without
(1984,p.
they
whether
and
corner
perceived
of
fioorplan
setting, as
determinesin part what
then
fbr restoration,
appropriate
scenario
social
set
experience
setting of
normative
and
Our hypotheses
"The
relatienships........."
without
Our
in this famous quotefrom the French philosopher Bourdieu: cafe isnot a placewhere man goes fbra drinkbuta placehe goes to in order to drinkincompany, he can establish
upper-right
cafe wjthout
partieipantsrate these floor plans.
about
shows
where
]
a cafe,
context.
social
t.:
reasoned
certainly
guidedby the ideasof
were
O b c," C D c{"
be
purposes. we
that
ooeee
--/-r・Te/LtTt/ tt-LLtt.-----.7.rm ・/[/,,'b'c,vvS" e・-de.rp/di-di
are
will
expectations
behavior in
appropriate
fi
o・ eee
/t.........."....4....sH.
by frequent. intensesocial interaction.
This patternof interactioncreates
KI
'
question was
the
ee
L.-..-.l
we
that leisure settings
reasons
zav:[t'"vJ
it-
main
& Hartig, 2010; Staats& Min
reasoned
hA
,,,・,Ht・・
i i !
environment
the physical setting forrestorative
to optimize
that
urban
l'
=:=:===is
/L
situation
This was the quality. of experiments in which
determines its restorative
]
.
combination
the
of
v'
O.・h-Jdect
.i" iEII, IlIL・liIll・li
inferthat the
one can
physical and social characteristics
focused
{-v?V' f#=-i
/t.'v'r'v・,T:..:1'/=.'IF・===L'-=
consequences.
of
ee -LvJ eee"
-,
-"・ ' !・ tt
ab.wvuthd
betterrecovery
e
oeee
II[・//,'illitT・i,Mli・.
tired after their shift,
benefitted greatly from their spouse's
e
l
---]l
rtt-tttttttmL eeoeeeo
Faber, & Wallace, 1999), Repetti reported thatair (1989) traruc
J,---------------r'T==,=,=d'-i :11-.nm-.=,J,
IscLT[HIS
1kil
the shielding
from external demands.This can be done by partner,itis describedas the
'rt,-[・
rww-'um1rl '11IIlf
of
Table 1. Percentage of
a
alone.
upper-right
be
could
table
table
reading
of
in
interactionand
No
is
other
reading
per
the cafe
as a
1; Staats& (Experiment
A
visitors.
behaviorthan socializing floorplans that visualized a
corner
seats
Table
ReadingTable
condition
in the
chosen
function of company
and
Vttnder jagt,2012) .
Alone
With a good friend
20
18
80
16
cafe
22 MERA
ag3ogDec.12ot2 NII-Electronic NII-Electronic
Library Service
Man-Environment Man-EnvironmentResearch
Research Association Association
New Ybrk: 711ie hidden dl'mension. (1966). Doubleday. The nature of the view from home. Kaplan,R. (2001). Environment and Behaviony Psychological benefits. 33,507-542. 77ie experience Kaplan, R,, & Kaplan, S. (1989) of naturer A psychological perspective, New Ybrk: Press. CambridgeUniversity Kaplan, S, (1995). The restorative efTects of nature: Hall, E. T,
4. Discussion Citiesare psychologicallydernanding and create the for restoration. At the same time there is a need multitude
that
settings
of
for
allow
isone
surroundings
be applied to create
that can
of options
obvious
and
In this paper I gave some
design interiorsthat
home
quality ofthe certain
important ways
this need, However, other options
addressing
exist.
Creatingnatural
restoration.
ofthe
urban
served and
ofa
examples
cafe.
to
of ways
the to increase
toward an integrative framework, Jburnal of EnvirontnentatPsychotogy15,169-182. Aggression and Kuo, F., & Sullivan, W. C. (2001). violence in the inner city: Effects of environment
also
restorative
mental fatigue. Environmentand Behaviony33, 543-571. F.,Tbst, H., Lederbogen,F.,Kirsch,P.,Haddad,L.,Streit, Schueh, P., Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2011). City livingand urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans. Nbture, 474,498-501, Lofland, L. H. (1989), Sociallifein the public realm. A Ethnogrqphy 17, review. Jburnatqf Contenu)orary via
More ingeneral I am
in urban that in depthstudy of behaviorpatterns
settings,
both privateand public urban
places, will
previdesuggestions to design restorative qualitiesinto urban settings. The needs fbr restoration of urban populations are
most
in
urban
restoration
likelyincreasing,and settings
an
this
makes
important topic
453-482.
for
Milgram,S. (1970). The
environmentalpsychologicalresearch.
is based
article
of
livingin cities.
Politenessinthe urban Moser,G & Corroyer, D, (2001). with environment. Is city life still synonymeus 33,611-625. civility? Environment andBehaviony on RepettL R. L. (1989). EfTectsof daily workload duringmarital interaction, The subsequent behavior
Author note This
experience
Science,167, 1461-1464.
en
presented at STEEP 2012,the
the second
roles
keynote lectureI Summer
school
of
social
Journal qfPersonality
on
and
withdrawal
spouse
suppert.
Social lvchology57,
and
651-659.
Restorative environments. (2012), of environmental
In S.
Theoriesin Environmentaland Economic Psychologyat 2-6-July,2012. I am gratefu1 to John Aarhus University,
Staats, H.
ThOgersenand histeam forthe organization
Oxford University Press. Choosinga Staats, H,,& Van der Jagt,A. P.(2012), design,conrpato4 in a ecofU: Ezfilects ofinterior
Correspondence addressed
to
regarding
Clayton (Ed.),Hdndbook
ofSTEEP.
this article
should
psychology
eonservation
be
Henk Staats,Socialand Organizational
Psychology, Leiden UniversitM PO Box 9555, 2300 RB
attentional
and
(pp.445-458). 0xfbrd/
Manuscript fotigue.
submitted
seat and
fbr
publication.
Staats,H., Vt}n Gemerden, & Hartig,T. (2010). Interactive Preference for restorative situations:
Leiden, Netherlands.Email
[email protected]
effects of and social
References Tlheenvironment andsocial behavior. Altman,I.(1975). Belmont (Ca): Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Baumeister, R. F.,Faber, J. E.,& Wallaee, H, M. (1999). Recovery after the Coping and ego-depletion. Cbping; Tlre In C. R, Snyder(Ed.), coping process.
attentional
state,
ac"vity-in-environment,
Leisure Sciences.32,401-417. between density Stokols, D. (1972), On the distinction and crowcling. Ilsp,ckotogical Revieve70, 275-277. Views to Tennessen, C, M., & Cimprich,B. (1995) nature, Effects on attention. JburnalofEnvironmental Psychotogy15, 77-85. may View though a window Ulrich,R. S. (1984). from surgery. Sbience,224, influencerecovery 420-421. UN-Habitat (2010).State of the VVOrld'sCities 201Of2011: Bridgingthe Urban Divide. http:/lwww. context.
(pp.50-69).Oxford: psychology of what works OxfordUniversityPress, sociale chi La Distinction.Critique Bourdieu, P, (1979), A unhabitat.orgfdocumentsfSOWCIOIR7.pdf Editions de Minuit. (Distinction. jugementParis: Translated on the of taste. social critique (asdisplayedJune1,2011) judgment Vitalis,S, (2010). Deciding where to sit: not too close 1984by R. Nice.London:Routledge) A. (1996). The and not too far!Master thesis in Socialand Evans,G W., Lepore, S. J.,& Schroeder, OrganizationalPsychology, Leiden University. role of interior designelements in human responses Ameriean and Social Wirth,L. (1939).Urbanisrnas a way of life. to crowding. Jburnat of Personatity 44, 1-24. JburnatofSociology 70,4146. lvchology
23
MERA za3ogDecy2Di2 NII-Electronic Library Service