Journal of Consumer Marketing

Journal of Consumer Marketing Emerald Article: Dispelling the collective myth of Chinese consumers: a new generation of brand-conscious individualists Lilly Ye, Mousumi Bose, Lou Pelton

Article information: To cite this document: Lilly Ye, Mousumi Bose, Lou Pelton, (2012),"Dispelling the collective myth of Chinese consumers: a new generation of brand-conscious individualists", Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 29 Iss: 3 pp. 190 - 201 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/07363761211221729 Downloaded on: 23-04-2012 References: This document contains references to 66 other documents To copy this document: [email protected]

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Dispelling the collective myth of Chinese consumers: a new generation of brandconscious individualists Lilly Ye Department of Marketing and Finance, Frostburg State University, Frostburg, Maryland, USA

Mousumi Bose Department of Marketing, Fairfield University, Fairfield, Connecticut, USA, and

Lou Pelton Department of Marketing and Logistics, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA Abstract Purpose – The unprecedented increase in brand development among one of the fastest-growing consumer markets, the new generation of Chinese consumers, compels a greater understanding of the psychological factors that were largely stereotyped to be collective and homogeneous. Grounded in self-congruity theory, the primary purpose of this study is to understand the joint impact of Chinese consumers’ self- and gender consciousness on their ensuing brand perceptions. This study aims to critically explore the process that underlies the aforementioned relationships with consumers’ need for uniqueness and brand consciousness. Design/methodology/approach – An online survey using consumer panel data was conducted in three “tier-one” cities in the People’s Republic of China. The focus on these cities coincided with the competitive density of retail brands, and resulted in 302 respondents in the population of interest. The data were analysed using structural equation modelling (SEM). Findings – Self- and gender consciousness do impact brand consciousness indirectly through Chinese consumers’ need for uniqueness. Contrary to expectations, the study finds that self-consciousness has a negative direct impact on brand consciousness, while gender consciousness does not have a direct impact on brand consciousness. Furthermore, brand consciousness leads to positive brand perceptions, including brand attitudes, brand loyalty, and willingness to pay a price premium. Practical implications – The research provides an in-depth understanding of self-congruity in Chinese consumers’ brand perceptions. The research findings can be used to formulate brand positioning and promotion strategies for brand managers. Originality/value – The study integrates extant theories in gender schema and self-congruity to understand brand perceptions in light of self- and gender consciousness. To date, no research has explored this relationship. Furthermore, the study discusses the role of consumers’ need for uniqueness as a process that underlines the relationship between consumer self- and gender consciousness, and brand perceptions in terms of brand consciousness, brand attitude and loyalty and willingness to pay a price premium. Keywords Consumer consciousness, Brand consciousness, Need for uniqueness, Brand perceptions, Brands, Retailing, China, Consumer behaviour Paper type Research paper

decades coupled with a consumer population of nearly 1.3 billion, China represents a new generation of consumers who are inundated with thousands of new branded goods and services (The Economist, 2010). The deluge of brand choices coincides with the largest increases in personal income. Collectively, there is no doubt that consumer marketers from Coach to Zara are bullish on the “new” Chinese consumer, a consumer base who have readily adapted and adopted western values, attitudes and lifestyles. The marked departure from a largely state-owned, centralized and institutionalized consumer market setting has precipitated the largest and fastest brand entry and expansion in modern history, deeply impacting conventional Chinese consumer decision choices (Wang et al., 2009). This is especially true for young Chinese consumers between the ages of 22 and 35 who tend to pursue a lifestyle based on their recent upward consumer buying power (Ariga et al., 1997). Young Chinese consumers’ self-expression is manifested through the consumption of branded goods and services (Fam et al., 2008; Liao and Wang, 2009). A brand not only helps

An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article. Quality, taste and virtue make a brand (Niu Gensheng, CEO of Mengniu).

Introduction The People’s Republic of China (hereafter, China) is increasingly becoming one of the most important emerging consumer markets, and it is purported to be the secondlargest economy in the world. An average double-digit growth rate at or above 10 percent annually during the past three The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0736-3761.htm

Journal of Consumer Marketing 29/3 (2012) 190– 201 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 0736-3761] [DOI 10.1108/07363761211221729]

190

Dispelling the collective myth of Chinese consumers

Journal of Consumer Marketing

Lilly Ye, Mousumi Bose and Lou Pelton

Volume 29 · Number 3 · 2012 · 190 –201

consumers show the “cool” side of their personality, but it also represents social status and prestige (Phau and Teah, 2009; Liao and Wang, 2009; Wang et al., 2009). Thus, these consumers remain the most optimistic segment around the world (Rein, 2009), awakening their sense of consumption and engaging in a “love affair” with luxury products and brands (Bruce, 2010). To understand how brands play a powerful role in the changing lifestyle patterns of Chinese consumers, it is important to explore some psychological core factors. The impact of self-concept theory is inextricably connected to these consumers’ brand perceptions and brand choice. Using the principles of self-congruity that discusses the congruence of product/brand image and self-concept (Sirgy, 1982), He and Mukherjee (2007) have suggested that Chinese consumers’ attitudes and store loyalty are driven by self consistence (how a consumer views himself or herself) and social confirmation (how a consumer believes others view him or her), and these concepts parallel the real and looking-glass selves replete in the consumer literature to date. Wang et al. (2009) studied China’s automobile market and found that self-image congruence with product and company-brand personality positively affects purchase intension. Eisingerich and Rubera (2010) also found that self-brand relevance is correlated to Chinese consumers’ brand commitment, as well. In all, extant research supports the correspondence between self-concept and brand perceptions in the Chinese context. While the principle of self-congruity has gained widespread attention in the social sciences literature addressing western consumers, far less attention has been afforded to the increasingly “independent” consumers in China. First, the extent of collective eastern conventions on modern Chinese consumers’ self-congruity warrants further investigation. Likewise, the overarching traditional Chinese culture is dissipating, and Chinese consumers’ awareness and expression of their psycho-sociological gender identities are reflective in building relationships with products and brands. Such expressions of gender are seen across a host of global brands. For example, LG has attempted to connect to consumers by tapping into a powerful shift in gender images such as “Mr Beauty” and “Ms Strong” that have gained popularity among Chinese youth (Fowler, 2005). Thus, these are critical gaps given that global brands spend significant resources toward reaching young Chinese consumers at a personal level. Understanding the role of consumers’ self- and gender concepts in building brand image will provide managers and researchers an opportunity to use these psychographic factors as managerial mechanisms in building brand relationships among the new generation of Chinese consumers. As a result of the changes in self-construal, managers can incorporate unique aspects to brands, leading to greater focus on consumers’ self- and gender concepts. The goal of this article is to explore the impact of the above self-concepts among Chinese consumers to develop a conceptual framework that assists brand managers to leverage these psychological factors in developing brand loyalty. Based on Abe et al. (1996), the study draws on self-consciousness as a key aspect of self-concept and uses gender-consciousness (Gould, 1996) to represent the gender aspect of self-concept. The eastern collectivist tradition highlights the importance of conformance or following norms as an important aspect of self. However, we believe that consumers in this culture also

find themselves in situations where they might prefer to display their uniqueness. Given that consumers’ need for uniqueness (CNFU) might play be a portentous variable in consumers’ self-expression and related consumption decisions (Clark et al., 2006; Ruvio, 2008), the study accommodates CNFU to support the congruity effects between self/gender consciousness and brand perceptions. Furthermore, there exists a contradiction across China: although some consumers may possess little knowledge about a particular brand. They may heavily consume name-brand products simply because of the social impact of brand recognition – consumption increases when brands are recognized by others (Liao and Wang, 2009). As such, it is important to understand Chinese consumers’ tendency to choose well-known and highly advertised brands. Evidently, brand consciousness is a critical factor in examining Chinese consumers’ brand perceptions. Thus, the study incorporates this factor to find out how brand consciousness bridges the relationship between Chinese consumers’ self/gender consciousness and brand perceptions. Finally, the study focuses on generation Y-aged consumers in light of the fact that these consumers are becoming the largest consumer group in China with enormous potentials for global marketers (He and Mukherjee, 2007) The research provides several theoretical and substantive insights: First, it integrates extant theories in gender schema and self-congruity to understand brand perceptions in light of self- and gender consciousness. To our knowledge, no research has explored this aspect of brand perceptions. Second, an attempt is made to understand the process that underlies the relationship between consumer consciousness and brand perceptions. Finally, this research investigates the conceptual framework of brand perceptions by studying consumers in China, the fastest growing economy in the world. Such perspectives help provide an in-depth comprehension of brand consumptions in Eastern cultures, an aspect attractive to managers of global conglomerates.

Theoretical foundations Self-concept and its implications have received considerable attention in the marketing literature. Self-concept can significantly impact consumers’ decision-making and product and brand choices (Chebat et al., 2006; Sirgy, 1982). Understanding self-concept is important as it forms the basis of self-congruity theory (Sirgy, 1982) that suggests that consumers prefer certain products or brands that are consistent with their self-image and therefore, can enhance their self-image. The rationale behind this connection is based on two important self-concept motives: self consistency and self-esteem. First, people tend to behave consistently with their view of self, and they tend to choose certain products or brands that provide a sense of comfort and a representation of their self-image. Second, people tend to seek experiences that can enhance their self-image. Certain products and brands serve as mirrors, allowing consumers to see positive reflections of themselves and present the positive side of self to others (Aaker, 1997; Chebat et al., 2006; Sirgy, 1982). The self-congruity theory indicates that self-concept is not a unitary construct; rather, it possesses dynamic and relatively conflicting traits that may exist in a person’s self-concept (Escalas and Bettman, 2005; Sirgy, 1982). Based on selfcongruity theory, the study focuses on two important self191




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concept traits: self-consciousness and gender-consciousness, and links these two traits to their impact on consumers’ brand perceptions. Self-consciousness is a key ingredient in understanding self-concept (Abe et al., 1996), while gender consciousness is a related but different concept (Gould, 1996). Like the two aspects of self-concept and gendered selfconcept, self-consciousness and gender-consciousness may coexist within an individual and may differ in relative strength across different social backgrounds and situations (Grohmann, 2009; Sirgy, 1982).

consumer behaviors (Abe et al., 1996). Thus, this study extends previous research by exploring such an effect, with special focus on how self-consciousness affects Chinese consumers’ brand perceptions. Gender consciousness Gender consciousness refers to the degree to which individuals feel that their gender is a matter of concern (Gould and Stern, 1989). Gender consciousness is based on the concept of gender which is central to an individual’s selfconcept (Deaux and Major, 1987). In the past decades, gender has been considered an interchangeable concept in stereotypical biological distinctions of sex in majority of marketing research literature. With women entering the job market, this stereotypical concept of gender has rapidly eroded (Stern, 1999). In today’s marketplace, the concept of gender is increasingly blurred as a consequence of one of the most rapid and turbulent social-economic shifts since the 1960s (Palan, 2001). Practitioners are targeting emerging gender market segments based on an extended perspective of the gendered self. For example, Givenchy’s cosmetic line for modern men has been especially created to capture this essence of the gendered self. Along with the trend, marketing scholars have started to consider gender as a socialpsychological construct that is rooted in the biological sex (Palan, 2001). Gender consciousness has its roots in the gender schema theory (Gould and Stern, 1989). According to this theory, individuals construct their gender concept by learning to be masculine or feminine, and individuals may use the gendered self to interpret their own experience as well as the experience of others. Individuals, regardless of their sex, take different approaches to address their gender concerns and present themselves as sex typed, cross-sex typed, or non-sex typed individuals. Sex-typed individuals and cross-sex typed males and females approach gender from a traditional viewpoint, which assumes that maleness and femaleness have certain established stereotypical connotations: males are aggressive and strong and females are passive and weak. Consequently, they are more gender schematic, and are more likely to be influenced by their gender concept (Bem, 1974). The non-sex typed individuals tend to describe themselves as neither masculine nor feminine. Gender-consciousness is a related but different concept from self-consciousness. First, gender consciousness differs from self-consciousness in that it taps into an individual’s mind with specific focus on his/her “maleness” and “femaleness.” Second, men and women exhibit different levels of self-consciousness which might be rooted in their gender identity (Calogero and Watson, 2009).Third, gender consciousness, the salient aspect of gender, not only disconfirms or verifies gender-related beliefs with consumers’ self image, but also induces consumers to engage in self-representation tactics (Gould, 1996; Hogg and Garrow, 2003). Thus, gender consciousness ascribes to certain consumer behavior that may not be explained by selfconsciousness. For example, consumers may feel more masculine or feminine in gift exchanges when they are with the opposite sex (Gould and Weil, 1991; Gould, 1996). While very few studies have explicitly indicated the impact of gender consciousness, some studies have implicitly recognized the role of gender consciousness on consumer behavior (Gould, 1996). Gender consciousness may influence

Literature review and hypothesis development Self-consciousness Self-consciousness is defined as a person’s view of himself or herself as a social object, with an acute awareness of other people’s perspective about himself or herself (Fenigstein et al., 1975). The concept is derived from Buss’s (1980) theory of self-consciousness, according to which an individual’s attention is either directed toward the environment or focused internally on the self. Self-consciousness can impact an individual’s cognition and emotions, and it is necessary to regulate one’s goal pursuits and related behaviors (Calogero and Watson, 2009; Caver and Scheier, 2009; Evans et al., 2009). Two types of self-consciousness have been discussed in extant literature: private consciousness relates to attending to one’s inner thoughts and feelings not easily known to others such as fantasies (e.g. daydreams), diffused internal states (e.g. anger) and motives (e.g. desire to achieve) (Buss, 1980; Fenigstein et al., 1975). By contrast, public consciousness refers to the outward or the overt aspects of self as perceived by others, and is linked to overt displays and impression management (Buss, 1980; Fenigstein et al., 1975). Although some studies consider these two aspects of self-consciousness as two distinct dimensions (e.g. Fenigstein et al., 1975), others have indicated that the two dimensions are positively related: directing attention toward self can activate both private and public consciousness (e.g. Chang, 2006). Therefore, distinguishing the two dimensions of selfconsciousness may be deemed redundant (Abe et al., 1996; Chang, 2006). Assuming a positive correlation between the two self-consciousness constructs, this research examines the effect of enhancing self-consciousness in general without distinguishing the two types. Self-consciousness is one of the central concepts in social psychology, as it affects divergent approaches to an individual’s behavior and lifestyle (Evans et al., 2009; Fenigstein et al., 1975; Wheeler et al., 2007). The importance of self-consciousness as a trait has been addressed in consumer behavior research. Previous studies have suggested that self-consciousness can enhance a consumer’s tendencies to express his/her interests in fashion (Solomon and Shopler, 1982), to attribute more control to service managers for causing greater waiting time (Marquis and Filiatrault, 2002), to select national brands over bargain brands (Bushman, 1993), to eat a healthy diet (Su et al., 2009), and to use technology-based self service (Dabholkar et al., 2002). Although there are numerous studies regarding self-consciousness with respect to the Western culture, very few studies have addressed this issue from the standpoint of Eastern traditions, where cultural values, such as collectivism, might affect consumers’ self-consciousness and related 192




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various aspects of consumer behavior, including physician choice, gift exchange, art attendance, and product selection (Gould, 1996; Palan, 2001). The realm of our investigation relates to understanding the relevance of this construct in the domain of branding in China. China represents an interesting case for studying gender consciousness. Since 1960s, the Chinese Communism regime has promoted the concept that “women can hold up half of the sky as men.” This means that there exists no difference between men and women, both physically and mentally. It is only since the early 1990s that Chinese consumers have started to learn to embrace their manhood or womanhood (Sin and Oliver, 2001). As such, it would be interesting to find out whether gender consciousness serves as a stimulus for Chinese consumers in these changing times.

In the same vein, gender consciousness can evoke brand consciousness. In the marketplace, traditionally sex typed products are no longer considered as products typical for one sex type versus the other, and thus, consumers are increasingly involved with gendered self-expression through brands (Grohmann, 2009; Sirgy, 1982). As consumers use the symbolic value of a brand for the purpose of self-expression, they actively draw on gender related (masculine vs feminine) personality traits associated with a brand to enhance their own perception of gendered self-concept (masculinity vs femininity). As such, congruence between brand personality and self-concept in terms of masculine consumers’ sex role identities can positively influence consumers’ affective, attitudinal, and behavioral brand-related responses (Grohmann, 2009). This explains why individuals (both males and females) with high masculine awareness have a strong preference toward the rugged and masculine brand personality of Marlboro (Stern, 1999). Based on the discussion, we propose that:

The effect of self-consciousness and gender consciousness on brand consciousness Brand consciousness refers to the mental orientation to select a product that has a well-known and highly advertised brand name. In other words, consumers with strong brand consciousness tend to buy more expensive and well-known national brands (Liao and Wang, 2009; Sproles and Kendall, 1986). Brand conscious consumers often use a brand as a superior vehicle for self expression, as brands carry significant symbolic values (Escalas and Bettman, 2005; Jamal and Goode, 2001). As DeChernatony and McDonald (1997) indicated, “just as people take care in choosing friends who have a similar personality to themselves, so brands, which are symbolic of particular images, are chosen with the same concern” (p. 145). By owning and consuming well-known brands, consumers gain confidence in constructing their own self-identity and present such an identity to others (Phau and Teah, 2009; Wang et al., 2009). On the other hand, brands can be involved in consumers’ socialization process (Keller, 2003). Consumers with high levels of brand consciousness believe that brands can represent status and prestige, and are more likely to buy expensive and high status brands (Jamal and Goode, 2001). This is especially true in the Eastern culture such as that of China (Liao and Wang, 2009; Wang et al., 2009). As brand names gradually become a part of consumers’ language, brand consciousness plays an important role in their decision making process, thus making branded products a symbol of their status (Liao and Wang, 2009). Bushman (1993) suggested that self-conscious consumers tend to accept products with national brand labels and reject products with bargain brand labels to enhance their selfimage. In a recent study with Chinese consumers, Wang et al. (2009) found that Chinese automobile buyers like name brands to show their wealth and high social status. When they perceive congruence between their self-image and brand personality, they tend to have strong purchase intentions toward the brand. A few other studies also confirm the positive role of self-congruency in Chinese consumers’ product and brand choices (Eisingerich and Rubera, 2010; He and Mukherjee, 2007). As high self-conscious consumers would seek identification with a brand to reflect who they are or who they want to be (Sirgy, 1982), it can be hypothesized that:

H1b. Consumers with high gender consciousness will develop high brand consciousness. The role of need for uniqueness Consumers’ need for uniqueness (CNFU) is defined as the trait of pursuing differentness relative to others through the acquisition, utilization, and disposition of consumer goods for the purpose of developing and enhancing ones’ self image and social image (Tian et al., 2001). Although CNFU is regarded as an inherited personality trait, it can also vary as a function of situational factors. For example, “when consumers are encouraged to explain their decisions and are not concerned about other’s criticism, expression of uniqueness come to the surface and affect choice” (Simonson and Nowlis, 2000, p. 65). When consumers get caught in the middle of a continuum between two different values (e.g. traditional Hispanic values vs American values), they tend to develop a heightened need for uniqueness to create and express a desired image of separate identity (Chattalas and Harper, 2007). Ruvio (2008) demonstrated the power of CNFU in explaining the underlying process regulating the effects of needs for assimilation and differentiation on subjective and objective manifestations of unique consumption behavior. Thus, CNFU can serve as an important function linking consumers’ personal tendencies, such as self-consciousness, to their consumption patterns. The importance of CNFU also lies in its close association with consumers’ self-concept. At the very basic level, need for uniqueness is a product of an unsatisfactory self-evaluation (Clark et al., 2006). A consumer uses unique material possessions as a vehicle to distinguish him/her from others and to express his/her improved self and social images without provoking extreme social reaction for deviation (Ruvio, 2008; Tian et al., 2001). On the other hand, CNFU has significant impacts on consumers’ attitudes and decision making (Simonson and Nowlis, 2000). CNFU leads to positive attitudes toward foreign products, which in turn, leads to high perceived quality and high emotional value (Kumar et al., 2009). CNFU also has a positive and direct influence on consumers’ status consumption of prestigious products and brands (Clark et al., 2006). Although collectivism and the influence of others plays a role in the creation of self, individuals do tend to possess a strong sense to stand out and

H1a. Consumers with high self-consciousness will develop high brand consciousness. 193




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express uniqueness through the choice of brands (Ruvio, 2008). We propose that self-conscious individuals would demonstrate greater levels of uniqueness in choosing particular brands and therefore, would exhibit greater brand consciousness, thus showing greater visibility in consumption. Similarly, consumers with greater consciousness of their gender would show uniqueness through their choice of brands that enhance their gender identity. Therefore, we propose that:

advantages, as the power of a brand lies in consumers’ mind and stems from what they have learned about the brand over time (Keller, 2003). As previous research has suggested that brand consciousness is positively related to product and brand awareness, perceived quality and emotional values (Jamal and Goode, 2001; Nelson and McLeod, 2005; Lee et al., 2008), we suggest that brand consciousness may have a positive relationship with other aspects of consumer brand perceptions such as brand attitude, brand loyalty and the willingness to pay a price premium. Thus, we propose:

H2a. Self-consciousness is positively related to consumers’ need for uniqueness. H2b. Gender consciousness is positively related to consumers’ need for uniqueness. H2c. Consumers’ need for uniqueness is positively related to brand consciousness.

H3a. Brand consciousness positively affects brand attitude. H3b. Brand consciousness positively affects brand loyalty. H3c. Brand consciousness positively affects willingness to pay a price premium. Relationships amongst brand perception constructs The association between different brand perception constructs is well documented in the marketing literature (Aaker, 1996; Keller, 2003). When a consumer has a positive attitude towards a brand, it serves as a foundation to build deeper relationship with a brand, resulting in greater brand loyalty (Keller, 2003). Brand loyalty offers a simplifying “heuristic” for choosing a specific brand among alternatives, and can affect the willingness to pay a higher price for a brand (Kalra and Goodstein, 1998; Netemeyer et al., 2004). Hence, we posit the following:

The impact of brand consciousness on other brand perceptions As discussed earlier, brand consciousness is a shopping orientation which is characterized by the degree to which a consumer is oriented toward buying well-known branded products (Jamal and Goode, 2001). According to Liao and Wang (2009), brand consciousness is the most important decision making factor for Chinese consumers. In this study, we use brand consciousness as a decision-making rule linking consumers’ self/gender consciousness and their brand perceptions. According to heuristic-systematic information processing framework, consumer perceptions (e.g. attitudes) as inputs for decision-making can be mediated by a decision rule such as “let me buy the most famous name” (Punj and Hillyer, 2004). The role of brand consciousness as a decision heuristic is especially important in understanding Chinese consumers’ brand choice. Some Chinese consumers who use name brands may actually know very little about the brands; they may simply buy name brands for material possession or social needs (Liao and Wang, 2009). It would be interesting to find out whether brand consciousness affects consumers’ brand perceptions. Previous literature has addressed consumer’s brand perceptions from different perspectives, including firm and consumer perspectives (Keller, 2003). This study explores the effects of consumer’s consciousness on brand perceptions from the consumer’s perspective. The attempt is to incorporate several brand perception elements embedded in the consumer’s mind (Keller, 2003; Netemeyer et al., 2004), including brand attitude, brand loyalty and willingness to pay a price premium. These elements represent different levels of brand perceptions and provide different diagnostic information with regard to brand consumption (Keller, 2003). Brand attitude is related to a consumer’s general cognitive and affective responses toward a specific brand, and brand loyalty focuses on a consumer’s profound relationship with a brand manifested by repeated purchase intentions (Aaker, 1996; Keller, 2003). Willingness to pay a price premium is one of the strongest indicators of a consumer’s overall perceptions and connections toward a brand, and it represents a high level of brand value in the consumer’s mind (Netemeyer et al., 2004). This study investigates the relationship between brand consciousness and all three aspects of consumers’ brand perceptions mentioned above. By understanding how consumers perceive a brand, firms can gain competitive

H4. H5.

Brand attitude is positively related to brand loyalty. Brand loyalty is positively related to willingness to pay a price premium.

Methodology Sample and data collection To test the model hypotheses, a pretest was conducted in China to judge the reliability of the aforementioned constructs. First, the questionnaire was translated to Chinese by an independent bilingual speaker. Next, the questionnaire was back-translated and retranslated for accuracy and consistency. Data collected from pretest was checked for unidimensionality and reliability by means of exploratory factor analysis (EFA); five items were dropped due to low item correlation (,0.4) and high item crossloading, resulting in 31 items that was considered part of the main study. An online survey based questionnaire with consumer panels was then used to collect data for the main study. Personal care products were selected as the research context as they are used frequently by young consumers. Besides, in China, MTV, the Internet and fashion magazines are replete with advertisements for branded personal care products, making them highly visible products known to our sample frame. Additionally, personal care products facilitate self-expression by providing young consumers with the flexibility to select branded offerings that can change their image, or help them stand out. Furthermore, followed previous studies that have incorporated several brands to understand consumers’ brand perceptions (e.g. Netemeyer et al., 2004), the study asked participants to select and rate a brand they have used among five brands: Nivea, Dove, Neutrogena, Oil of Olay, and Biore. These brands represent different combination of market factors such as price, brand image, market share, and distribution strategies in China. 194




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The sample for this study comprised of 302 Chinese participants. The sample was obtained from a pool of consumer panel members provided by a marketing research company in China. This study maintained equal distribution of male (50 percent) and female (50 percent), and equal distribution of two age cohorts: age 18-24 and age 25-30. The majority of the participants held bachelor’s degree (72.04 percent), and were employed full time (75.33 percent). The household income for majority of participants was 5,000RMB to 12,000RMB monthly salary, a middle income level in China.

Brand consciousness Three items comprised of this scale and was adapted from those developed by Shim and Gehrt (1996), producing reliability score of a ¼ 0.77. Brand attitude The items of brand attitude were adapted from those developed by MacKenzie and Lutz (1989). Two items out of three were used in the main study, and Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.82. Brand loyalty We used the scale developed by Yoo and Donthu (2001) to represent brand loyalty. All three items used in the original scale were used here; Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.86.

Measures All measurements in this study were adopted from extant literature. Given that Chinese consumers tend to make neutral choices, all items were positively worded and anchored on a six point Likert scale with 1 ¼ strongly disagree and 6 ¼ strongly agree to reduce response bias (Wong et al., 2003) (Tables I and II). The reliability of each measure used in the study was verified.

Willingness to pay a price premium Out of the four items developed in the original scale (Netemeyer et al., 2004), three were used in this study, reliability score was a ¼ 0.75.

Results

Gender consciousness Gender consciousness scale used in this study was developed by Gould and Stern (1989). The scale comprised of both private and public gender consciousness. Two items from private gender consciousness and one item from public gender consciousness were dropped resulting in four items each for private and public gender consciousness. The scale’s reliability was a ¼ 0.83.

Measurement model validation The model under investigation was structured to explain the impact of gender consciousness and self-consciousness on need for uniqueness of Chinese consumers and the impact of the latter construct on brand consciousness, brand attitude, brand loyalty and willingness to pay a price premium. Before testing the relationships using the full structural equations modeling, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted using all the indicators representing the seven latent constructs under study. EFA was based on principle component analysis using varimax rotation. A total of thirty one indicators were considered in the final validation leading to the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Factors with an Eigen value of greater than 1.0 and items with factor loadings above 0.4 were retained at this stage. Next, overall reliabilities of each of the constructs were measured using Cronbach’s alpha (Table I). The reliabilities of all the items of each of the constructs exceeded 0.7. Next, the data were analyzed using a two-step approach, separating the measurement model from the structural model (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). The items selected through the EFA were subjected to CFA using maximum likelihood method. First, CFA was conducted for individual latent constructs; all constructs showed adequate model fit and

Self-consciousness This scale was adapted from Fenigstein et al. (1975). We used three items related to public and private self-consciousness each to represent the construct. The scale’s reliability was a ¼ 0.80. Consumers’ need for uniqueness Tian et al.’s (2001) scale of consumers’ need for uniqueness comprised of 31 items with three dimensions. Given that the original CNFU scale (Tian et al., 2001) is too long and there might be some redundancy across closely related items (Ruvio et al., 2008), this study followed previous research (e.g. Clark et al., 2006) and focused on the first CNFU dimension: creative choice, that is, individual’s ability to use products in creating personal styles and expressing self image in a way that is viewed as socially acceptable (Tian et al., 2001). The scale’s reliability was a ¼ 0.93. Table I Correlations and F2 of constructs

Constructs Gender consciousness Self consciousness Need for uniqueness Brand consciousness Brand attitude Brand loyalty Willingness to pay a price premium

Willingness Gender Self Need for Brand Brand Brand to pay a price Mean SD consciousness consciousness uniqueness consciousness attitude loyalty premium 4.53 4.58 4.29 3.96 4.77 4.19 3.95

0.84 0.75 0.85 0.94 0.69 0.96 0.92

0.83 0.39 0.44 0.35 0.36 0.29 0.26

0.15 0.80 0.53 0.28 0.42 0.29 0.09

0.19 0.28 0.93 0.68 0.45 0.36 0.44

0.12 0.08 0.46 0.77 0.31 0.50 0.64

0.13 0.18 0.20 0.10 0.82 0.64 0.48

0.15 0.08 0.13 0.25 0.41 0.86 0.71

0.13 0.00 0.19 0.41 0.23 0.50 0.75

Notes: The lower diagonal represents correlation between constructs while the upper diagonal represents F2; The diagonal represents reliability scores (Cronbach’s alpha)

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Table II Measurement model results Construct/indicator

SLa

SE

C. Relb

AVEc

Gender consciousness X1: Summated public gender consciousness X2: Summated private gender consciousness

0.49 0.79

– 0.23

– 4.34

0.55

0.39

Self consciousness X3: I am conscious about my style of doing things X4: I usually worry about making a good impression X5: I am conscious about the way I look

0.46 0.93 0.44

– 0.33 0.21

– 6.25 5.79

0.66

0.42

0.68 0.73

– 0.09

– 11.63

0.92

0.60

0.79

0.09

12.46

0.64 0.82 0.83

0.08 0.08 0.08

10.26 12.81 13.04

0.83

0.08

13.05

0.83

0.08

13.05

Brand consciousness X14: I think that the well known brands are best for me X15: I pay attention to brand names of most products I buy X16: The more expensive brands are usually my choice

0.74 0.78 0.79

– 0.08 0.09

– 10.41 11.84

0.81

0.59

Brand attitude X17: I feel good about the brand X18: The brand is my favorable brand

0.81 0.88

– 0.09

– 13.15

0.83

0.71

Brand loyalty X19: I will not buy other brands if this brand is available at the store X20: I consider myself loyal to this brand X21: This brand is my first choice

0.79 0.79 0.88

– 0.07 0.07

– 14.63 16.67

0.86

0.67

0.82 0.83

– 0.07

– 16.08

0.78

0.55

0.55

0.07

9.74

Need for uniqueness X6: I often think of the things I buy and do in terms of how I can use them to shape a more unusual personal image X7: I often look for new products or brands that will add to my personal uniqueness X8: I have sometimes purchased unusual products or brands as a way to create a more distinct personal image X9: I often try to find a more interesting version of run-of-the-mill products because I enjoy being original X10: I often look for one-of-a-kind products or brands so that I can create a style that is all my own X11: The products and brand that I like best are the ones that express my individuality X12: Having an eye for products that are interesting and unusual assists me in establishing a distinct image X13: Often when buying merchandise, an important goal for me is to find something that communicates my uniqueness

Willingness to pay a price premium X22: I am willing to pay a higher price for this brand than for other brands X23: I am willing to pay a lot more for this brand than for other skin care products X24: The price of this brand would have to go up quite a bit before I would switch to another brand of skin care product a

b

t-val

c

Notes: SL ¼ Standardized loadings; C. rel ¼ Composite reliability; AVE ¼ Average variance extracted

factor loadings except for self-consciousness and need for uniqueness. Items were deleted if they: . showed several large (. 2.58) residuals with other indicants; . displayed insignificant loadings for the expected constructs; . shared large, unexplained variances due to error with other indicants as exhibited in the modification indices; or . shared common variance with indicators of other constructs (Kline, 2003).

latent constructs and their indicators was undertaken. The items pertaining to public and private gender consciousness were summated resulting in two items representing the construct. CFA validated the measurement model that contained seven constructs measured by 24 observed variables. The result of CFA showed a good model fit with x2 ¼ 533.279 (df 231, p ¼ 0.00), CFI ¼ 0.920, TLI ¼ 0.896 and RMSEA ¼ 0.066. All items loaded significantly (tvalue . 1.96) (see Table II) on their corresponding latent constructs, which indicated that convergent validity was obtained. Following this, composite reliabilities and discriminant validities were calculated. All values of composite reliabilities were above 0.55. Discriminant validity is supported when average variance extracted (AVE)

Three items from self-consciousness and four items from need for uniqueness were deleted based on the above criteria, resulting in adequate model fit. With all individual constructs demonstrating good model fit, an overall CFA with all the 196




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between each pair of constructs is greater than the squared correlations between the constructs (F2) (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). As seen in Tables I and II, F2 did not exceed AVE between each pair of constructs, and discriminant validity was achieved.

willingness to pay a price premium. The data analysis provides support for most hypotheses. Specifically, both selfconsciousness and gender consciousness have an indirect effect on brand consciousness through CNFU, and brand consciousness, in turn, leads to enhanced brand attitude, brand loyalty, and willingness to pay a price premium. This means that young Chinese consumers tend to be conscious about unique brands as a means to highlight their individuality. The consciousness of their inner selves and their gendered selves provide the motivation for such selections. Contrary to expectations, the results demonstrate some interesting observations. First, the direct effect of selfconsciousness has a negative impact on brand consciousness. Although not predicted, such a result may be explained by the deeply held Confucian values in the Chinese culture that emphasize on collectivism, harmony, tradition, and loyalty. As a result, consumers may have difficulty in connecting to the western sense of brand concept that advocates a distinct personality, a sense of fun and exuberance, and a propensity towards an outdoor lifestyle (Sung and Tinkham, 2005). Second, the negative relationship might be partly due to the pervasive influences of face among Chinese consumers. While they seek face for the desired respect and acceptance in a social context, they tend to encounter conflict with their own individuality (Yau and Chow, 2007). As a result, they might sacrifice their own needs and select brands that conform to others for the benefit of social acceptance. The influence of Confucian value and face also explains why self-consciousness has an indirect impact on brand consciousness through CNFU, as CNFU can enhance consumers’ self consciousness and lead them to symbolic consumption through brands (Tian et al., 2001). Finally, China has paved its way to be a consumer society in the past 30 years (Tse et al., 1989). As such, branding is a fairly new concept in the Chinese culture with relatively low penetration. Therefore, the sense of self may not cast a strong effect on brand consciousness and as such, the selection of brands. However, when their need for uniqueness is evoked,

Goodness of fit of the structural model The structural model tested the hypothesized relationships amongst the constructs. The overall structural model showed good model fit: x 2 ¼ 580.7, df ¼ 241, p ¼ 0.000; CFI ¼ 0.910, TLI ¼ 0.888, RMSEA ¼ 0.068. The structural model exhibited acceptable levels of fit in terms of the sample size and model complexity (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). For the Chinese consumers, both gender (b ¼ 0.31, p ¼ 0.001) and self-consciousness (b ¼ 0.39, p , 0.001) positively impacted their need for uniqueness that affected their brand consciousness (b ¼ 0.51, p , 0.001). However, gender consciousness (b ¼ 0.13, p . 0.05) did not have a direct effect on brand consciousness. Contrary to expectations, a negative relationship seemed to exist between self-consciousness and brand consciousness (b ¼ 2 0.16, p , 0.05). Thus, hypotheses H1a and H1b were not supported but H2a, H2b and H2c were supported. Brand consciousness, positively affected brand attitude (b ¼ 0.36, p , 0.001), brand loyalty (b ¼ 0.33, p , 0.001) and the willingness to pay a price premium (b ¼ 0.26, p , 0.001). Similarly, brand attitude influenced brand loyalty ( b ¼ 0.49, p , 0.001), which, in turn, impacted the willingness to pay a price premium (b ¼ 0.71, p , 0.001). Thus, H3a, H3b, H3c, H4 and H5 were supported (Figure 1).

Discussions and implications The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of consumer’s consciousness in terms of self- and gender consciousness on brand perceptions in China. In addition, this research addresses how consumers’ need for uniqueness plays a role in developing brand perceptions with reference to brand consciousness, brand attitude, brand loyalty and Figure 1 Standardized regression weights of tested model

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consumers tend to become conscious of their brand selections as they focus on their self- and gender concepts. Second, the study also found that gender consciousness was not related to brand consciousness. As discussed earlier, it is only since the early 1990s that Chinese consumers have started to learn to embrace their manhood or womanhood (Sin and Oliver, 2001), and that might account for the lack of significance of results. Although both self-consciousness and gender consciousness have no positive effect on brand consciousness, our findings suggest that self consciousness and gender consciousness may affect brand consciousness through CNFU. If a brand has a unique appeal, it will create a bond between Chinese consumers and brands. Thus, Chinese consumers can engage in self expression by the choice of unique brands. Our findings provide insights for both marketing scholars and practitioners. At the theoretical level, the study demonstrates that self-consciousness and gender consciousness are two related but different concepts, and they can impact consumer’s brand perceptions. The study also enriches the literature on consumers’ need for uniqueness, which receives increasing calls for more research (Kumar et al., 2009). The results from this study indicates that consumers’ need for uniqueness plays an important role in educating consumers about brand concepts and building favorable brand image. Regarding the role of brand consciousness, the study documents its importance in facilitating consumer brand perceptions such as brand attitude, brand loyalty and willingness to pay a price premium and creating a strong brand value. Should brand managers invest resources to evoke consumers’ awareness about themselves and their brand? Should brand managers design promotion campaigns focusing on self-expression to connect consumers with brands in an eastern culture like China? We would suggest affirmative answers to both these issues. First, marketers should design their promotional messages closely related to their target consumers. Specifically, marketers should direct a consumers attention to him/her and his/her gender orientation by incorporating novel and unique elements into the brand. Specifically, by highlighting the uniqueness of brands, managers can activate consumers’ self and gender construals that call for enhanced need for uniqueness. Besides, the unique features of a brand should be closely associated with the target consumer’s personal characteristics and cultural background. Coke’s recent promotion campaign, “Be Cool, You Decide,” showing fun dating games in a Chinese fashion show, is a good example. Finally, brand consciousness is a strong driver for Chinese consumers’ brand perceptions and choices. With increasing globalization of brands, managers should focus on ways to position their brands and increase awareness of their brands. In another words, in a fast growing market like China, it is important for companies to build brands rapidly in order to gain and maintain a modest market share. Consumer’s willingness to pay a price premium is one of the ultimate indicators of brand equity (Netemeyer et al., 2004). Building strong brand equity may take time. Marketers should not only stress on brand uniqueness, but also develop strategies to promote the relevance and importance of the brand concept in building lifestyle. Product placement and publicity may be useful tools to gain brand consciousness. Furthermore, marketers should use multiple marketing techniques to shape consumer’s perceptions, convey the

feelings of enjoyment and pleasure, and establish a loyal consumer base. Strong brand equity would be built on the basis of positive brand attitudes and a large number of loyal consumers.

Limitations and future research The conceptual model of the study was tested in the context of personal care products with Generation Y-aged consumers. To enhance the generalizability of this study, future studies should investigate these effects in other industry settings, and with different groups of consumers. As marketers are increasingly interested in targeting global youth, a crosscultural study that compares consumers from a collective society and those from an individualistic society might provide more insight on consumers self concepts and brand consumptions. Furthermore, to provide a broader view and better prediction, future research could examine other variables, such as self efficacy, which impacts the formation of consumer’s brand perceptions. Despite these limitations, the findings of the present research highlight the role of selfconsciousness and gender consciousness that may help generate a stream of research on consumer’s multiple consciousness.

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About the authors Lilly Ye is an Assistant Professor at Frostburg State University. Her research interests include consumer-based brand equity (CBBE), advertising, and international consumer behavior. Lilly Ye is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected] Mousumi Bose is an Assistant Professor at Fairfield University. Her major area of research is in consumer behaviour and service marketing. Lou Pelton is an Associate Professor at the University of North Texas. His principal research interests include marketing channels, relationship marketing and international marketing. Dr Pelton has published more than 100 research articles in prominent journals and national and international conference proceedings.

Executive summary and implications for managers and executives This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of this article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benefits of the material present. Strong economic growth and its huge population are among factors which have transformed China into one of the world’s most important consumer markets. Consequently, brand managers are increasingly targeting Chinese consumers who enjoy more disposable income than previously. The tendency to embrace western values and attitudes is particularly evident among the younger generation, many of whom pursue a lifestyle based on the consumption of branded products and services. Marketers have long believed that the impact of selfconcept on consumer purchase decisions can be substantial. A core premise is that consumers exhibit consistent behavior in their self-perception and select products, services or experiences which sustain or even enhance their desired selfimage. Scholars argue against the notion that self-concept is a singular construct and believe it contains different traits, two key ones being self-consciousness and gender-consciousness. How an individual perceives “himself or herself as a social object” is one definition of self consciousness. There is also an “acute awareness” about how the person is viewed by others. Self consciousness can shape thoughts and feelings, and is a driving force behind ambition and associated behaviors. Certain academics divide the construct into private consciousness and public consciousness to respectively indicate “inner thoughts and feelings” and “overt aspects of the self” that are discernible to others. The current study shares the view that these dimensions are related and does not distinguish between the private and public types. The impact of self-consciousness in general is instead explored. Research into consumer behavior has noted the influence of self-consciousness with regard to such as brand selection, 200




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healthy eating and use of technology-based self-service. Most of this research has been conducted in relation to western culture. In comparison, only scant attention has been paid to Eastern societies, where self consciousness and consumer behavior have been subject to influence from collectivism and other cultural norms. Gender is considered core to an individual’s concept of the self. The dominant view in the past was to consider gender as an alternative term to describe biological sex distinctions. However, societal shifts have influenced thinking and gender is now more commonly associated with masculinity and femininity. It is constructed through behaviors which are considered masculine or feminine in nature. But some people maintain a more traditional outlook on gender and adhere to stereotypes such as male strength and female passiveness. Academics argue that gender consciousness is better than self consciousness at explaining some consumer behaviors. Gift giving in the company of the opposite sex being one example where masculine or feminine tendencies might be aroused. The impact of gender consciousness on consumer behavior has been recognized in some research. In addition to gift giving, art attendance and choice of physician are consumer activities where the construct may exert significant influence. It is suggested by certain scholars that gender consciousness has only emerged among Chinese consumers in recent decades. Prior to this, the state did not recognize physical or mental differences between men and women. Consumers who are brand conscious tend to purchase brands which are well-known and expensive. For selfconscious individuals, the motivation is that the symbolic value of such brands greater aid self-expression. Plenty evidence also exists to indicate that consumers seek brands which best mirror their own personality and social status. Such tendencies have also been found in relation to Chinese consumers. In one study focusing on automobile purchases, consumers chose brands which most convey wealth and prestige. Brand consciousness may also be higher among genderconscious individuals. In this respect, consumers will be drawn towards brands which contain the masculine or feminine traits needed to strengthen their “perception of gendered self-concept”. This point is aptly illustrated by the fact that males and females with “high masculine awareness” are attracted to Marlboro, a brand renowned for its “rugged and masculine” personality. Uniqueness is highly valued among some people, who regard the consumption of certain products and brands as one way of fulfilling this desire. Consumer need for uniqueness (CNFU) can therefore influence the impact of “personal tendencies” like self-consciousness and gender consciousness on consumption behavior. According to some research, purchase decisions among Chinese consumers are heavily influenced by brand consciousness. This applies even when consumers have only minimal knowledge of the brands. Such brands are purchased as material possessions or to fulfill social needs. It is purported that being conscious of a brand influences the consumer’s attitude and loyalty towards it and their willingness to pay higher prices.

Ye et al. investigates these issues in a study involving 302 Chinese subjects provided by a marketing research organization. The sample was split equally between male and female respondents and between 18-24 and 25-30 age cohorts. An online questionnaire was devised in relation to the personal care products selected for the survey. Young Chinese consumers frequently use such products and are exposed to advertisements for different brands. Personal care products also serve a self-expressive purpose and closely relate to image. Nivea, Dove, Neutrogena, Oil of Olay and Biore were chosen because of their diversity in aspects like price, brand image and market share. Subjects were asked to rate one of these brands that they have used previously. Analysis revealed that: . self-consciousness and gender consciousness are positively associated with CNFU; . CNFU is positively connected to brand consciousness; . brand consciousness positively impacts on brand attitude, brand loyalty and willingness to pay a higher price; . brand attitude is positively related to brand loyalty; and . brand loyalty positively influences willingness to pay a price premium. It was also predicted that high self-consciousness and high gender consciousness would generate high brand consciousness but the study indicated an indirect effect through CNFU. In the authors’ view, this suggests that being conscious about unique brands helps young Chinese consumers to accentuate their individuality. The direct effect of self-consciousness on brand consciousness was surprisingly found to be negative. This might indicate that the strength of traditional values reflecting such as collectivism, harmony and loyalty still prevails. Ye et al. point out how engaging with Western beliefs that brands promote distinct personalities and fun generates conflict for consumers. The important issue of face may also influence responses. Being socially accepted is so fundamental within Chinese society that consumers might ignore their individual needs and choose brands which are widely approved. Marketers are urged to stress the uniqueness of brands to appeal to the self and gender consciousness of consumers. This can be aided by embellishing the brand with new and distinctive features. It is also important to align these features with the personality and cultural background of the target consumer. The authors point out the significance of brand consciousness and urge brand managers to find ways of positioning brands in order to increase consumer awareness of them and capture a share of the market. Another recommendation is the use of various techniques to highlight the brand’s association with lifestyle and influence consumer perceptions by emphasizing fun and pleasure. Researchers might explore these issues further using different product categories and consumer groups. Comparing consumers from collectivist and individualistic societies is another possibility. Ye et al. also suggest examining the impact of self-efficacy or other variables. (A pre´cis of the article “Dispelling the collective myth of Chinese consumers: a new generation of brand-conscious individualists”. Supplied by Marketing Consultants for Emerald.)

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