Is Detected in Potato Crops Is Detected in Potato Crops

Society Alienated in terms of food

5

Health Drug for cholesterol could attack osteosarcoma

12

Ecology Forest in Chocó Would be Fragmented within 40 Years

19

Innovation Software Makes it Possible to Predict Abnormalities in the Human Body

http://www.unperiodico.unal.edu.co/en • [email protected] Bogotá D.C. - Colombia • Issue 6 • January 2012

Published by Universidad Nacional de Colombia • ISSN 1657-0987 • www.agenciadenoticias.unal.edu.co/english-news

Is

Excess of Chemicals

Detected in Potato Crops Improper and excessive fumigation with pesticides makes the most widely consumed tuber in the country a potential cause of serious diseases. A study in the rural zone of Cuidad Bolivar, in Bogotá, shows the contamination levels of potatoes consumed by people in Bogotá.

Pág. 22

Rescuing the Amazon forest A severe dry season in 2010 in the Amazon Rain Forest killed many trees in the Amayacu parcel. Tons of carbon dioxide were released into the atmosphere, according to forest experts who study the natural dynamic of these forests to find out what their response has been to abrupt climate changes.

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Photo: Víctor Manuel Holguín/Unimedios

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Society

The globalized market standardizes consumers’ tastes and aims to homogenize crops, posing a risk to genetic biodiversity.

Alienated in terms of food Nowadays, the trend towards monoculture dominates globalized agriculture. Crops of just one species represent a potential phytosanitary risk. The so-called “granary” of nations is rich in grain but poor in genes. Antonio Elizalde,

Sociologist and Ph.D in Human Development and Social Participation Rector Emeritus of Universidad Bolivariana de Chile

6

January 2012

www.agenciadenoticias.unal.edu.co/english-news

For thousands of years, humans have experienced different ways of inhabiting a territory and living in community, finding and then producing food, creating languages to describe internal and external worlds and sharing them with others, building houses and infrastructures, transmitting acquired experience to new generations and creating institutions to regulate life in communities. Current life forms are a product of cultural evolution. Only eight thousand years ago, when it was discovered that collected seeds would grow into plants similar to those that grow in the wild, cultivation and domestication of vegetal species began. This made the development of a horticulture economy possible. After that, Homo sapiens developed cultivation techniques, producing a change in the existing relationship between life and nature. After domesticating plants, humans learned to domesticate animals, changing from hunter gatherers into farmers. Three thousand years ago, the invention of

plowing, which uses other sources of energy apart from that of humans themselves to remove soil, enabled the emergence of an agricultural economy. At that point, a growing segment of the population could begin to do something other than just obtaining food. The industrial economy emerged a few centuries ago and the urban lifestyle began to spread. Nearly 250,000 plants are traded in the world, most of which are part of our diet. In a limited area in terms of botanic diversity such as North America, the natives used to eat 1,112 different species, and even today Bushmen in the arid regions of South Africa use 85 wild vegetables in a normal meal.1 Cultivation and its techniques have changed to fit this reality, and humans have incorporated less than 1,500 food elements in so– called formal agriculture. At the end of the 1920s, a typical grocery store in Canada would offer 900 different products. Today, an average store has over 12,000, including more than 50 different brands of breakfast cereal. However, just 30 crops provide 95% of human nutritional requirements (three– quarters of our diet are based on just eight crops), and 75% of cereal consumption consists of rice, wheat and corn.

Homogenization Vs diversification Important restrictions on production have increased the risk of vulnerability due to the considerable genetic uniformity commercial homogenization has imposed. This is happening even though agronomists are aware of the situation. In November of 1979, genetists K.E. Prasada Rao and M.H. Mengesha visited Sudan, a possible center of the origins of sorghum, to search for the wild relatives of this variety of grass. However, they did not find the hegaris variety in any of the samples taken, and they found that the zera-zera variety close to Damazin was “almost extinct”. Sorghum is very important in tropical and subtropical countries and zera-zera is much appreciated due to its characteristics and as one of the bases of most modern hybrid varieties. “Germplasm botanists are shocked at the magnitude of the genetic erosion of primitive crops and the situation is even more alarming with respect to wild sorghum,” asserted Rao and Magesha. Over the last 50 years, more than 30,000 different local varieties of rice have been grown in

India. However, this situation has changed dramatically in the last 15 years. The director of agricultural research at the Institute of India in New Delhi, H.K Jain, predicted 25 years ago that this larger number of varieties of rice would be reduced to just 50 over this period of time. From these 50, the first ten would represent almost three quarters of the total amount of rice in the subcontinent. Consumers have been educated by the market to buy “natural” products, which are completely regulated and standardized as to shape, taste and color. Increasingly, commercial possibilities for non–favored species are reduced in order to facilitate mass production, relegating self–consumption to isolated places or to those that are not part of global trends.

Tension between globalization and productive localization The tendency towards monoculture dominates global agriculture. Crops of just one species and one variety represent a potential phytosanitary risk in which a plague could affect and boost the spreading of the disease. Experience shows that when seeds from a crop are used outside their genetic “country”, a reduction of their diversity occurs. This has led to a number of disasters. A century ago, the rediscovery of Mendel’s laws about genetics made the science of modern plant breeding possible, creating a few new varieties of high performance crops, but eliminating, in a few decades, the limited genetic diversity that existed in the northern hemisphere. New varieties were scientifically “designed” to satisfy the demanding requirements of mechanical harvesting, milling, fermentation and baking, but their uniformity has increased the risk of disease. The producers of “improved” seeds found it necessary to travel to ancient genetic diversity centers in Africa, Asia and Latin America in order to guarantee the success of their new varieties. The so–called “granary” of nations is rich in grain but poor in genes, and, as a result, has become totally dependent on third world agriculture for the long term survival of western agriculture. The information provided here is to make it possible to look at the “obstacles” rural practices encounter from a different perspective. We need to find solutions to the challenges that ecological, biodynamic, native, family, and rural agricultures face, along with the challenges for natural agriculture. All of these practices attempt to achieve equilibrium with the ecosystem and, at the same time, sustainable agricultural production for diverse regions in the world, despite current trends that jeopardize food security. Development dialogue. The Law of the Seed- Another Development and Plant Genetic Resources, 1983, pp. 1-2.

1

Executive Director: Carlos Alberto Patiño Villa Press Chief: Nelly Mendivelso Rodríguez Copy Editor–Translator: Edward Helbein Associate Spanish Editor: Carlos Andrey Patiño Art Editor: Ricardo González Angulo Spanish Copy Editor: Verónica Barreto Agencia de Noticias UN Editors: Félix Enrique Blanco, Luis Miguel Palacio Printing: Imágenes Gráficas

Expressed opinions are those of the authors alone and don’t compel or compromise principles by the Universidad Nacional de Colombia or politics by the UN Periódico. Web Page: http://www.unperiodico.unal.edu.co Mail: [email protected] Phones: (571) 316 5348 - (571) 316 5000 ext. 18384 / Fax: (571) 316 5232 Edificio Uriel Gutiérrez Carrera 45 Nº 26-85, piso 5º. Bogotá - Colombia ISNN1657-0987

Society

3

Maria Victoria Valero,

the country’s health systems, such as the attention models for the subsidized and contributive regimens, complementary programs and prepaid health insurance.

Stigmas All of these problems have long-term consequences, as in cases of elephantiasis and filariasis. The effects of some diseases during the chronic stage have considerable economic costs for patients and for the health systems. These diseases also affect societies by decreasing productivity along with the wellbeing and development of those affected by them. The world has become interested in addressing this topic in the context of compliance with human rights. In Colombia, the Ministry of Social Protection issued Resolution 412 of 2000, which

included some of these pathologies. Its updating in 2006 included others such as American trypanosomiasis or Chagas disease. In 2009, the PAHO, of which Colombia is a member, approved a resolution on Elimination of neglected diseases and other infections related to poverty. It affirmed that their reduction or elimination is possible with the available instruments. The Member States have therefore undertaken to reduce them with the goal of eliminating them as a public health problem by 2015. To achieving this objective, the need to improve the system of oversight for these diseases in the Member States country was cited, along with the allocation of efficient resources to achieve the sustainability of programs based on prevention, diagnosis, treatment, control and elimination strate-

gies. Additionally, the creation of “safer accessible diagnosis tests, safer medications and appropriate mechanisms to reduce late complications was proposed.” The most affected countries will be those with higher indexes of Unsatisfied Basic Needs (UBN) and limited health systems to carry out control and implementation of operative programs, with faster diagnostic methods and safe and cheap medications to permit universal access by target populations. Efforts made by researchers, academia and some nongovernmental organizations have led to the inclusion of all of these diseases on the international health agenda, as indicated by increased investment, the development of safer medications and faster and cheaper diagnostic tests for remote areas with difficult access, or politically unstable zones.

Estimates of neglected diseases compared to HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis

Figure 1: bias in international policy?


The plague, Chagas, cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, onchocerciasis, dengue and human rabies are part of the list of forgotten diseases. Although finding solutions to these problems is a national priority, international health policies tend to lose sight of them.

January 2012

One of the difficulties in determining the situation in Colombia is that only certain Neglected Diseases must be reported immediately, such as human rabies, ophidian accidents, congenital syphilis, cholera, dengue, leishmaniasis, diphtheria, anthrax, foodborne illnesses, Chagas, the plague and leprosy. Those with the highest incidence on this list are dengue (Colombia has the third highest number of cases in Latin America), rabies exposition and leishmaniasis. Estimates for 2010 include approximately 18 million cases of intestinal parasitosis and 22,000 cases of leishmaniasis. Conditons in Colombia are favorable to the prevalence these diseases, which occur among populations with low socioeconomic status, high levels of illiteracy, precarious households, overcrowding and inadequate health services (particularly potable water), in addition to problems in access to public health services. According to the last census by the DANE in 2005, 27.7% of the Colombian population has close to 100% of Unsatisfied Basic Needs (UBN) in remote areas far from big urban centers where all the elements for the persistence of NDs are present. In 2008 46% of Colombians lived below the poverty line and 17.8% were indigents. This, however, is not the only risk factor. The scope of heath programs, in which ethnic minorities (indigenous populations and Afro–descendants) children and women are the most negatively affected, must be examined. The accumulation of all of these epidemiologic and social conditions creates a vicious circle. It must also be pointed out that there are deeper differences in

forgotten populations

6

Local scenario

Neglected diseases,

Source: María Victoria Valero & M. Tanner. International Health Seminar

Diseases caused by infections or parasites are part of the list of forgotten, neglected diseases, according to the classification made by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). Interest in carrying out and improving clinical and pharmaceutical research is limited and there is little innovation in efficient and economical diagnostic methods. These diseases are characterized by deficient investment in their control and management. For the World Health Organization (WHO), the importance of neglected diseases (ND) stems their impact and persistence among poor or marginal populations. They are also concerned about their secondary effects on the improvement of health conditions for those who do not receive timely attention, using safe and efficient therapeutic tools. According to the WHO, close to 1 billion people suffer from one of these diseases (ND). Estimates compared to those for HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis classify them as an important problem in the world (Figure 1). Leprosy, leptospirosis, the plague, trachoma, Buruli’s ulcer, Chagas, African trypanosomiasis, cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, onchocerciasis, dengue, human rabies, dracunculiasis, distomatosis, cholera, schistosomiasis, lymphatic filariasis, geohelmintiasis and ophidian accidents are included in the group of NDs made by the WHO

Photo: AFP

PhD in Tropical Medicine and Public Health Leader of the Complexity and Poverty Group Universidad Nacional de Colombia

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Photo: Andrés Felipe Castaño/Unimedios

Health

In Latin America, the countries with the most antibiotic use are Argentina, Venezuela, Peru, Mexico, and Chile. The less use is present in Brazil, Colombia and Uruguay.

Inappropriate use of antibiotics

increases mortality

Alejandro Borraez,

6

January 2012


Unimedios

Antibiotics are the main drugs used to fight against bacteria that cause infections in the body, stemming from the use of catheters, needles and other implements in a clinical context. They are also used for treating ulcers and viruses among other pathologies. However, the resistance that microorganisms develop to these drugs (due to the speed of their genetic adaptation) causes antibiotics to lose their effectiveness, giving rise to the need to use higher and stronger doses for longer periods of time. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared this to be a public health problem in 2008. This study by the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, the Ministry of Health and Colciencias clearly showed that excessive use of antibiotics in this country is a source of concern. In 13 high level hospitals (specialized for the treatment of serious illnesses), the use of carbapenem derivatives such as Metropenem (used for severe infections) increased by 300 percent, according to Aura Lucia Leal, a microbiologist from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia and the coordinator of the study. This reveals the growing need to use these antibiotics to fight against increased bacterial resistance. “Options are becoming limited, which is why doctors must vary the doses or use different types of antibiotics at the same time to fight against bacteria. This brings other types of consequences,” asserted Leal. In the body, there are millions of bacteria in the throat, intestines, skin, etc., which are necessary as a protection mecha-

A study made by the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, in which the impact of the use of antibiotics on bacterial resistance in 17 hospitals in the district health network in Bogotá was analyzed, showed that mortality and length of hospital stays among patients increased by 14%.

nism. Antibiotics are not selective and attack microorganisms indiscriminately, also killing those that are beneficial. The result is a process called “selective pressure”, which means the presence of resistant bacteria. Another consequence was seen in the presence of two of the most dangerous bacteria in the intensive care unit: staphylococcus (present in mucus and skin) increased its mortality level from 46% to 57% while hospitalization periods for patients increased from 26 to 37 days. In the case of Pseudomona (transmitted in hospitals), the increase in mortality went from 41% to 61%, and hospitalization periods rose from 33 days to 43.

Improper use The improper use of these drugs in the community is also a concern. In the study led by Professor Leal, 20% of the patients surveyed (536) had used antibiotics before hospitalization, which shows the need for so–called “prudent use of antibiotics” with respect to decreasing bacterial resistance. “They must be prescribed only when the patient truly needs

them, using diagnostic guides, determining correct doses, and accurate times of use. From an economic standpoint, antibiotics account for the highest costs in health services because they are used in great quantities,” said the Professor. The figures show the reality that in–hospital infections cost the country nearly 727 billion pesos (some 370 million USD) each year. The Universidad Nacional de Colombia microbiologist also stated that people in Colombia know the names of many antibiotic, particularly beta lactams (derived from penicillin) such as amoxicillin, bactrin, etc., and use them indiscriminately following instructions from relatives, friends, local drugstores, etc. “When the disease becomes serious, they go to hospitals with resistant bacteria that generate complications, not only for them but for other patients,” asserted Leal. Roberto Tamara, a physician at the infectious disease unit at San Ignacio Hospital, highlights other elements that influence the prescription of antibiotics: patient’s expectations that they will receive medications immedi-

ately after the consultation (this is particularly frequent during holidays) and a tendency to exaggerate their symptoms, among others mentioned in the report entitled ‘Psychosocial factors that influence the prescription of antibiotics, non pharmacological bases for therapy’.

Hand washing is effective for controlling infections Among the recommendations by the WHO to control the dissemination of resistant bacteria, the Ministry of Health –along with other specialized research groups such as the one led by Doctor Aura Lucía Leal and Carlos Arturo Álvares, an associate professor at the Universidad Nacional de Colombiahand washing is emphasized as the simplest and most effective method for controlling this problem. “In the 19th century, Iganz Semmlewis observed that obstetric mortality was higher in patients attended by medicine students who came directly from the morgue, with a disgusting smell on their hands. When he demanded that they wash their hands with a chloride solution, maternal mortality decreased from 13% to 2%, explains Álvarez. However, despite specific studies that stress the importance of this measure for preventing the proliferation of bacteria, sometimes even doctors themselves neglect to carry it out. Because the creation of new molecules for fighting resistant bacteria can be impossible and minimizing their spread in clinical and community environments is difficult, experts consider is necessary to use measures to prevent the increase of resistance, based on existing possibilities.

Health

5

Drug for cholesterol could attack osteosarcoma

Herman Saenz, Unimedios

In 1980 Canadians were surprised to learn of an athlete that ran the width of their country, the world’s second largest, with the aid of an orthopedic prosthetic device. His aim was to obtain funding for osteosarcoma research, a cancer that had led to the loss of his leg. Almost 5,000 kilometers of sacrifice resulted in the creation of the foundation that bears his name, Terry Fox. It supports the studies on all types of this disease, which became famous throughout the world thanks to the “Marathon of Hope” run by this athlete, who died at the age of 22. But osteosarcoma is still the most common bone tumor and the second cause of cancer–related death among young people and adults, after leukemia. 75% of patients are between 15 and 25. It also represents 15% of all primary bone tumors and 0.2% of malignant tumors in children. Its prevalence has increased by 1.4% per year over the last 25 years. In Colombia, according to figures from the National Cancer Institute, 74% of bone tumor cases reported were caused by this disease. Although its origin was initially thought to be viral, its origins remain unknown; the only known agent associated with this disease is ionizing radiation, which is associated with 2% of the cases.

Statins are mainly used to reduce bad cholesterol. Now, they could be used to fight osteosarcoma, one of the most lethal cancers in people between the ages of 15 and 25. Laboratory results are promising.

marathon that Terry Fox started in 1980, the world began to know the drastic effects of osteosarcoma.

2. This disease has been reported in patients older than 50 who suffer from a loss of bone mass; however, the percentage is lower than among young people.

procedure. Nowadays, 80’% and 90% of interventions do not require amputation. Once metastasis occurs, surgery is essential,” according to Chemistry Department professor Myriam Sanchez.

A multifaceted medicine A new focus of the treatment, using statins (an essential component of a large group of currently– used medications), could mitigate the effects of osteosarcoma. Scientists from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia are currently working on this along with colleagues from the Universidad de las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Spain). Statins, which initially came from the metabolism of a fungus, have been known since the 1970s. They help to prevent the negative effects of certain enzymes. In the

case of cholesterol, they prevent fat deposits in the arteries. They are now used commercially and are only produced synthetically. Apart from their use for cholesterol control, atherosclerosis and cerebrovascular diseases, it has been proven that they help to decrease cardiovascular incidents such as myocardial infarction, strokes, and kidney dysfunction. “In studies carried out using in vitro cells in the lab, it has been shown that statins decrease the proliferation of cancer cells, as well as several of its biological effects such as the capacity for invasion and migration. Some clinical experiments focus on evaluating reduction of the risk of prostate and breast cancer,” explained Sánchez, Sandoval also stated that “it was found that the most invasive cells die easily due to the effect of

the medication; but normal liver cells that were analyzed resisted a higher dose. This means that statins do not have collateral damage because they do not affect the patient’s healthy cells.” Diseased cells grow and last longer. What statins do, according to the specialist, is to accelerate the natural process of death of these tumor cells, whose natural life programming has been altered. For now, studies on the treatment for osteosarcoma using statins are being carefully analyzed, in that the research models are based on tumor cells extracted from patients and adapted models of lab rats, which are not entirely compatible with the human body. This work, however, is a source of great hope for those who suffer from this disease.


Terry Fox: thanks to the

January 2012

attacks the unions of the bones and it is characterized by a spherical mass.

Osteosarcoma

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Graph: Jonny F. Flórez/Unimedios

In general, 80% to 90% of osteosarcoma cases occur in long tubular bones that surround the knee and the shoulders. The average age of patients is 16 years, with male predominance, during the stage of higher growth. “Generally, the disease starts at the top of the bone. Externally, it is possible to see a mass that grows as a spherical tumor. It is an accumulation of cells on the bone that is not easy to detect; some x– rays have to be taken to identify it. If people suffer from pain in this region, it is frequently attributed to a muscle injury but not to the generation of cells on the bone tissue,” according to Adriana Umaña, professor at the Chemistry Department of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Frequently, metastasis occurs in joints or muscles surrounding the bone. One in three patients develops metastasis to a lung, this being the biggest cause of death from this disease. The prevalence might be lower compared to other types of cancer, but the mortality rate is greater than 90%, and possibilities of success following treatment are low, which shows its aggressiveness. “In the past, amputation of the extremity was the safest and most practical measure to fight the disease,” said María Claudia Sandoval, a doctoral student at the Chemistry Department. Currently, this treatment is performed depending on the condition of the disease. Surgery without chemotherapy, in patients with localized osteosarcoma, fails in 85% to 90% of cases. “Generally, during this treatment a combination of medications commonly used in chemotherapy is used. Complete extirpation of the tumor is necessary to guarantee the success of the

Photo: personal file

High mortality

6

Health

Therapeutic patches without chemicals Polymeric films made using substances such as starch and jelly extracted from trees and plants will relieve the pain of those who, due to arthritis and chronic pain, among other diseases, have difficulties in swallowing medicine. This plaster of botanic origin will facilitate the absorption of medicine through the skin. Elizabeth Vera Martinez,


Due to diabetes, Pablo Ramirez has been injecting insulin into his body using small needles for more than 20 years in order to control his blood sugar levels. Apart from the time he needs to use the needles (a minimum of 10 minutes) and the pain caused to his skin, he has to pay for the needles, alcohol and cotton (around 50,000 Colombian pesos per month). Like him, many people have to use medicine intravenously, orally (drops, syrups), rectally (suppositories and ointments) topically (baths and drops) or through the skin (percutaneous or transdermal). This last method has been researched over the past 30 years and involves the use of patches to administer certain pharmaceuticals. They have traditionally been made from chemical substances, but now the Research Group in Pharmaceutical Technology, consisting of Professors Hélber de Jesús Barbosa and Bibiana Vallejo, has come up with innovations in their design. They are making these films based on polymeric substances of vegetable origin such as cellulose, starch and jelly extracted from trees and plants. Some pharmaceuticals and extracts with proven biological activity are being applied to these films and, when they are attached to the skin, they facilitate, in a controlled way, the degradation of these substances until they reach the bloodstream. They are used to treat infections. According to professor Barbosa, all medicines are composed of three elements: an active element or substance that causes an effect; auxiliary formulation elements that help it to act in a stable and safe way, and a technological application for its manufacture. “The final results are pills, tablets, syrups and capsules, among others,” said the expert. At the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, some certified extracts of vegetable origin (essential oils and medicinal plants, etc) studied at the Chemistry Department were applied to the plaster, under the direction of Professor Luis Enrique Cuca. The in vitro pilot test to prove its effectiveness is being carried out by Researcher Lucy Gabriela Delgado, who leads an alternative project to treat cutaneous leishmaniasis. This pharmaceutical chemist has successfully experimented

This new method will help to change traditional practices for using medication, such as injections.

Patches relieve pain, minimize the risk of following schedules and are better accepted by patients, because they do not cause discomfort.

The films are a means of transporting medicine and their development is being performed in the Pharmacy Department at Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

with the use of botanic extracts, and is now testing their inclusion in polymeric films to determine their therapeutic action and response in patients who suffer from this tropical disease. Professor Barbosa asserts that for cases of cutaneous disease, a patch is being developed to put directly on the wound without coming into contact with blood circulation. Although the use of patches is common, “our objective is to take advantage of the film to transport medications such as diclofenac, iodine, and insulin, to prove that they can be released in a specific place that the body requires and thus prevent collateral effects.” Traditional transdermal patches are used to treat pathologies such as hypertension, chronic pain and smoking. As contraceptives, they inhibit ovulation and their effectiveness is similar to that of traditional oral tablets, according to gynecologist Maria Yolanda Torrente. “Few women use them, because they are not included in the Compulsory Health Insurance Plan. Most prefer monthly injections or pills that are offered in health plans,” said the gynecologist.

Advantages


6

January 2012


Unimedios

Several benefits have been found with the use of these films. For instance, patients who have difficulties swallowing medications can simply put them on their skin. Those who have to consume medicine two or three times a day can occasionally suffer from digestive problems and adverse reactions to the medication in their bodies. Because patients do not directly swallow the medicine, patches prevent any secondary effect. The speed with which mediations work is related to a prolonged therapeutic action. Therefore, the user will not depend on a few limited hours of tranquility (as in the case of pills or injections every 6 or 8 hours, depending on the doses), nor will they risk missing the time of day or night for administering the medicine. Additionally, skin will not be seriously affected over time, a situation that happens in patients with diabetes, nor will those who need to take large amounts of medicine daily suffer digestive problems.

Health

7

Colombia’s Position Is Weak in Terms

Biopharmaceutical Patent Exhaustion Laura Garzón Acosta,

Patents and recombinant drugs Advances in genetics and molecular biology have led to the creation of biotechnological medications that, as previously mentioned, are obtained from microorganisms, cells, animals and plants, among

MabThera®

For rheumatoid arthritis

Herceptin®

Fights metastatic breast cancer

Roche

Treatment for colorectal, head and lung cancer

Merck-Serono

Erbitux®

Roche

Figure 2 Data of the Information System on Drug Prices Pharmaceutical laboratory

Biotechnological

Value of Fosyga recovery in 2008

1. Riruximab (Mabthera)

Roche

Yes

72.098.539.117

2. Adalimumab (Humira)

Abbot

Yes

51.660.225.786

3. Infliximab (Remicade)

Schering-Plough

Yes

48.757.813.578

Novartis

No

40.397.095.490

Roche

Yes

35.428.470.001

Bayer Schering farma

Yes

31.644.084.802

7. Etanercep (Enbrel)

Wyeth

Yes

28.357.478.203

8. Micofenolato (Cellcept)

Roche

No

26.472.955.055

9. Temozolomida (Temodal)

Schering-Plough

No

25.874.795.954

10. Toxina butolínica (Botox)

Allergan

No

21.892.249.881

Medicine (commercial name)

4. Imatinib (Glivec) 5. Trastuzumab (Herceptin) 6. Interferon beta Ib (Betaferón)

To improve oversight on biological and biotechnological medications, Invima signed an agreement with the Pharmacy Department of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia to train professionals from the Heath Records Sub-Division of that regulatory authority on this topic.


One of the molecules whose patent will expire in the coming months is anti–TNF, a substance used to counter the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis. In the market it is sold under the name of Remicade and is produced by Schering– Plough laboratories, which also offers treatments for diseases related to allergy and respiratory complications, among others. Remicade is not freely sold and is therefore not available in pharmacies. Its presentation includes just one ampoule that costs 1,999,300 pesos (currently US$ 1000) in the Colombian market. Gerardo Quintana, a rheumatologist from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, asserted that this medicine is recommended to patients who do not respond favorably conventional medicine. “Remicade prevents erosion and reduction in the joint space. It is 97% effective in patients who have had rheumatoid arthritis for less than three years,” said the specialist. The expensive Remicade is not covered by the Compulsory Subsidized Health Plan (POS); however, injunctive action to obtain it is not necessary, as in the case of HIV. “After a medical council proves the existence of the disease, the POS then approves it and it is given to the patient,” according to Quintana.

Until now, new biopharmaceuticals have been registered as new products and not as biosimilar medications. Laboratories provide Invima with all the clinical and preclinical information to ensure their quality under Decree 677 of 1995, which includes all the information for registration and commercialization of medications. “However, biopharmaceuticals require an independent policy that has so far not been created. That is the obThe expert asserted that when jective of the Compes document other genetically modified living things. Its complexity ranges from a protein is extracted from a living that aims to create a special chapsimple proteins, such as insulin, to organism, other proteins normal- ter within the decree dedicated to ly come with it, called impurities, biopharmaceuticals,” according to large molecules. Reguero. Protein molecules have a spe- which can alter its function. What Julio Delgado, from Generacific sequence of amino acids that would happen to a diabetic patient tion Bio Foundation and coauthor determine the characteristics of who has to use insulin every day of the decree that regulates the proa drug. María Teresa Reguero, a and his or her biosimilar medicaduction of biotechnological medipharmaceutical chemist from the tion has a different structure? cations in Colombia, indicates that “If the new medication does this type of medications are the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, explains that proteins (carbon, not have the same sequence, its most expensive in the market and hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) structure would be different and it are responsible for most of the meare similar structures, and amino would therefore produce second- diation compensation payments acids are the bricks that hold them ary effects and even death. Biop- made to Fosyga. “In 2008 alone, six together. Thus in biopharmaceu- harmaceuticals are used over long of the top ten belonged to this catticals, the expression biosimilar periods of time and can produce egory, as is shown in the data of the medicine is used instead of generic immunogenicity, which means, Information System on Drug Prices medicine, since their compounds creating antibodies,” said Reguero. (figure 2),” asserted the expert. The pharmaceutical industries are proteins. According to international studies, once the patent on a medication exFigure 1 Biopharmaceuticals with 2009-2015 patens pires, the cost of this meMedicine Use Laboratory diation can drop to as little Eprex® Increases the production of the erythropoietin hormone Amgen/J&J as 30%. The largest pharNeorecormon® For diabetic patients with primary renal anemia Roche maceutical laboratories Betaferon® Increases the defenses in the organism Bayer are located in the USA and Increases the amount of white blood cells, Neupogen® Amgen a defense against infections Europe, although some Treats leukemia and chronic hepatitis types B and C, emerging countries such Intron-A® y Roferon-A® Schering-Plough/Roche used to treat genital warts as China, India, Korea and Enbrel® Fights early active, moderate and severe rheumatoid arthritis Amgen/Wyeth Brazil have already begun Remicade® For rheumatoid arthritis Schering-Plough to participate.

January 2012

Limited access

Unclear policy

Image: AFP

Between 2009 and 2015, more than 100 patents for medications will expire (figure 1). These medications, according to the Latin American Pharmaceutical Industry Federation, are made from two active components: one of biological origin extracted from microorganisms, organs, vegetable and animal tissue, and cells or fluids from humans and animals; and the other of biotechnological origin, meaning proteins obtained from chemically or genetically modified cells. For this reason, the National Council for Economic and Social Policy (Conpes) has approved the use of Bioprospecting, a tool to supervise sustainable use of genetic and biological resources that cost close to 27 billion pesos and will go into effect in 2012. Using this control, scientists aim to accelerate the process of locating and studying molecules and genes for making biopharmaceuticals that do not exist in this country. The exhaustion of these patents implies a huge decrease in the revenues of Colombia’s main laboratories, but at the same time represents a big opportunity for the manufacturers of new medications.

that create these products protect them with patents. In Colombia, such exclusive production rights last between 18 and 20 years. But when these patents expire, other laboratories can produce the same compound and compete in the market. However, the second molecule to be commercialized must prove that it does not include any additional compounds other than the protein itself. The entity in charge of overseeing fulfillment of the requirements by the laboratories is the National Institute for Drug and Food Oversight (Invima), which determines if the second molecule can be approved as a biocompetitor medicine. If the second molecule is different from the first, the manufacturer has to explain the reasons for the differences along with their implications for patients.

Although patents for some medicines made from living organisms have expired (such as Remicade used to treat rheumatoid arthritis), the regulatory, creation and commercialization policy for these biopharmaceuticals have not yet not gone into effect.

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Ecology Gimena Ruiz Pérez,


Thousands of leaves of diverse sizes and shapes, different fruits, and deep dark pathways surrounded by trees used by birds as shelters are part of the landscape of the Amacayacu parcel, which has some of the world’s greatest arboreal biodiversity and is suffering from the effects of climate change. This situation was detected through monitoring the demography, functioning and variety of vegetable species by researchers from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Medellin and the Amazon Institute of Scientific Research (Sinchi) in the Colombian Amazon. “This classification makes it possible to determine, among other aspects, the endangered diversity of vegetable species, some of which are recently discovered, as well as timber and non–timber tress,” explained Alvaro Duque, professor at the Department of Forest Sciences. Dairon Cardenas, a researcher from Sinchi, asserted that “one of the main benefits of this study carried out in Amacayacu is its contribution to the National Catalog of Biodiversity and to the World Strategy for the Preservation of Plants, in that it has identified species facing some degree of threat, such as Cedar (Cedrela odorata), a timber tree that has been subject to intense pressure stemming from over exploitation.” Until now, 125 thousand trees have been mapped in 25 hectares of forest, from which 1,000 species have been identified according to their morphological characteristics. These include some types with timber potential such as Lauracea, Myristicaceae and Lecythidaceae. In addition, several varieties of vegetables with potential for the development of beauty products such as hand creams and shampoos along with pharmaceutical and medical products have been found. “We have identified species such as assai (Euterpe precatoria), which is very important from a nutritional perspective and is commercially exploited for its antioxidant properties; milpesos or seje (Oenocarpus bataua), an oily plant with medicinal and cosmetic properties; Chuchuwasa (Maytenus amazonica), used as a medication, the Para rubber tree (Hevea brasilienisis), which is widely used in the automotive industry, among others”, said Cardenas. “We are interested in studying the natural dynamics of these diverse forests and knowing about their response to abrupt climate change,” asserted Duque. To achieve their objective, the researchers have focused on describing and cataloging each of these arboreal timber species more than 1 centimeter in diameter and 1.3 meters in height. In doing so, the experts evaluate the characteristics of their leaves, fruit and logs.

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CO2 and the atmosphere From this sample, it was possible to analyze the impact of global warming on plants, since some respond better than others that rapidly die off. This initiative, which focused on a zone characterized by its virgin forests, diversity of flora and fauna and multicolored land-

Photos: personal file

Unimedios

130,000 trees have been mapped in 25 hectares of forest.

Rescuing

the

Amazon forest

A severe dry season in 2010 in the Amazon Rain Forest killed many trees in the Amayacu parcel. Tons of carbon dioxide were released into the atmosphere, according to forest experts who study the natural dynamic of these forests to find out what their response has been to abrupt climate changes.

This sample will make it possible to analyze the impact of global warming on these ecosystems.

scapes, will, according to Duque, give the country unique tools to understand the complex functioning of the natural forest systems of the Amazon region and low tropical wetlands. The results obtained so far help to explain the increase in deaths among hard wood species as a response to a dry season that occurred in the Amazon. The study indicates that in 2010 tree mortality doubled, causing a strong impact. “When trees die, they stop being CO2 receptors; as a result, this polluting element is released into the atmosphere. Studies by researchers from Leeds University (England) showed that Amazon forests would be unable to absorb 1.5 billion tons of CO2 from the atmosphere in the period between 2010 and 2011, and another 5 billion tons would be released in the next few

years once these trees rot,” said the researcher from Sinchi.

Global task This is a long–term project that began five years ago with dedicated work and a continuous search for information. Subsequently, participation by other institutions in Colombia will be important to replicate, on a local, regional and global scale, options for managing the forests of the Colombian Amazon. 35 undergraduate and postgraduate students at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia have joined the study to support measurements and sample collection, along with the identification of species and analysis of materials. The Amacayacu parcel is part of the Center for Tropical Forest Sciences global network, which includes 22 other parcels and whose

purpose is examine current phenomena such as global climate change, sustainability and the management of forest resources in a worldwide context.

The task continues The researchers from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, aware of the importance of this exploration that makes it possible to know the life history of these arboreal species in this Amazon region, are attempting genetic identification of each species. This is a difficult task because this vegetation is found in natural parks. Describing the species is just the first step, according to Professor Alvaro Duque. That is why knowledge of their genetic and chemical structure would make it possible to better understand the real potential of these forests.

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Botanical Common Names on the Web Botanists published the first virtual dictionary of common plant names that gathers together complete information on around 8,000 Colombian species. Some such as elderflower, Palo Santo and quiebrabarrigo, used to relieve pain, lose weight and for good look, can now be accessed just by clicking on to them. Elizabeth Vera Martínez,

Informatics and biodiversity For Professor Lauren Raz, informatics is a very important tool for acquiring knowledge about diversity, as “it permits constant updating of information on new botanic discoveries.” In fact, its use is necessary in

all knowledge–based sciences. “No researcher can carry out a study and take advantage of data only with paper; every expert has their own database and tools for processing information,” according to Patrick Bryan Heidorn, director of the School of Information Resources and Library Science at the University of Arizona. Heidorn, who serves as chair of the JRS Biodiversity Foundation, a private philanthropic foundation in the US that supports program development for the preservation of biodiversity, affirmed that science is based on data, and for this reason Information, knowledge and technology complement each other to increase the spectrum of knowledge about nature.

• According to Patrick Bryan Heidorn, who was invited by the Natural Sciences Institute to visit the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, information technology in the 15 century was based on the printing press, developed in 1440 by Johanes Guttemberg, although the Chinese actually developed this tool earlier. This caused a huge revolution in the way information about biology was disseminated. • Heidorn explains that “scientists developed classification systems that allowed them to organize species. They used to use card catalogs and note books. They used to carefully determine the location of species on paper maps that could be copied or included when printing material. This technology era for information was the most advanced at that time.”

When you use the dictionary http:// www.biovirtual.unal.edu.co/nombrescomunes/index.php?option=com_wrappe r&view=wrapper&Itemid=3&lang=es, a window is displayed with three spaces for you to type in the common or scientific name of the species and the region of origin. For instance if you type in the word “destrancadera” and type “Cundinamarca” in the space for region, apart from the photographs you will be able to see:

Destrancadera (Hypoestesphyllostachya – Aantáceas) Origen of the name (Because of its famous effects for good luck) This name is used in: Cundinamarca, Tolima Hypoestesphyllostachya Also known as: abrecaminos estrancadera pecas pintor polca


A third source was to go directly to the places where all the medicinal uses that these plants traditionally have were consulted. “In doing so, we spoke to the farmers and elders who are the real experts,” said Sarmiento. Infusions with dandelions to lose weight, treat arthritis or reduce cholesterol levels, elderflower for treating coughing, insomnia and migraines, among hundreds of recipes that popular wisdom has adapted for different needs can be found in this catalog. According to professor Sarmiento, each of Colombia’s 32 departments or provinces has its own botanic biodiversity, and in each region the same species has its own name, which is why her work focuses on the knowledge of

common names, to provide users with all of this natural wealth. Although this virtual dictionary made by ICN is the most complete such catalog to date, its authors know that many things still need to be included. “This is a never-ending process because additional plants are every day and new species are described that enlarge the catalog.”

January 2012

Native knowledge

This catalog gathers together more than 18,000 common names in Spanish of Colombian plants, and includes others in Raizal (the English-language variant used in San Andres and Providencia).

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Around 8,000 species of plants, described beginning with the historical botanical expedition and continuing until today, with their common or vulgar names used in the regions where they can be found and the different uses that popular wisdom makes of them, can now be consulted in the virtual world. This is the first Colombian plant dictionary on the Internet. It is written in a simple and friendly language for all users, no matter their degree of knowledge, to enable them to have easy access to information just by typing in the common name of the species. Experts can also use scientific names, such as Taraxacum officinale (genus and species, respectively). This work gathers together more than 18,000 common names, and is based on a large scale initiative begun more than 15 years ago by botanist Rodrigo Bernal, a former professor at the Natural Sciences Institute (ICN, from its Spanish acronym) at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Since then, students and professors have joined the project, including botanist Gloria Galeano, biologists Helena Sarmiento, Angela Rodriguez, Mauricio Gutierrez and Lauren Raz, director of the Biodiversity Informatics Group at the ICN, who is in charge of the virtual herbarium. For this huge edition, the authors used three important sources to gather data: a review of the literature associated with Colombian plants, traditional and botanic bibliographies and different books related to plants. In the Colombian National Herbarium and in the Amazonian Herbarium of the Amazonian Institute for Scientific Research (Sinchi), these experts found points of reference and data bases that were used to complete the information on each species.


Unimedios

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Ecology Ana Maria Pelaez,

Unimedios

In 2006, Colombia imported 1,121 tons of olive oil, paying close to 5 million dollars. This expenditure could have been avoided by taking advantage of a Colombian palm known as milpesos or seje (Oenocarpus bataua), from which a similar substance with high protein content is extracted. This plant is present throughout the Amazon, in the forest of the Llanos Orientales (Eastern Plains), Magdalena Medio, Bajo Cauca, Alto Sinú and along the Pacific caost from Uraba to Nariño. However, it is used only for its fruits, while in other countries its economic advantages are well known and improvements are made to the plants to enhance cultivation. This is one of the findings presented by professors Gloria Galeano and Rodrigo Bernal, who specified the morphological data, geographical and ecological distribution, common, scientific and indigenous names, as well as the uses of native species in the country in a 688 page book entitled called Colombian Palms – a field guide. With support from the Natural Science Institute at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colciencias and institutions such as The International Palm Society, the Lindberg Fondation, the Real Botanic Garden of Madrid, among others, these researchers carried out a study for almost 30 years on this large family of trees. The result is a book that uses simple and practical language, with the purpose of offering information to the general public about this resource and its potential for sustainable development.

Native Colombian palms at risk A 30—year study, carried out by professors from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, proved the favorable properties of native palms for economic and sustainable development.

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With 231 species and 44 genuses, Colombia is the world’s second most biodiverse country after Brazil. The third is Malaysia. These plants are present in almost the entire country and have diverse uses for people. They are also important for ecosystems and provide food and shelter for wild fauna. Roofs, walls, hammocks, handicrafts, backpacks, energy drinks and marimbas are made with wood or derivatives from palms, which facilitate life in some regions. At least 142 wild species are used for different purposes, particularly for construction, food, manufacturing, and for medicinal, cosmetic and ritual purposes. For instance, the American Oil palm (Attalea butyracea), located in dry regions in Colombia, provides the biggest number of uses, around 36. Its leaves are the most important roof material in large areas of the Guaviare River. In the municipalities of Honda and Melgar they are cut to obtain sap, which is then fermented and sold as wine. From the mesocarp (the fruits’ pulp) and the seeds, fat with 60% of semisolid white oil is extracted, which is perfect for making margarine and cosmetics. However, one of its most important qualities is its potential as a source of sugar and biofuels, obtained by extracting the sap that comes out when the flowers are cut. This is an option that the experts feel the need to explore.

Photos: personal file

Privileged in terms of diversity

The American Oil palm (Attalea butyracea), located in dry regions in Colombia, provides the biggest number of uses in the territory.

In Nature The researchers found in their study that, in a country where the main sectors (mining, cattle farming, oil extraction) deforest and degrade the land, palms are a resource that produces the opposite effect: they preserve the fauna and flora, as well as the nutrients of the soil. They also produce large amounts of biomass that captures carbon and provides a source of food for birds and mammals. The Natural Tree in Colombia, called Ceroxylon quindiuense, for instance, produces between 2,000 and 4,000 fruits per truss, a banquet for blackbirds, magpies,

toucans, parakeets, and parrots, including the famous Yellow-eared Parrot, which is an endangered species and has been associated with the decrease of the palm populations in Quindio. This, along with the other seven species of the genus Ceroxylon that grow in the wild, are located in the three main mountain ranges, particularly in the Central and Eastern ranges. Unfortunately, most of the plants in Colombia are adults more than 200 years old so that the risk of extinction is evident. This is just one part of the vast information presented in the book, whose greatest contribution is as a

tool to bridge the gap between science, community, poverty and development. “We want to contribute to spreading scientific knowledge to support decision making about natural resources, represented in this case by the group of palms, which have an extraordinary economic potential for this country,” said the authors. This work summarizes their great passion for this family of plants, but also involves their dream of a legacy for future generations while symbolizing the charm and enjoyment of landscapes for domestic and international ecotourism.

Different from other trees • The stem of the palms is marked by the leaves that fall. Some of have spines and can take almost 50 years to ripen and reproduce.

Sub-products from palms can be used for handicrafts and in the food industry.

• There are hermaphrodite, monoecious (with flowers of both sex) or dioecious (with separate individuals and sexes) plants, and in contrast to other trees, they have just one growing point at the end of the stem, so that if it is cut, the plant dies.

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Photos: Andrés Felipe Castaño/Unimedios

Ecology

With 3,274 species, the country is the world’s second most diverse county in terms of butterfly biodiversity, after Brazil.

Their function in the ecosystem “It was an important discovery, because on the city limits with Cota, bordering on the Mercedes forest and the Cerro La Conejera, we found 23 butterfly species. What was most surprising was that we were very close to the urban area (30 minutes by car) and had previously been unable to identify new species for science”, explained researcher Gonzalo Andrade, discoverer of the two Satyrinae. The butterfly expert from the Institute of Natural Sciences at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia found the species in January,

New Butterfly Species on the Outskirts of Bogotá 30 minutes from the capital’s urban area, researchers from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia discovered two new species of the Satyrinae subfamily. This is good news for science and for the Forest Reserve on the borders with the municipalities of Chia and Cota, as it confirms the importance of endangered semi urban forest.

2010, while he was studying the natural characteristics of this area bordering on the municipalities of Chia and Cota. According to professor Andrade, the existence of butterflies in natural scenarios is a bioindicator of the environmental quality of this area in which these butterflies live. “Male specimens fly long distances to find females for reproduction, while females find better places to spawn. This pattern makes it possible to determine the environmental quality of the area, because females only lay eggs on plants where caterpillars can eat,” according to the researcher. He also mentioned that females have chemical sensors on their legs that allow them to identify the metabolisms produced by nature, their main source of food. “That way, they detect the best conditions for laying eggs so that the larvae can be born. In most cases they live in the middle of plants to protect themselves from the weather.” Besides their importance as environmental indicators, the newly discovered species play an important role as pollinators of Solanaceae flowers (herbaceous or woody plants) and Chusquea (simular to bamboo).

Now they are part of the national biodiversity With 3,274 species, Colombia is the world’s second most diverse

country in terms of butterfly biodiversity, after Brazil. However, Colombia is in first place regarding unique species that only exist in this country. At present the recorded number is 350, which has grown with the discovery of these two new species of Satyrinae. According to technical requirements, which consist in giving them a Latin name and assigning taxonomical information, this butterfly could be called ‘Vanderhammiensis’ or something similar, due to the characteristics of the species and its family.

In favor of the reserve This finding was used as an argument for authorities to declare the northern limits of Bogotá as a Forest Reserve, according to Dalila Camelo, a biologist at the Office for Natural Resources at the Autonomous Regional Corporation of Cundinamarca (CAR, from its Spanish acronym). “The terrain has the necessary characteristics to preserve and host species despite the contamination from the city. Chameleons, lizards, collarejos, hummingbirds, blackbirds, owls, squirrels and bats, among others, can be found there. This shows that

the capacity of the ecosystem in this area still has favorable conditions,” said the CAR researcher. The Regional Forest Reserve Protector–Producer in the north of Bogotá (as it is officially named) includes the Torca and Guaymaral wetlands, the Conejera hill and wetland and part of the Bogotá River. There are nearly 1,500 hectares classified as protected areas that serve as a migratory route for species and as an area for ecological connectivity for the city. If the ecosystem is preserved as it is now, these two butterfly species will be able to continue in their natural habitat and scientists may be able to discover new flying surprises.


They do not have traditional or visible colors, which are typical of Lepidoptera (the family to which butterflies belong), but they nonetheless represent two new important findings for science. They also show the favorable environmental conditions that persist on Bogota’s northern limits, a zone that was declared a Forest Reserve on July 19 of this year. The two species are part of the satyrinae subfamily (Nymphalide family), whose most relevant characteristic is the dark color of their wings. They have an enlarged vein on top of their wings that allows them to move and increase their body temperature, which is very useful when we consider that they live at altitudes above 2,600 meters above sea level. They have yellow patches on the lower back part of their wings that they use as a defense mechanism against other insects; this characteristic enables researchers to identify them rapidly. To survive in these conditions they must maintain body temperatures above 36°C. Due to their dark colors that absorb heat faster and their efficient circulation systems, Satyrinae can resist the cold temperatures of the Sabana de Bogotá. Their main sources of food are Solanaceae and Chusquea leaves, typically found in well–preserved wetlands. Considering that lifespan of butterflies ranges from 21 days to 8 months, these recently discovered species have a medium lifespan of just two months.

January 2012

Unimedios

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Alejandro Borraez,

Ecology

Forest in Chocó

Would be Fragmented within 40 Years www.agenciadenoticias.unal.edu.co/english-news

The estimate of 336 thousand hectares of deforested lands per year in Colombia could actually be triple that because forestry cartographic and identification systems do not reflect reality. Through satellite images, data collection and mathematical models, a study by the Natural Science Institute of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia illustrates changes in the forests along with loss of forest cover in the municipality of Acandí. Alejandro Borráez, the Vice Minister for the Environ-

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Unimedios

Although Colombian cartography, along with environmental research, portrays half of Colombia’s territory as being covered by forests, the accelerated increase in deforestation (336 thousand hectares per year), the use of soils (mainly for agricultural and cattle production) and increased water flows (that generate floods) point to a devastating future for our forests. The need to control deforestation became even more evident with the recent critical rainy season. The government also admits that forestry policies in Colombia are inadequate and there is no consensus regarding such basic matters as regulatory concepts on the use of forests. Citizens are unaware of this situation, according to Sandra Sguerra, advisor to

ment. The policies that are in force since 1996 have been insufficient to mitigate the environmental damage. In places like the Chocó, where the deforestation rate is the lowest in the country (18%), a its forest could nonetheless become fragmentes within 40 years, or, as Julio Carrizosa, a researcher from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia affirms, it could be extinct in less than 70 years, if proper measures are not taken immediately.

Acandí in Patches Through satellite images (Landsat), data collection taken in the zone, and mathematical models, biologist Henry Arellano, a member of the Biodiversity and Preservation Group at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, designed a simulator that accurately

measures (90%) the vegetation and coverage in Acandí. This municipality, located in the north of the department of Chocó, is part of Darién, and according to the Geographical Institute Agustín Codazzi covers 86,900 hectares. “When analyzing a thousand hectares, we find eight different types of vegetation in the same forest: Brosimum utile, Carpa guianesis, Hymenaea oblongifolia and chrysophyllum, among other trees that are cut indiscriminately by the timber industry. However, the official maps do not record this situation, but instead show a large vegetable mass,” asserted Arellano. These species are mainly used to make rubber, glue, oil and fungicides. With the information collected (altitude, humidity, soil inclination and structural characteristics of the vegetation) and the historical

satellite information on the zone (1987–2010), Arellano made an assessment of the current condition of Acandí and made a projection of the image that the satellite would capture in 2040, if measures are not taken to halt the transformation of this forest. The biologist explains that figures are low compared to those from other regions such as the Amazon and Andean, but they are still alarming because between 1987 and 2001, 11.76% of forest coverage in this municipality was lost, which means 7,617 hectares. Between 2001 and 2010 the problem intensified. There was a 13.90% loss (8,400 hectares). Data indicate an increase of approximately 4,000 hectares of bushes, affecting the natural forest. “These figures reflect the biggest transformation in the zone over the last decade and the resulting extinction of species”, said the expert.

Photos: courtesy Henry Arellano

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Ecology

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Colombia is the second country in the world in botanic biodiversity with 26,500 species of plants with flowers, 1,562 lichens, 840 hepatics and 927 mosses, according to studies from the Natural Science Institute of Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

(Satellite image of the maps in 1987 and their projection by 2040)

2030

Responsible use of resources Given this situation, diverse environmental, scientific, and social institutions work to increase understanding of the problem and propose effective solutions. The director for research at Colciencias, Carlos Fonceca, stated that “we depend a lot more on knowledge. We do not have complete information on all of the species of trees in this country. We do not have information about their reproduction systems and possible uses. That is our main challenge. We cannot deny that forests are an important economic resource, but we cannot limit our economy to timber exploitation.” For Ligia Arregocés, executive director of Ecofondo, if communities that live around the forest have created preservation mechanisms

that have not affected the use of resources, there is no reason to stop using those systems, on the supposition that there are species of rapid growth, such as those used for forest and non-timber products. Arellano reaffirms this idea by asserting that “before the 1980s, we experienced a considerable recovery of the forest in Acandí. This was due to moderate exploitation of wood by the inhabitants. Currently, it is evident that the forests are being devastated in lowlands and flood plains.” That is why by the end of 2011 –declared by the UN as the International Year of Forests- the responsible institutions, such as the Ministry of the Environment, the environmental organizations, research groups and universities are expected to draw up clear proposals for an effective forest policy.

2040

In 2010, the highest deforestation rates were recorded in the Magdalena Medio region, with around 81,188 hectares of forest devastated each year. In Acandí (Chocó), the figure was 239 hectares. The simulation shows that, despite low percentages of vegetation destruction, the territory changed significantly and its effect on biodiversity, connectivity and genetic variability threaten the offering of environmental services.


2020

2010

January 2012

2001

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1987

Forests are regulators of water resources and offer products such as seeds, chemicals for the extraction of medicines, raw materials for making glue, dyes, and rubber; they are also places for diversity and conservation of fauna.

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Biodiversity

Biological crisis due to massive snake loss

Photos: courtesy José Rancés Caicedo


There are four main threats to ophidians in Colombia: killings, habitat destruction, road accidents and illegal trafficking. It is estimated that between 54 million and 113,600,000 are exterminated every year.

Talla equis (Bothrops asper) is used in popular markets as traditional medicine.

John D. Lynch,

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January 2012

Member of the Colombian Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural sciences

Colombia has a wealth of snake species that is not appreciated in scientific publications. There are more than 270 species, a number that inspires fear in some people but an advantage for the country. Only 48 (18%) are poisonous and represent a risk to humans. This group of animals has been little studied since 1940, when Emmet R. Dunn from the US, who spent a year in Colombia, and Brother Nicéforo María, from La Salle Museum, described some species and reported on their location. Much about this biological richness still needs to be researched. These reptiles are present

throughout the country, except at altitudes above 3,500 meters and in the Caribbean waters. In order to preserve them, the dangers that reduce their density and diversity must first be determined along with their geographical distribution. In the most populated and productive regions, five threats to ophidians have been identified. First of all, killings by farmers, who think that snakes pose a risk to them in their daily labors. Then there is mortality due to being run over by vehicles on the roads. Thirdly, there is the destruction of their natural habitats caused by several factors, and fourthly trafficking for commercial purposes. Finally there are captures made by scientists, which the Ministry for the Environment wants to prosecute as illegal trafficking be-

cause it has no justification. There are many difficulties in assessing these problems, but we can nevertheless estimate their importance.

Bad reputation There are no reliable data regarding the first threat (killings), which is why it must be explored further in order to quantify it. This analysis comes from interviews with farmers in different areas, particularly in lowlands. They clearly remember when they used to go out to kill snakes. Several species are killed on a daily basis. Small farmers believe that all snakes (or similar animas) are poisonous. For this reason, they kill snakes that are harmless or blind along with tatacoas, and lizards. Their intentions may be noble since they are trying

to protect their families, but such ignorance depletes biodiversity, and what is even worse is that it is handed down to future generations. A farmer may kill 700 to 1,400 such animals per year. Considering the number of rural families and assuming that this rate is what generally applies, there would be 21 to 31 million ophidians killed yearly.

Adverse development The second factor is associated with the degree of development in each region. The system of roads does not correspond to the number of inhabitants. Mortality on the roads is a well known problem but has not been quantified by Colombian biologists. These kinds of observations

Biodiversity

Reduction of their habitat The third item, which is related to the destruction or intervention of natural habitats, also represents a tragedy for ophidians. The great majority of the Colombian snake population lives in the Cauca and Magdalena river basins, where the cities and towns are located; that is why frontiers of settlement need to be expanded. Agriculture, cattle farming, road building and the expansion of cities are factors that work against the great variety of snakes present in the forests, some of which are endangered species. In the Andean humid region, environmental destruction has a minor impact on snakes because there are few species. However, this area is quite large and includes certain ecological “units”, such as the Colombian coffee belt, where these reptilians are endangered. In the departments of Caquetá and Meta, as well as in the Magdalena Medio region, the destruction of humid natural environments has severely affected snakes, which are incapable of adapting to warmer and dryer environments. They have thus had migrate to other areas that do not offer any protection. The situation for native dry forest species is quite different because their micro climate is relatively similar to that of prairies. However, it does represent a drastic change for amphibians and other reptiles that are the snakes’ prey, which has a direct impact on the snakes themselves. There is also a serious vicious cycle, because the more forest is destroyed, the more contact there is with humans, with its typical consequences. The destruction of natural environments has certainly had an impact on snake populations that is difficult to measure, but which is clearly substantial. However, when determining the degree of snake diversity depending on the region, for instance in humid forests or dry zones, some conclusions can be made. It is estimated that close to

1,000 such animals live on each hectare of lowlands. According to field observers, the estimated cost of timbering can be estimated in the loss of between 100 and 250 individuals. If the annual rate of deforestation (native and secondary forests) of 330,000 hectares is considered, the direct loss of snakes is between 33 and 82 million. This is far more serious than indiscriminate killings by farmers. Also, taking into account that 58% of the wood that is extracted from the forest is done so legally, meaning with permission from the Regional Autonomous Corporations (CAR) and the Ministry of the Environment, then it can be deduced that between 19 and 140 million snakes are killed in a legal context.

Illegal Trafficking is of no less concern Although it is limited to certain species, animal trafficking makes this situation even worse. Species such as güios (boa constrictor), which are appreciated in international and national markets: rattlers (Crotalus durissus), and some talla equis (Bothrops asper), used in traditional medicine, are the main targets for traffickers. As a result, 1,000 to 5,000 such animals are killed every year. Absurdly, the Ministry for the Environment also classifies scientists who collect samples for academic or research purposes as traffickers. The paradox is that the records show that no more than 300 to 5,000 of this species are collected each year, depending on the particular projects and acquisitions. Two figures are important to mention: first of all, in all the years of scientific snake collection in Colombia, only 13,000 animals have been accumulated in biological collections, and secondly, the number in foreign museums (collected over many centuries) total less than half the number that there are in Colombia. It is ironic that the Ministry only regulates this practice while ignoring others that are endlessly destroying the national heritage. If we combine all of the previously mentioned factors, we see an alarming number that in the best case is around 54 million snakes killed and in the worse scenario would be over 133 million. In either case, this is a massive loss that if it continues at the same pace will produce a biological crisis of snakes in Colombia. References 1. Monteiro, et al. (2011). Avaliacao de dois anos de monitoramento dos atropelamentos de serpentes nas estradas Raymundo Mascarenhas e Manganès Azul, Floresta Nacional de Carajàs, Parà, Brazil. 2. El Tiempo, September 1, 2011, p. 7.

We must begin to preserve • Colombia needs to have more biologists studying snakes in all regions; otherwise, ignorance about species distribution, details about their biology and ecology, and their role in the natural economy will prevail. • The destruction of their environment is a factor regarding which the State must act. However, seriousness with respect to the survival and health of the snake population remains unclear. The Ministry for the Environment and the CARs play a fundamental role in this issue and need to redouble their efforts. • The impact of illegal traffickers and zoos is trivial compared to the other factors, but it must be pointed out the effectiveness of control mechanisms on illegal trafficking of fauna is inadequate. Market places in Bogotá operate as though there were no official controls, despite regulations governing trade in animals. The situation is similar zoos all over the country. The environmental police and the CARs must be more effective.

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January 2012

1. Micrurus sangilensis, Bucaramanga (Santander).


have been made in other countries. Using recent data from Brazil, (the closest reference), mortality rates for snakes are between 0.9 and 1.9 per day on a 67 km road, or between 1.4 and 2.8 snakes per day on a 100 km road. There are around 130,000 km of roads in Colombia, 16,800 km of which constitute the main national network. According to recent data from the Ministry of Transportation, 10,300 km are paved. When these estimates from Brazil are used (510 to 1,020 deaths per year for each 100 km), mortality in Colombia due to this factor could amount to 52,000 to 105,300 snakes killed per year (without counting departmental, municipal or private or unpaved roads).

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2. Porthidium lansbergii, Riohacha (Guajira). 3. Pseudoboa neuwiedii, Sabana de Torres (Santander).

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4. Mastigodryas boddaerti, Floridablanca (Santander).

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S&T

For the First Time Airborne pollutants Will Be Measured in Colombia Unimedios

The story of the photometer (an instrument able to measure the intensity of light) began over steaks at a Buenos Aires restaurant. It will be used for the first time in this country thanks to a cooperation agreement between the Universidad Nacional de Colombia and NASA. Professor Rodrigo Jiménez, from the Science Faculty at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Bogotá, and Professor Álvaro Bastidas, from the Science Faculty in Medellin, were invited to an event in the Argentine capital, co-sponsored by the European Space Agency and NASA. Over lunch, both professors discussed with the NASA members the need to have an instrument in Colombia to provide accurate information on microscopic particles that float in the air, known as airborne pollutants. “They told us to write a proposal, and in December of last year they approved a plan to begin implementation in October of this year,” said Professor Jimenez. NASA will provide the equipment and make all the technical reviews each year.

Thanks to a cooperation agreement between the Universidad Nacional de Colombia and NASA, Colombia will have a photometer able to calculate particulate matter present in the atmosphere, which is contributing to climate change and causing diseases such as lung cancer.


Hemann Sáenz,

The device will initially be located on the Bogotá campus for six months; after that, it will be rotated among different cities.


NASA dedicates 80% of its budget to observation of the planet, and measuring airborne pollutants is one of their focuses of interest. “To validate the information from the satellite (information about weather, global warming, etc), the photometer is aimed at the sun and detects amounts of airborne pollutants that affect the atmosphere and the quantity of light that reaches the ground. This data can then be used to predict the properties of the particles, such as their size and movement. This aspect is very important for public health, because materials from soot, such as those from fuels, are very small and can affect the respiratory system to the point of generating lung cancer” according to Jiménez. Current air quality measurements made in Colombia make it possible to quantify the concentration of particles at ground– level; however, atmospheric processes at night, when particles accumulate in the upper part of the atmosphere and circulate the following day, remain unknown.

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January 2012

Origin and impact Airborne pollutants can form due to the action of nature or because of human activity, which is why understanding their composition is very important. The eruption of the Nevado del Ruiz not only caused the avalanche in Armero but also reduced the temperature of the planet by one tenth of one degree, because airborne pollutants (of sulphur ox-

Photo: Víctor Manuel Holguín / Unimedios

What is this device for?

With this instrument, Colombia will be part of a global network led by NASA called Aeronet. With the photometer, airborne pollutants produced in the city will be measured accurately. In this way, their impact on public health will also be measured.

ide) reached the upper part of the atmosphere and remained there. This layer currently works as an umbrella that blocks sunlight. In Colombia there are a dozen active volcanoes. Deliberate burning of biomass also produces airborne pollutants. Studies indicate that 20% of CO2 emissions that reach the atmosphere are the result of deforestation from the burning of forests. In Colombia, this is a critical topic. According to satellite data, forest fires destroy 14,000 of km2 of vegetation each year, with the greatest impact in the Llanos Orientales (Eastern Plains), according to a study by the Biology Department at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Bogotá. This is a very common practice in Africa, where peasants burn the land to clean it and then cultivate it. During dry seasons, the Amazon region, where vege-

tation is destroyed to feed cattle, is not immune to this problem. That is why experts feel that it is important to have an observation site with a photometer in Leticia to identify how this region evolves.

The experiment will start in Bogotá The measurements obtained with this instrument can have a significant effect, at both an urban and rural level. “Apart from predicting climatic change, it makes it possible to establish public health policies aligned with the composition and distribution of the airborne pollutants. These microscopic atmospheric particles have a dynamic with certain characteristics: they can increase size, coagulate, and fall to the ground. That is why they must be monitored” said Jiménez.

After the eruption of the Chilean volcano Puyeue, the density of the ash placed the Argentine meteorological service in a difficult situation, because it experienced difficulties in authorizing flights. According to Professor Jiménez, “thanks to the photometer, they were able to determine when there was a reasonable level of airborne pollutants to permit air operations.” The device will initially be located on the Bogotá campus for six months; after that, it will be rotated among different cities where the Universidad Nacional has campuses. Thus, with the photometer, reliable measurements will be obtained and the experts will gain knowledge about the dynamics of these polluting elements in the Colombian atmosphere.

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S&T

Carbon nanotubes to reinforce properties of Diverse Materials

Carbon Nanotubes are ten times stronger that steel, twice as light as aluminum, have great capacity for energy transportation, are thinner than a human hair and are produced at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

These small structures share distinctive characteristics of material such as diamond and graphite, which are used in the electronic industry.

Applications

At the characterization laboratories of the Materials Science and Technology Group, carbon nanotubes are produced using a method called Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD). This method makes use of a gas that contains carbon. Carbon is introduced into an oven at high temperatures (between 600°C and 800°C). The process is facilitated by a metallic catalyst (nickel, silver and other metals depending on the objective), which permits the creation of nanotubes, preventing the formation of amorphous carbon and speeding up chemical reactions that break molecular hydrocarbon bonds. Finally, the carbon encapsulated in gaseous molecules reorganizes itself into small metallic particles or nanotubes. Under the microscope they look like tiny spaghettis. The added value of this work performed on the campus is the use of precursors such as ethanol, methane and CO2. Using ethanol, the creation of a renewable source

These nanotubes are used in different projects. At the Univer-

thirds reduction,” according to the researcher. Another project aims to improve the properties of aluminum. The idea is to reinforce an economical material with nanotubes to give them added value. The goal is to go beyond aluminum that is terminally treated, which is a process that gives it better resistance. The Universidad Nacional de Colombia is one of the few universities that is working to produce and characterize this material, which constitutes one of the fundamental elements in industry and technology for the future.

Photo: file Unimedios

Carbon is changed

sidad Nacional de Colombia they reinforce pieces of stainless steel for use as biomaterials in human implants that are normally made of titanium and other expensive alloys. With this invention, people of limited means would have access to these types of devices. Their applications include microelectronics and modification of the friction coefficient, which means an increase in levels of resistance to wear due to friction between pieces. “We have findings from the use of carbon nanotubes as lubricants in dry or liquid surfaces. Friction coefficient is reduced from 0.45 to 0.15, amounting to a two


is boosted. The methane and CO2 make the method environmentally friendly. “When I use CO2 from the atmosphere and put it into a reactor, I capture the carbon and condense it as nanotubes; that means that I take carbon from the atmosphere and change it into something solid. If this idea were performed at pilot scale, it would be a useful mechanism to reduce the concentration of greenhouse gasses,” said Sierra Gallego.

Carbon nanotubes are produced in the characterization laboratories of the Materials Science and Technology Group at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Medellin.

January 2012

Scientists from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Medellin are among the few people working to create this material, which has become a panacea for industrial and technological applications, because it enables technological devices to be more powerful and thinner. Carbon nanotubes have different uses. They have made it possible for mobile phones to be smaller and more powerful. The Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Medellin is one of the few institutions that is manufacturing and developing new applications. Its researchers are creating new uses, for example as an environmentally friendly substitute for titanium in human implants. In order to understand the importance of these tiny structures, it is necessary to consider their origins. They were discovered by Japan’s Sumio Lijjima when he was studying the behavior of materials at high temperatures. He found that the only substance able to survive high temperatures was carbon, and they did so in a very peculiar way, namely in the form of small nanometric tubes (10 times thinner than a human hair). In laboratories around the world, their characteristics were studied. It was found that they are 10 times stronger than stainless steel and twice as light as aluminum. They also have great capacity for energy transportation. That is why they are considered to be essential materials for current industrial and technological applications. This has led to many publications and studies. “German companies have designed automobiles with reinforced polymers made using nanotubes. They are thought to be more resistant. These cars use less fuel because the polymer means that they are lighter in weight,” said Germán Sierra Gallego, professor at the School of Materials at the Mines Faculty. He affirms that this characteristic makes nanotubes closely related to nanotechnology. “They are a tiny material with very advantageous properties for transporting energy; they make it possible to produce smaller devices.”

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Unimedios

Photo: AFP

Liliana Salazzar B.,

18

Innovation Elizabeth Vera Martinez, Unimedios

The standardization of this new technique in a Colombian laboratory will more accurately determine if a person has used illicit substances and the amount used. There are currently different tests to determine drug use; however, this approach offers bigger advantages. The technique consists in using hair fibers to find traces of compounds such as cocaine. This organic element allows knowing a person’s use history, since the evidence last longer, much longer than other samples traditionally used. According to Marian Dalila Vallejo, a pharmaceutical chemist and Masters student in toxicology at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, traces of drugs in urine or blood remain in the body for a maximum of 30 days. In hair, however, which grows one centimeter per month, traces can last for years. Even if the person shaves, the new hair grows with minimum traces that help to determine the presence of such substances. This technique is useful in processes such as doping control, crime investigations, confirmation of use by convicts and employee selections. It can also be used in processes for the suspension of driving licenses or exhumation of cadavers.

Hair as Proof of Illegal

Drug Consumption Samples of urine and blood are used to prove that a person uses psychotropic substances; the problem is that traces of these substances in the body last just one month. The Universidad Nacional de Colombia is now implementing a new technique using hair fragments, which are an organic element in which traces of drugs last for many years


Led by Nancy Patiño Reyes, Vallejo developed a method to extract traces of cocaine from hair samples that can only be detected using a high technology gas chromatograph. This practice, which is rare in Colombia, will be implemented at the Toxicology Lab of the Medical School at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in order to perform routine tests. The researchers needed to test to determine whether the technique was effective. During the study, samples of hair from 30 teenagers were collected at a rehabilitation center in Bogotá.


In detail

Drug traces in urine and blood last for just one month; in hair, they last for years.

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January 2012

Supported by pharmacy students Luz Adriana Pérez and Mónica Andrea Bejarano, the expert took very small hair samples close to the scalp. Once they were collected, she measured them and then put them in aluminum foil, identifying the tip and root. Each sample was measured in the Toxicology Lab with a chemical tracer, in this case methylene blue. If hair changes its color under the microscope in response to the reagent, it means that it is not suitable for analysis, since the sample has been very much affected by the excessive use of chemicals, such as bad quality hair dye. Useful material is cut into three–centimeter segments to determine the presence of substances within the hair. Each segment is washed with an organic carbon– based solvent to eliminate any possible external contamination, thus ensuring that the cocaine extracted is the result of use as opposed to coming from floating

The test is performed using 3 cm of hair.

particles in the environment. Clean and dry hair is destroyed with a strong acid to liberate the illicit substances. The alkaloid is treated with an organic solvent and then analyzed using a gas chromatograph that generates computerized reports, called chromatograms. They are similar to those produced by an electrocardiogram, but in this case they reflect peaks representing the presence of the drug.

Illicit use According to the National Study on Drug Use in Colombia,

in 2009, around 2.5% of the population between 12 and 65 years of age (amounting to 19,764,799 inhabitants) used cocaine sometime in their lives, and around 0.4% (79,059 people) were classified in the “abuse” or “dependent” groups. “Statistics show the importance of Rehabilitation Centers that aim to lower or eradicate drug use,” explained Vallejo, who is drafting a proposal from the Research Group on Psychoactive Substances of the Toxicology Department, led by Professor Jairo Alfonso Téllez Mosquera, coordinator of the masters program in

this field. The researcher mentioned that this procedure has been adapted to national conditions and will soon be ready to serve the community at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia. It will be used in evaluating children’s exposure in places or homes where there is evidence of constant drug use by adults. It could also be applied as a control measure for institutionalized addicts who leave their facilities on weekends. This will give the country a new scientific support tool for legal proceedings and rehabilitation centers.


The study

Innovation

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Software Makes it Possible to Predict Abnormalities in the Human Body Bodily reactions to prosthesis, motor problems or any other abnormality could be detected just by analyzing the movements of joints using a computer. This is a fast, simple and objective process that makes medical diagnosis easier.

Assisted virtual program to more accurately diagnose movement problems.

Not all problems are caused by inadequate functioning of joints; some are caused by dysfunctions of the spine or neurological diseases.

portant because each signal that is sent can reveal different situations. “For instance, when someone limps, it does not necessary mean inadequate functioning of the joints (hips or feet), it can be a dysfunction in the spinal column or neurological problems mainly associated with diseases such as Alzheimer and Parkinsons.”

Based on proposed computer models, diagnosis can be supported, and the evolution of such abnormalities can be verified in order to obtain more accurate results and use less invasive procedures, according to Daza Santacoloma. Daza Santacoloma said that this new tool is based on a technique called Locally Linear Em-

bedding (LLE), used to study the response of living biological systems to an external stimulus (prosthesis). However, “we found three aspects of LLE that we had to improve: the tuning of free parameters (the user of this technique has to know and establish initial values for final results to be conclusive, such as the number of adjacent video frames to be considered and the amount of applied regulations), cost effectiveness (objective analysis and correct interpretation of data) and the simultaneous management of multiple variables (the possibility of examining different data at the same time in order to make comparisons),” said the expert from the CPDS group. It is important to mention that there is a large number of measurements that define the characteristics of any type of movement, for example, the cadency and length of the cycle, speed, flexion/ extension of the hip, flexion/extension of the knee, dorsiflexion/ plantarflexion of the ankle, among others. If these measurements are not sufficiently accurate, incorrect assessments of a person’s problem can be made, as well as omitting situations (such as joint and bone degeneration) that, with time, can aggravate the problem. This technique makes possible computer modeling of patients’ behavior when using the prosthesis. The movements that these individuals make are the first step for evaluating their progress during the rehabilitation process. The evaluation focuses on assisted diagnosis in orthopedics that, among other features, can be made by capturing all movements of every joint (knees, hips, ankles, wrists, shoulders, etc.), in order to offer a more complete diagnosis. Daza Santacoloma explains that “when capturing movements made by a person and analyzing them using this technique, we can determine if the problem is related to a deviation of the spine, hip problems, knee problems, or any other abnormality. It also helps to objectively quantify the rehabilitation of patients treated for to this type of problems, thereby facilitating a better recovery process.” Taking into account the relationship between motor and neurological problems, this program could be decisive for predicting and detecting at an early age diseases such as Parkinsons or any unknown neurological disease a patient may suffer.

January 2012

Non-linear extraction of characteristics


Mercedes Valencia suffered a fall, with serious consequences for her left foot; as a result, she had to be in a cast for a month. When she thought she had recovered, she tried to walk but found it impossible due to intense pain. The injury was more serious than she had thought. In an attempt to save her leg, the specialist removed all of the nerves, but that turned out to be useless. Her leg had to be amputated. Mercedes had to have different sessions with orthopedists, a rheumatologist, a specialist in pain management and a psychologist. Through therapies, she has begun a process to try to understand that her foot is not there anymore, and she is being trained to walk using a prosthesis. “It has been explained to me that this device will help me to walk, but I worry that if it does not work or if it does not match the size my foot had, I will start to experience pain again”. According to Surgeon Alejandra Hurtado, “these insecurities are common among patients who have had amputations and need orthopedic prosthesis to improve their bodily movements. However, in most cases, neither patients nor health institutions are prepared to diagnose the degree of reliability, satisfaction or accuracy with which this equipment works and adapt in a person who requires them. That is why the Group for the Control and Processing of Digital Signals (CPDS, from its Spanish acronym) at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Manizales, coordinated by researcher German Castellanos, has created a new program that allows health specialists to analyze human movements, as well as analyzing the process of rehabilitation and adaptation in patients who receive these types of devices, before being adapted. This program was conceived as a supplement to medical examinations. In the presence of extraneous devices, it is common for the affected extremity to swell or develop infections stemming from the proliferation of bacteria, causing pain. This is especially common when the device has not been adjusted to the size of the mutilated organ. For Gerardo Daza Santacoloma, an electronics engineer with a PhD in engineering and part of the CPDS group, studying human movements is very im-

Image courtesy: Grupo Control y Procesamiento Digital de Señales UN en Manizales

Unimedios


3D captures

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Fanny Lucia Pedraza Valencia,

Analysis of human movements

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Agriculture

Carcinogenic Fern is Found in the Caribbean This plant is highly invasive and contains chemical compounds that can generate gastric cancer not only in animals that eat it but also in humans that drink animal milk. This finding was made in Providencia Island. Giovanni Clavijo Figueroa,


While working to consolidate the herbarium in San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina, a particular finding captured the interest of two researchers from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia: a male fern whose natural habitat is far from the sea. It had previously been reported in valleys, savannas, mountain ranges and plains around the country, which was why its presence in the Serrania El Pico in the Caribbean island of Providencia, which has been declared a Regional Natural Park, was quite unusual. The question was, how did it get to this ecotouristic area, considered the zone least affected by humans in the archipelago? Biologist Alexandra Tobar and taxonomist Brigitte Gavio (an expert in classifying species) from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in the Caribbean have a hypothesis: that the plant, which belongs to the Pteridium caudatum species, was brought in planters from the central region of the country, where it is used for decoration and as a purgative. The researchers based their hypothesis on their observation about the use of this fern in planters and yards as decoration in houses next to the natural reserve. “This means that the inhabitants took it to El Pico and planted it there. Given the warm weather and soil conditions on the island, which are of volcanic origin and moderately acid, it just bloomed.” However, the concerns of these experts go beyond the mere question of its origins. The fern produces a toxin that can cause gastric illnesses in cattle and other animals that eat grass, and this toxin can then accumulate in their meat and thus easily be consumed by humans. According to Gavio, the dispersion of this fern could reach the lands of the Serrania and contaminate drinking water. “On the island, potable water sources for the inhabitants are underground and their alteration would generate a public health problem.”

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January 2012

Animal Health This fern contains carcinogenic substances whose main molecule is called Ptaquiloside (pq). According to previous reports on this plant found by the researchers, when cattle eat it, it releases substances that affect different organs of their digestive systems. Kidneys and the mucus of the


Unimedios

The toxic Pteridium caudatum reproduces at altitudes of 130 meters above sea level, on the peak of the highest mountain on Providencia Island.

urinary bladder are the most affected, according to Carlos Moreno, a veterinarian at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia. “Initially, the pq molecule provokes cystitis in bovines, and over time a chronic inflammation that results in bladder carcinoma. Symptoms start with red urine (hematuria), leading to the animal’s death.

Public health This disease can generate gastric cancer in animals, “which is why the milk can affect those who drink it,” mentioned Tobar. According to the biologist, research in Costa Rica and Japan shows a high rate of deaths due to this cause, because a considerable percentage of milk comes from cows that feed on these types of plants. Another important factor is the consumption of this fern in

salads, which is common in Japan, and the use of its leaves for wrapping food. In this regard, William Otero, a gastroenterologist from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, asserted that “Colombia does not have any scientific documentation to supports the probability of part of the population suffering from diseases stemming from consumption of the fern or milk,” so that further study is needed to prove or disprove the possibility.

Prevention The identification of this fern in Providencia constitutes a botanic contribution to the inventory of terrestrial flora in the archipelago, which is vulnerable to introduced species such as Pteridium caudatum, whose reproduction through spores rather than seeds makes its

eradication difficult. In the past, the burning of terrain was used to eradicate vegetation considered dangerous for the population. The researchers recommend that the inhabitants of the island avoid this practice, as the fern since the fem is resistant to fire due to the physical characteristics of its rhizome (root) and the chemical characteristics of its spores. “While other species die from high temperatures, this fern is resistant. Although its leaves burn, the rhizome survives, generating new outbreaks that spread in the absence of plant competitors,” asserted Tobar. A study urges environmental authorities to monitor this toxic plant, which grows at altitudes of 130 meters above sea level, and whose presence until now has been detected in seven areas on the mountain‘s peak.

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Photo: Unimedios

Agriculture

For professor Sarria, this would strengthen the pig farming sector in Colombia by endowing it with an easily grown, reliable and cheap vegetable that can be cultivated on any terrain.”

A 50% More Economical Alternative

Food Source for Pigs

According to the Business Opinion survey made by the Colombian Association of Pigfarmers (Porcicol, from its Spanish acronym), during the first half of this year, pork prices fell dramatically, but production costs increased. This situation stems from an increase in international prices for the main raw materials for the production of food for these animals, such as corn and soy cake. Total imports of raw materials for the production of balanced food for pigs increased by 2.1% during the first five months of the year, compared to the same period of 2010. That is why Patricia Isabel Sarria, who holds a master’s degree in zootechnics, studies new food alternatives that can serve as substitutes for soy cake in feeding pigs. This doctoral candidate in Agricultural Sciences and professor at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Palmira works with the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT from its Spanish acronym). During this study, the researchers found that caupi and ca-

navalia (species of fodder legumes) are efficient food options that pigs adopted in their diet and that represent almost a 50% savings for pig farmers.

High levels of protein Caupi is an herbaceous legume that came from Southwestern Africa and is widely grown in Latin America. It is also known as ‘cowpeas’. It is a hot weather forage that tolerates dry seasons. Incredibly, according to experts, this plant can produce a ton of dry grain per hectare in Sahara environments with just 181 millimeters of rain per crop. This is very little water distributed over several square meters of land. Professor Patricia Sarria asserts that “caupi seeds are rich in proteins and have a high content of amino acids, lysine and tryptophan, which when compared to the nutritional value of cereals could be similar to beans. Its leaves also have a significant protein content and acceptable digestibility, which is why they are a perfect complement for the pigs’ diet.” Canavalia brasiliensis is also an herbaceous legume with an eight month cultivation cycle and

leaves that are 12 cm long and 10mm wide: It also tolerates dry seasons and adapts to both low fertility clay soils and sandy soils. Both plants, according to the study, can replace close to 50% of the soy cake.

The plants are tested on pigs The evaluation of new food alternatives for pigs is carried out by the CIAT in countries such as Honduras, Nicaragua, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Colombia. In our country, the Mario Gonzales Aranda Laboratory at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Palmira was chosen to perform the acceptance, digestion and growth tests on the pigs. Profesor Sarria was in charge of this process. Caupi and canavalia crops, cultivated by CIAT in Santander de Quilichao (Cauca), are sent to the laboratory for researchers to evaluate their acceptance by the pigs, along with the animals’ degree of tolerance and digestive behavior. “For 14 days, we give them 600 grams of caupi or canavalia every day. During the first stage of acceptance, we replace almost 40% of the food to monitor the

amount consumed by the animals and the amount rejected,” asserted the zootechnician. During this stage, the researchers found that pigs consume this food without any problems and with significant acceptance. In the second and third evaluation stages, digestibility tests were performed to determine the amount of nutrients assimilated by the animals’ and the effects in terms of growth and meat quality. Results show that caupi grain can be digested like soy grain and its nutrients contain high amounts of proteins that could replace almost 50% of soy. At the same time, the caupi foliage can replace up to 30% and canavalia 20% of it,” said the scientist. It was shown that pigs feed on the new forage grown in a similar way that they feed on traditional soy cake, using the same 600 grams per day. This represents a 50% saving for pigfarmers when buying raw materials to produce food for the animals. Normally, they spend COP 32,400 to buy 18 kilograms of soy monthly; with caupi and canavalia, they would need to spend just COP16,200 on each pig.

January 2012

Unimedios

6

Jeinst Campo Rivera,


Caupí and canavalia are two plants that could be used as food for pigs. In the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Palmira, it was found that these leguminous plants can be a substitute for the expensive and traditional soy that is given to these animals. For pigfarmers, this is great news in the midst of the crisis they are facing.

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Agriculture

Is

Excess of Chemicals

Detected in Potato Crops


Improper and excessive fumigation with pesticides makes the most widely consumed tuber in the country a potential cause of serious diseases. A study in the rural zone of Cuidad Bolivar, in Bogotá, shows the contamination levels of potatoes consumed by people in Bogotá.

In some crops, an average of 25 pesticide applications was detected during cultivation, which is considered excessive.

Alejandro Borraez,

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January 2012


Unimedios

The use of chemicals to fight plagues in potato crops, such as the Guatemalan moth, the garden chafer and the Naupactus, among others, is one of the most effective strategies to guarantee production of this tuber. However, in the rural zone of the Ciudad Bolivar neighborhood in Bogotá, where potatoes are produced for distribution centers in the capital city, the use of pesticides exceeds acceptable limits. This is a problem that could affect consumers if it is taken into account that these toxic substances remain even after food is cooked. Led by researcher Tomás León Sicard, from the Institute for Environmental Studies (IDEA, from its Spanish acronym), Professor Sonia Pertuz studied the characteristics of potato production in this zone of the Colombian capital. What she found was alarming. “When potatoes are fried, they do not entirely lose the potential toxic conditions of these pesticides. The substances remain in a proportion that could exceed those of the regulations established by the Ministry of Social Protection,” she explained. The study found that each kilogram of this product contains close to 0.12 milligrams (mg) of organophosphates and 0.54 mg of carbomates (two of the most common pesticides), whereas the permitted limits are 0.1 mg and 0.05 mg respectively. This is a significant difference.

How are they grown? According to anthropologist Raúl Angulo, in the rural zone of Ciudad Bolivar, potatoes are grown for two main destinations: for distribution centers and large food companies and for self consumption. The expert warns that the risk from these crops stems from their location near the Doña Juana garbage dump as well as evidence of improper use of chemical substances, despite the authorities’ recommendations. “Public and private entities in this sector establish guidelines that cover soil preparation, seed selection, use of fertilizers, pesticides and storage; however, some farmers keep their products next to chemical substances, machinery or tools, or other elements of their daily life, without any control,” asserted professor Angulo. He also mentioned that in some places it is common to find residues of pesticide packages on the floor near water sources. Moreover, nutritionist Pertuz also found that farmers, aiming to improve the effect of the chemicals, mix them and use them exaggeratedly over nearly six months of the plant’s growing cycle. In some crops, an average of 25 pesticide applications was detected during cultivation, which is considered excessive. In addition to failures in the production process, the study indentified the presence of chemical substances that are harmful to consumers. “After analyzing a potato sam-

ple that was grown in Ciudad Bolivar, it was evident that stages such as washing, peeling and cooking in water decrease the presence of these chemicals. In general, when the tubers are cooked in water (90°C for 20 minutes), the pesticide is reduced to proper levels; however, when fried at temperatures above 220°, high levels of organophosphates were detected,” said the Universidad Nacional de Colombia Professor.

The consequences According to information from the World Health Organization, two million people suffer from food poisoning every year due to direct or indirect exposure to pesticides, particularly because of noncompliance with industrial security protocols. That is why problem affects agricultural workers directly exposed to these substances. Vomiting, diarrhea, miscarriages, headaches, drowsiness, behavior alterations and convulsions, among other symptoms, are associated with accidents in which a single high dose of pesticide produces food poisoning. There are also chronic cases of cancer, leukemia, liver necrosis, congenital malformations, peripheral neuropathies, persistent headaches and pain. The symptoms are noticeable after long periods of exposure to pesticides, making them difficult to detect. On an economic level, agrochemicals represent 50% of total direct costs related to potato pro-

duction, fertilizers 25%, insecticides 18%, and fungicides 7%. That is why improper and excessive use of agrochemicals not only puts consumers’ health at risk but also affects producers’ investments.

Tracing residues • Paradoxically, fried potatoes do not lose as many contaminants as boiled potatoes. • In some tubers, samples showed contamination values between 0.51 and 0.65 mg/kg for organophosphates and 0.51 to 0.57 for carbomates. • In fresh tubers that have not been peeled or washed, contamination was detected of 0.27 mg/ kg to 0.45 mg/kg respectively. • Stored potatoes, peeled and cooked, showed a residual level of 0. However, tubers that were fried under the same conditions had values of 0.12 mg/ kg for organophosphates and 0.54 mg/kg for carbomates. According to the studies, this is a high level.

Education

First of all, the base indicator is governmental expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP that measures the government’s current capital expenditure on public and private institutions. In 2007, according to figures from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, Colombia spent 4.1%, while countries such as the USA, spent 5.5%, Canada 4.9% and Germany 4.5%. If a comparison is made with Latin American nations that do appear on the 2011 ARWU list, the disadvantage is evident insofar as Brazil spent 5.1%, Argentina 4.9% and Mexico 4.8%. This is a huge difference if we take into account that annual GDP in most developed countries is more than a trillion dollars and in some cases even more, as in the case of the USA, while Colombia this year reached just 207.410 billion. Another indicator of this gap is expenditure per third level student as a percentage of per capita GDP. In percentage terms, in 2006 Colombia reached 19.6%, USA 25%, France 33.3% and the United King-

Knowledge Gap Just nine Latin American universities are part of the 2011 Shanghai ranking, which presents the world’s 500 best universities. Unfortunately, none of them are in Colombia.

dom 28.8%, just to mention three countries in the G7. Colombia was above Argentina (14.2%) and below Mexico (35.3%). However, when evaluating the impact in absolute values, the gap is again considerable. In 2006, Colombia had a per capita GPD of USD$ 3,725, while that of the US was USD$ 40,329, France USD$ 35,558, Mexico USD$ 9,137 and Argentina USD$ 5,474. Thus, when establishing real expenditure per student in higher education, Colombia is well below the other countries mentioned.

Science and technology In the field of added value production in terms of academic knowledge, Colombia is also at a disadvantage compared to other countries. This is shown in the indicator for Research and Development (R&D) as a percentage of GDP: In 2007 Colombia invested 0.16% of its GDP in R&D, while Japan invested 3.44%, the USA 2.72%, Germany 2.54% and Canada 1.90%. Compared to other Latin American countries, Colombia was below Mexico (0.37%), Argentina

(0.51%) and Brazil (1.10%). If total GDP values are taken into account, the difference is again obvious. For instance, if Colombia wanted to match Germany, it would need to invest 44.44% of its total of GDP; to match the USA, 210%; Brazil, 6.7% and Argentina, 0.61%. If the first decade of this century is analyzed, we could say that Colombian investment in R&D has remained unchanged, 0.106% in 2000 and 0.160% in 2010. Although the Santos administration had announced that 10% of revenues would be allocated under this heading (in 2010 that would have amounted to 6 trillion pesos), the increase was actually only 0.4%. Another indicator that shows the differences between countries is the number of researchers dedicated to R&D out of each million inhabitants1. In 2006, Colombia had 151 researchers, while Argentina had 8,960, the USA 4,663, France 3,440, Germany 3,392 and Brazil 629. If the total population is taken into account for that year (43,704,486 inhabitants), a total of 6,493 researchers was reached, while the other countries mentioned, with larger populations except for Argentina, had more peo-

ple involved in this area. The USA had 1,389,574 researchers, Germany 278,144, France 209,804, Brazil 118,252 and Argentina 34,944. A third variable are high tech exports, which in 2009 amounted to USD$ 466 million, less than Germany (USD$ 142.449 billion), the USA (USD$ 141.518 billion), France (USD$ 83.826 billion), Mexico (USD$ 37.353 billion), Brazil (USD$ 8.315 billion) and Argentina (USD$ 1.548 billion). Given this structural problem, the government’s goal of changing Colombia’s peripheral status to make it part of the first world has to begin by proposing a huge increase in the scale of investment for these sectors. However, this topic is not reflected in draft legislation to reform Law 30 of 1992, which will soon be signed into law by the president. United Nations Population Division. World Population Prospects 2008 and 2006. Eurostat, national statistics office and estimations of the World Bank staff based on different sources such as censuses, offices of national statistics, World Population Prospects and surveys of households made by international organizations and International Framework.

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Education

Colombia in a

January 2012

Despite its long history, the tradition of evaluating the academic performance of universities by means of rankings took on added importance during the first decade of the 21st century with the creation of several global lists, such as the Academic Ranking of world Universities (ARWU) made by the Jiao Tong University of Shanghai. In its 2011 edition, it presented the top 500 institutions of higher learning, with unfavorable results for Latin America, particularly for Colombia, which is not even mentioned. This ranking, which was begun in 2003, evaluates the scientific production of universities using several indicators such as the budget allocated for education, the number of Nobel Prize and Field Medal winners (for outstanding discoveries in mathematics), as well as the amount of citations in academic publications, among other aspects. The list is made based on this information, in which the leading universities continue to be from developed countries, especially the G7 (USA, Japan, France, Germany, England, Canada and Italy. This ranking shows the dominant position in higher education of countries like the United States, with 53 such institutions among the top 100, 8 in the top 10 and 4 in the top 5, followed by England, Germany, Canada, Australia, Japan, France and Italy. In contrast, just nine institutions from Latin America were on this list: 7 from Brazil (Universidad de Sao Paulo, Universidad Estatal de Campiñas, Universidad Federal de Minas Gerais, Universidad Federal of Rio de Janeiro, Universidad Estatal de Rio Grande Do Sul and Universidad Federal de Sao Paulo), one from Mexico (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México) and one from Argentina (Universidad de Buenos Aires). This is not good news for Colombia because ARWU does not include any of its universities on the list. When evaluating the potential causes of this situation, the first aspect would be the budget allocated by the government for education and science and technology systems.

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Unimedios

Photo: Unimedios

Jose Luis Barragan,

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Innovation

Colombia’s First Public Stem Cell Bank to Be Created in Bogota, Agencia de Noticias UN

Photo: Unimedios

This center will be the first public umbilical cord stem cell bank in the city, country and Andean region. The initiative aims to give hope to many people, especially children. The project, led by the District Blood Center of the Ministry of Health and coordinated by Guillermo Orjuela, a physician from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, will be Latin America’s fourth most important such bank after Brazil and Mexico. Its main objective is to provide millions of people in the country and the world with the possibility to acquire stem cells from umbilical

cords to cure certain diseases. “A child or adult patient, without a compatible family member for transplant, will now be able to find possibly compatible cells through the bank’s data base,” according to Orjuela. According to this researcher, the most frequent mortality cases are associated with leukemia and lymphoma or metabolic congenital defects. “The idea therefore is to make this product available to patients who need it at a reasonable price so that everyone may have access to these therapies.” Normally, the importation of these cells costs US$25,000 to 30,000. The bank will sign agreements with maternity services

for mothers to be informed of its existence so that “the umbilical cord and placenta will not go to waste”, as frequently occurs in hospitals. Through a scholarship from Colfuturo that enabled him to attend the University of Bristol in England, Guillermo Orjuela had the opportunity to learn from two of the world’s most prestigious blood stem cell and umbilical cord banks along with the Antony Nolan Cell Therapy Center in Nottingham and the Stem Cell and Immunotherapy Department of the National Health Service Blood and Transplant (NHSBT) in Filton, Bristol), which enabled him to return to Colombia and be part of this innovative project.

Stem cells would save millions of lives.

The Inventor of the Peptide Aimed at Debilitating Leishmaniasis Agencia de Noticias UN

Photo: Unimedios

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January 2012


Andrés Rodriguez Vega did not get high marks in chemistry during his Icfes (State university entrance exams). Now 26, he is the inventor of an active peptide against the parasite of Leishmania. In late 2009, this chemist from Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Bogotá synthesized a peptide against micro bacteria cell membranes. He is currently studying for a Masters degree in Chemistry-Science at the Medellin campus; Since his arrival in early 2010, he has been a tutor for courses in General Chemistry and Introduction to Biochemistry, at the Agronomy, Forest Engineering and Biology Engineering faculties. He alternates his studies with his duties as a basketball coach. Every Monday, Tuesday and Thursday, from 12 to 2, he wears his t-shirt to play basketball, and on Saturdays and Sundays he plays with the University team. “I play this sport to avoid thinking about my academic work all the time. Everything consists in forming the habit and having enough energy”. Andres Rodriguez used to be first in his high school class. He also used to play guitar in a rock band, as well as zampoña, flute and quena in an Andean music group. “I also used to wear stilts for festivals”, added the scientist. Many people thought that music Andrés Rodriguez Vega, inventor of an active peptide against the Leishmania parasite

was his talent and future profession, but when he registered at the university he did so at the chemistry department just to see if he was really that bad at chemsitry. When he arrived in Medellin, the campus did not yet have a lab for synthesizing peptides; however, under the guidance of Blanca Fabioloa Espejo, his thesis director in the masters program, he requested the elements that he needed. The university finally inaugurated the Molecular Dynamics Laboratory, where he synthesized the necessary peptides to attack the reproduction and activity of the parasites that cause this disease, which affects 14 million people worldwide. The researcher will travel to the International Biotechnology Congress in Havana, Cuba, where he will present this amazing scientific breakthrough. “Through this trip I expect to promote my work at international events. I also hope to meet people who can provide support.” He is planning to begin his doctorate in biotechnology next year, and apply his findings to living animals. Because of his achievements and dedication, Andrés Rodriguez Vera is one example and part of Orgullo UN, an institutional campaign of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia that highlights the academic, research, cultural and athletic achievements of the university community.