Javier Caballero 35

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LÓGI CA. VOL I, N.. 1, 1992

Javier Caballero

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Homegardens, household gardens or kitchen gardens, are a traditional

agricultural system widespread in most of the tropical regions of the world. They are as the areassurrounding the house which are planted with a mixture of many plant species, mainly fruit trees and root crops (Soemarwoto, 1981). These agroecosystemshave great importance for subsistenceamong indigenous people as has been shown from a number of studies carried out in Asia, Mexico and Central America (Abdoeh1lah and Henky, 1979; Anderson, 1952; Anderson, 1979, 1986; Basurto, 1982; Brierly, 1976; Diarra, 1975; Kimber, 1966, 1978; Lazos et al., 1989;Vara, 1980 among others). The above studies have shown that homegardens provide a criticai complement for human nutrition, health and many other human needs. Homegardens may also represent a source of income for cultivators. The diversity and complexity of homegardens cultivated by the modem Maya of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, are overwhelming. They probably constitute one of the most sophisticated examples of this kind of agroecosystem in the world. Several studies presenting partial descriptions or analyzing specific aspects of the structure and composition of Maya homegardens have been published during the

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Autónoma México

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last few years (Smith and Cameron, 1977; Barrera et al., 1980; Vara, 1980; Vargas, 1983; Sanabria, 1986; Rico-Gray et al., 1990, 1991; Caballero 1991). This study presents a general description of modern Maya homegardens and discussestheir origin as well as perspectivesfor their future development.

Methods

Data presented were obtained as a part of an ethnobotanical inventory conducted between 1984and 1991 throughout the Maya area ofthe Yucatan peninsula. This inventory included both the collection of plant voucher specimens and open interviews with Maya householders and local market vendors. A systematic sampling of the trees and shrubs grown in 60 homegardens from 10 towns and vi"ages from different regions of the Yucatan Peninsula was also conducted in 1985. Measuresof height and basal area of each plant individual as we" as the relative abundance of each plant species were obtained for each one of the 60 homegardens sampled. Voucher specimens numbered under the author's co"ections were deposited at the Herbario Nacional and at the ethnobotanical co"ection of the Jardín Botánico both of the UniversidadNacional Autónoma de México.

The Study Area The Yucatan Peninsula is a low, flat limestone platform. The absence of significant elevation as well as the uniformity of the substratum entails a relatively homogeneus ecology which is altered only by the existence of increasing dryness from the Southwest to the Northwest (Miranda, 1958). In correspondence to this cline of increasing dryness, the natural vegeta-

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ITNOICOLÓGICA. VOL I, N.. I, 1992

tion of the Yucatan peninsula ranges from tropical evergreen forest in the southern region of the peninsula, and subdecidous forest in the central and northeastern peninsula to deciduous forest in the northwestem peninsula (Miranda, 1958; Rico-Gray et al., 1988 ). These climatic and vegetational differences do not seem to affect the distribution of the plants cultivated by the Maya, including those species grown in the homegardens. The modem Maya are located in the northern third of the Peninsula, in the state of Yucatan, the northern part of Campeche, as wel1as in the central part of the state of Quintana Roo. Despite some minor differences in cultural traits such as dress and language, the present Maya area can be considered as cultural1y homogeneous. Significant differences among Maya populations are related more to the degree o( its integration into the national cultural mainstream. Although the practice of traditional productive activities such as the cultivation of milpas and homegardens is stil1widespread all over the modern Maya area, a significant degree of economic specialization exists in different parts of the Yucatan Peninsula. According to this, the 10 towns and villages where I sampled homegardens are representative of four different economic regions of the modem Maya area in the Yucatan Peninsula (Figure 1). Loche and Dzonot Ake are vil1agesin the cattle raising region of northeastern Yucatan. Maxcanu and Ticul are towns representative of eastern Yucatan where different economic activities are combined such as growing fruit trees, planting sisal (Agavespp) and making palm handicrafts. Pomuch and Tenabo in northem Campeche are vil1ages where the population combines maize and fruit tree cultivation with henequén (Sisal) agriculture, as wel1 as other minor activities. The vil1agesof Chan Kom, Huayma, Ichmul and Xkom-Ha represent the more traditional areas of Yucatan and Quintana Roo 37

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Figure I. Location of the ten villages where the floristic sampling of 60 homegardens was conducted.

where slash and burn agriculture is still the main economic activity .

The Modem Maya Homegardens The Maya homegarden is ca"ed locally huerlo or solar, however the last term refers more precisely to the homegarden as a social space. According to Thompson (1974), the solar is the basic Maya residential unit which demarcates the functioning domestic group, whether this is a nuclear or an extended family. Thus the solar is not simply the domicile of families but the place where the families dwell and the spatial locus of the social processeswhich involve the domestic group such as grow and fission of families over time.

SPatial Organization

Maya hornegardens are cornrnonly rectangular although sornetirnes they can be square and

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they rarely have an irregular shape. They are contained by a low mortarless stone wall. As reported for the villages of Tixpehual and Tixcacaltuyub by Rico-Gray et al. (1990), the size of the Maya homegardens vary greatly as a result of a long and complicated process of allocation and subsequent division of land. From the sample of 60 homegardens, I estimated that the traditional Maya homegarden usually has an area between 600 and 2 000m2 but sometimes this area can be up to 5 000m2. Rico-Gray et al. (1990) reported a mean of 2 500m2, with a maximum of 5 000m2 and a minimum of 400m2 for a sample of 42 homegardens of Tixpehual and Tixcacaltuyub. Although not clearly defined, four different sections form the traditional Maya homegarden (Figure 2). The first section contains the house, the kitchen and an open area devoted to raising pigs and poultry. In this area people commonly

cultivate chile (Capsicumanuum), and other condiments in pots or in wooden raised beds called ca'anche. The second section is the larger one and usually occupies more than 80% of the total area of the homegarden. This section is devoted to growing perennial plants basically trees and some shrubs. A third section called locally pach pakal is devoted to the cultivation of annual crops mainly vegetables, beans and maize. The fourth section is usually located at the front of the house and is devoted to the cultivation of a great variety of ornamental plants. This is the smallest part of a homegarden and often is reduced to a only few individuals planted in pots. As described by RicoGray et al. (1990) it is common to find a fifth section of the homegarden which is not a cultivated area. This section is occupied by natural vegetation mainly secondary forests which contains both usefuJand non-useful wild plants. Ac-

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cording to Sánchez (1991), this section constitutes along with the natural vegetation and the milPa, the source of firewood for the household. The sections for produce and ornamental plant cultivation as well as the secondaryforest section may be absent in any homegarden but not the tree crop section. This section along with the residential area can be considered as the defining elements of the typical modern Maya homegarden.

Homegarden Structure

Maya homegardens, parcicularly the tree crop section, have a complex structure and according to some authors (Barrera et al., 1980), they resemble the structure of the nearby tropical rain forest. In the vercical dimension a clear cut stracificaciondoes not exist, however in general, it is possible to recognize three different strata: a lower stratum of up to 2 meters height which is formed by shrubs, small trees and other life forms; a middle stratum between 2 and 5 meters; and a higher stratum between 5 and 15 meters formed by the tallest trees (Figure 3). The horizontal ordering of the plant individuals in the homegardens was not systematical1y recorded, however on the basis of field observacionsand the report by Rico-Gray et al. (1990), it can be said that no specific pattern exists as earlier suggested by Barrera (1980). Interviews conducted by the author with householders during the sampling of 60 homegardens, indicated that the only criteria people fol1ow when plancing and managing the homegarden is to avoid compecicion for light between individuals. Thus people plant individual trees in such a way that their crowns do not overlapp and that lower trees are not overshadowedby tal1erones. According to Barrera (1980), the ordering of plant individuals

Figure 3. Projection of 60 homegardens in a space of characters (presenceof speciesand varieties). as obtained from a Multidimensional Scaling. The final stressva1ueachieved was 0.48. Numbers are homegardens: 1-6 Loche; 7-12 Dzonot Ake; 13-18Huayrna; 19-24Chan Kom; 25-30 Xkom Ha; 31-36 Ichmul; 37-42 Ticul; 43-48; Maxcanu; 49-54 Tenabo; 55-60 Pomuch. Source: Caballero (1991).

in a homegarden is a function of many different factors such as variation in soil type, differences in humidity, as well as the existing light conditions.

Homegarden Flora

Maya homegardens are highly diverse. From the sampling of 60 homegardens, I recorded a total of 83 species and land races of trees and shrubs which are grown in the tree crop section (Appendix 1.). The number of species present in the Maya homegardens may be significantly

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CABALLERO

higher if the plants from the other sections are included. Barrera (1980) reported 92 plant speciésincluding trees, shn1bsand herbs, some of which are grown in the section of ornamental plants. Vara (1980) recorded 133 species and land races from the homegardens of Yaxcaba,Yucatan, including ornamental plants and annual crops cultivated in the pach pakal. In a recent study, Rico-Gray et al (1990, 1991) registered a toial of 187 species of trees and shrubs including the wild plants from the uncultivated section as we" as the speciesgrowing in the ornamental plant section of the homegardens of Tixpehual and Tixcacaltuyub. The number of plant speciesand individuals found in a single homegarden varies significantIy. The total number of individuals for both

trees and shrubs per homegarden, ranged between 20 and 170 as recorded from the sample of 60 homegardens. This variable number seemsto depend on a seriesof interrelated factors such as the total area available, the age of the homegarden and the density of planting chosen by the householder. As observed from the sample of 60 homegardens, older and larger homegardens often have a larger number of individuals, although according to evidence presented by Rico-Gray et al. (1990), it appears that the number of species planted as well as the density of planting is not directly related to the size and the age of the homegarden but is largely a function of the particular preferences of the householder.

Origin of the Homegarden Flora

The flora of the modern Maya homegardens results from the combination of two basic elements: plants native to the neotropics and; plants native to the old world (Table I) .The neotropical plants can be further divided into those species native to the Yucatan Peninsula and those species native to other parts of Mexico and the neotropics. Most of the plant species of the Maya homegardens which are native to the Yucatan peninsula are wild plants. They comprised 32% (26) of the speciesrecorded from the sample of 60 homegardens. These plants are mainly ta11 trees, which are common elements in either the primary and the secondary forests. They are left to stand when the forest is cut down for establishing a new homegarden. These plants can also grow spontaneously from seeds and other propagules either already present in the homegarden or natura"y dispersed in the homegarden from the nearby forest or the neighboring homegardens. Once established, these plants are tolerated, protected and even

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Table 1. Plant species and varieties most frequently found in a sample of 60 Maya homegardens of the Yucatan Peninsula. Frequency values indicate that for example, Annono squomoso wos found in 65% of the homegardens (39 out of 60).

PERCENT

ORIGIN

SPECIES

Native to the

Annona squamosa Bross;mum al;castrum Me/;ccocus b;iugatus Spond;as purpurea Tal;s;a o/;vaeform;s

Neotropics

LOCAL

ts'almuy oox huaya cubana tuxpana abal wayam chi abal kan op k'ui che' bek

Spond;as purpurea Annona purpurea Cedre/1a mex;cana Ehret;a t;n;fo/;a Cord;a dodecandra B;xa ore/lana Man;lkara achras Car;ca papaya Spond;as aff. momb;n

k'oopte' k'uxub chakya' chich tuxilo abal campeche abal on bon xa'an iulok xa'an kan abal

Spond;as purpurea Persea amer;cana Sabal mex;cana Sabalyapa Spondias purpurea Cn;doscolus chayamansa Ps;d;um guaiava Byrson;ma crass;fo/;a Crescent;a cuiete P;sc;d;a p;sc;pula Bursera s;maruba Chrysophy/1um ca;n;to P'umer;a a'ba Parment;era acu/eata Jacarat;a mex;cana

chaay pichi' nanche' luch habim chaka caimito morado flor de mayo kat kumche abal morado abal sabak abal San Juan

Spond;as purpurea S. purpurea S. purpurea Nalive lo Ihe Old World

Citrus aurantium

naranja agria china limon agrio mandarina lima

C. sinensis Citrus aurantifolia Citrus

reticulata

Citrus limetoides Taindus Musa

indica

paj ch'ujuk platono dulce

(MB)

Mangifera

NAME

indica

mango coco limonoria plata no macho

Cocus nucifera Murraya paniculata Musa (MB) Citrus aurantium

naranja xcajera toronja

Citrus paradisi

41

FREQUENCY 65.0% 58.3 58.3 58.3 53.3 51.7 46.7 45.0 40.0 38.3 35.0 35.0 31.7 30.0 28.3 26.7 25.0 23.3 23.3 21.7 21.7 18.3 18.3 16.7 13.3 13.3 13.3 11.7 11.7 10.0 10.0 10.0 78.3 73.3 58.3 33.3 31.7 26.7 25.0 21.7 20.0 20.0 15.0 13.3 13.3

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promoted by the householders. These plants are the ones which dominate the canopy of the homeg-ardens.Some of the more common wild species are Brosimum alicastrum, Sabal spp, Cedrella mexicana and the wild forms of Manilkara achras. According to Barrera (1980) Cnidoscoluschayamansais a homeg-arden plant species which wasdomesticated in the Yucatan Peninsula.There are also some cultivars of fruit trees such as the %apotecampechano(Manilkara achras)which were probably developed by the Maya from the wild forms. These cultivars as we" as the wild forms, most of which are sti" found in the natural forests of the Peninsula, are utilized by the local population although the cultivated forms are often preferred over the wild ones. The plants from the neotropics include species domesticated in different parts of Mesoamerica, the Caribbean, and South America. Some of these speciesare sti" present in the wild in those regions. These plants include some of the more common elements in the medium and lower strata of the homegardens, sucli as Annona reticulata, Melicoccus bijugata, Talisia olivaeformis,Bixa orellana, and different cultivars of Spondiaspuryurea, (Table 3). Some species such as Perseaamericanaand several cultivars of Manilkara achras are also common in the higher arboreal stratum. Speciesfrom the Caribbean and South America include plants introduced to the Yucatan during both prehispanic and colonial times. Historical sources such as the Relaciones Geográficasof the XVI century (de la Garza, 1983) and the Relaciónde las Cosasde Yucatánby Diego de Landa (Tozzer, 1941) suggest the introduction of speciessuch asBixa orellanasince prehispanic times. Plants from the old world are basica"y citrics, bananas and other fruits. They are dominant elements in the medium arboreal stratum of the homeg-ardens(Table 3). It is common to find old varieties and cultivars of these species such as .6..6..6. 42

Table 3. Species of the modern Maya homegardens which were economically important in prehispanic times and in the early Spanish colonial period. 8ased on Marcus (1982) and Miksicek (1983).

SPECIES

PREHISPANIC TIME

XVI-XVII CENTURY

Acrocom;o mex;cono Agove s;so/ono

x

Annono

x

x

cher;mo/o

A. purpureo

x

A. ret;cu/oto A. squomoso

x x

B;xo orellono Bros;mum o/;costrum

x

Byrson;mo cross;fol;o Cor;co popoyo

x

Cedrello mex;cono Cn;doscolus choyomonso

x

Cord;o dodecondro

x

Crescent;o

x

cuiete

x x

Ehret;o t;n;fol;o

x

Guozumo

ulm;fol;o

x

Jocorot;o

mex;cono

x x

Lonchocorpus yucotonens;s Mon;lkoro ochros

x

Porment;ero spp. Perseo omer;cono

x

x

Pouter;o sopoto Ps;d;um guoiovo Sobo/spp. Spond;os

spp

To/;s;o ol;voeform;s

x

x x x

x

x

x

x

x

the naranja agria (CitTl1.5 aurantium) and the naranja xcajera (CitTl1.5-aurantium ) growing in the Maya homegardens introduced early by the Spaniards and no longer cultivated in other regions of Mesoamerica.The persistenceof these cultivars in Yucatan seems to be a result of a series of cultural and historical events such as the early incorporation of these plants into the traditional Maya diet and cuisine, as well as the prolonged cultural and economic isolation of

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the Yucatan Peninsula which has secured the endurance of the Maya culture.

VOL I, N.. 1, 1992

Origin and Evolution of the Maya Homegardens

Homegardensand Subsistence Prehispanic Roots of the Modern Homegardens

Despite the economic differences between the various regions of the Yucatan, the homegarden plays an important role in household subsistencein all regions. The present Maya subsistence patterns, particularly those in the maize growing areas of Yucatan and Quintana Roo, are based on the traditional combination of a diversity of agricultural systems.These are the slash and burn cultivation or müpa, the produce cultivation or pach pakal, and the homegarden tree culture. Although staple foods such as maize and beans are obtained from slash and burn agriculture they are complemented with products from the pach pakal and the homegarden. Thus each agricultural system along with other productive activities such as bee keeping, provide different kinds of foods which are combined throughout the year to satisfy the requirements of the human diet. They also represent a source of cash income. As can be seen from Table 2, the plants growing in homegardens are used for a variety of purposessuch asmedicinal and ceremonial uses, house thatching, as well as making tools and household utensils. Nevertheless most of the species are food plants, mainly fuits, as can be seenfrom Table 2. More than 50% of the species reported from the sample of 60 homegardens are fruit trees. In nutritional terms this variety of fruits represent an important source of vitamins and minerals which supplement other nutrients obtained from staple foods. In economic terms, homegardens products, particularly fruits, are a source of cash income. As discussed by Rico-Gray et al., 1991, selling fruits from the homegarden either in local or regional markets as well as trading them locally in the villages is an important economic activity. 43

Although modem Maya homegardens can not be considered as a prehispanic agricultural system, they seem to have evolved from some prehispanic tree culture system. As shown by the numerous speciesfrom the old world which are cultivated in the present homegardens, these agroecosystemsare largely a result of the technological innovations introduced to Mesoamerica by the Spaniards. On the other

Table 2. Uses af fhe species and variefies grawn in fhe free crap secfions of a sample of 60 Maya homegardens.

NUMBER OF SPECIES

USE fruit

46

medicinal

8

flavoring wood

6 6

ornament

5 4

vegetable household

utensils

ritual

4 4

seed emergency fodder handicrafts

food

2 2

colorant tatching ropes tools others

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other hand, domesticated speciessuch as Spondias spp., Persea~ana, and Annona spp. could hardly have been cropped in the wild. They must have formed part of a systemof tree culture which perhaps resembled the modern systemof homegardens. Most of the fruit trees cultivated in the modern homegardens have a broad range of genetic variability which appears to be a result of a long process of manipulation by the Maya. In the case of SpondiaspU1jJureaa total of 1i different cultivars were recorded in this study. Although some cultivars such as tuxpana abal could have been introduced to Yucatan (Barrera, 1980), most of them are not found in other regions of Mesoamerica. They seem to have originated in the Maya area. The development of such genetic variability involves a long and complicated process of selection and breeding which begins with wild plants, but after some point it can only be carried out with plants under intensive cultivation. Furthermore the fact that neither these cultivars nor their putative ancestors are found in the present natural vegetation supports the idea that these varieties were cultivated by the ancient Maya, but the way in which these plants were cultivated by the ancient Maya remains unknown.

hand, Modern Maya homegardens are also grounded in some prehispanic practices of tree cropping either in cultivation or in the wild. Comparing the species from the present homegardens which are native to the neotropics wi~h the trees which have been recorded as economically important for the early colonial period as we" as for some preclassic Maya sites (Marcus, 1982; Miksicek, 1983; Turner and Miksicek, 1984), it can be seen that a significant proportion of the speciesused in the present have been economically important over a long period of time. Of a total of 44 native species recorded as growing in modern Maya homegardens, 23 are reported by Marcus (1982) as utilized during the XVI and XVII century. On the other hand 10 of these speciesare also reported by Miksicek (1983) as economically important during the preclassic period at Pu"trouser, Belice (Table 3). Furthermore Vhoories (1982) lists 150 plant species which according to that author, could have provided different commodities for export to the Maya highlands during the Preclassicperiod as a part of a long distance trade network. Examination of such a list reveals that 49 of the specieswere found either by the present author or by Barrera (1980) and Rico-Gray et al. (1991), as growing in modern Maya homegardens. There is no clear indication of the way in which these specieswere managed in the past. Wild speciessuch as Cedrellaodorata.Sabalspp., Erhetia tinifolia and Manilchara achras could have been gathered in the forests or cropped tbrough some systemof silviculture as has been suggested by a number of scholars (Puleston 1968 and 1978; Rico-Gray et al., 1985; GómezPompa, 1987; Gómez Pompa et al., 1987; McKi"op 1988). As indicated by oral tradition recorded in the field by the present author , some of these speciescould have been recently introduced into the homegardens as a way to cope with the progressive scarcity of these resources resulting from deforestation. On the

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Whether they were cultivated in homegardens similar to those of the present Maya, can only be learned from intensive archaeological research on ancient habitational sites, a field still under-studied by Maya Archaeologists.

Floristic Variation and Homegarden Evolution

To think of Maya homegardens as uniform agroecosystemsis an idea supported by the relative cultural and ecological homogeneity of the Yucatan Peninsula. However statistical analysisof the data on relative abundace of the plant species recorded during the systematic sampling of 60 homegardens reveals the existence of different floristic patterns in various regions of the Yucatan peninsula (Caballero, 1991). It is important to examine these variation patterns because they mirror some evolutionary trends of Maya homegardens. As shown by Caballero (1991) the analysisof the overall similarity among homegardens by means of ordination techniques gives different results when using data on presence and absence of species than when using data on relative abundance of species.Thus a Non Metrical Multidimensional Scaling performed on a similarity matrix using data on presence and absence of species shows a close similarity among most of the homegardens and does not provide any significant differentiation among them (Figure 3). In contrast, as can be seen from Figure 4, a Principal Component Analysis performed on a dissimilarity matrix using data on the species relative abundance shows a relatively clear differentiation ofhomegardens which is a result of the dominance of certain plant species and varieties such as mmón (Brosimumalicastrum), %ammullo blanco (Annona squamosa),and bon xa'an (Sabal mexicana). These contrasting results indicate that: a) as suggested by Rico-

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Gray et al. (1990), the Maya homegardens are generaIly composed by a basic set of species, mainly fruit trees; b) as suggestedby the above authors and by Vara (1980), species composition among homegardens varies greatly and this variation does not have a pattern; c) significant dissimilarities between homegardens are better due to differences in the relative abundance of some of the species of the basic set above mentioned. Three main types of Maya homegardens can therefore be recognized: 1) Generalized homegardens with a dominance shared by a series of species,mainly Cit11Lfspp., Byrsonimaand other species. 2) Homegardens with a dominance of Sabal mexicana a n d Brosimum alicastrum. Two

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The floristic variation observed in the Maya homegardens appears to be a result of a historical processof regional economic specialization. For example, the dominance of Sabal in the homegardens of Ticul and Maxcanu is related to the economic importance that palm handicraft industry has in these villages. On the other hand, the dominance of Brosimum alicastrumin the homegardens of Pomuch, and Tenabo is related to the extensive use that this tree had until recently, for feeding the labor animals utilized in the "sisal" (Agavespp.) cultivation and the cordage industry .

The Future of Maya Homegardens The Maya region of Yucatan is undergoing a rapid process of transformation as a result of its incorporation into the cultural and economic mainstream of modern Mexico. In spite of this processof change, the Yucatec Maya are one of the Indian groups of Mexico which have maintained their cultural heritage more than other groups (Thompson, 1974). The modern Maya homegardens mirror this double condition of change and persistence. Homegardens are sti" an important element in Maya subsistenceand although the traditional agricultural economy of the Maya population has been substituted in different regions by market oriented activities such as sisal cultivation, cattle raising and commercial fruit tree culture, homegarden cultivation has been kept virtually unmodified throughout the Maya region. Yet even though they persist as a traditional economic acitvity, Maya homegardens are undergoing a process of change. Rico-Gray et al. (1990) have suggestedthe existence of a trend towards a change in homegarden structure and function in response to the modernization and economic transformation in the Yucatan Peninsula. In fact homegardens have been changing

Figure 4. Projection of 60 homegardens in a two dimensional space of characters (relative abundance of species and varieties) as obtained from a Principal Component Analysis. Numbers are homegardens: 1-6 Loche; 7-12 Dzonot Ake; 13-18 Huayma; 19-24 Chan Kom; 25-30 Xkom Ha; 31-36 Ichmul; 3742 Ticul; 43-48; Maxcanu; 49-54 Tenabo; 55-60 Pomuch. Source: Caballero (1991). The first two principal components explain 39.6% of the variation. The species-varieties with higher loadings in the first principal component are zaramullo blanco (Annona squamosa) naranja agria (Cilrus auranlium) and naranja dulce (Cilrus sinen.sis). The species with higher loadings in the second principal component are Sabal mexicana and Brosimum alicaslrum.

variants of d1is type of homegarden can be recognized: a) hornegardens dorninated by Sabal mexicana. b) hornegardens co-dominated by Sabal mexicanaand Brosimumalicastrum. 3) Homegardens with a dominance of Annona squamosaand Brosimum alicastrum. Two variants of this type of homegarden can be recognized: a) homegardens dominated exclusively by Annona squamosa. b) hornegardens co-dominated by Annona squamosaand Brosimumalicastrum. 46

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ETNOECOLÓGlCA, VOL I, N.. 1, 1992

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over time in response to regional economic transformations as revealed by the patterns of floristic composition observed in different parts of the Peninsula. Nevertheless at the present, homegarden transformation seems to be accelerating throughout the Maya area. Rico-Gray et al. (1990) have pointed out that Maya homegardens, mainly those of the vil1ages closer to Merida and other cities, tend to have more ornamental plants and commercial varieties of fruit trees at the expense of the more traditional elements of the homegarden. It was not possible to assessthis phenomenon from the sample of 60 homegardens since the number of homegardens sampled in each village was too smal1.Nevertheless qualitative observations indicate that sociocultural transformations involving different factors such as a the development of new cultural attitudes of the .6..6..6. 47

Maya population; the progressiveorientation of the local economy to the market; the improvement of land transportation; as we" as the introduction of tap water which permits homegarden irrigation, are associated with an increasing abundance of commercial varieties mainly of fruit trees in the Maya Homegardens. Even though this trend involves the irreparable loss of the genetic pool of native species, it seems to be one of the consequences of the incorporation of the Maya into the sociocultural mainstream of modern Mexico. .

Acknowledgments This research was founded by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, México (Grant

JAVIER

CABALLERO

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PCECBNA-O21704),by the Pacific Ream Project of the University of California at Riverside and by the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. The Centro de Recun'osBióticos de la Península de Yucatán permitted the use of its facilities for this study and provided field assistance. I thank the collaboration and advice of Edilberto Ucan, Salvador Flores and Victoria Sosafrom the above institution. I thank Carmen Morales of the CentroRegionalde Yucatánof the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México for introducing me to the village of Ichmul. I also thank Linda Newstrom for proof reading the manuscript and Laura Cortes for her assistancein the development of the data base for the elaboration of the Appendix I.

Anderson, E. 1950. An Indian Garden at Santa Luda, Guatemala. Ceiba1(2):97-103 Anderson,]. 1979. Traditional Homegardens in Southeast Asia. V International Symposium of Tropical Ecology. Malaysia. Anderson, ]. 1986. House garden5-An Appropiate Village Technology. In: Korten, D.C. Comunity Management: Asian Experienceand Penpectives.Kumarian Press. Barrera, A. 1980. Sobre la Unidad de Habitación Tradicional Campesina y el Manejo de Recursos Bióticos en el Area Maya Yucatanense.BIOTICA 5(3):11~129. Basurto, F. 1982. Huertos Familiares en dos Comunidades Nahuas de la Sierra Norte de Puebla: Yancuictlalpan y Cuahutapanaloyan.Tesis Profesional. Facultad de Ciendas. UNAM. México. Brierly, ]. 1976. Kitchen Gardens in the West Indias with Contemporary Study from Grenada. journal of Tropical GeograPhy 43:30-40. Caballero, ]. 1991. Floristic Variation in Modern Maya Homegardens: Ethnobiological Implications. In: GómezPompa, A. (ed.) Homegardens of the Maya Area. West View Press.In Press. De La Garza, M., A. Izquierdo, M.A. León y T. Figueroa (eds). 1983. RelacionesHistórico-GeográfICas de la Relaci6n de Yucatán.México D.F.: Universidad Nacional AutÓnoma de México 2 vols. Dian-a, N. 1975. LeJardinage Urbain et Suburbain au Mali le Cas de Bamako. joum. d'Agric Tropic. et Bot Appl.18(12):481-532.

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the Maya Lowlands: A New Perspective of the Geography of Power. In: Harrison, P.D. and B.L Tumer II (eds). PrehispanicMaya Agriculture.Albuquerque: University ofNew Mexico Press.pp. 201-225. Rico-Gray, V., A. Gómez-Pompa and C. Chan. 1985. Las Selvas Manejadas por los Mayas de Yohaltún, Campeche, México. BIOTICA 10(4): 321-327. Rico-Gray, V.,J.G. García-Franco,A. Puch y P. Sima. 1988. Composition and Structure of a Tropical Dry Forest in Yucatan,Mexico.Internationaljournal ofEcologyand EnvironmentalSciences 14:21-29. Rico-Gray,V.,J.G. García-Franco,A. Chemas,J.G. Puch y P. Sima. 1990. Species Composition, Similarity, and Structure of Mayan Homegardens in Tixpehual and Tixcacaltuyub,Yucatan, Mexico. EconomicBotany44(4): 470487 Rico-Gray, V., A. Chemas y S. Mandujano. 1991. Uses of Tropical Deciduous Forest Speciesby the YucatecanMaya. AgroforestrySystem.s ( 13) In Press. Sanabria, O.L. 1986. El Uso del Recurso Forestal en una Comunidad Maya. Etnoflora Yucatanense. Vol 2. Mérida, México: Instituto Nacional de RecursosBióticos. Sánchez, M.C. 1991. Usoy Manejo de lo Leña en X-uilub, Yucatán.Master Dissertation. Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México. Smith, E. and Cameron, M. 1977. Ethnobotany of the Puuc, Yucatan. EconomicBotany81:93-110. Soemarwoto, O and I. Soemarwoto. 1982. Homegarden: its Nature, Origin and Future Development. In: Ecological Basisfor Rational ResourceUtilization in theHumid Tropú;¡ of SouthEastAsia. pp. 130-139. Sosa,V.,J.S. Flores, V. Rico-Gray, R. Lira y JJ. Ortiz. 1985. Lista Florística y Sinonimia Maya. Etnoflora Yucatanense Fasc.1. Xalapa, México. Thompson, R. 1974. The Winds of Tomorrow:Social Change in a Maya Town.Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Turner, B. L. and Miksicek. 1984. Economic Plant Species Associated with Prehistoric Agriculture in the Maya Lowlands. EconomicBotany38(2): 179-193. Tozzer, A. (ed). 1941 Landa's Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán: A Translation. Papersof the PeabodyMuseumof AmericanArchaeologyand Ethnology,Harvard University, Vol XVIII. Cambridge. Vara, A. 1980. La Dinámica de la Milpa en Yucatán: el Solar. In: Hemández, X. E. (ed). Seminario sobreProducción Agricolo en Yucatán. Secretaría de ProgramaciÓn y Presupuesto. Gobierno del Estado de Yucatán. Mérida. Vargas,C.A. 1983. El Ka 'anche':Una Práctica Horticola Maya. BIOTICA 8(2):151-173. Voorhies, B. 1982. An Ecological Model of the Early Maya of the Central Lowlands. In: Flannery, K. (ed.) Maya Subsistence, New York: Academic Press.pp. 65-95.

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