journal of sport & exercise psychology

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JOURNAL OF SPORT & EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY Volume 36 • Supplement • June 2014

North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity

Minneapolis, Minnesota June 12–14, 2014

Contents Keynotes and Lectures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S1 Symposia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S6 Free Communications: Verbal and Poster Motor Learning and Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S17 Developmental Perspectives: Motor Control/Coordination/Rehabilitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S59 Sport and Exercise Psychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S79 Amendments to the Current Supplement, 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S122 Author Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S123

The Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology is an official publication of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity.

Journal of sport & Exercise Psychology Copyright © 2014 by Human Kinetics, Inc., http://JSEP-Journal.com. Among the many indexes that track JSEP articles are Medline/PubMed; AMED (Allied and Complementary Medicine Database); Abstracts on Hygiene and Communicable Diseases; CAB Abstracts; Current Abstracts (Jan. 2000–); Current Contents; Dietrich’s Index Philosophicus; EBSCOhost (13 services); Education Research Index (Jul. 1993–); Elsevier SCOPUS: indexed, 1996–present; Focus On: Sports Science and Medicine; Gale Group (Cengage Learning) (9 services); Global Health; H.W. Wilson (12 services); IBZ and IBR; Physical Education Index; ProQuest Central (Jan. 1992–); PsycINFO (1979–); Science Citation Index; Social Sciences Citation Index; Social Sciences Index (Jul. 1999–); Swets Information Services, SwetsWise All Titles: indexed, 1993–present. A detailed list is available at Human Kinetics’s JSEP Web site. Editor: Robert C. Eklund Publisher: Human Kinetics, Inc. Division Director: Skip Maier Associate Division Director: Kathleen Bernard Managing Editor: Leon Jeter Graphic Artist: Kim McFarland Fulfillment/Circulation Manager: Shari Schultz

Editorial contact information:

Current Human Kinetics journals:



Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly Case Studies in Sport Management International Journal of Aquatic Research and Education International Journal of Athletic Therapy & Training International Journal of Golf Science International Journal of Sport Communication International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance Journal of Aging and Physical Activity Journal of Applied Biomechanics Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology Journal of Intercollegiate Sport Journal of Legal Aspects of Sport Journal of Motor Learning and Development Journal of Physical Activity and Health Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology Journal of Sport Management Journal of Sport Rehabilitation Journal of Teaching in Physical Education Kinesiology Review Motor Control Pediatric Exercise Science Recreational Sports Journal Sociology of Sport Journal Sport History Review Sport Management Education Journal The Sport Psychologist



Robert C. Eklund, PhD School of Sport University of Stirling Stirling FK9 4LA United Kingdom

Human Kinetics contact information: Human Kinetics, Inc. P.O. Box 5076, 1607 N. Market St. Champaign, IL 61825-5076 USA Phone: 800-747-4457 (USA); 217-351-5076

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The Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology (ISSN 0895-2779) is published bimonthly in Feb., Apr., Jun., Aug., Oct., and Dec. by Human Kinetics, Inc., 1607 N. Market St., Champaign, IL 61820-2220. The basic U.S. subscription rate for individuals is $92 and $71 for students (need advisor’s name). For details, please visit http://humankinetics.com/journals/. Periodical postage paid at Champaign, IL. Postmaster: Send address changes to Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61825-5076. Notice: Permission to commercially reproduce material from this publication may be obtained from Human Kinetics by contacting HK online at www.humankinetics.com/hksupportperms. Human Kinetics also has contracted with Copyright Clearance Center to handle permissions involving the authorization to photocopy items from this title for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients. To obtain such authorization, contact Copyright Clearance Center online at www.copyright.com or call 978-750-8400. To subscribe or renew, please visit www.HumanKinetics.com/journals. All subscription plans are listed in several currencies and are conveniently displayed at this Web site. Or call 800-747-4457; 217-351-5076. ii

Conference Chairs and Committees Conference Program Chair Site Coordinator

John B. Shea, Indiana University–Bloomington, USA Penny McCullagh, University of California–East Bay, USA

Sport and Exercise Psychology Diane Mack, Brock University, Canada (Chair) Marc Lochbaum, Texas Tech University, USA Les Podlog, University of Utah, USA Sarah Ulrich-French, Washington State University, USA Katie Gunnell, University of British Columbia, Canada

Motor Learning and Control Quincy Almeida, Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada (Chair) Joan Vickers, University of Calgary, Canada Jim Lyons, McMaster University, Canada Nadja Schott, University of Stuttgart, Germany Chris Rhea, University of North Carolina–Greensboro, USA William Berg, Miami University, USA Priscila Cacola, University of Texas at Arlington, USA

Developmental Perspectives: Motor Control/Coordination/Rehabilitation Thomas Korff, Brunel University, UK (Chair) Casey Breslin, Temple University, USA Marcio A. Oliveira, University of Maryland, USA Jackie Goodway, Ohio State University, USA Eva D’Hondt, University of Ghent, Belgium

Executive Committee President President-Elect Past-President Past-President’s Liaison Communications Director Secretary-Treasurer Student Representative

Alan Smith, Michigan State University, USA Gabriele Wulf, University of Nevada–Las Vegas, USA John Shea, Indiana University, USA Maureen R. Weiss, University of Minnesota, USA Catherine Sabiston, University of Toronto, Canada Shannon Ringenbach, Arizona State University, USA Alyson Crozier, University of Saskatchewan, Canada

The abstracts contained in this publication were submitted by the authors using the NASPSPA Web site.

iii

NASPSPA RECOGNITION Presidents

President’s Award

Early Career Distinguished Scholar

2013-14

Alan Smith

2014

2014

2012-13

John Shea

2011-12

Diane Ste-Marie

2013

Richard Schmidt

2013

Nicholas Myers

2010-11

Jody Jensen

2012

Richard Magill

2012

Quincy Almeida

2009-10

Craig Hall

2011

Michael Wade

2008-09

Jill Whitall

2009

Beverly Ulrich

2011

Amy Latimer

2007-08

Deborah Feltz

2006

Jerry Thomas

2010

Tim Welsh

2006-07

Digby Elliott

2005

Daniel Landers

2009

David Vaillancourt

2005-06

Maureen Weiss

2002

Gilmour Reeve

2008

Sian Beilock

2004-05

Charles Shea

1999

Jane Clark

2003-04

Mark Fischman

1998

Penny McCullagh

2007

Matthew Heath

2002-03

Penny McCullagh

1997

Robert Singer

2006

Paul Estabrooks

2001-02

Kathleen Williams

1992

Rainer Martens

2005

Heather Hausenblas

2000-01

Bradley Hatfield

1991

Alfred Hubbard

2004

Viktor Jirsa

1999-00

Kathleen Haywood

Arthur Slater-Hammel

2003

A. Mark Williams

1998-99

Beverly Ulrich

2002

Kathleen Martin

1999

Kerry Courneya

Diane Gill

1998

Richard Carson

Beverly Ulrich

1997

Richard Van Emmerik

Maureen Weiss Howard Zelaznik

1997-98

Janet Starkes

Distinguished Scholar Award

1996-97

Howard Zelaznik

2014

Yu-Kai Chang Leah Robinson

Catherine Sabiston

Ryan Rhodes

1995-96

Stephen Wallace

1994-95

Karl Newell

2013

Jane Clark

1993-94

Robert Weinberg

2012

Robert Christina

1996

Jody Jensen

1992-93

Jane Clark

Michael Wade

1994

Stephan Swinnen

Robert Malina

Daniel Weeks

1991-92

Gilmour Reeve

2009

1993

Beverly Ulrich

1990-91

Jerry Thomas

2008

Robert Singer

1991

Edward McAuley

Diane Gill

2007

Albert Carron

1988

Peter Hancock

1988-89

Craig Wrisberg

2005

George Stelmach

1987

Les Carlton

1987-88

Michael Wade

2004

Waneen Spirduso

1985

Deborah Feltz

1989-90

Ronald Marteniuk

1986-87

Mary Ann Roberton

1985-86

Daniel Landers

2003

Jerry Thomas

1984-85

Richard Magill

2002

Karl Newell

1983-84

Robert Schutz

1999

J.A. Scott Kelso

1982-83

Glyn Roberts

1998

Glyn Roberts

1981-82

Tara Scanlan

1995

Daniel Landers

1980-81

Ronald Marteniuk

1992

Richard Schmidt

1979-80

Robert Christina

1989

Jack Adams

1978-79

Harriet Williams

1981

Franklin Henry

1977-78

Richard Schmidt

1976-77

Waneen Spirduso

1975-76

Don Kirkendall

1974-75

Dorothy Harris

1973-74

Rainer Martens

1971-73

E. Dean Ryan

1969-71

Bryant Cratty

1967-69

Arthur Slater-Hammel

iv

Lawrence Rarick

Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 2014, 36, S1-S5 © 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Official Journal of NASPSPA www.JSEP-Journal.com NASPSPA CONFERENCE

Human Kinetics Lecture Toward a physics of human movement Mark L. Latash; Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA To understand laws of nature (physics and physiology) that bring about natural human movements, a few axioms have to be accepted. First, neural structures do not perform computations but behave according to laws of nature. Second, the apparently complicating factors in the design of the body are not problems for a brain computer (that does not exist!) but useful, maybe optimal, features for the motor function. The only current hypothesis that is compatible with both physics and physiology is the referent configuration (RC) hypothesis, a generalization of the equilibrium-point hypothesis for multieffector actions. The RC hypothesis assumes that voluntary actions start with neural signals that lead to shifts of body RC, given the external force field. Referent configuration is defined as a set of referent values for salient, task-related variables. Further, a sequence of few-to-many (redundant) mappings result in RCs at lower levels, such as those related to individual limb, digit, joint, and muscle states. The problems of motor redundancy that seem to emerge at all levels of analysis of this system have recently been recast as the bliss of abundance. According to this approach, few-to-many mappings are associated not with finding single, optimal solutions but with facilitation of families of solutions that ensure movement stability in the poorly predictable environment. Such mappings have been addressed as synergies. Several consequences of this scheme received experimental support in recent studies that used both perturbations and analysis of structure of variance across repetitive trials. In particular, a novel phenomenon of feed-forward motor control, anticipatory synergy adjustments, has been discovered. The origin of movement equifinality and its violations has been clarified. This approach has also been applied to studies of movement disorders and changes in motor coordination with age, fatigue, and practice. Overall, the recent developments in motor control offer hopes that a physics of human movement will become reality.

Keynote Speakers Keynote Speaker: Sport and Exercise Psychology The reemergence of hedonism in post-cognitivist exercise psychology: Preparing for the field’s first veritable paradigmatic transition Panteleimon Ekkekakis; Iowa State University, USA Exercise psychology has made great strides as a discipline when judged by conventional academic metrics, such as books and articles produced or research funds generated. At the same time, however, it is proving to be the weakest link of the exercise sciences, having failed to deliver any reliably effective methods of attracting more people to physical activity and keeping more people active once they start. As the field approaches its first half-century mark, it is time for critical introspection. Under a critical lens, two peculiarities become immediately apparent: (a) strong domination by a narrow band of partially overlapping theories, all of which have been borrowed from other fields rather than developed to reflect the uniqueness of exercise and (b) persistent commitment to a disembodied view of exercise. Both of these characteristics emanate from a common source, namely, the strong adherence to cognitivism. The central thesis of this lecture is that the cognitivist paradigm in exercise psychology has run its course, has revealed its anomalies, and is inevitably approaching its crisis point. Contrary to the assumption of rationality, which is the bedrock of cognitivist theorizing, human beings often act in a nonrational manner. This realization is at the core of emerging fields, such as behavioral economics and dual-process models of decision making, but is still discounted in exercise psychology. In this shifting landscape, a renewed appreciation is developing for the role of pleasure, displeasure, moods, and emotions in human behavior. As exercise psychology transitions to the postcognitivist era and attempts to integrate these affective constructs into its theorizing, it will be important to acknowledge the exceptionally long history of hedonism in psychological thought. Affect, mood, and emotion are the subjects of a vast and convoluted literature. Approaching this area with due deference to its richness and nuances has the potential to offer exercise psychology not only a broader conceptual perspective, but also more effective intervention methods. S1

S2  Keynotes and Lectures

Keynote Speaker: Developmental Perspectives—Motor Control/Coordination/Rehabilitation The development of the use of visual information for actions Geert J.P. Savelsbergh; VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands The environment contains manifold informational variables that differ in the degree to which they are useful in the control of action. It is argued that although development and learning have vastly different constraints imposed upon them, both are best characterized by a change toward the pickup of more useful and specifying optical variables. An informational variable is considered more useful if it can be exploited across a larger variety of situations without resulting in performance decrements. By contrast, the variable is considered less useful if its use leads to accurate performance in only one or few situations. This implies that, similar as for learning in adults (e.g., Fajen, 2005; Jacobs & Michaels, 2002), developments in the control of action in children would be characterized by a convergence to more useful information (Van der Kamp, Oudejans, & Savelsbergh, 2003). With respect to intercepting moving objects, our studies (Van Hof, Van der Kamp, & Savelsbergh, 2006, 2008) demonstrate that infants learn to deal with a larger variety of situations (e.g., object speeds and sizes) between 3 and 9 months of age. Infants become better catchers with age, managing to intercept faster-moving balls, and this development is associated with a shift from using a distance-based strategy (i.e., movement onset occurs when the object is at a fixed distance) to using a time-based strategy (i.e., movement onset occurs at a fixed time to contact). In the second part of this presentation, the emphasis will be on learning to accurately time attention (“education of attention”) at moments in which the most useful informational variables are available. Implicit learning, in which awareness is drawn away from movement execution, is the most appropriate way to accomplish this change in optical variable use. This will be illustrated in sport-specific tasks, viz., stopping penalties in football (Savelsbergh et al., 2010) and batting in cricket (Savelsbergh et al., in preparation). Finally, to summarize these findings, we position them within Milner and Goodale’s (1995) two-visual-system model, which holds that perception and action are mediated by two functionally and neuroanatomically separate visual (sub-)systems. Fajen, B.R. (2005). Perceiving possibilities for action: On the necessity of calibration and perceptual learning for the visual guidance of action. Perception, 34, 717–740. Jacobs, D.M., & Michaels, C.F. (2002). On the apparent paradox of learning and realism. Ecological Psychology, 14, 127–139. Milner, A.D., & Goodale, M.A. (1995). The visual brain in action. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Savelsbergh, G.J.P., Rambaldo, H., & Van der Kamp, J. Improving anticipation skills in young cricket batsmen by means of implicit visual attention learning (manuscript in preparation). Savelsbergh, G.J.P., Van Gastel, P., & Van Kampen, P. (2010). Anticipation of a penalty kicking direction can be improved by directing attention through perceptual learning. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 41, 24–41. Van der Kamp, J., Oudejans, R., & Savelsbergh, G.J.P. (2003). The development and learning of the visual control of movement: An ecological perspective. Infant Behavior & Development, 26, 495–515. Van Hof, P., Van der Kamp, J., & Savelsbergh, G.J.P. (2006). Three- to eight-month-old infants’ catching under monocular and binocular vision. Human Movement Science, 25, 18–36. Van Hof, P., van der Kamp, J. & Savelsbergh, G. (2008). The relation between infants’ perception of catchableness and the control of catching. Developmental Psychology, 44, 182–194.

Keynote Speaker: Motor Learning and Control Understanding motor control: Insights from virtual reality and Parkinson’s disease Simon J.G. Lewis; University of Sydney and Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Australia Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease affecting over 1% of the retired population. Although there is a growing awareness about its nonmotor features, including cognitive, psychiatric, and sleep-wake disturbances, PD has long been characterized as a movement disorder relating to a predominantly dopaminergic pathology. Most patients experience significant changes in their walking, in which slowness and stiffness are manifest by a typical shuffling gait. In addition, as the disease progresses, this general gait disturbance becomes further complicated by the emergence of paroxysmal arrests, when patients feel as though their feet have become glued to the ground, otherwise known as freezing of gait (FOG). Sadly, treatments for FOG are often ineffective and this symptom is thus associated with postural instability, falls, and transition to institutional care. The freezing phenomenon is not restricted to gait and has a number of interesting behavioral and clinical associations. Patients with freezing appear to have a selective pattern of executive deficit and an increase in affective symptoms. Additionally, freezing episodes are more common when dopaminergic therapy is “wearing off” and also when patients are turning, walking through confined spaces, or dual tasking. In contrast, some relief from FOG can be seen when employing behavioral strategies such as cueing with visual or auditory stimuli. Thus, it is clear that the freezing phenomenon in PD offers some unique opportunities to enhance our understanding of motor control. However, investigating the neural correlate of a symptom that most commonly impacts

Keynotes and Lectures   S3

patients while walking poses a series of challenges. This presentation will describe how the use of a virtual reality gait paradigm in combination with functional neuroimaging, as well as ambulatory electroencephalography, have been able to investigate the neural correlates of FOG and, in turn, shed light on the processes underlying motor control in the brain.

Early Career Distinguished Scholar Lecture The reemergence of exploratory factor analysis in sport, exercise, and performance psychology Nicholas D. Myers; University of Miami, USA Over a century ago, Spearman (1904) articulated what has become to be known as exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Asparouhov and Muthén (2009) introduced exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) as a methodology that integrates the relative advantages of both EFA and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) within the general structural equation model. Exploratory factor analysis has reemerged in sport, exercise, and performance psychology, in part because it has recently been integrated within ESEM (e.g., Morin & Maïano, 2011; Myers, Chase, Pierce, & Martin, 2011). Over 75 years ago, Holzinger and Swineford (1937) articulated what has become to be known as the bifactor model. The bifactor model has a general factor, group factors, and a pattern (or “loading”) matrix with a bifactor structure. Exploratory bifactor analysis (EBFA; Jennrich & Bentler, 2011, 2012) is EFA with a bifactor rotation criterion. There is reason to believe that (E)BFA is poised to emerge as a useful tool in sport, exercise, and performance psychology (e.g., Myers, Martin, Ntoumanis, Celimli, & Bartholomew, in press). The first purpose of this presentation is to provide a brief and general case for the possible conceptual utility of the bifactor model in sport, exercise, and performance psychology. The case for the first purpose relies on the observation that theory-based scales in sport, exercise, and performance psychology often are developed to measure a general continuous latent construct along with several more narrowly defined continuous latent subdomains (Tenenbaum, Eklund, & Kamata, 2012). The second purpose of this presentation is to demonstrate how exploratory (EBFA) and confirmatory (CBFA) forms of the bifactor model can be compared with each other and with more commonly used factor models in sport, exercise, and performance psychology within a substantive-methodological synergy format. The substantive focus is the consideration of the bifactor model for both the Psychological Need Thwarting Scale (Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, Ryan, & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2011) and the Physical Education Teaching Self-Efficacy Scale (Humphries, Hebert, Daigle, & Martin, 2012).

Senior Lecturers Developmental Perspectives: Motor Control/Coordination/Rehabilitation Proprioception and motor control across the life span Juergen Konczak; University of Minnesota, USA Proprioceptive afferent signals are essential for the reflexive control of muscle tone, for postural and volitional motor control. They also form the basis for our sense of body awareness and, when combined with tactile information during active touch, give rise to the haptic perception of our surrounds. Although the neurophysiology of proprioception is well understood, we know surprisingly little about how proprioceptive function develops during the life span and how it is altered by disease. In addition, we do not fully understand how proprioceptive information is integrated with information from other senses and mapped onto motor commands. In this talk I will present a series of studies from my lab and the work of others that investigated proprioceptive and haptic function in typically developing children and in aging. They highlight that proprioception and haptic perception continue to develop well into adolescence. They also demonstrate that haptic accuracy is quite resilient to aging. In a second part of this talk, I will report on how proprioception is affected in patients with dysfunction of the cerebellum or the basal ganglia, two neural structures known to be important for motor control and learning. I will highlight that basal ganglia–related diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease and focal dystonia (FD), show tactile, proprioceptive, and haptic deficits while kinesthesia remains unimpaired in cerebellar patients (Konczak et al., 2012; Maschke, Gomez, Tuite, & Konczak, 2003). To underline the intricate link between somatosensation and motor control, I will report on how FD patients use sensory tricks to overcome their motor deficits and outline the mechanism behind them (Konczak & Abbruzzese, 2013). I will argue that many of the observable motor deficits in basal ganglia disease have in fact a somatosensory origin.

S4  Keynotes and Lectures

Konczak, J., & Abbruzzese, G. (2013). Focal dystonia in musicians: linking motor symptoms to somatosensory dysfunction. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 297. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00297 Konczak, J., Sciutti, A., Avanzino, L., Squeri, V., Gori, M., Masia, L., . . . Sandini G. (2012). Parkinson’s disease accelerates agerelated decline in haptic perception by altering somatosensory integration. Brain, 135(11), 3371–3379. Maschke, M., Gomez, C.M., Tuite, P.J., & Konczak, J. (2003). Dysfunction of the basal ganglia, but not the cerebellum, impairs kinaesthesia. Brain, 126(10): 2312–2322.

Sport and Exercise Psychology Research . . . How fun is that!: Interesting questions relative to the effects of exercise on cognitive performance Jennifer L. Etnier; University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA Scientific study of the effects of exercise on cognitive performance has increased dramatically in recent years. Initially, crosssectional research was conducted to establish basic relationships between physical activity and cognitive performance (Etnier et al., 1997). As evidence mounted in support of these relationships, researchers began to prospectively examine cognitive outcomes for persons with different initial levels of physical activity. Results supported that baseline measures of physical activity were predictive of the maintenance of cognitive abilities over time and of a decreased risk of clinical cognitive decline (Daviglus, 2011; Hamer & Chida, 2009; Sofi et al., 2010). Randomized controlled trials have also established a causal relationship between physical activity and cognitive performance for older adults (Colcombe & Kramer, 2003). In addition to studies exploring the effects of chronic physical activity on cognitive performance, researchers have also tested the potential benefits of single sessions of exercise, and meta-analytic reviews show that benefits are possible (Chang et al., 2012; Lambourne & Tomporowski, 2010). This evidence of the cognitive benefits of exercise is provocative given that the population is increasingly sedentary, the number of older adults experiencing age-related and clinical cognitive decline is on the rise, and pressures for cognitive performance in the schools is mounting. Further, this evidence provides the critical foundational support for the conductance of interesting research designed to test mechanisms that explain why physical activity benefits cognitive performance and to test moderators that predict for whom these benefits are the greatest. I will provide an overview of this body of evidence, will introduce biological markers and measures of brain health that are putative mechanisms for answering the why question, and will present results from recent research exploring these variables as mechanisms of the effect. I will also address the for whom question by discussing studies exploring individual difference variables such as ApoE and BDNF genotypes, ADHD status, gender, and age as moderators of the effects. Lastly, I will focus on the implications of the current evidence and directions for future research with an emphasis on how fun, interesting, and exciting this line of research is.

Motor Learning and Control Changing our view of motor learners: From information processors to human beings Gabriele Wulf; University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA Much research and theorizing over the last few decades has focused on how certain variables (e.g., feedback, practice scheduling, self-controlled practice) affect information processing. Yet, theoretical perspectives that view human learners as informationprocessing machines, with limited consideration for motivational influences, are not able to capture and adequately explain the entirety of influences on motor behavior, including perhaps some of the most important ones. In the past few years, there has been increasing evidence that attentional and motivational (e.g., social-cognitive, affective) factors associated with various practice conditions have important influences on learning. A new theoretical approach seems to be necessary to help us understand the manner in which skilled movement emerges, is acquired and produced at will, and can be maintained in the face of challenges. I will discuss a new theory of motor learning: The OPTIMAL (Optimizing Performance through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning) Theory (Wulf & Lewthwaite, in preparation). By taking into account the intertwined nature of motor, cognitive, affective, and sociocultural influences on performance and learning, the theory aims to broaden and advance movement science, providing new opportunities to explain and influence movement behavior. An external focus of attention is one cornerstone of optimal learning as it directs the learner’s attention to the movement goal, or intended outcome, tightening the coupling of intent and action and lessening the potential for self-focused activity. Other keystones of the theory are motivational factors that enhance learners’ expectancies and promote their autonomy. We argue that both enhance self-efficacy, reduce the need to focus on the self, and thereby strengthen the intent–action connection. In addition, both expectancies and autonomy support have the capacity to promote positive affect, which may itself play a critical role in consolidating learning. Findings related to these key learning variables will be reviewed, and the basic tenets of the theory will be outlined.

Keynotes and Lectures   S5

The Franklin Henry Young Scientist Award Winners From the Canadian Society of the Psychology of Sport and Psychomotor Learning (SCAPPS) Motor Learning and Control The unidirectional prosaccade switch-cost: It’s not what you do, but what you don’t do, that defines it Jeffrey Weiler; University of Western Ontario, Canada Top-down cognitive control allows reflexive or well-learned responses to be inhibited so that a novel response can be executed. For example, in the antisaccade task participants are presented with a single visual target and instructed to saccade to the target’s mirror-symmetrical location. To plan this response a reflexive saccade at the target (i.e., a prosaccade) must be inhibited (i.e., response suppression) followed by the 180° remapping of the target’s spatial position (i.e., vector inversion). Importantly, the top-down planning processes of response suppression and vector inversion alter the normal activity of the cortical and subcortical structures which comprise the oculomotor system. These changes result in antisaccades having longer reaction times (RT) and deceased accuracy compared to their prosaccade counterparts. In an initial series of investigations we demonstrated that a corollary cost from the completion of an antisaccade is an increase in the RT of a subsequent prosaccade (i.e., the unidirectional prosaccade switch-cost). To explain these findings we initially hypothesized that the top-down processes of response suppression engenders a residual inhibition of the oculomotor networks that support prosaccade planning. In the current presentation we outline recent experiments which bring this hypothesis into question. More specifically, we present behavioral and electrophysiology evidence which demonstrates that the unidirectional prosaccade switch-cost is not attributed to response suppression or uniquely tied to the previous completion of an antisaccade. Rather, we present work which shows that the completion of a novel saccade task with nonstandard stimulus-response mapping decreases the strength of the stimulus-response mapping associated with the reflexive prosaccade response.

Sport and Exercise Psychology The role of interpersonal communication in the process of knowledge mobilization within a community-based organization: A network analysis Heather L. Gainforth, Amy E. Latimer-Cheung, Queen’s University, Canada; Peter Athanasopoulos, Spinal Cord Injury Ontario, Canada; Spencer Moore, Queen’s University, Canada; Kathleen Martin Ginis, McMaster University, Canada Diffusion of innovations theory has been widely used to explain knowledge mobilization of research findings. This theory posits that individuals who are more interpersonally connected within an organization may be more likely to adopt an innovation (e.g., research evidence) than individuals who are less interconnected. Research examining this tenet of diffusion of innovations theory in the knowledge mobilization literature is limited. The purpose of the present study was to use network analysis to examine the role of interpersonal communication in the adoption and mobilization of the physical activity guidelines for people with SCI among staff and volunteers in a community-based organization (CBO). The study used a cross-sectional, whole-network design. In total, 81 participants completed the network survey. Adoption of the guidelines was assessed using Rogers’s innovation-decision process, and interpersonal communication was assessed using an online network instrument. Results indicated that the patterns of densities observed within the network were indicative of a core-periphery structure revealing that interpersonal communication was greater within the core than between the core and periphery and within the periphery. Membership in the core, as opposed to membership in the periphery, was associated with (1) greater knowledge of the evidence-based physical activity resources available and (2) engagement in physical activity promotion behaviors (ps < .05). Greater in-degree centrality was related to greater knowledge of evidence-based information and behaviors (ps < .05). Findings suggest that interpersonal communication is associated with knowledge mobilization and highlight how the network structure could be improved for further dissemination efforts.

Symposia Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 2014, 36, S6-S8 © 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Thursday, June 12 Sport and Exercise Psychology Understanding and enhancing the involvement of parents, families, and coaches in youth sport­—Introduction Knight, Camilla J.; Swansea University Throughout the western world, between 50 and 70% of youth engage in sport (e.g., Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002; Clark, 2008; Sabo & Veiz, 2008). For these youth, participation in sport provides an opportunity to develop a range of physical, psychological, and social skills (Holt, 2008). For example, children might develop their strength and speed, their confidence and create friendship with peers. For some children participation in youth sport might also be the starting place for a future career as an elite athlete, coach, or referee. However, the extent to which children benefit from their participation in sport or have the opportunity to become elite athletes is largely influenced by the involvement, support, and guidance they receive from parents and coaches (cf. Côté, 1999; Fraser-Thomas & Côté, 2005; Wolfenden & Holt, 2005). Research considering the influence of parents and coaches in youth sport is increasing. However, there remains a need to better understand the factors that affect the involvement of parents and coaches and strategies to enhance involvement. The overall goal of this symposium is to illustrate some of the factors underpinning parents’ and coaches’ involvement in youth sport and highlight areas for further education. The symposium will begin with an overview of literature illustrating the role, influence, and involvement of coaches and parents in youth sport. Three studies of parents and coaches will then be presented. The first study examines the influence of family financial investment and parental involvement behaviors on children’s sport enjoyment. The second study explores the extent to which parents’ own sporting experiences influence their expectations for and involvement in their children’s sporting experiences. The final study investigates parents’, children’s, and administrators’ perceptions of coaching education needs to enhance children’s sporting experiences. The discussant will then provide current themes and future directions in youth sport research, specifically exploring the educational needs of parents and coaches. Understanding and enhancing the involvement of parents, families, and coaches in youth sport— Parents’ sporting experiences and their involvement in youth sport Dunn, Ryan; Dorsch, Travis E.; King, Michael; Rothlisberger, Kevin; Utah State University Nearly 90% of American youth participate in organized sport during childhood and/or adolescence (Jellineck & Durant, 2004; USDHHS, 2010). Parents are important contributors to this participation, as they typically encourage/initiate children’s involvement (Green & Chalip, 1997; Howard & Madrigal, 1990) and provide instrumental and emotional support for children over the course of their careers (Fredricks & Eccles, 2005; Weiss & Hayashi, 1995). Although parent involvement is instrumental in youth sport, media and anecdotal reports often characterize sport parents as a necessary evil. This has led to a cultural debate on the appropriateness of parent involvement in youth sport, and what impact it might have on child sport enjoyment. However, despite the financial costs associated with youth sport participation today (Kay, 2000), little empirical work has examined the potential impact of families’ financial investment on parent involvement and children’s subsequent satisfaction and continued involvement in organized youth sport. As such, the purpose of this study was to examine how family financial investment in youth sports impacts parent pressure and support behaviors, impacting child enjoyment and motivation for future participation. Specifically, this study sought to identify the influence of parent-child relationships on children’s sport enjoyment via family financial investment and parent involvement behaviors. Participating parents answered items pertaining to family demographics and the parent-child relationship and children answered items pertaining to parent involvement, sport enjoyment, and their motivation to continue participation. Results illuminate an association between parent-child relationship quality and these developmental outcomes via family financial investment and parent support and pressure behaviors. Findings emphasize the salience of families’ financial investment in children’s organized youth sport activities and sharpen understanding of the role of this investment in predicting children’s developmental outcomes in organized youth sport.

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Symposia, Thursday, June 12   S7

Understanding and enhancing the involvement of parents, families, and coaches in youth sport— Parents’ sporting experiences and their involvement in youth sport Knight, Camilla J., Swansea University; Dorsch, Travis E., Osai, Keith Q., Utah State University Much has been written about the positive and negative influences of parents in sport and the mechanisms through which parents can enhance their involvement (e.g., Gould, Lauer, Rolo, Jannes, & Pennisi, 2006, 2008; Holt, Tamminen, Black, Mandigo, & Fox, 2009). Parents’ previous sporting experiences or sports knowledge is often identified, or at least it is alluded to, as a factor that might influence the appropriateness of their involvement in their child’s sport (Bowker et al., 2006; Holt, Tamminen, Black, Sehn, & Wall, 2008). Further, children and coaches have indicated that parents’ own sporting experiences might alter the types of feedback children will actually accept from their parents (Knight, Boden, & Holt, 2010; Knight, Neely, & Holt, 2011). However, the specific ways in which parents’ own sporting experiences might influence their involvement in their children’s sport is relatively unknown. As such, the purpose of this study was to examine how parents’ previous sporting experiences influence parents’ expectations for their children’s sporting involvement and parents’ involvement and parenting practices in youth sport. Data collection occurred through an online open- ended survey distributed to parents in the USA and the UK. Information was obtained regarding parents’ previous sporting experiences, current sporting involvement, and their child’s sporting involvement. Data regarding parents’ goals and expectations for their child’s sporting participation, benefits they associated with sport participation, and their perceptions of the roles of parents in sport were also obtained. Results indicated that, generally, parents with previous sporting experiences perceived more benefits of participation in youth sport, had more specific goals regarding their children’s participation, and described more extensive roles of parents in youth sport. Overall, the data illustrates potential patterns in parental involvement in youth sport, influenced by parents’ own sporting experiences, which can be used to develop better and more targeted parent intervention. Understanding and enhancing the involvement of parents, families, and coaches in youth sport— Coaching education needs in youth sport: A case study Bolter, Nicole; Petranek, Laura; Boise State University; Dorsch, Travis E., Utah State University Drawing from Bronfenbrenner’s (1995) bioecological model of human development, youth experiences in sport are influenced by proximal social agents (e.g., parents, athletes, coaches) as well as broader contextual factors (e.g., administrators, league policies, societal values). Coaches spend significant time with athletes, serving as important sources of feedback and evaluation. The quality of coach-athlete relationships may depend on how well coaches are trained in children’s physical and psychosocial development. Indeed many coaches feel ill prepared to handle the developmental, psychological, and interpersonal aspects of youth sport and formal coaching education programs do not sufficiently meet coaches’ needs (Erikson et al., 2008; Wiersma & Sherman, 2005). As such, coaches who do not receive proper training are less prepared to help youth reap developmental benefits of sport participation. It is thus essential to structure coaching education opportunities that meet coaches’ needs and maximize benefits for youth. Previous studies have primarily relied on coaches’ perspectives to structure coaching education. However, parents and administrators also play direct (e.g., parent-athlete relationships) and indirect (e.g., coach-parent or parent-administrator interactions) roles in children’s sport experiences. To effectively design coaching education, it is therefore necessary to consider all levels of contextual influence that might explain how coaches are trained and in turn interact with athletes. The purpose of this study was to gather multiple perspectives (coaches, parents, administrators) of the perceived needs and value of coaching education programs in a youth sport community. Survey results reveal how these perspectives converge and diverge on the content and worth of coaching education and provide practical information about how to tailor coach education to a community’s needs. Findings are couched in Bronfenbrenner’s framework and discussed in terms of how young athletes’ experiences in sport are shaped by proximal and distal social contextual factors.

Developmental Perspectives Motor development in higher education: The digital revolution in teaching and learning—Symposium overview Breslin, Casey M., Temple University; Oliveira, Marcio A., University of Maryland; Haibach, Pamela S., College at Brockport In order to increase opportunities to discuss, reflect, debate, and analyze the content of Motor Development learned in class, many instructors have constantly seeking new ways to enhance and diversify students’ learning opportunities. In this symposium we will review how the new communication and information technologies are being used in higher education. How these e-tools could help to shift the current learning strategies from an informative giving-learning model, to an active-critical paradigm that would allow the students to critically navigate the overwhelming amount of information related to motor development. We will explore the emerging landscape of educational delivery models, by discussing three distinct modalities: face to face (web enhanced), blended/hybrid (flipped), and online. Concepts and key attributes of how educational technology is serving these models will be discussed.

S8  Symposia, Thursday, June 12

Motor development in higher education: The digital revolution in teaching and learning— Digital devices in your face (to face) motor development course Breslin, Casey M.; Temple University In a traditional face-to-face course, it can be difficult to engage students and assess learning on a daily basis without overburdening the instructor. However, embracing digital technology in the classroom can increase student engagement and improve student learning. Additionally, the incorporation of smartphone response technology into the classroom can afford more dynamic, deeper learning amongst a greater range of students. When implemented effectively, response rates to questions posed in class discussions can be much higher than those asked in a verbal format. Thus, the purpose of this presentation will be to provide digital tools that can increase opportunities for students to check their understanding of course content. I will present three digital tools used in the motor development classroom for the purposes of increasing student engagement and learning and the strengths, weaknesses, and challenges faced when incorporating this technology in the face-to-face classroom. Motor development in higher education: The digital revolution in teaching and learning— making learning motor development unGoogleable Oliveira, Marcio A.; University of Maryland Educating students for the 21st century currently requires finding a way to go beyond what is Googleable. There are many ways and reasons why we could mix face-to-face contact time and online-mediated course activities. However, the major reason, and maybe the only one, should be because this integrated approach would increase students’ learning opportunities. I will present the 10 main lessons that I have learned by flipping my classroom. In addition, I will explore face-to-face strategies that could be effective in bridging the gap between passive learning and active engagement in the lecture hall. Since I have implemented the blended model, the concept of learning abundance have been adopted for the online component. Before coming to class, the students are able to select and combine certain sets of learning strategies and methods that will best serve in their learning process; they can explore their ability to read, listen, watch, interact, play, practice, review, reconstruct, share and even create new course content. On the other hand, our face-to-face component is currently designed based upon conflictive information and/or clinical cases collectively determined by the learning community. The main goal of the Motor Development course became to translate the basic knowledge taught online and advance the students’ personal and prospective professional life. Motor development in higher education: The digital revolution in teaching and learning— best practices teaching online strategies Haibach, Pamela S.; College at Brockport Teaching online courses is becoming increasingly popular amongst both traditional and particularly nontraditional students. Advantages include greater access, convenience, and flexibility for the student. Instructors often prefer the flexibility, increased interactivity, and student-student and student-faculty interaction. Instructors new to online teaching should be aware of some of the challenges to online teaching as well, such as increased time to develop a course in comparison to face-to-face courses, higher potential for miscommunication, increased possibility of student procrastination, and technologies challenges that may arise on the part of the student and/or the faculty member. This discussion will examine these issues and discuss some best practices for developing an effective online course, or improving an existing online course. A variety of instructional strategies will be discussed including how to motivate and promote learning (e.g., online quizzes, You Tube videos, visiting related websites), higher level learning (e.g., online discussions, application of course content, synthesis, and evaluation), rehearsal (e.g., homework, short writing assignments in blogs and wikis), reflection of personal and peer work, peer collaboration, active learning approaches, instructor feedback, and online resources.

Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 2014, 36, S9-S12 © 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Friday, June 13 Developmental Perspectives The development of a scale to assess young children’s perceptions of movement skills—Introduction Robinson, Leah E.; Auburn University Emerging evidence supports that children’s perceived competence is associated with their physical activity. However, assessments to date have not distinguished between different domains of physical competence such as fundamental movement skill (FMS) as separate to other forms of physical competence. This means the contribution of perceived FMS competence to actual competence (or the reverse) has not been determined. Therefore, a new tool is needed to accurately assess these perceptions. This symposium will provide a detailed description regarding the development of a pictorial instrument to assess young children’s (first three years of school, approximate ages 5–8 years) perception of their movement and physical activity skills/abilities. The pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence of Young Children assesses young children’s perceptions regarding their ability to execute locomotor (run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, slide), object control (striking a stationary ball, stationary dribble, kick, catch, overhand throw, underhand roll), and play (swim, bike, scooter, rope climb, boogie board, skate/rollerblade) skills. Specifically, the presentation will present findings regarding the: 1) establishment of instrument reliability of the Perceived Movement Skill Competence of Young Children, 2) the reliability of the Perceived Movement Skill Competence of Young Children in a sample of Australian children and 3) in a sample of American children, and 4) a country and cultural comparison of young children’s actual and perceived motor competence. The development of a scale to assess young children’s perceptions of movement skills— Reliability of a pictorial instrument for assessing fundamental movement skill perceived competence in young children Barnett, Lisa M.; Ridgers, Nicky D.; Deakin University; Avigdor, Zask, Northern New South Wales Local Health District; Salmon, Jo, Deakin University Objectives: To determine reliability of an instrument to assess young children’s perceived fundamental movement skill (FMS) competence. Methods: A pictorial instrument based on the Test Gross Motor Development–2nd Edition assessed perceived locomotor (six skills) and object control (six skills) competence using the format and item structure from the physical competence subscale of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Acceptance for Young Children. Sample 1 completed object control items in May (n = 32) and locomotor items in October 2012 (n = 23) at two time points seven days apart. Sample 2 (n = 58) completed all 12 items in November 2012 on a single occasion to test internal reliability only. Results: Sample 1 were aged 5–7 years (M = 6.0, SD = 0.8) at object control assessment and 5–8 years at locomotor assessment (M age = 6.5, SD = 0.9). Sample 2 were aged 6–8 years (M = 7.2, SD = 0.73). Intra-Class correlations (ICC) assessed in Sample 1 were excellent for object control (ICC = 0.78), locomotor (ICC = 0.82) and all 12 skills (ICC = 0.83). Internal consistency was adequate in both samples for each subscale and all 12 skills (Cronbach alpha range 0.60–0.81). Conclusion: This study has provided preliminary evidence for instrument reliability. This enables future alignment between the measurement of perceived and actual FMS competence in young children. The development of a scale to assess young children’s perceptions of movement skills— Reliability of the Perceived Movement Skill Competence Scale for Young Children in an American sample Robinson, Leah E.; Dennis, Abigail L.; Auburn University; Webster, Elizabeth K., University of Michigan; Barnett, Lisa M., Deakin University Objectives: To determine reliability of an instrument designed to assess young children’s perceived movement skill competence in a racially diverse sample. Methods: A pictorial instrument assessed 12 perceived FMS based on the Test of Gross Motor Development–2nd Edition and six additional skill related play activities (e.g., cycling), using the format and item structure from the physical competence subscale of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Acceptance for Young Children. Children completed two assessments in 2013 (M = 10.6 days apart, SD = 4.5). Intra-Class correlations (ICC) and internal consistency were conducted for 18 items, 12 FMS (i.e., 6 object control, 6 locomotor), and 6 play skills, for boys/girls. Results: There were a total of 109 children, 57% boys, aged 5–10 years (M = 6.7, SD =1.1). The sample was racially diverse (63% African American, 23% Hispanic, 11% white) and of a low socioeconomic status (a majority were eligible for a free or reduced-price lunch). The range of S9

S10  Symposia, Friday, June 13

mean scores (on a 4-point scale) was from 3.2 (for girls’ perception of themselves on a “boogie board”—lying on stomach on a board in the water paddling) to 3.9 (for boys’ perception of themselves running). Reliability for the six additional play skills was excellent, and for the other subtests (i.e., locomotor and object control), reliability was fair to good for girls and lower for boys. Conclusion: This study has provided evidence for instrument reliability in an American racially diverse, disadvantaged sample, although caution is needed when exploring sex differences in the FMS scales. The development of a scale to assess young children’s perceptions of movement skills— Reliability of the Perceived Movement Skill Competence Scale for Young Children in an Australian sample Barnett, Lisa M.; Ridgers, Nicky D.; Deakin University; Robinson, Leah E., Auburn University Objectives: To determine reliability of an instrument designed to assess young children’s perceived movement skill competence in an ethnically diverse sample. Methods: A pictorial instrument assessed 12 perceived FMS based on the Test of Gross Motor Development–2nd Edition and six additional skill related play activities (e.g., cycling), using the format and item structure from the physical competence subscale of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Acceptance for Young Children. Two assessments were completed in 2013 (M = 7.1 days apart, SD = 0.6). Intra-Class correlations (ICC) and internal consistency were conducted for 18 items, 12 FMS (6 object control, 6 locomotor), and 6 play skills, for boys/girls. Results: The sample consisted of 111 children, 53.2% boys (59), aged 5–8 years (M = 6.4, SD = 1.0) who were ethnically diverse (34% did not have English as the main language at home). Parents were highly educated (75% of respondent parents had a University education). The range of mean scores for each skill (based on a 4-point scale) was between 2.5 (girls perception of themselves skating/blading) to 3.8 (boys perception of themselves running). Reliability for all 18 items and specifically for the six additional play skills was excellent. Reliability was good for all other subtests (i.e. locomotor and object control) and boys and girls. Conclusion: This study has provided evidence for instrument reliability in an Australian ethnically diverse-high education sample. The development of a scale to assess young children’s perceptions of movement skills— Young children’s actual and perceived competence: Country and cultural comparison Webster, Elizabeth K., University of Michigan; Liong, Grace, Deakin University; Robinson, Leah E., Auburn University; Ridgers, Nicky D., Deakin University; Dennis, Abigail L., Auburn University; Barnett, Lisa M., Deakin University Objectives: To examine the relationship between children’s perceived and actual fundamental movement skill (FMS) competence in two cross-cultural samples. Methods: Children’s actual FMS was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development 2nd Edition and perceived FMS was assessed using the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Children. For each sample, correlations initially assessed associations. Then three general linear models were performed with perceived skill as the outcome (1. Locomotor, 2. Object Control, 3. Total FMS), and the respective actual skill as the predictor. Models were adjusted by sex and age. Results: Sample 1: 132 Australian children (28% from a non-English speaking household) aged five to eight years old (M = 6.5, SD = 1.0). Children’s actual and perceived object control skills were associated (r = 0.24, p = 0.006); actual and perceived locomotor skills (p = 0.982) and actual and perceived FMS (r = 0.16, p = 0.145) were not associated. After adjustment, object control associations remained significant (p = 0.012), and actual and perceived FMS became significant (p = 0.034). Sample 2: 111 American children (63% African American, 26% Hispanic) aged five to nine years old (M = 6.7, SD = 1.0). Children’s perceived and actual skill were not associated (object control p = 0.688, locomotor p = 0.559, and FMS p = 0.660); and after adjustment there were no associations. Conclusion: Some young children can distinguish their FMS competence but the relationship between young children’s perceived and actual FMS appears to differ across cultural settings. Future research should examine this in other diverse samples to understand the cross-cultural differences in children’s perceived and actual FMS competence.

Sport and Exercise Psychology Got my mind set on you: Examining the efficacy of distractive stimuli in the exercise context— Symposium overview Karageorghis, Costas I.; Brunel University This symposium will address the mechanisms that underlie the efficacy of a range of distractions that might be used or are commonly used in the realm of exercise. It will present three contrasting sets of distractions (imagery, music, and video) that can be applied by exercise practitioners or participants. The first paper, presented by Panteleimon Ekkekakis, will address potential mechanisms underlying distractive techniques from a predominantly neurophysiological perspective. It will provide new insights from the area of prefrontal hemodynamics. The second paper, presented by Jasmin Hutchinson, will examine the effects of music and music-and-video stimuli on a range of psychological and psychophysical variables, and examine the moderating influence of exercise intensity. The third paper, presented by Selen Razon, will expound the effectiveness of associative and dissociative imagery on psychological, psychophysical, and psychophysiological variables. The fourth paper, presented by Costas Karageorghis, will address a relatively untapped area in research terms: the role of recuperative music following exhaustive exercise, taking a psychological and psychophysiological perspective.

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Got my mind set on you: Examining the efficacy of distractive stimuli in the exercise context— How does dissociation enhance affective responses to exercise? Insights from prefrontal hemodynamics Ekkekakis, Panteleimon; Iowa State University Attentional dissociation is one of the cognitive techniques by which negative affect is regulated. Neuroimaging shows that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), especially in the right hemisphere, is crucial to affective regulation. Several forms of psychopathology (e.g., depression, PTSD, chronic pain) are associated with dlPFC atrophy or hypoactivation, probably because these result in attenuated inhibitory control over the amygdala. The dlPFC-amygdala axis may also be implicated in the control of negative affective responses during strenuous exercise. Although amygdala activity during exercise cannot be assessed by current imaging methods, hemoglobin levels in the dlPFC can be measured by near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). A NIRS study showed that, compared to dissociation, association induced a larger increase in right-dlPFC oxygenation initially but an earlier and larger drop once the ventilatory threshold was exceeded. The drop in oxygenation preceding test termination correlated with the drop in pleasure ratings (r = 0.58, p < .01). Thus, dissociation delays the decline in pleasure at strenuous exercise intensities, possibly by delaying the drop in dlPFC oxygenation. Got my mind set on you: Examining the efficacy of distractive stimuli in the exercise context— did video kill the radio star? Psychological effects of music and music-video in treadmill running Hutchinson, Jasmin C., Springfield College; Karageorghis, Costas I.; Jones, Leighton; Brunel University The present study examined the effects of external stimuli (music and music-and-video) on a range of variables (RPE, attentional focus, affective valence, perceived activation, state motivation, and flow state) during treadmill exercise at intensities above and below ventilatory threshold (VT). Participants (N = 23; M age = 21.3 years, SD = 3.9 years) exercised at 10% of maximal capacity below VT and 10% above under three conditions: music-and-video, music-only, and control. Analyses revealed an Intensity × Time interaction for RPE, state attention, and affective valence (p < .05), and a higher-order interaction for state motivation (Condition × Intensity × Time × Sex) for state motivation (p = .041). There were significant main effects (all p < .01) of condition (RPE, state attention, affective valence, perceived activation, flow state), exercise intensity (RPE, state attention), and time (RPE, state attention, perceived activation). The music-and-video condition yielded the highest level of dissociation and lowest RPE regardless of exercise intensity. Moreover, affective responses were most positive during the music-and-video condition followed by music-only and control. State motivation was higher in the two experimental conditions compared to control and this effect was more pronounced for women than men. In addition, women reported higher state motivation when running at the above-VT intensity in the music-and-video condition. Nonetheless, this effect waned across the 15-min duration of the run. Finally, participants reported higher flow scores in the music-and-video condition when compared to control (p = .032). Collectively, these findings serve to demonstrate that manipulations of attentional focus can influence salient psychological and psychophysical variables at intensities above and below VT during treadmill running, and that this effect is enhanced when auditory and visual are combined. Collectively, the present findings have important implications for the promotion of exercise enjoyment and adherence. Got my mind set on you: Examining the efficacy of distractive stimuli in the exercise context— Effects of associative and dissociative imagery on perceptual and physiological indicators Razon, Selen; Ball State University; Basevitch, Itay; Florida State University; Filho, Edson; University of Chieti-Pescara; Tenenbaum, Gershon; Florida State University Two studies tested the effectiveness of associative and dissociative imagery on rate of perceived exertion (RPE), attention allocation, time on task, and lactic acid accumulation. In Study 1, 60 participants were randomly assigned to (a) dissociative imagery, (b) associative imagery, and (c) no imagery/control. Participants performed a 30% max handgrip-dynamometer task until volitional exhaustion. RPE and attention allocation were measured at 30-s intervals. Mixed-model MANOVA indicated that RPE increased linearly under all three conditions. A dissociation to association attentional shift occurred with increased effort, and the shift occurred earlier among participants who employed associative imagery. On average, participants using associative imagery adopted an internal focus at ~105 s into the task performance, while participants in the control and dissociative conditions adopted the same focus at ~142 s and ~170 s, respectively. In Study 2, 45 participants were randomly assigned to conditions identical to those in study 1, and performed a progressive cycling task at 10% above anaerobic threshold (AT) to volitional exhaustion. RPE, attentional focus, and HR were measured at 1-min intervals. Lactic acid accumulation was recorded at RPE = 5 (strong) and on completion of the task. Those employing associative imagery reported higher RPEs and allocated greater attention to internal cues of exertion while cycling, compared to those using dissociative imagery or no imagery. Participants using associative imagery also seemed to endure longer than those using dissociative imagery (d = .04) and no imagery (d = .14). Participants using either type of imagery accumulated significantly higher lactic acid than those in the control condition (d = 1.02 and d = .85 for associative and dissociative vs. control, respectively). These results suggest that imagery use can facilitate adherence to exercise bouts by altering attention and effort perception, particularly at low-to-moderate intensities.

S12  Symposia, Friday, June 13

Got my mind set on you: Examining the efficacy of distractive stimuli in the exercise context— Music hath charms to soothe a savage workout: psychological and psychophysiological effects of recuperative music Karageorghis, Costas I.; Stevens, Rebecca C.; Brunel University; Hamer, Mark; University College London; Bruce, Andrew C.; Pottratz, Suzanne T.; Brunel University The pre-task and in-task effects of music have received considerable research interest, with conspicuously little interest shown in the utility of music as a post-task recuperative tool. The present study examined the effects of three music conditions (slow, sedative music, fast, stimulative music and a no-music control) on psychological and psychophysiological recovery indices following exhaustive cycle ergometer exercise. Affective state, salivary cortisol, blood pressure (BP), and heart rate (HR) were measured before exercise, immediately after, and in 10-, 20-, and 30-min intervals during static recovery (N = 24). Results showed that in the slow, sedative condition, women’s HRs recovered faster than men’s. Across both sexes, cortisol levels during active recovery and at minute 10 were lower in the slow, sedative and control conditions when compared to fast, stimulative. Affective valence, affective arousal, and systolic BP measures showed the slow, sedative condition to be associated with superior rates of recovery. Collectively, the present findings add some weight to the notion that slow, sedative music can expedite the recovery process that follows strenuous exercise

Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 2014, 36, S13-S16 © 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Saturday, June 14 Sport and Exercise Psychology / Developmental Perspectives Cogito ergo sum or ambulo ergo sum? New perspectives in developmental exercise and cognition research— Symposium Overview Pesce, Caterina; Italian University Sport and Movement The philosophical proposition “I think, therefore I am,” by Descartes, rose to fame much more than the objection of his coeval Gassendi: “I walk, therefore I am.” This testifies the dominating prioritization of cognition over movement. Several decades of research have highlighted the relevant contribution of physical activity to cognitive efficiency. Nevertheless, research still needs to progress beyond the study of dose-response relations to obtain more evidence bridging cognitive and motor development and joining mental and physical training effects on the brain. The symposium addresses this issue from multidisciplinary research perspectives on normal and abnormal development and offers outlooks for designing neuro-developmental applications centered on quality physical activity. The first and second presentations, based on cross-sectional evidence, look into specific associations between cognitive and motor development. The first presentation deals with the interrelation between abnormal cognitive development and motor deficiency and highlights the need for early-intervention motor programs to counteract a loss of adaptability. The second presentation deals, conversely, with the question of whether not only physical fitness, but also motor proficiency and sport-related skills are determinants of executive function efficiency and may interact with one another in healthy adolescents. The third and fourth presentations move toward interventional research of joint cognitive-motor training. The third presentation addresses this issue from a neuroscience perspective, highlighting the potential of integrated forms of whole-body cognitive training to elicit neuroplastic changes in the brain and benefit cognitive function. The fourth presentation deals with how to capitalize on the cognitive benefits of participation in physically effortful and mentally engaging activities and with the quest of the cognitively optimal challenge point for healthy children and special populations. An outlook on translational research bridging theory and good practices is proposed. Cogito ergo sum or ambulo ergo sum? New perspectives in developmental exercise and cognition research— Information processing and motor control and learning in individuals with cognitive impairments Croce, Ron, University of New Hampshire; Horvat, Michael, University of Georgia This session will discuss current knowledge relative to information processing and motor control and learning in individuals with cognitive impairments that can be used to understand and remediate motor deficiencies found in this population. Results from current research indicate that although individuals with cognitive impairments display typical movement patterns, they tend to be less efficient and less adaptable to changing environmental contexts compared to their non-disabled peers. Furthermore, it appears that these inefficiencies most likely reflect a lack of early movement experiences, a lack of early-intervention motor training programs, and/or deficiencies in utilizing sensory information. In research with individuals with cognitive impairments appropriate application of specific teaching methodologies have been shown to facilitate learning, increase skill retention, maximize skill transfer, and make the learned skill more flexible and adaptable to varying environmental contexts. Cogito ergo sum or ambulo ergo sum? New perspectives in developmental exercise and cognition research— Physical fitness, sport skills and executive function in youths: A moderated prediction model Forte, Roberta, Marchetti, Rosalba; Italian University Sport and Movement; Tomporowski, Phillip, University of Georgia; Pesce, Caterina, Italian University Sport and Movement Recent evidence suggests that fitness and sport expertise jointly benefit cognition and that expertise in cognitively demanding strategic sports enhances both domain-specific cognition and domain-general cognitive function, the executive. However, research focusing on whether physical fitness, motor and sport skill proficiency are independent determinants of executive function efficiency, or interact with each other determining a more complex pattern of moderated prediction is still lacking. The present study investigated this issue in preadolescents and adolescents. Four hundred and nine boys and girls aged 11 to 15 years were recruited from Italian schools. They were tested for physical fitness, kinesthetic discrimination, and perceptual-motor adaptation ability,

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S14  Symposia, Saturday, June 14

game skills in team sport and executive function (inhibition and working memory updating). While working memory updating was predicted only by physical fitness, inhibition was predicted by game skill, physical fitness, and perceptual-motor adaptation ability, and by the interaction of these two. Fitness level significantly moderated the prediction accrued by perceptual-motor adaptation ability, with inhibition predicted only in the presence of higher physical fitness. The present findings indicate that there may be other pathways through which sport practice influence executive function beside the well-known physical fitness/ executive function relationship. Alternatives include those linking executive function to the ability to perform coordinated movements in response to environmental cues and to the ability to perform cognitively challenging, strategic game actions. Also, the findings highlight that different executive functions are differently linked to physical fitness and motor and sport proficiency. Cogito ergo sum or ambulo ergo sum? New perspectives in developmental exercise and cognition research— Neuroplasticity following cognitive-motor training: A multidimensional perspective Dotan Ben-Soussan, Tal; Glicksohn, Joseph; Bar-Ilan University; Carducci, Filippo, Sapienza University This talk will open with current knowledge regarding the connection between neuroplasticity, cognitive function and wholebody motor training. In light of motor deficiencies, as well as alterations in fronto-parietal connectivity and cerebellar function in learning disabilities, the scarcity of neuroscientific research regarding the effects of motor-based training in this context is surprising. We will thus discuss current electrophysiological and anatomical effects of long-term whole-body motor training in healthy participants, in addition to preliminary results in dyslexic participants. In order to reveal the underlying mechanisms related to whole-body based training, we have examined Quadrato Motor Training (QMT). The QMT is a new whole-body training paradigm, with oral instructions, aimed at increasing attention and creativity. Current results demonstrate that QMT enhances inter-hemispheric connections, cerebellar activity and creativity. In line with previous results, change in functional connectivity was significantly correlated with change in creativity. The findings further indicate that it is the combination of the motor and cognitive aspects embedded in the QMT which is important for enhancing cognitive change and functional connectivity. The session will address future research directions, taking into consideration novel neuro-developmental and educational applications. Cogito ergo sum or ambulo ergo sum? New perspectives in developmental exercise and cognition research— Capitalizing on the cognitive “side effects” of movement to design quality physical activity for children Pesce, Caterina; Marchetti, Rosalba; Italian University Sport and Movement Recently, it has been proposed to shift the focus in exercise and cognition research from dose-response relations between physical activity and cognitive outcomes toward an integrative view on the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of physical exercise training aiding executive function development. Such integrative view is grounded on the assumption that the cognitive engagement by coordinatively complex movement actions or mindfulness and open-skill sport practices may be a pathway by which physical activity impacts high-level cognition. This may represent a key element for an evidence-based model of quality physical activity to inform policy development. Thus, this presentation will open focusing on intersections between different research areas which are proposed to shed light on how qualitative exercise characteristics may be used to reap largest cognitive benefits in children. Then, it will be presented an overview of selected intervention studies involving the manipulation of the cognitive demands of physical tasks in early education and youth sports training. It will be shown that the qualitative aspects of physical exercise tasks may impact children’s cognition and that adding cognitive demands to physical exercise or introducing mindfulness sport practices into physical education has the potential to promote executive function development particularly of those children who are at risk of poor cognition. However, the cognitively optimal challenge point seems also to depend on children’s typical/ atypical motor development. The talk will be concluded introducing an example of translational research in which cognitively challenging physical activity games are embedded in a multicomponent model of enhanced school physical activity realized at local level by means of synergies between educational and sport institutions, municipality and Corporate Social Responsibility actors.

Developmental Perspectives Atypical motor development: Issues in children with developmental coordination disorder—Symposium overview Wade, Mike G.; University of Minnesota The idea that the body has a central role to play in shaping the mind (embodied cognition) is a theoretical paradigm increasingly popular among those who study motor control and development. Research protocols that simultaneously record both motor system responses and task performance demonstrate the synergy between what for many years has been regarded as separate and distinct aspects of the human condition. A corollary of this position is that atypical motor development might have an effect on cognitive development in ways not previously acknowledged. Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a condition in which children find it difficult to acquire the motor skills required of them to cope with the demands of everyday life. Thus, DCD might provide a window into the interplay between cognition and action when the various components of the system are not in harmony. This symposium, presents research on children with and without DCD on postural stability, dynamic touch (haptics)

Symposia, Saturday, June 14   S15

and handwriting. Discussion will center on the question of whether a common theoretical thread can be discerned between seemingly divergent skill contexts. Atypical motor development: Issues in children with developmental coordination disorder—Navigating the environment in individuals with and without development coordination disorder: Can I walk through that gap? Barnett, Anna L.; Wilmut, Kate; Oxford Brookes University During everyday locomotion we move around busy environments and encounter a range of obstacles that have to be negotiated; a narrow aperture which forces us to rotate our shoulders in order to pass through is one example. In typically developing children and adults, the decision to rotate the shoulders is body scaled and the movement through a gap is temporally and spatially tailored to the size of the aperture. This is done effortlessly, although it actually involves complex skills to visually monitor the environment and control body movements. For individuals with coordination difficulties such as developmental coordination disorder (DCD) moving in a busy environment and negotiating obstacles presents a real challenge and difficulties in this area can have a negative impact on safe participation at school or work and in everyday life. However, we have a limited understanding of the nature of the difficulties encountered. The aim of this study was to determine how individuals with DCD make action judgments and movement adaptations while navigating apertures. Fifteen children and 15 adults with DCD and typically developing control groups matched on age and gender participated in the study. Kinematic data was collected as they passed through a series of aperture sizes which were scaled to body size (from 0.9 to 2.1 times shoulder width). Spatial and temporal characteristics of movement speed and shoulder rotation were collected over the initial approach phase and while crossing the aperture threshold. Effects of group and age will be reported in terms of when the decision is made to rotate the shoulders (i.e. the critical shoulder to aperture size ratio) and the degree of shoulder rotation at the door. Movement variability and the relationship between variability and movement adaptations will also be reported. The implications of the findings will be discussed in relation to our understanding of the mechanisms underlying DCD. Atypical motor development: Issues in children with developmental coordination disorder— Information and coordination in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) Sugden, David; University of Leeds Children with DCD show impairment in coordinating their movements and this impairment has a significant effect on activities of daily living. Research has examined both functional tasks and the possible underlying processes thought to be responsible for these difficulties. One line of our research has examined how objects afford information to both typical children (TDC), and those with DCD and whether these affordances differ between groups. We looked at dynamic touch, that is, how wielded objects such as scissors, garden tools and sport equipment provide information about the spatial and weight characteristics of an object. We examined the differences in estimates of rod length, between TDC and children with DCD. Fifty-eight children, 9–11 years of age, participated: 45 TDC, 21 male and 24 female; 13 children with DCD, 10 male and 3 female. All children with DCD were diagnosed according to DSM IV criteria. The children were asked to wield unseen, 5 rods of differing lengths 30–90 cm (steps of 15 cm), in random order and estimate their length by a marker on a trolley rolled by the other hand to where they thought the end of the rod was located. The children were given a practice trial with a rod length that was not used in the actual testing. The results showed that both groups placed the rods correctly in order of length although they consistently underestimated the length. This underestimation increased with the length of the rod but as a percentage of the rod length, this estimation remained constant. No statistically significant differences were found between the two groups of children. This result is unusual and we can currently only speculate as to the reasons. The results are more puzzling because with the same group of children, major differences were found between the two groups on a multicomponent movement task that involved both solving a movement problem and movement execution (Stepping stone task). Our discussion involves the nature and demands of the task and the heterogeneity of the population group. Atypical motor development: Issues in children with developmental coordination disorder— Handwriting difficulties and their consequences in children with DCD Henderson, Sheila; Webb, Angela; Stuart, Morag; University of London Handwriting difficulties in children with DCD are well documented. The aim of this study was to extend what we know about the nature of these difficulties in children at the top of primary school and document their effects on the content of what is written. Twenty children with DCD age 10 to 11 and twenty age-matched typically developing children performed a story-telling task in two conditions, orally and handwritten. Order of testing was counterbalanced. Quantitative measures obtained included number of words spoken, number of words written, along with time taken and speed of production in each mode. Quality of handwriting was rated by experienced judges, blind to group assignment. In order to assess the composition quality of the writing, the stories were also transcribed so that the assessor could not be distracted by the standard of handwriting. The results showed that order of testing had no effect on performance so the different order groups could be combined. In the handwritten condition, children with DCD wrote for less time and produced fewer words than their age matched peers. They produced handwriting of lesser

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quality and stories which were judged to be less imaginative (i.e. poorer in the generation and development of ideas) than those of their peers. In contrast, when the stories were told orally, their content did not differ. An interesting interaction also emerged: whilst children with DCD spoke more than they wrote, typically developing children wrote more than they spoke. Significant correlations were obtained between number of words written, handwriting quality and written compositional quality, suggesting that the physical act of handwriting confers an advantage when composing. These results will be discussed with reference to the impact of handwriting difficulties on progress in school. More generally, they are relevant to the question of how motor, cognitive and language development interact in relation to literacy. Atypical motor development: Issues in children with developmental coordination disorder— Variability as a marker of atypical motor development Wade, Mike G., University of Minnesota; Chen, Fu-Chen, Pingtung University Traditionally the use of linear methods of statistical analysis has focused on variability as a characteristic of atypical motor performance. That is variability in such individuals is high suggesting a larger range in performance scores and a lack of performance consistency. The use of linear statistical methods expresses primarily the response output of a chosen task that is typically represented by error scores, or measures of performance such as distance or time. Linear analysis says very little about the coordination dynamics of the actual organization of the joints and muscles involved. Children with dyspraxia have as a common trait referred to as developmental coordination disorder (DCD). It is surprising that much of the extant research on DCD does not focus on problems of coordination directly, merely inferring that this is the root cause. This presentation illustrates how nonlinear techniques of postural responses evaluates variability less as a measure of variability about a mean or average score, rather variability as a marker of response flexibility, or lack of, which may signal a problem in coordination dynamics as opposed to a lower average and more variable performance score on a specific motor task.

Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 2014, 36, S17-S58 © 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Official Journal of NASPSPA www.JSEP-Journal.com NASPSPA CONFERENCE

Motor Learning and Control* The effects of attentional focus instructions on vertical jump height under visual and non-visual conditions Abdollahipour, Reza; Psotta, Rudolf; Palomo Nieto, Miriam; Palacky University in Olomouc The purpose of the current study was to determine the effectiveness of the attentional focus instructions on the motor performance in non-objective task under full visual (FV) and non-visual (NV) conditions. Participants (N = 18, age = 25.0 ± 3.3 years) were asked to perform a vertical jump in both FV and NV conditions inside the Optojump-Next instrument installed in a room having a ceiling of 4 m, under three conditions: internal focus (IF), i.e., concentrate on the fingers, bring them up and jump as high as possible, external focus (EF), i.e., concentrate on reach and touch the ceiling and jump as high as possible, and control condition (Cont), i.e., concentrate on jumping as high as possible. These instructions were given in a counterbalanced within-subject design. Data were analyzed in a three-way ANOVA including 2 (FV vs. NV) × 3 (IF, EF & Cont) × 3 (trial) with repeated-measures on all factors (α = .05). Results indicated that the external focus was the most effective instructions in jump-height performance. Additionally, the control condition was significantly better than the internal focus condition. The findings of the current study supported the constrained action hypothesis that referring the optimized efficiency of automatic control processes under the external focus over the internal focus of attention. Future studies should provide additional data to indicate the importance of association between vision and attentional focus instructions.  European Social Fund and State Budget of the Czech Republic (POST-UP II, No. CZ.1.07/2.3.00/30.0041) The limit of effector independence: Transfer of a motor skill does not occur when a two-step transformation is required Aiken, Christopher A.; Pan, Zhujun; Van Gemmert, Arend W.A.; Louisiana State University Research has shown that a motor skill can be transferred bilaterally (Pan & Van Gemmert, 2013) and ipsilaterally within the same limb (Aiken et al., 2013) and to a different limb (Vangheluwe et al., 2005). In each example the representation stored needed only a single transformation; it needed either intra-lateral transfer between different effector types or bilateral transfer to the same effector type. The purpose of the study was to investigate the robustness of effector independence of a learned motor skill when transfer requires a two-step transformation (transferring the skill bilaterally and to another effector type). Fifty-eight right-handed adults learned to draw lines between a central circle and 3 targets (radius = .15 cm; distance = 3 cm). Targets and pen-trace were shown on a monitor while a 30° visual rotation was applied to the pen-trace. Participants were placed into one of four experimental conditions in which acquisition (ACQ) was performed with either the preferred or non-preferred upper-limb and either the larger muscles (elbow and shoulder using a power grip) or the smaller muscles (fingers and wrist using dynamic-tripod grasp) were used. Retention (RET) was assessed 5 min following ACQ and was followed by a transfer test where the groups switched both the pen grip and limb used during ACQ and RET. The dependent variables (DVs) analyzed were movement time (MT), initial direction error (IDE), path-length (PL), and normalized jerk (NJ), with separate ANOVAs for ACQ, RET, and transfer. Results indicated significant differences between the first block and the last ACQ block and RET for MT, PL, and NJ (p < .001). In contrast to our earlier findings when one transformation step was necessary, the learned skill did not show transfer for any of the DVs when a two-step transformation was necessary (p > .05). The current finding implies that the effector independence of motor skill learning has its limits, so we need to reassess theories suggesting that a simple substitution of one effector for another is possible when a motor program has been established. An examination of feedback request strategies when learning a multi-dimensional motor task under self-controlled and yoked conditions Alami, Arya, LaGrange College; Fairbrother, Jeff; Corbetta, Daniela; Wozencroft, Angela; Dzikus, Lars; University of Tennessee Research investigating how learners benefit from having control over some aspect of their practice environment has led to numerous explanations for its beneficial effects (Janelle et al., 1997; Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2002). These explanations, however, have been vague and difficult to directly measure. Current research suggests that learners in a self-controlled setting prefer feedback primarily after good performances. More recently, however, Aiken, Fairbrother, and Post (2012) have provided evidence suggesting that when learners control their feedback schedule while learning a task with multiple dimensions of performance, they *The abstracts are alphabetically arranged by the first author’s surname within each of the three sections—Motor Learning and Control, Developmental Perspectives: Motor Control/Coordination/Rehabilitation, and Sport and Exercise Psychology. A funding source, if provided, is given in italics at the end of an abstract. S17

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prefer and request feedback after both “good” and “poor trials” equally. The aim of this study was to directly address how learners in self-controlled and yoked conditions learn a task with two conflicting elements of performance in a laboratory setting. Participants (N = 22) learned a discrete aiming task for which they had to accurately move from a starting zone, around a barrier, to a circular target with a handheld stylus in their non-dominant hand in as close to 600 ms as possible. Success was determined on two criteria: temporal and spatial accuracy. Learner motivation was assessed throughout the experiment and a post-training questionnaire was used to examine learner preferences for feedback. Results indicated that the self-control group significantly outperformed the yoked group in spatial accuracy during transfer tests (p = 0.048). Further, analysis of performance, feedback requests, and questionnaire data revealed that the self-control group requested feedback equally on their best performances as on their worst performances. The findings of this study support the notion that learners in a self-control environment request and benefit from feedback differently when the learned task has multiple elements of performance. Uncertainty in discovery motor learning: The value in the errors we make Alguire, Katherine S., Dryden Regional Health Centre; Eliasz, Kinga L., McMaster University, University of Toronto, Hospital for Sick Children; Ding, Kirby K., McMaster University; Gonzalez, Dave A., University of Waterloo; Lee, Timothy D., McMaster University Contrary to some research findings (Maxwell, Masters, Kerr, & Weedon, 2001; Poolton, Maxwell, & Masters, 2005), we previously found that elevated uncertainty during the early stages of learning is a valuable feature of the learning process (Eliasz, Gonzalez, Alguire, & Lee, 2011). During a discovery motor-learning task, eliminating or reducing uncertainty, and therefore errors, was beneficial for acquisition but detrimental to learning and perceived confidence ratings. Our goal in the present study was to replicate and extend these effects using a within-subjects design, where each learner experienced all of the experimental conditions. We used the same discovery motor learning task, which required learners to produce four separate 7-sequence keypress patterns as quickly as possible. For each pattern, pressing the correct arrow key would advance a color-coded cursor through a computer monitor grid. The primary manipulation was the amount of uncertainty present in each of the four patterns. One pattern exhibited no uncertainty during all trials of that pattern—the computer illustrated which arrow key to press next in the sequence. Another pattern did not illustrate any of the sequence steps and therefore provided the learner with the most amount of uncertainty while practicing that pattern. The remaining two conditions provided the learner with moderate amounts of uncertainty. Our results revealed that more uncertainty in the keypress pattern produced longer movement times and more errors during acquisition but facilitated pattern learning, as measured in retention, compared to the patterns that reduced or eliminated uncertainty during practice. Also, learners reported higher confidence ratings during the learning process for the pattern that exhibited the most uncertainty. These data lend support to our previous work that utilized a between-subjects design. Together, these findings suggest that there is considerable value in discovery motor learning and the errors that are made in the initial stages of acquisition on both learning and learner metacognition. The differential effect of the perceived index of difficulty on the movement outcomes of discrete and continuous tapping Alphonsa, Sushma, Utah State University; Benham-Deal, Tami; Dai, Boyi; Zhu, Qin Arthur; University of Wyoming Speed-accuracy trade-off is a common phenomenon exhibited in daily human movement. We consider it to be a perceptualmotor problem, in which the index of difficulty (ID) is determined by the perceived spatial properties of the target in the context to affect movement outcomes. Four different visual images were created to introduce different perceptual experience (with or without visual illusions) about the embedded circle targets. Participants were asked to judge the size of the targets as well as their separation distance by drawing a circle and a line in the provided Paint template either in discrete or continuous manner. In the corresponding motor task, they had to tap the targets discretely or continuously using a stylus as fast and accurate as possible. The perceived ID (PID) was calculated based on the judged size and distance about targets, while the movement time (MT) and radial error (Re) for the single tap were measured as movement outcomes. 20 participants performed the judgment task before the motor task, and 10 performed with a reverse order. The results showed that PID was determined by the contextual spatial properties of the targets (F(3,114) = 545.33, p < .001) independently of the viewing time in discrete and continuous conditions. In discrete tapping, PID affected Re with the influence of visual illusions, but it affected MT without the influence of visual illusions. In continuous tapping, PID affected MT without the influence of visual illusions, while Re remained low and unaffected. Additionally, we found that having prior experience of judging the PID discretely helped participants to increase the accuracy of the subsequent discrete tapping with influence of visual illusions (p < 0.01), but not vice versa; while having prior experience of performing the continuous tapping helped participants to reduce the effect of visual illusions on the PID in the subsequent continuous judgment task (p < 0.01), but not vice versa. Expert handball goalkeepers make accurate decisions about 7-m throw directions before ball release Alsharji, Khaled E.; Wade, Michael G.; University of Minnesota Advance pickup of information is an important characteristic of experts in many types of competitive sports. Using a temporal occlusion paradigm, studies have found that experts in tennis, badminton, baseball, rugby, and soccer anticipate the forthcoming action of their opponent before the action actually occurs. However, little is known about the timing of the information detected by handball goalkeepers when making their decisions about the direction of a 7-m throw. This study examined the response accuracy

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of goalkeepers’ anticipating the direction of a 7-m throw at five throwing occlusion points: Throwing Occlusion 1 (TO.1)—display occluded three frames before ball release; TO.2—occluded two frames before ball release; TO.3—occluded one frame before ball release; TO.4—occluded at the point of ball release; and TO.5—occluded one frame after the point of ball release. Participants were 20 Kuwaiti skilled goalkeepers (mean age = 27.8 years; range = 22.9 to 32.6 years). Each goalkeeper stood in the handball goal area and viewed a series of five video clips on a large screen located on the penalty line. Each participant was asked to make an immediate and realistic movement in response to each throw. The five video clips were presented in a random order. Results yielded a significant effect for the temporal throwing occlusion. The mean response accuracy for throwing occlusion 3 (TO.3) was significantly higher than mean for throwing occlusion 1 (TO.1) and higher than the mean for throwing occlusion 2 (TO.2). The results suggest that the most accurate decisions made by handball goalkeepers are made one frame before ball release by the thrower’s hand. The results are discussed with respect to the impact of deceptive arm movements when determining the optimal point of information pickup, and how a perceptual training program designed to improve anticipation skills might impact the success of handball goalkeepers defending a penalty shot. Emotion modulation of motor response speed: A meta-analytic review of theoretical postulates Beatty, Garrett F.; Cranley, Nicole M.; Carnaby, Giselle; Janelle, Christopher M.; University of Florida Emotional reactions predictably modulate the force, variability, and speed of executing voluntary motor actions. Motor response time (RT) is commonly used to index effects of organismic, task, and environmental factors on temporal requirements for planning and executing motor actions. Despite robust RT findings, contrasting theoretical explanations account for these results. Theoretical debate centers on mechanisms driving observed phenomena. Theories predict quicker RTs driven by biological predispositions (BP) expressing heightened reactivity to threatening stimuli; muscle activation (MA) producing contraction and extension movements in response to pleasant and unpleasant stimuli respectively; distance regulation (DR) that respectively reduces or increases individuals’ distance to pleasant and unpleasant stimuli; overt cognitive evaluations (CE) of emotional content within stimuli; and evaluative response coding (ERC) of instructions imposing valence codes to movements. We sought to quantify summary effect sizes from studies (N = 35) representing each theoretical perspective by conducting meta-analyses. Subgroup analyses identified significant summary effects for the BP (p < 0.001, g = –0.314), DR (p < 0.001, g = –0.429; p < 0.05, g = 0.369), and CE (p < 0.001, g = –0.339) frameworks. Funnel plots, Duval and Tweedie’s trim and fill test, and fail-safe N calculations revealed little chance of unpublished studies influencing the significant summary effects. Collectively, our analyses indicate that (1) individuals are biologically predisposed to respond more quickly to unpleasant stimuli; (2) explicit cognitive evaluations of stimuli speed responses initiating congruent and incongruent motor actions following exposure to pleasant and unpleasant stimuli, respectively; and (3) explicit cognitive evaluations speed the initiation of movements, resulting in decreased distance from pleasant stimuli and increased distance from unpleasant stimuli. Results indicate the need for revisions to the MA and ERC theoretical perspectives. Emotion regulation strategies influence memory-guided, goal-directed motor actions following short duration exposure to emotional stimuli Beatty, Garrett F.; Fawver, Bradley; Janelle, Christopher M.; University of Florida Emotion regulation (ER) strategies influence motor execution following brief (5–8 s) exposures to emotional stimuli. The neural regions associated with emotional processing, ER, and motor output collectively indicate varied temporal activation patterns that potentially affect motor execution. A more complete understanding of how ER strategies affect motor actions within emotionally rich and temporally constrained environments is essential to developing empirically informed recommendations for improving motor performance. We investigated the impact of deliberate ER on the performance of a ballistic motor action (contracting the index finger and thumb on a force transducer) to a specific target force level (10% of the participants’ maximum voluntary contraction) under short duration exposure (2–3 s) to visual emotional stimuli. Participants (N = 44) were trained to produce a 10% target force consistently at the offset of visual stimuli. They then completed the same task during a baseline condition, followed by three randomized and counterbalanced ER conditions (expressive suppression, cognitive reappraisal, and emotional expression). As hypothesized, the ER strategies uniquely influenced motor action. Across conditions, main effects for reaction time (RT: p < 0.001) and peak rate of force production (PRF: p < 0.05) were observed. Follow up pairwise comparisons indicated significantly slower RTs in the cognitive reappraisal and emotional expression conditions compared to the baseline condition. Increased rates of force production were identified for the emotional expression condition compared to the baseline and expressive suppression conditions. Our findings indicate that while several ER strategies influence motor function, the impact of employing specific strategies in time constrained and emotional performance environments varies. Accordingly, temporal constraints of performance settings should be considered when developing ER interventions. Investigating mechanisms underlying freezing gait in Parkinson’s disease: A cognitive or sensory perceptual deficit? Beck, Eric N.; Almeida, Quincy J.; Wilfrid Laurier University Freezing of gait (FOG) is arguably the most severe symptom associated with Parkinson’s disease (PD), and has been previously attributed to impaired cognitive processing (worse gait observed while dual-tasks have been performed), but also a deficit in sensory processing (FOG occurring in narrow spaces). The objective of the present study was to examine the interaction between

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cognitive and sensory factors that contribute to FOG episodes and the resulting characteristics of walking. Spatiotemporal gait parameters were measured while individuals who experience FOG (N = 9) walked towards and through a narrowed doorway (0.675 m wide × 2.1 m high) in five conditions: 1) Baseline (through a narrowed doorway, ND); 2) Dual-task (without visual cues, ND+DT); 3) Visual cues (lines on the floor, ND+VC); 4) Visual cues and performing a dual-task (ND+VC+DT); 5) Visual cues and occlusion of the lower limbs (ND+VC+LLO). Results indicate that only the ND+DT condition decreased mean step length (F(4, 20) = 13.84, p < .001) and increased step length variability (F(4, 20) = 9.33, p < .001). Decreased step length and increased step length variability have been shown to be reliable predictors of freezing episodes. Since these two parameters were influenced primarily by the cognitive task, yet alleviated by visual cues, this study suggests that cognitive and sensory factors likely share the same central resources, and that an overload of these resources may contribute to FOG. The effect of load uncertainty in plyometric exercise on anticipatory and compensatory neuromotor control in catching Berg, William P.; Richards, Brian J.; Hannigan, Aaron M.; Miami University Load uncertainty increases anticipatory and compensatory muscle activity in the catching of weighted balls (Eckerle et al., 2012). The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of load uncertainty in plyometric exercise on the distribution of anticipatory and compensatory neuromotor control in catching. We hypothesized that training under conditions of load uncertainty would cause a shift by the CNS in the relative distribution of effort from compensatory to anticipatory control. The experiment involved three groups of male participants (mean age = 21), Group A) load knowledge training (n = 14), Group B) load uncertainty training (n = 13), and Group C) control group (n = 15). Training involved 3 sessions/wk for 6 weeks using 4 single-arm plyometric exercises with balls weighing 1–9 lbs. Sets involved 16 reps of 4 ball weights (30, 53, 78 & 100% of the participant’s present max.) presented randomly. Participants in Group A had knowledge of ball weight in advance of each repetition. Participants in Group B were uncertain about ball weight, and all balls were visually identical. Pre- and post-tests involved recording EMG integrals in 6 muscles during a ball-catching task, and computing changes in the proportion of anticipatory (0.6 s prior to catch) and compensatory (0.6 s after catch) neuromuscular effort. Change scores were analyzed using one-way ANOVAs. The groups differed in the changes to both anticipatory, F(2,38) = 6.01, p < .01, and compensatory, F(2,38) = 4.46, p < .05, relative neuromuscular effort. Group C recorded a 4.4% decrease in relative anticipatory effort, and a 1.9% increase in relative compensatory effort. Group A recorded a 0.4% increase in relative anticipatory effort, and a 0.1% decrease in relative compensatory effort. Group B recorded a 12.1% increase in relative anticipatory effort, and a 3.6% decrease in relative compensatory effort. Load uncertainty in plyometric exercise caused a significant redistribution of neuromuscular effort from compensatory to anticipatory control in catching. Implications for novel therapeutic training are discussed. Differences in brain activation by visual and auditory timing information during anticipation of action effects Bischoff, Matthias; Zentgraf, Karen; University of Muenster; Pilgramm, Sebastian; Stark, Rudolf; Krüger, Britta; Munzert, Jörn; University of Giessen We studied the role of timing information about racket-ball contact (TI-RBC) in sports-related anticipation and the respective neurocognitive correlates with a focus on areas shown to be relevant for anticipation performance. For tennis players, information about the point in time at which their opponent strikes the ball is behaviorally relevant to estimate the ball flight. Kinematics of a body stick-figure were displayed without ball and racket trajectories. Participants were asked to anticipate the resultant ball flight. In a factorial design the sensory modality and the correctness of TI-RBC were manipulated. TI-RBC was either marked by a sound (auditory markers and visual kinematics, AV) or by a flashing of the whole figure (visual markers and visual kinematics, VV). Markers were presented either before RBC (PRE), at the correct time (COR) or after RBC (POS). Participants performed slightly better in AV conditions; the error rate of anticipation was not influenced by the correctness of TI-RBC. Parallel to the behavioral data, AV conditions elicited higher activation than VV conditions in the superior temporal sulcus (STS) and the temporo-occipital part of the middle temporal gyrus (MTGto) in the brain. Effects of timing correctness were found for “COR greater than PRE” in the intraparietal sulcus (aIPS, hIP2), the STS and the MTGto of the right hemisphere. Interestingly, the effects of correctness were not found when the analysis was restricted to AV, but for VV activations in the STS, the right MTGto and in the right inferior frontal gyrus (BA 44) were found. In the comparison “COR greater than POS” correctness of TI-RBC showed no impact on activation over both modalities, but for AV higher activation in the left MTGto was detected. In conclusion, sports-related anticipation involves the behaviorally relevant integration of cross-modal information. The correctness of timing impacts on areas of spatial and temporal processing. Further, for unimodal visual stimuli the processing of movement representations in the BA 44 is sensitive to correctness of timing. Chunk concatenation essentially contributes to sleep-related enhancement consolidation in a complex arm movement sequence Blischke, Klaus; Malangré, Andreas; Universitaet des Saarlandes/Université de la Sarre Sleep-related enhancement consolidation has previously been shown in a discrete sequence production task comprising 15 arm reaching movements differing in direction and extent (Malangré et al., in press). In that study, two groups (12 subjects each) received initial practice (100 trials) either in the morning or in the evening, and were then retested 12 and 24 hr later (30 trials per test). Total sequence execution time (TET) significantly decreased during acquisition as well as during each group’s sleep-filled

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retention interval (p < .001, η2 ≥ .76), but not during the respective wake intervals (p ≥ .127). Theoretically, these improvements could be related to chunk formation, enabling participants to initiate all elements comprised in a chunk as a single response, and to shortening overly long response durations typically concomitant with chunk initiation (chunk concatenation). To test this notion, the above study’s data were reanalyzed. As sequence elements differed in trajectory length, participants’ original element durations first had to be normalized in order to compensate for different transport times. Normalized element durations (nEDs) then resulted in consistent segmentation patterns of response durations which, notwithstanding between-subject variability, on average were similar in both groups. Sequence segmentation thus appeared to be afforded by intrinsic task constraints. Furthermore, across all participants and trial blocks, the four longest and the four shortest nEDs were identified statistically. During acquisition, these long nEDs decreased significantly more than the short ones in both groups at the same rate. However, during each of the two retention intervals such over-proportional reduction of long nEDs took place only in those subjects who had been afforded sleep (p ≤ .019, η2 ≥ .23). Thus sleep, but not wake, appears to support off-line chunk concatenation, which in turn plays a major part in the general improvement of TET observed earlier. Exploring the relationship between handwriting features and motor assessments in children with and without probable developmental coordination disorder Bo, Jin; Eastern Michigan University Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) often experience difficulties in handwriting. The current study examined the relationships between three motor assessments and the spatial and temporal consistency of handwriting. Twelve children with probable DCD and 29 children from 7 to 12 years who were typically developing wrote the letters “e” and “l” in cursive and printed forms repetitively on a digitizing tablet. Three behavioral assessments including the Beery–Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI), the Minnesota Handwriting Assessment (HMA), and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC) were administered. Children with probable DCD had lower scores on VMI, MABC and HMA and showed higher temporal, not spatial, variability in letter writing task (all p < .05). The scores on MABC were correlated with the temporal consistency of both letters in cursive and printed forms (all p < .05). The scores on VMI were correlated with the spatial consistency of cursive letter “l” (p < .05). Multiple linear regression analyses showed that MABC is the only good predictor for the temporal consistency (all p < .05). None of the assessments were good predictors for spatial characteristics of repetitive letter writing. It appears that children with probable DCD had more difficulties on the temporal aspect of handwriting. The VMI and HMA cannot catch such problems whereas MABC is a better assessment for handwriting evaluation. Learning from errors: An EEG study Boutin, Arnaud; Leibniz-Institut für Arbeitsforschung an der TU Dortmund; Proteau, Luc; Ellemberg, Dave; Andrieux, Mathieu; Université de Montréal; Blandin, Yannick; Université de Poitiers—CeRCA Learning from one’s mistakes is of particular importance for the production of skilled behaviors. In the present study, we investigated the neural mechanisms underlying error-detection and error-correction processing in humans during action observation. We recorded event-related potentials (ERP) while participants observed a model performing a timing task. They had to estimate the accuracy of the observed movement with reference to the required 900-ms performance task criterion. Participants took part in both task execution (pre- and post-acquisition tests) and task observation (acquisition) phases. During the observation phase, feedback on the model’s performance was provided following verbal estimation. The results showed that the brain responses to error (error-related negativity; ERN) and subsequent feedback (feedback-related negativity; FRN) evolved through practice. Our results extend prior knowledge about error-detection and error-estimation processes by highlighting the dynamic and learningspecific modulation of the ERN and FRN amplitudes during action observation. The development of efficient error-detection and error-correction processes through practice correlates with the learning of the motor skill, as indexed by enhanced motor task performance from the pre- to the post-observation physical practice test. This provides evidence for the critical role of the ERN and FRN amplitudes associated to an error in the learning process. Findings will be discussed in terms of current ERN/ FRN and motor skill learning theories. Age-related kinematic changes following sine wave tracking Boyle, Jason B.; University of Texas at El Paso; Kennedy, Deanna M.; Wang, Chaoyi; Shea, Charles H.; Texas A&M University Reciprocal limb movements between targets of high difficulty (index of difficulty > 4.5) have traditionally been described as inharmonic or discrete in nature. That is, kinematic markers of the movement structure (dwell time, percent time to peak velocity, harmonicity, etc.) result in relatively expected values related to the difficulty of the task. Throughout the lifespan these kinematic markers tend to become more inflated do to biomechanical and/or neuromuscular processes associated with aging (Ketcham et al., 2002) and the performance gap between young and elderly performers becomes larger. Recently, an experiment demonstrated that young participants were able to make reciprocal fast yet harmonic movements to targets of high difficulty (ID = 6) immediately following a practice session of sine wave tracking (Boyle et al., 2012). Based on the results of this experiment, the purpose of the following experiment was to investigate if sine wave tracking would enhance goal-directed limb movement in an active elderly population when later transferred to a Fitts target task as well. To establish a baseline of performance, all participants

S22  2014 NASPSPA Free Communications: Verbal and Poster

(young, elderly) were first asked to perform nine trials of the Fitts target task (Test 1). Participants were then randomly assigned to one of two training groups where they were asked to continue the Fitts target task or track a visually presented sine wave template. Following forty-five trials in the acquisition training and a 10-min break, all participants were then asked to perform nine trials of the Fitts target task again (Test 2). The results demonstrated that both elderly and young participants enhanced their motor performance compared to participants in their respective age groups who performed the Fitts task the entire time. These enhancements were seen by faster movement times, smaller dwell times, higher values of harmonicity, all while not at the cost of movement accuracy. Concluding discussions focus on the nature of the movement structure during training and the active lifestyle of the elderly participants. End-state comfort effect in the overturned glass task: The interaction between individuals’ height and the shelf height Breslin, Casey M.; La, Julian D.; Temple University The purpose of this study was to determine if end-state comfort effect (ESCE) grasping is maintained when an object, such as a drinking glass, is placed on a shelf outside a person’s reach envelope. We hypothesized that because the glass was placed outside the participants’ reach envelope, a significant majority would choose a grasp violating the ESCE. To test this hypothesis, recruitment was limited to participants shorter than 160 cm tall. Thirty-seven participants (35 females, 2 males) picked up a measuring cup containing 4 oz. of water and, using their opposite hand, picked up an over-turned glass from a one of three shelves (located at 96, 146, and 169 cm above the floor) in a counterbalanced order. Thus, each participant performed three trials, one trial at each height. The shelf heights used in this study were designed to replicate the heights used in a previous study (Fischman et al., 2010). Because participants in this study were of shorter stature, the tallest shelf height would be located outside the reach envelope of the participants. The results of a Cochran’s Q analysis revealed a difference in the types of grasps displayed across the three heights. The percentage of grasps using ESCE was 89% on shelf 1, 76% on shelf 2, and 24% on shelf 3, Q(2) = 40.083, p < .001. Pairwise comparisons using a Bonferroni correction (p = .0167) revealed that there was an equivalent number of participants using an ESCE grasp on shelves 1 and 2 Q(1) = 5.00, p = .025. However, the proportion of participants using an ESCE grasp was not equivalent between shelf 2 and shelf 3, Q(1) = 19.000, p < .001, and shelf 1 and 3, Q(1) = 24.00, p < .001. These findings indicate that the end-state comfort effect is violated when the grasps occur outside a person’s reach envelope. Thus, our hypothesis was supported. Reaching and grasping with induced paresthesia: Associated movement strategies Brown, Kelsey; Marotta, Jonathan J.; Passmore, Steven R.; University of Manitoba; Prime, Steve L., Victoria University of Wellington; Glazebrook, Cheryl M., University of Manitoba Besides visual feedback, somatosensory feedback also provides the nervous system with information regarding movement performance and execution. Somatosensory system damage disrupts the normal feedback process, which can lead to a “pins and needles” sensation, or paresthesia, and impaired movement. The present study assessed the impact of temporarily induced median nerve paresthesia, in individuals with otherwise intact somatosensory function, on goal-directed reaching and grasping movements. Healthy, right-handed participants (N = 12; 4 male, M = 23 years) performed reach and grasp movements toward five wooden Efron shapes, of which three were selected for analysis. Participants performed the task under two conditions: 1) normal and 2) disrupted somatosensory feedback. Disrupted somatosensory feedback was induced temporarily using a Digitimer (DS7A) constant current stimulator. Participants performed 20 trials, without vision, to each of the three shapes that were placed 15 cm or 30 cm from the start position. The presence or absence of induced paresthesia was blocked, while shape type and distance from the start position was randomized. Participants’ movements were recorded using a 3D motion analysis system at 300 Hz (Optotrak 3D Investigator). Infrared-emitting diodes (IREDs) were placed at the wrist, index finger, and thumb. Movements were analyzed using a 2 Condition (Paresthesia, No paresthesia) by 3 Shape (A, C, E) by 2 Distance (150, 300 mm) repeated-measures ANOVA. Analyses revealed no significant differences for reaction time. As expected, movement times were greater when moving a longer distance. A two-way Condition by Shape interaction revealed that participants’ movement times were longer to Shapes A and C when paresthesia was present (38–41 ms). Therefore the main effect of paresthesia took place during movement execution and not during the planning stage. Participants may have slowed their movements in order to increase the time for maintaining effective grip apertures. Future work will include trajectory analyses. Effects of self-controlled observational practice on motor learning Bruzi, Alessandro Teodoro, Federal University of Lavras; Bastos, Flavio Henrique; Tani, Go; University of São Paulo Previous studies have shown the learning advantages of self-controlled observational practice relative to control (yoked) conditions (e.g., Wulf, Raupach, & Pfeiffer, 2005). However, investigations of possible explanations for the benefits of this specific variable are still scarce. The present study examines the effects of self-controlled observational practice on motor learning and the strategies of the learners during the learning process. University students (N = 120) participated in the experiment and were randomly divided into a Self-control (SC) group and a Yoked (YK) group. All participants practiced 100 trials of a sequential timing task consisting of moving a square on the computer screen in order to reach 6 targets in a determined temporal pattern. Participants assigned to the SC group performed the task with a self-controlled observation schedule. Specifically, they were able

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to choose when to observe a demonstration model of the task before any trial during practice. Participants in the YK group were provided with the same observation schedule as their self-control group counterparts. During practice, SC participants decreased the frequency of observations across the trials blocks, with an average frequency of 13.8%. The results of a delayed retention test (24 hr later, 20 trials) showed significantly lower relative and absolute timing errors for the SC group compared to the YK group. Also, results of a questionnaire, applied after the practice phase showed that self-control participants requested demonstration mainly (a) after less efficient trials, and (b) in order to try a new strategy in the next trial. In addition, analysis of inter-trial intervals demonstrated that SC participants spent more time processing the observed information than participants of the YK group, suggesting that the information conveyed by demonstrations is more carefully processed when required by the participants. The present results shed light on the reasons behind the benefits of self-controlled observational practice for motor learning. The fatigue effect on knee extensors and flexors muscles on ball speed after kicking with two different goals, potency, and accuracy Camata, Thiago V.; Costa, Marcelo A.; Bordini, Fábio L.; Marques, Inara; State University of Londrina The aim of the present study was to verify the fatigue effect on knee extensors and flexors muscles on ball speed after kicking with two different goals, potency, and accuracy. For this, 12 male futsal players, mean age 18.75 (±2.37), participated in the study. The participants were characterized by time of practice systematized of 10.17 (±2.65) years. The task consisted in kicking, with instep of preferred member, a stationary ball with the objectives of accuracy and potency. In order to verify the ball speed after the foot contact, it was used two video cameras (Exilim FH-20, Casio), with acquisition frequency of 210 Hz, and the images digitalization was performed by SkillSpector (1.3.2). The experimental design consisted in the execution of five kicks in six conditions: (C1) potency kick with exercises for knee flexors; (C2) potency kick with exercises for knee extensors; (C3) accuracy kick with exercises for knee flexors; (C4) accuracy kick with exercises for knee extensors; (C5) control situation of the potency kick e; (C6) control situation for the accuracy kick. The data normality was tested by the Kolmogorov–Smirnov and the two-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni post hoc with significance of p < 0.05. The ball speed after the foot contact presented values of 22.47 ± 1.43 m/s and 22.20 ± 2.23 m/s for C5 and C6, respectively. In C2, the speed was 19.87±2.26 m/s and on C4 19.07 ± 1.41 m/s. In C1 the speed was 20.62 ± 1.75 m/s and C4 was 18.42 ± 1.42 m/s. The inferential analysis identified differences on fatigue factor with the control situation, proved to be different in the situation of the knee extension (p < 0.01) and flexion (p < 0.01). For the goal factor, differences between kick condition with potency and accuracy were found (p = 0.01). The results did not show interaction between fatigue and goal factors. The results indicated a ball speed decrease after performed the fatigue protocol for the potency goal as well as the accuracy goal. In addition, independently of the fatigue protocol, the ball speed was always lower when the goal was to reach the stipulated target.  CAPES e Fundação Araucária Effect of fatigue of the extensor and flexor muscles of the knee on the performance of an accuracy kick Camata, Thiago V.; Costa, Marcelo A.; Bordini, Fábio L.; Espinosa, Rodrigo M.O.; Pimenta, Bruno J.F.; Marques, Inara; State University of Londrina The present study aimed to verify the effect of fatigue of the extensor and flexor muscles of the knee during accuracy kicking. For such, 12 male futsal players participated in the study, age 18.75 (±2.37) years, 176.33(±8.69) cm in height, body weight of 71.65 (±7.17) kg and practice time of systematized practice of 10.17 (±2.65) years. The task consisted in kicking, with the instep of the preferred foot, a stationary ball into a target located at the center of a goal. To verify the outcome of the accuracy kick the beacon was positioned at a distance of 7 m with a wooden pane filling all its internal space, with the target located in the center of this pane. A camera positioned at 10 m and perpendicular to target was used to extract the Cartesian coordinates used in the calculation of the errors. For this experiment, each player performed 5 kicks in 3 different conditions: (C1) Control; (C2) Accuracy kick with exercises for the knee extensors and; (C3) Accuracy kick with exercises for the knee flexors. The Direction Error (ED), Variable Error (EVA) and Radial Error (ER) were calculated. After confirming the normality of the data with the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, we used an one-way ANOVA test, followed by Bonferroni’s post hoc to compare among situations, with a significance of p < 0.05. For ER, differences were found between C1 (2.94 ± 1.45 cm) to C2 (8.05 ± 2.95 com) and between C1 and C# (6.93 ± 2.36 cm). EVA showed differences between C1 (7.44 ± 1.07 cm) to C2 (12.40 ± 2.48 cm), between C1 and C3 (9.28 ± 1.72 cm) and between C2 and C3. On the ED, only differences between C1 (118.14 ± 72.14°) and C3 (244.49 ± 77.02°). The results indicate that when performing knee extension exercises the athletes kick farthest from the target, thus showing greater variation in their responses. As for the ED, when performing the knee flexion exercise the athletes could not raise the ball to hit the target. Focus of attention and imagery: A comparison of strategies when shooting a basketball Campbell, Olivia; Porter, Jared M.; Southern Illinois University It is well documented that providing verbal instructions and feedback that promote the adoption of an external relative to an internal focus of attention facilitates enhancements in motor performance and learning. However, what is not well understood is how the use of imagery compares to the manipulation of a learners focus of attention. The purpose of this study was to investigate how traditional focus of attention influences (e.g., internal and external) compares to the use of imagery when learning a motor

S24  2014 NASPSPA Free Communications: Verbal and Poster

skill. College aged participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions (i.e., Internal, External, Imagery). All participants completed 30 practice trials of a regulation basketball free throw. Participants returned the following day and completed a 10-trial retention test. Participants assigned to the Internal condition were instructed to “focus on flicking your wrist when shooting the basketball.” Participants assigned to the External condition were told to “focus on creating a backspin when you shoot the basketball.” And finally, participants in the Imagery condition were asked to “imagine you are pulling a cookie out of a cookie jar when shooting the basketball.” Results revealed that the External and Imagery groups were significantly more accurate than the Internal group during practice and on the retention test. The statistical analysis further indicated that the External and Imagery groups performed similarly during practice and during the post-test. The findings of the experiment suggest that the use of imagery might be as effective as explicitly instructing participants to direct their attention externally. Additionally, our findings provide evidence that a variety of methods (e.g., imagery, analogies, and metaphors) can be used to achieve the performance and learning benefits that are associated with adopting an external focus of attention. Awareness of “good” versus “poor” feedback content does not mitigate illusions of competency Carter, Michael J.; Smith, Victoria; Carlsen, Anthony N.; Ste-Marie, Diane M.; University of Ottawa Several studies have shown that the ability to predict one’s future performance in a previously practiced skill, termed judgments of learning (JOLs), can often be inaccurate because humans may mistakenly interpret transient performance information as an accurate indication of learning. This metacognitive discrepancy is strongly related to conditions of practice and has been shown for both cognitive and motor learning (Kornell et al., 2011; Simon & Bjork, 2001). Here, we examined how JOLs and actual motor learning were impacted by feedback content (i.e., feedback given on good versus poor trials) and awareness of this feedback manipulation. Participants (N = 40) practiced throwing a small Koosh ball with their non-dominant hand at a target located 5 m in front of them on the floor under no vision conditions. After each six-trial block, participants received visual feedback regarding performance either on their best three trials (good feedback) or on their worst three trials (poor feedback). Both feedback groups had 50% of the participants explicitly aware of their feedback content and the other half unaware. JOLs were also made at the end of each six-trial block and prior to all learning tests. Inconsistent with past findings, there were no physical performance differences between groups in practice or retention (p values > .05). However, participants that received feedback after their best trials still predicted greater learning after each practice block compared to participants that received feedback after their worst trials (p = .013). This was also found for JOLs that immediately preceded retention with a significantly larger discrepancy between judged and actual performance in the Good Feedback groups compared to the Poor Feedback groups (p = .037). These results suggest that participants fall victim to false impressions of learning based on transient performance information even when they are explicitly aware their feedback only reflects their three best or three worst trials in a six-trial block.  NSERC The option of receiving knowledge of results following performance leads to increased motor learning Carter, Michael J.; Klawitter, Dylan; Carlsen, Anthony N.; Ste-Marie, Diane M.; University of Ottawa It is well established that providing participants with control over the scheduling of knowledge of results (KR) is more effective for motor learning compared to experimenter-imposed schedules. Chiviacowsky and Wulf (2005) showed that retention of a practiced skill can be equally optimized if the KR decision is made before a trial, presumably because this decision motivates the performer to succeed on that particular trial, or after a trial, assumedly as a result of being able to request feedback based on one’s performance. Being provided with the decision to receive KR after a trial, however, resulted in superior transfer performance in the aforementioned study. In the present experiment, we investigated whether providing the opportunity to request KR before a trial with the opportunity to then either change or stay with their original decision after the trial (Before + After group) would lead to superior learning compared to performers whose decision was restricted to only before (Before group) or after (After group) a trial. Participants practiced a target aiming task whereby a slider was propelled down a track to a pre-determined goal distance with their non-dominant hand in the absence of vision. The results revealed the Before + After and the After groups showed superior retention performance as compared to the Before group (p = .028). No group differences were found during transfer, however (p > .05). These results indicate that greater motor memory consolidation occurred when participants were able to make a decision following performance of a trial. Such findings support the view that self-controlled KR schedules may optimize learning because performers can individualize their KR requests to reduce any uncertainties between their perceived, actual, and/or desired performance (Guadagnoli & Lee, 2004; Marteniuk, 1976). Additionally, the temporal placement of the feedback decision in a self-controlled KR context may afford the engagement of different strategies (Patterson et al., 2011) that may change based on the stage of practice (Carter & Patterson, 2012).  NSERC Verifying the impact of monitoring stress on motor sequence performance Chen, Jing, Texas A & M University, Shanghai University of Finance & Economics; Joohyun, Rhee; Wright, David L.; Texas A & M University Motor sequence learning often involves the organization of a series of elementary movements into clusters of elements that are treated as a single unit or motor chunk. Forming motor chunks is a fundamental strategy used to exhibit superior performance of complex serial actions. A motor chunk is characterized as a relatively slow first element followed by a number of subsequent ele-

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ments that are produced considerably quicker and with little variability. The initial element of a motor chunk is working memory (WM) dependent whereas within-chunk elements are not. Literature addressing stress and skilled behavior indicates that outcome pressure, stress created when performers are encouraged to achieve highly demanding performance goals, can interfere with performance because attending to the goal co-opts WM resources. For sequence production this means error or responses delays as a result of this type of stress should occur primarily for the first element of each motor chunk. The present work extended previous work addressing this issue by requiring 40 participants to perform a 6-element motor sequence either as three two item motor chunks (2-2-2 conditions), or with 2 motor chunks of 3-elements (3-3 condition). Sequence organization was induced using non-0 ms RSI at specific points in sequence presentation during training. 12 hr (a) no-stress and (b) stress test that involved instruction to improve performance by 15% were administered. Unlike our previous work, during the test, the all elements in the motor sequence had an RSI of 0 ms. Despite the use of RSI = 0 during the test, performance of the sequences maintained the motor chunk structure induced in training. Exposure to the stressor decreased test performance compared to no-stress. Stress introduced a decrement at the beginning of a motor chunk, which was unique in the 2-2-2 and 3-3 sequence conditions. Presumably this was a result of the stressor limiting the WM resources available for sequence production.  Texas A & M University Characteristics of temporal coordination in basketball jump shots Chiang, Han Yun; Liu, Yeouteh; National Taiwan Normal University Basketball game is one of the most popular sports of the world. Two-thirds of the shots made during the basketball game came from jump shot (Allsen, 1969). Basketball jump shot is a multi-segment movement, control of this multi-segment movement is important for shooting performance. During the jump shot, the lower limbs movements contribute mainly to the speed of the shot whereas the direction and trajectory of the shot are predominantly influenced by the movement of the upper limbs. The purpose of the study was to examine the temporal coordination of the lower and upper limbs during the basketball jump shot. Six Taiwan semi-professional basketball league players participated in the study. An inferred motion capture system (480 Hz) was used to collect the kinematics data of the hips, knees, ankles, shoulders, elbows, and wrists of the performers. All the participants performed 500 single hand jump shots. The timing of the peak angular velocity of each joint from the right side was analyzed. The results showed a stable sequence of peak angular velocity occurrence in the order of hip, knee, ankle, shoulder, elbow, and wrist. Unlike the joints in the lower limbs, the peak angular velocity of the shoulder, elbow, and the wrist occurred almost coincidentally which may suggest a coordination characteristic of the high performance jump shot. The findings of the study provide further understanding of the coordination of basketball jump shot. Future study may examine other aspects of spatial and temporal interlimb coordination of basketball jump shot in order to provide a more complete knowledge of the task. Effects of knowledge of results in mental and physical practice Chitale, Aditi; Shea, John B.; Indiana University, Bloomington Schmidt and Lee (2005) suggested two predictions of Schmidt’s the schema theory (Schmidt, 1975): there can be no learning in the absence of movement outcomes available through knowledge of results (KR), and the learner cannot develop an ability to detect errors in their movement if sensory consequences are not available during practice. The present study was done to investigate the effects of KR on the response planning and execution of mentally or physically practiced tasks during practice and retention. The experiment included four practice conditions: mental practice without KR (MP), mental practice with KR (MPKR), physical practice without KR (PP), and physical practice with KR (PPKR). All groups were instructed to perform the task as fast as possible. Subjects performed 20 practice trails on a key pressing task performed on a computer keypad. A diagram of the task to be performed was presented before each practice trial. Retention was measured 10 min after practice. A diagram depicting the task was not presented for Retention Test 1 (RT1), but was presented for Retention Test 2 (RT2). Thus, memory retrieval was necessary for RT1 but not for RT2. Initiation time (IT) and execution time (ET) were considered to be measures of processes related to response planning and execution, respectively. IT and ET measures were analyzed using a MANOVA for block (acquisition, RT1, and RT2) and condition. IT was significantly slower for the PPKR group than all other groups (p < .001), and IT was faster for the PP group than for all other groups. The MP group showed slowest ET (p < .001). There were no significant differences for ET between the MPKR and PP groups, as well as PP and PPKR groups. These findings are not consistent with the prediction of Schmidt and Lee (2005) and indicate that KR has different effects on planning (IT) and execution (ET) for mentally and physically practiced tasks. KR increase IT for physically practiced but not for a mentally practiced task. KR decreases ET for a mentally or physically practiced task. Autonomy enhances perceptions of competence and motor learning Chiviacowsky, Suzete; Federal University of Pelotas In previous self-controlled feedback studies, it was observed that participants who could control their own feedback schedules typically asked for feedback after successful trials. Furthermore, their motor learning was enhanced when compared with participants who were not allowed to choose. However, in these studies, yoked participants not only lacked autonomy but presumably also the perception of competence as feedback was provided randomly, rather than after good trials. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether self-controlled feedback schedules would have differential effects on learning if yoked participants were

S26  2014 NASPSPA Free Communications: Verbal and Poster

provided with feedback after good trials at the same rate as their self-controlled counterparts. Participants practiced a coincidentanticipation timing task with self-controlled or yoked feedback schedules. Participants of the self-controlled group were able to ask for feedback on 2 trials after each of five 6-trial practice blocks. Yoked participants received a feedback schedule matching the self-control group’s schedule based on accuracy. The results showed that participants asked for (self-controlled group) and received (yoked group) feedback, mainly after relatively good trials. However, participants of the self-controlled group reported greater self-efficacy at the end of practice, and performed with greater accuracy on the retention test one day later than did the yoked group. The findings indicate that the autonomy provided by self-controlled feedback protocols can raise learners’ perceptions of competence, with positive consequences for motor learning. How far is too far?: Perceived attainability and the distance effect of an external focus of attention Coker, Cheryl A.; Plymouth State University Recently, Westphal and Porter (2013) found no significant difference in standing long jump (SLJ) performance as the distance of the external focus of attention and the mover increased from 3 to 5 m suggesting a limitation to the positive effects of increasing the distance of an external focus. The purpose of this study was to further explore the potential limit of the distance effect by examining the influence of perceived external focus attainability on SLJ performance. Participants were 21 female Division III hockey players (ages 18–23). Using a counterbalanced, within participant design, athletes performed two SLJs for maximum displacement in each of five experimental conditions: Control, Internal, External Near, External Far, and Attainable. In the Control condition, no attentional focusing cues were provided. Internal condition instructions directed athletes to focus on extending their knees as rapidly as possible. In the External Near condition, participants were to focus on jumping as far past the start line behind which they were positioned as possible. The External Far condition prompted athletes to focus on jumping as close as possible to a cone placed directly in front of them at a distance of 3 m. Finally, the Attainable condition focused athletes on jumping as far as possible past a cone placed to the right hand side of the jumping zone at the maximum distance achieved on their last standing long jump test recorded by the strength and conditioning coach during team testing at an earlier date. No information regarding the distance of cone placement was provided. Findings were consistent with the literature in that instructions that induced an external versus internal focus of attention resulted in significantly greater jumping distances. In addition, participants jumped significantly farther in the Attainable condition than all other conditions. These findings suggest that the positive benefits of increasing the distance of an external focus of attention may be limited by the performer’s perception of attainability in comparable goal oriented skills. Effects of stabilization of performance level of adaptation in a disturbance unpredictable inserted after the start of movement Couto, Crislaine Rangel; Benda, Rodolfo Novelino; Campos, Carlos Eduardo; Ugrinowitsch, Alessandra Coca; Matos, Cíntia Oliveira; Edim, Felipe Raso; Portes, Leonardo Luiz; Cruz, Madson Pereira; Sousa, Maria Carolina; Ugrinowitsch, Herbert; Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais The aim of the study was to compare the effect of two levels of performance stabilization on adaptation to unpredictable perturbations on interception task. The study included forty volunteers, right-handed university students without experience in the task, divided into two groups (n = 20) as a function of the level of stabilization of performance: SG (stabilization group) and SSG (super-stabilization group). The instruments used were a computer, a tablet, a data show, and a digital pen. The task consisted of intercepting a virtual target with a fast movement of the digital pen along a rail placed over the tablet. The experiment consisted of pre-exposure and exposure phases. During pre-exposure two levels of stabilization of the performance were manipulated: stabilization (SG), which should perform three interceptions in a row and super-stabilization (SSG), which should perform the previous criterion for six blocks. During exposure phase perturbations were inserted, i.e., changes in speed displacement of the target (PI - increase and PII - decrease), just after the movement on set. The outcome measures were the absolute spatial error (cm), number of trials made by each group in the pre-exposure, time to peak velocity (ms), and number of corrections in the movements. For data analysis it was run t-Student and two-way ANOVA and the Tukey test was adopted for pair comparison. The analysis of the pre-exposure phase showed that both groups improved performance throughout the phase, that the strategy of control was predominantly pre-programming and that the SSG performed more trials than SG. During exposure phase, the analysis showed that the SSG has adapted into a block of PI and two blocks of PII; the SG did not adapt to any block of any perturbation. The mechanism of control predominantly adopted by SSG to adapt to the perturbations was the feedback. The results allowed concluding that the level of stabilization of the performance-influenced adaptation, indicating that motor learning is a continuous process. The relationship between actual motor competence, perceived motor competence and motivation towards PE among 8thgrade children De Meester, An; Cardon, Greet; Maes, Jolien; Ghent University; Goodway, Jacqueline, Ohio State University; Haerens, Leen, Ghent University Purpose: Grounded in self-determination theory (SDT, Deci & Ryan, 2000), it was hypothesized that children’s competence for PE relates to their quality of motivation for PE. In the present study we not only assessed relationships between perceived

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motor competence (PMC) and children’s motivation, but also included measures of actual motor competence (AMC). Methods: Validated questionnaires were completed by 132 children* (82.6% boys; M age = 13.65 years, SD = .67) out of 11 8th-grade classes from 7 Flemish elementary schools to assess PMC (Children and Youth Physical Self-Perception Profile, Whitehead, 1995) and motivation towards PE (Behavioral Regulations in Physical Education Questionnaire, Aelterman et al., 2012). AMC was assessed with the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder test battery (Kiphard & Schilling, 1974, 2007) and 2 additional tests to measure speed and balls skills. Relationships were assessed with multilevel regression modeling, to account for the hierarchical structure of the data. Results: A significant relationship was found between AMC and PMC [β = .58, SE = .11, χ2(1) = 26.98, p < .001]. Furthermore, both AMC and PMC were significantly directly and positively related to autonomous motivation towards PE [β = .23, SE = .07, χ2(1) = 10.78, p < .01 and β = .40, SE = .10, χ2(1) = 17.59, p < .001 respectively]. Mediation analyses (Baron & Kenny, 1986) to assess the indirect relationship from AMC to autonomous motivation trough PMC showed that the effect of AMC is fully mediated (28.3%) by PMC. Conclusions: The significant relationship between AMC and PMC suggests that children are able to correctly assess their own motor competence. The finding that PMC mediates the relationship between AMC and autonomous motivation indicates that higher levels of PMC may lead to more autonomous motivation for PE. This underlines the importance of supporting children’s need for competence within the SDT framework. *Data collection is ongoing and will be collected in a total of 20 classes. Somatic anxiety and skill level: The effects on skilled performance Diekfuss, Jed A., University of North Carolina–Greensboro; Ward, Paul, University of Greenwich; Raisbeck, Louisa D., University of North Carolina–Greensboro Skill level (Gray, 2004) and state of arousal (Arent & Landers, 2003) have been shown to affect task execution. However, the relative influence of these factors on performance when attentional focus is directed towards different features of the task is less clear. Expert (n = 9) and novice (n = 9) participants completed a simulated shooting in which they fired and reholstered a Glock 17 handgun under three conditions. In the strategic skill focus (SSF) condition, participants were instructed to report the position of their trigger finger on hearing an audible stimulus. In the non-strategic skill-focused (NSSF) condition, they were instructed to report the position of their shoulder, whereas the control condition required no audible identification. Participants’ shooting performance was averaged across trials and skill level was categorized based on overall shooting performance. The CSAI-2 was used to categorize participants by their level of state somatic anxiety (SSA). For skill level, experts (M = 171.96, SD = 9.86) performed significantly better than novices (M = 126.63, SD = 16.05), t(16) = 7.21, p < .001, d = 3.40, with no differences found amongst skill-focus conditions for either skill level. Shooting performance, however, was affected when categorized by their SSA. Specifically, those who scored high in SSA performed significantly better in the NSSF (M = 142.50, SD = 22.75) than in the SSF condition (M = 119.17, SD = 40.23), t(5) = 2.63, p = .05, d = .71. No difference was observed between those scoring low and high in SSA in the SSF condition. However, the effect size data indicated a trend toward superior performance for those exhibiting low SSA (d = 1.07). These results suggest that participants’ SSA may influence performance more than skill level when their attention is directed towards strategic aspects of performance. We postulate that those who experience high levels of SSA during task execution, irrespective of skill level, may benefit by directing their attention towards less strategic aspect of the task. Cognitive perceptions of stressful complex motor tasks Diekfuss, Jed A., Raisbeck, Louisa D.; University of North Carolina–Greensboro To understand the impact of stress on equally complex motor tasks, cognitive perceptions towards such tasks when under stress need to be determined. Expert (n = 11) and novice (n = 10) participants performed a simulated shooting task in which they fired and reholstered a Glock 17 handgun under three conditions; control, strategic skill focus (SSF), nonstrategic skill-focused (NSSF). For SSF, participants were instructed to report trigger finger position on hearing an audible stimulus. For NSSF, participants were instructed to report shoulder position, whereas the control condition required no audible identification. Tasks were counterbalanced and a modified version of the NASA-TLX was used to measure participants’ cognitive perceptions of each task. Additionally, the CSAI-2 was used to categorize participants based on their state somatic anxiety. Regardless of skill level, SSF (M = 16.00, SD = 2.57) was perceived to be significantly more mentally demanding than NSSF (M = 13.12, SD = 3.29) t(20) = 4.21, p < .001, d = .98. Novice participants perceived SSF (M = 14.65, SD = 3.78) to be significantly more stressful than NSSF, (M = 10.55, SD = 4.27) t(9) = 2.88, p = .02, d = 1.02. Participants scoring high in state somatic anxiety perceived SSF to be significantly more mentally demanding (M = 17.58, SD = 1.74) than NSSF (M = 12.75, SD = 2.44), t(5) = 4.05, p = .01, d = 1.73. These results indicate that the relative importance of a skill-focused task is influential for participants’ cognitive perceptions of complex motor tasks. It is argued that directing people’s attention towards nonstrategic aspects of a task may lessen the cognitive workload experienced while under stress. This may be especially beneficial for those who are less practiced or experience high levels of somatic anxiety during a skilled task.

S28  2014 NASPSPA Free Communications: Verbal and Poster

An external focus of attention improves stability after a perturbation during a dynamic balance task Ducharme, Scott W., University of Massachusetts–Amherst; Wu, Will F.W., California State University–Long Beach Research into the effects of different foci of attention has consistently shown that an external focus of attention (FOA) elicits favorable postural balance, as well as greater muscular efficiency, when compared to an internal focus or non-specified focus of attention (Wulf, 2013). An external FOA involves the performer focusing on the effects of the movement, while an internal FOA entails the performer focusing on the production of the movement. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of different attentional focus strategies in response to an environmental perturbation. The hypothesis was that the external FOA condition would result in better balance performance and less muscle activation. Participants (N = 29) performed a dynamic balance task that consisted of stepping onto an uneven surface while attempting to continuously walk on a straight line. The main outcome measure was the distance from the line the foot landed during the step following the perturbation. Surface electromyography (EMG) was collected for five muscles on the right leg. Analyses revealed an overall main effect (F(2, 56) = 4.364, p < .05), as the external focus condition yielded less displacement from the line compared to the internal (p = .019) and baseline (p = .004) conditions. With respect to movement production measures, there was a difference between the external and internal conditions in average muscle onset and time-to-peak recruitment patterns. Specifically, during the external focus condition, the biceps femoris was activated prior to the gastrocnemius, indicating a proximal-to-distal recruitment strategy. Average muscle onset and time-to-peak recruitment patterns were similar for both the internal and baseline conditions. There was no overall main effect for average EMG, peak EMG, time-to-peak EMG, or muscle onset times. This study expands upon the extensive body of attentional focus literature by demonstrating that an external FOA provides a more effective response to an unexpected environmental perturbation, resulting in enhanced dynamic balance. Understanding the role of anxiety on movement in Parkinson’s disease Ehgoetz Martens, Kaylena A.; Ellard, Colin G.; University of Waterloo; Almeida, Quincy J., Wilfrid Laurier University Very little research has investigated the influence of anxiety on movement control in PD. Postural threat during walking has been found to influence PD similarly to healthy control participants, although previous research has evaluated PD participants only in their on-state, while others would argue that influences of anxiety might only be apparent in the off-state (i.e. dopaminergic system effect). Virtual reality (VR) was used to examine the influence of anxiety on gait control in those with PD. Seventeen PD-OFF and 20 HC were instructed to walk across a plank in either a non-anxious (plank located on the ground) or anxious (plank appeared to be situated over a deep pit) virtual environment (VE). Multiple synchronized cameras updated participants’ movement through the VE, while their gait was recorded. Anxiety levels were evaluated after each trial using Self-Assessment Manikins. Overall, PD reported higher levels of anxiety on all trials (p < .01). All participants significantly decreased their velocity, and step length (p < .01) while walking across the plank in the anxious condition, specifically in the first trial. Participants also significantly increased their step time, step length variability, and step time variability (p < .01) also in the first trial of the anxious condition. Interestingly, there was an interaction between group and condition for step width (p = .01) showing that HC slightly increased their step width during the anxious condition while PD slightly reduced theirs. Overall, PD participants exhibited very similar gait adaptations to HC even in this exaggerated postural threat protocol and in their OFF state. Although, increasing one’s base of support may seem strategic in a situation of increased postural threat, one explanation for the reduction in PD may be a strategy to compensate for greater step-to-step variability. In conclusion, PD adopt a more cautious gait pattern while walking in the anxious environment, however, increases in step-to-step variability might suggest that anxiety negatively influences the ability to control gait. Optic flow affects the specificity of spatiotemporal characteristics during split-belt locomotor adaptation with tactile stimulation Eikema, Diderik Jan; Chien, Jung Hung; Mukherjee, Mukul; Stergiou, Nicholas; University of Nebraska Human locomotor adaptation requires feedback and feed-forward control processes to maintain dynamic balance during internal or external perturbations. Maladaptive locomotor behavior can be observed in multiple populations, including post-stroke hemiparetics, astronauts returning from spaceflight, and phobics. Adaptation requires the use of visual and proprioceptive input to decode altered movement dynamics and generate an appropriate response. In this study we investigated the use of optic flow and tactile stimulation to enhance adaptation during split-belt walking. Twenty healthy participants (6 male, 14 female; age: 26.2 ± 4.9) were separated into two groups. The tactors group (TC) received vibratory plantar tactile stimulation only whereas the virtual reality tactile group (VRT), in addition to the tactile stimulus, received visual stimulation through exposure to a moving virtual corridor during the walking trials. All participants performed an overground walking trial followed by a split-belt treadmill adaptation protocol. Finally, an overground trial was performed to determine transfer effects. Interlimb coordination of spatiotemporal variables (e.g., stride length and step time) was quantified using symmetry indices, analyzed using a mixed RM ANOVA. Stride length adaptation was observed during split-belt locomotion in both groups (p < 0.001). Stride length asymmetry was significantly lower in the VRT group (p < 0.05). Stance and swing time asymmetries displayed similar significant adaptation in both groups (p < 0.001). Only the TC group displayed significant stance and swing time asymmetries during the post-treadmill session. The results indicate that the perception of self-motion through optic flow allows the system to maintain flexibility for task-specific learning while reducing transfer. This may be because of the increased strain of extracting relevant information from multiple sources of sensory input. Fewer constraints on motor learning allows the system more freedom to self-organize, leading to a more generalized behavioral state.

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Amount of practice influences repeated retention effects Fairbrother, Jeff T.; Fisher, Kevin M.; Becker, Kevin A.; Genoves, Giovanna G.; Cregar, Cassi C.; University of Tennessee, Knoxville Christina and Shea (1988, 1993) argued that the double retention design is necessary to separate the temporary effects of performance variables from the more permanent effects of learning variables. Research on the effects of such repeated retention testing on motor learning has produced mixed results. Magnuson, Shea, and Fairbrother (2004) found that performance on a second retention test was degraded when the first test was administered after a long delay compared with a short delay. In contrast, Fairbrother and Barros (2010) found that repeated retention testing improved consistency across tests. They noted that repeated retention effects might be due to the strength of the memory representation for the task at the time of the first test. The purpose of the present study was to determine if the pattern of change across repeated testing was influenced by the amount of practice during acquisition. Participants in High-Practice (H2) & Low-Practice (L2) groups completed 60 and 20 trials, respectively, of a key-pressing task. Retention testing occurred at 23 hr 50 min and 24 hr after acquisition. Results indicated that there were no significant differences in absolute error between the two groups during acquisition (p = .148). Retention results revealed a significant Group × Test interaction (p = .024). The source of the interaction was a significant improvement across tests for the H2 group coupled with no change for the L2 group. These findings indicated that the effects of repeated retention testing can indeed be influenced by the initial amount of practice. Presumably, the benefit of more practice operated through a strengthening of the task representation, which in turn made the first test an opportunity to reinforce accurate performance. Facilitative effects of self-controlled learning are eliminated under deprived visual feedback conditions Fawver, Bradley J., University of Florida; Kim, Jingu, Kyungpook National University; Janelle, Christopher M., University of Florida The influence of self-controlled performance feedback on motor learning is well documented, but how self-control effectiveness is impacted by the quality of outcome specific feedback remains largely neglected. Occlusion of first person visual information is critical to determine the relative impact of self-controlled KR above and beyond visual performance information, albeit difficult to achieve as it is inherently available for individuals with intact sensory systems. To this end, we investigated the effects of self-control over visual KR on golf putting accuracy and variability by depriving participants of first person visual information (through blindfolding). Forty-four participants were randomly assigned to four feedback conditions: self-controlled feedback (SC-FB), yoked feedback (YK-FB), deprived feedback (SC-DP), yoked deprived feedback (YK-DP). Feedback for the SC-FB and YK-SC groups consisted of visual KR, which included a view of the final ball location from the previous shot. Comparatively, feedback for the SC-DP and YK-DP groups consisted of a view of the putting surface without including final ball location for the previous shot. Putting performance was assessed over acquisition, short-term retention (10 min), delayed retention (24 hr), and transfer testing phases (7 days later, novel distance). No differences in putting accuracy (absolute error: AE) or variability (variable error: VE) were found during acquisition across groups. During both retention periods, the YK-DP group performed more accurately compared to all groups (all ps < .05), but the DP-FB group performed less consistently compared to all other groups in short-term retention (all ps < .01) and delayed retention (all ps hoop, F = 9.986, p < .05). In the other hand, compared gaze frequency of difference gaze location. There were no significant in offensive total time and 3 min before calling time-out (p = .209, p = .182, p = 086, p = .782, p = .125). Regarding gaze frequency of difference gaze location, offensive total time were significant (ball handler > defender > next player > hoop, F = 22.956, p < .05), and ball handler was also higher than score board on gaze frequency. There were significant in 3 min before calling time-out (ball handler > defender > next player > hoop, F = 9.737, p < .05), and ball handler was also higher than scoreboard. Summary, basketball coaches will collected the gaze information quickly before calling time-out, and the most important decision making information from ball handler. The effect of different knowledge of performance feedback strategies on learning Taekwondo Poomsae for beginner Liu, Suyen; Chen, Jen-Wei; National Chung Cheng University The utilization of feedback tactics could make a difference in motor skill learning and visual feedback is an excellent tool to enhance the understanding of the complexity of a motor skill. Purposes: This study aimed to examine the effect of different knowledge of performance feedback strategies on learning Taekwondo Poomsae for beginners. There were two purposes in the study: (1) to explore the effectiveness of knowledge of performance (KP) feedback intervention, video demonstration intervention, and KP + video feedback intervention on Poomsae learning and (2) to compare the differences among above three interventions on Poomsae learning. Methods: With the quasi-experimental design 60 teenager Taekwondo beginners were randomly assigned to KP group, V group, and KP + V group and received Poomsae lessons twice a week for 8 weeks. Each lesson lasted for 30 min. Tai Chi chapter one skill tests were carried out on the 4th, 8th, and 12th week for pretest, 1st post test and 2nd post test. Retain test and delayed test were held on the 9th and 10th week. Description statistics, and mixed two-way ANOVA were employed to analyze the data. Conclusion: (1) The performance of Poomsae learning significantly improved in above three groups feedback interventions after 8 weeks across time. (2) In terms of accuracy and artistry the KP + V group and KP group had a better Poomsae learning performance than V group. (3) In terms of artistry of Poomsae learning, there were no differences in the three groups. S-Shaped motor learning and coordination mode transitions Liu, Yeou-teh, National Taiwan Normal University; Newell, Karl M., Pennsylvania State University It is generally recognized that a small set of functions including exponential, power-law, s-shaped and logarithmic, captures the change in motor and other behavioral phenomena of learning and development. Theory and analysis of motor learning have tended to focus primarily on the exponential and power-law because the field of study has overwhelmingly emphasized scaling tasks in which a movement coordination pattern that the learner can already produce is required to be scaled to the task demands. The experiment reported here investigated the hypothesis that S-shaped motor learning as reflected in the task outcome is a product of a transition in the movement coordination dynamics as a function of practice acting as a control parameter. Thirty-one young adult participants practiced the roller ball task that required the learning of the coordination mode to preserve and enhance the motion of the inner ball to transition from task failure to success. There were 50 practice trials per day for as many days (1–20) as required for each participant to reach the task criterion of success that was followed 1 week later by a retention test. All participants improved the task performance but there were subgroups of patterns of change including S-shaped learning. The enhanced variability prior to the transition and the distinct modes revealed by the level crossing analysis supported the interpretation that the S-shaped learning outcome is reflective of a saddle-node 1st-order non-equilibrium phase transition. The learning of a new pattern of movement coordination is a different process from learning to scale an already producible coordination mode to new task demands and can produce S-shaped learning in addition to the prevalent exponential or power law pattern of change.  NSF, NSC (Taiwan) Handedness effects in skilled and novice players’ visual anticipation of the type of attack in volleyball Loffing, Florian, Hagemann, Norbert, University of Kassel; Schorer, Jörg, University of Oldenburg; Baker, Joseph, York University The relative rarity of left-handers compared to right-handers may explain why athletes perform poorer when predicting left-handed as opposed to right-handed opponents’ action intentions (Hagemann, 2009), particularly when few kinematic cues are available (Loffing, Schorer, Hagemann, & Baker, 2012). Such handedness effect has exclusively been reported for anticipatory judgments related to outcome direction (e.g., direction of volleyball attacks) and it is unknown whether it also translates to other perceptual tasks such as the identification of the type of an action. To this end, we presented 22 volleyball players (5 females) and 26 novices (8 females; no competition experience in volleyball) with 192 videos of left- and right-handed volleyball attacks that were performed either as a smash or as a lob. To identify at which stages of an opponent’s action handedness effects occurred, clips were occluded at six different, equally spaced time points (–600 ms before up to moment of hand-ball contact). The participants’ task was to predict the type of attack, after the end of a video, by pressing response buttons on a computer keyboard. A 2 (skill) × 2 (attackers’ hand) × 4 (temporal occlusion; the two latest occlusion conditions were not considered due to ceiling effects) mixed

S42  2014 NASPSPA Free Communications: Verbal and Poster

factorial ANOVA on correct prediction percentages solely revealed significant main effects for each factor. Volleyball players outperformed novices, performance improved from early to late occlusion conditions and performance was poorer against left- as opposed to right-handed attacks. Further comparisons revealed that the handedness effect occurred earlier in volleyball players (480 ms) than novices (–240 ms) and that in both groups significant (p < .05) above chance performance set in one temporal occlusion earlier against right-handed compared to left-handed attacks. Collectively, our findings provide further evidence of handedness effects on anticipatory judgments and suggest that the occurrence of such effects in the course of an opponent’s unfolding action depends on an observer’s skill. Lateral preferences in 89 years of professional boxing: Frequencies and fight records Loffing, Florian, Hagemann, Norbert; University of Kassel Left-oriented performers are supposed to enjoy a negative frequency-dependent advantage in interactive sports (Raymond, Pontier, Dufour, & Møller, 1996), particularly when interactions at close distances such as in fencing or boxing are considered (Grouios, Tsorbatzoudis, Alexandris, & Barkoukis, 2000). Reports of an excess of left-oriented athletes in the elite domains (e.g., world rankings) of interactive sports, relative to left preferences in the normal population, support this view. With regard to boxing, however, empirical evidence is scarce and limited to cross-sectional data, which precludes inferences about the temporal stability of a potential advantage for left-oriented (“southpaw”) fighters. Here we longitudinally tracked the proportion of southpaws listed in the annual ratings issued by The Ring magazine from 1924 to 2012. Moreover, we tested the fighters’ lose-win ratios for hypothesized better fight records (i.e., lower lose-win ratio) in southpaw as opposed to orthodox fighters. Overall, fighting stance was available for 2,403 boxers (18.6% southpaws). Southpaw frequencies varied between 3.28% and 32.39% in annual ratings and frequencies increased from early to recent years; r(linear) = .814, p < .001. However, comparisons of observed southpaw frequencies with an expected value of 21.23% for left-orientation preference in the normal population for boxing revealed a significant excess only in 7 years (i.e., 1996–1998, 2001–2003, and 2008). A two-factorial stance (2) × decade of boxers’ first appearance in annual ratings (10) non-parametric Scheirer-Ray-Hare test revealed significantly better lose-win ratios in southpaw compared to orthodox fighters (p < .05) and a significant effect of decade (improvements in ratios from early to recent decades; p < .001), but no interaction between the factors. Collectively, the temporal variability found in southpaw frequencies illustrates the need of longitudinal designs in this line of laterality research. Also, the data provide only limited support in favor of a left-oriented boxers’ performance advantage. The effects of self-control on a pair learning task López Felip, Maurici; Russell, Robert; Porter, Jared; Southern Illinois University–Carbondale It is well documented that allowing a learner to self-control when to receive augmented feedback results in enhanced motor skill learning when compared to a learner that is not allowed to choose when to receive feedback. This learning phenomenon has been reported across a variety of tasks, skill levels, and learning environments. To date, research on this topic has focused on the potential learning effects when practicing a motor skill individually. The purpose of this study was to test the generalizability of a self-controlled practice within a paired motor learning environment. College-aged participants worked in pairs practicing a leg and back dynamometer task. The goal of the task was to work together to learn how to successfully generate a specific amount of force. Participants were not allowed to directly view how accurate they were after each trial. However, the self-controlled pair could request feedback regarding the accuracy of their performance at any given time. Yoked participants were matched with each self-control group, and received augmented feedback at a predetermined scheduled based on the determined feedback schedule of their self-control counterpart. Following 30 acquisition trials, groups returned the following day and completed a 10-trial retention test and a 10-trial transfer test. Performance scores were evaluated in terms of AE, CE, VE, and ACE. The results of the analysis revealed that both the self-controlled and yoked groups improved at the same rate during the practice phase. Results also revealed that AE, CE, and VE were similar on the retention test. However, the ACE of the self-controlled group was marginally better than the yoked group. Measures of CE and VE were not significantly different on the transfer test. However, the AE and VE of the self-control group were significantly better than that of the yoked group on the transfer test. The results of this study suggest that the learning benefits of self-controlled practice generalize to group learning environments. Analysis of the end-state comfort in a manipulative task Marques, Inara; Martins, Raquel Melo; Costa, Marcelo Alves; Ramos, Camila; Silva, Laísla Camila; Medina-Papst, Josiane; State University of Londrina The effect of end-state comfort predicts that individuals adopt an uncomfortable posture of the limb, sacrificing the beginning of an action in order to achieve comfort at the end of the task (Rosenbaum et al., 1990). According to the precision hypothesis, the task demand implies a greater necessity of previous planning for the choice of the movement to be performed. Thus, the objective was to compare the performance of adults in an action planning manipulative task throughout blocks of trials, in the conditions with low and high precision demand. Forty-six adults participated, mean age of 22.0 ± 4.34 years, 43 right-handed and 3 left-handed, according to the Edinburgh inventory (1971). The task consisted in grasping a black wooden bar, with yellow and red extremities (25 cm; ∅ = 3 cm), positioned horizontally over a wooden support (h = 10 cm), transport it and insert it in

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one of the targets positioned in each side of the support, one being red and the other yellow. Four ways of bar insertion were possible: (1) yellow in yellow; (2) yellow in red; (3) red in red; and (4) red in yellow. The task was performed in two conditions: low (cylindrical bar) and high (semi-cylindrical bar) precision demand. Five blocks of randomized trials were performed, totaling 20 valid trials in each condition, with the data being analyzed by the percentage of comfort achieved in each condition. Since the Friedman test was used to check for differences between conditions and the blocks of trials, with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. The results showed no differences between blocks of trials in the conditions of low precision demand (p = 0.543) nor in the in high precision demand (p = 0.706). Therefore, the study hypothesis was not confirmed, showing that regardless of precision demand and task experience, there was no previous planning for the action. Self-Controlled learning: A Meta-Analysis McKay, Brad; Carter, Michael J.; Ste-Marie, Diane; University of Ottawa There has been a surge of interest in the comparison of self-controlled versus experimenter-defined motor learning in recent years. Typically, one group of participants are given control over an aspect of their learning environment, while a second group is yoked to the circumstances experienced by the first group. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of English language articles in Web of Science, Google Scholar, and PubMed (as of Nov 2013) which resulted in 49 studies. Inclusion criteria were intentionally restricted to studies that (1) had a self-control group and a corresponding yoked group, (2) used a delayed (~24 hr) learning test, and (3) used objective behavioral measures. Of the original 49 articles, 14 were removed for no yoked groups, 3 for no delayed learning test, and 4 for no objective behavioral measures. Five articles were excluded based on missing information after contacting the listed corresponding authors. Therefore, 23 studies (N = 796) were included in the meta-analysis to determine the magnitude of the self-controlled learning advantage compared to a yoked condition. While it seems that providing learners control over a feature of their practice environment resulted in a modest benefit during acquisition (g = .45, 95% CI = .26, .63), the advantage was significantly greater in retention (g = 0.63, 95% CI = 0.50, 0.76) after a 24-hr rest period, χ2(1) = 5.81, p = .02. These data suggest that having control during acquisition may benefit encoding processes and subsequent consolidation and/ or retrieval processes that underlie motor memory formation (Kantak & Winstein, 2012). As a result, the benefit of self-control is robust and does not depend on task-type, which practice variables are controlled, or whether the sample includes children or adults. Future research should attempt to determine if the practice and learning effects are independent, and if so, which mechanisms underlie each effect. Differences between dominant and non-dominant hand dart throwing performance errors Meyer, Ben; Shippensburg University When developing motor skill proficiency learners progress through stages. A learner may be in the autonomous stage for a task when using the dominant hand (DH), but in the cognitive or associative stage for the same task with the non-dominant hand (NDH). Previous research has shown that transfer of skills differs based on the hand trained (Pereira, Raja, & Gangavalli, 2011). The effects of training on performance can be measured with constant error (CE) and variable error (VE) scores. The purpose of this project was to examine performance measures for dart throwing in order to draw conclusions regarding the use of the DH and NDH in novel motor skills. Thirty-three male and thirty-one female undergraduate students volunteered for the study. Participants threw steel-tipped darts at a vertical line target that passed through the center of a bristle dartboard. Participants performed five blocks of three trials with both DH and NDH. The perpendicular distance from the point of dart impact to the vertical target line was measured for each dart after each block of trials. Throws to the left of the vertical line were assigned a negative CE value, while throws to the right of the vertical line were assigned a positive CE value. All distances were measured to the nearest millimeter. Paired t-tests were used to test for differences between the DH and NDH conditions. Constant error magnitude was significantly smaller (p < 0.05) in the DH condition (0.7 ± 2.7 cm) than in the NDH condition (–2.0 ± 3.7 cm). Variable error was significantly smaller (p < 0.05) in the DH condition (4.0 ± 1.6 cm) than in the NDH condition (6.6 ± 2.2 cm). The results of this project indicate that performers are able to throw darts at a target more accurately and consistently in the DH condition. These findings suggest that individuals demonstrate a deficit with their NDH when performing novel motor skills. However, gross motor skills of hand function are transferred to the NDH with DH training, so future research should address the effects of factors such as gender and age on performance. Vision and performance errors in dart throwing Meyer, Ben; Shippensburg University Vision is an important sense for physical activities, especially those involving spatial accuracy. The absence of vision often leads to movement errors, which are typically measured via a combination of constant error (CE) and variable error (VE) scores. The quality and interpretation of these measurements can have a profound influence on performers’ outcomes in activities such as darts. The purpose of this project was to compare constant error and variable error scores for the task of throwing darts (in both vision and no-vision conditions) at a target on a dartboard. Twenty-six male and twenty-three female undergraduate students volunteered for the study. Participants threw steel-tipped darts at a horizontal line target that passed through the center of a bristle dartboard. For each visual condition, participants performed five blocks of three trials. The perpendicular distance from the point

S44  2014 NASPSPA Free Communications: Verbal and Poster

of dart impact to the horizontal target line was measured for each dart after each block of trials. Throws below the target were assigned a negative constant error value, while throws above the target were assigned a positive constant error value. All distances were measured to the nearest millimeter. Paired t-tests were used to test for differences between visual conditions. Constant error magnitude was significantly smaller (p < 0.05) in the vision condition (–1.6 ± 2.6 cm) than in the no-vision condition (–6.1 ± 3.1 cm). Variable error was not significantly different (p > 0.05) between the vision condition (5.8 ± 1.5 cm) and the no-vision condition (6.6 ± 1.7 cm). As expected, the results of this project indicate that performers are able to throw darts at a target more accurately when they are permitted to use their vision. However, performers had similar consistency in their throws across the two vision conditions. These findings illustrate the varied effects of vision condition on performance in a dart throwing task. Learning of novel coordination patterns is information mode specific and vision dominates Mirich, Todd G., Zhu, Qin; University of Wyoming; Wilson, Andrew D., Leeds Metropolitan University; Bingham, Geoffrey P., Indiana University Previous research shows that novel coordination patterns (90° relative phase) can be learned with haptic or visual information. However, it remains unknown how the two types of information interact independent of testing mode. Twenty participants in their 20’s performed a bimanual coordination task, moving two joysticks. Participants were initially tested in performing a novel coordination pattern (90°) with and without visual information about the motion of the hands. In the following training period, half of the participants were trained with both haptic and visual motion information, where the motion of the hands was represented by two dots moving across a computer screen, and the dots changed color when the 90°coordination was produced within an error band; the other half of participants were trained with haptic information only, where a single static dot was presented on the screen and the dot changed color when the 90°coordination pattern was produced within an error band. There were 10 training sessions completed in 5 separate days (2 sessions of 12 trials per day). Participants were then retested on two separate days performing 90° with and without the presence of visual motion information. As revealed by our dependent measure (proportion of time on task), participants who received training with visual information improved 90°coordination significantly only when tested with visual motion information available. They showed no improvement when tested without the visual motion information, thus exhibiting visual dependency. They learned a strictly visual task. However, participants who received training with haptic information only showed the same amount of improvement in performing 90° coordination in tests with and without visual motion information. Presumably, they learned a strictly haptic task and then ignored visual information when it was available. Learning is of information specific tasks and vision dominates when available during learning.  Wyoming NSF EPSCoR The horizon affects postural sway in older adults at sea Munafo, Justin G., Stoffregen, Tom, Wade, Mike; University of Minnesota On land, standing body sway tends to have lower magnitude when looking at nearby targets, and greater magnitude when looking at more distant targets. This common finding differs qualitatively from the lore of the sea, which suggests that looking at the horizon (the limiting case of distant targets) will increase bodily stability. In previous studies, we have shown that experienced mariners (crewmembers) reduce their sway when looking at nearby targets on land, but exhibit the opposite effect when at sea (Mayo, Wade, & Stoffregen, 2011). We found the same effect in a group of young adult maritime novices (Stoffregen et al., 2013). The control of stance changes with age; in particular, many studies have documented changes in body sway among healthy elderly adults. One of the most widely reported effects is that the spatial magnitude of body sway is greater among healthy elderly adults than among healthy young adults. In the present study, we investigated the influence of the visible horizon on standing body sway among healthy elderly adults. Using a force plate, we measured the kinematics of standing body sway on the open deck of a ship at sea. Elderly adults (passengers on a vacation cruise) stood on the force plate while looking at the horizon, or while looking at a nearby target (an object placed at eye level 0.6 m in front of them). We found two important results. First, the overall magnitude of sway among our healthy elderly adults did not differ from the overall magnitude of sway observed among young adults in an identical situation. Second, we found that healthy elderly adults did modulate the spatial magnitude of their body sway in relation to the distance of visual targets; however, the direction of the effect was the opposite of younger adults. That is, our healthy elderly adult participants swayed more when looking at the horizon than when looking at the nearby target. This dramatic, qualitative difference in postural responses to the horizon at sea raises important new questions about the control of bodily orientation in aging. The influence of different response types on movement correction during a coincidence timing task Nakamoto, Hiroki; Ikudome, Sachi; Yotani, Kengo; Unenaka, Satoshi; Mori, Shiro; National Institute of Fitness & Sports in Kanoya Studies on coincidence timing (CT) task have reported markedly larger timing errors for decelerating targets than accelerating ones (e.g., Nakamoto et al., 2013). One interpretation is that with increased target velocity, participants only needed to correct the parameter by speeding up the interceptive movement (i.e., increasing agonist muscle activation) because corrective action occurs in the same direction as the original movement, while in the case of decreased velocity, they needed to construct a new program after canceling the original (activating the antagonist muscle) because corrective action occurs in the opposite direction instantaneously as the original movement (e.g., Teixeira et al., 2006). The latter requires dramatic modifications of the original movement structure, thereby negatively affecting corrective movements (i.e., large timing errors) in response to velocity changes.

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To test this interpretation, we investigated the influence of different corrective responses (i.e., parameter vs. program change) on CT performance with 8 adult males. The task involved a moving target traveling at a constant velocity of 4 m/s which was suddenly increased or decreased by 50% in some trials. Participants were required to keep a pre-specified force with isometric elbow flexion, and after the target started to move, to increase (further elbow flexion) or decrease (elbow extension) the force by 50% (i.e., increasing agonist muscle activation or activating the antagonist muscle, respectively) to coincide with the target’s arrival. Delta E%, which indicate efficiency of movement correction (Teixeira et al., 2005), were significantly larger in the flexion (velocity increase: 72.0%, decrease: 16.4%) than extension condition (increase: 47.0%, decrease: 5.1%). However, difficulty with corrective movements in response to the decrease in target velocity persisted irrespective of response condition, which suggested that these were not only caused by corrective types. Effects of self-controlled practice in motor skill acquisition Oliveira, Fernanda S.; Ugrinowitsch, Herbert; Januário, Marcelo S.; Figueiredo, Lucas S.; Gallo, Lívia G.; Benda, Rodolfo N.; Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais Self-controlled practice seems to be an alternative possibility of learning a motor skill. In this condition, performers choose the practice schedule according to their own sense. The purpose of this study was to verify the effects of self-controlled practice on motor skill acquisition. Sixty university students were divided in five groups of practice (n = 12): self-controlled (SC), yoked (YK), blocked (BL), random (RD), and constant (CT). The task required touching five sensors with a specific time constraint presented by a bar narrow with 100 LEDs that turned on and turned off sequentially simulating an object moving down the bar in direction to the table with the sensors. Participants should touch the five sensors with the constraint of touching the last sensor in coincidence with the firing of the last LED. In acquisition phase, all groups performed 72 trials. Three different sequences were adopted (24 trials each), but constant practice group performed merely one sequence. After 24 hr, a transfer test with 24 trials and a new sequence was performed. The time constraint adopted during both phases was 2,360 ms. Results of transfer test showed that self-controlled group had lower absolute error and lower variable error than all the other groups; moreover, selfcontrolled group still presented less constant error than blocked group. These results drive us to the importance of self-regulation processes. Self-controlled condition allows participants to a commitment practice, which leads them to more cognitive effort. On the other hand, self-controlled practice can also be explained by individual needs of each learner, once participants select the more adequate practice schedule to themselves. Effect of intervention programs on the perceived competence of children Oliveira, Ilana Santos; Oliveira, Dayana Silva; Santos, Juliette Noadya; Cattuzzo, Maria Teresa; University of Pernambuco The perceived athletic competence (PAC) is an important aspect of child development that affects the continued interest of the individual in certain activities and subsequent attempts to domain tasks. Motor interventions are essential for the acquisition of motor skills and perceived competence; however, it is unknown what type of instruction in youthful intervention programs is most effective for perceived athletic competence (PAC) infant. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of two different types of instruction (based on body movements × based on environmental goals) on the PAC of children. This is a quasi-experimental study, designed as pre and post-intervention experiment, approved by the Local Ethics Committee. The sample comprised 63 children (33 boys) aged 7 and 8 years of age (M = 8.2; SD = 0.3), divided into 3 groups: G1—Instruction about the of movement quality/mechanics, G2—Instruction only about environmental goals, and CG—control group. At the pre and post-intervention, the PAC was assessed by the Self-Perception Profile for Children–SPPC questionnaire (Harter, 1985). The interventions took place during Physical Education classes, for a period of 6 weeks, with 2 weekly sessions of 50 min each, having a total time of 600 min duration. Data were analyzed using Wilcoxon test and an alpha of p = 0.05 was assumed. The intragroup comparisons showed that: only G2 girls showed significant improvement in the PCA from pre- to postintervention (p = 0.01). The results suggested that the intervention based is an environmental goals is more effective for perceived athletic competence especially in girls and this could be related to the learner’s external focus of attention. Intervention based on environmental goals is more effective for infant motor competence Oliveira, Ilana Santos; Oliveira, Dayana Silva; Santos, Juliette Noadya; Cattuzzo, Maria Teresa; University of Pernambuco Motor intervention programs are essential for the acquisition of motor skills, because correct difficulties already established and/or develop new movement strategies. The instruction, or information given to the child about their movement and/or task to be performed, seems to be a factor that requires further investigation of these intervention programs. Specifically, the types of instruction used in intervention programs may include both organismic characteristics (focus on movement quality of the learner) and environmental characteristics (focus on environmental goals). However, it is unknown what type of instruction is most effective for overall MC (combined measures of the process and product of the movement) infant. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of two different types of instruction (based on body movements × based on environmental goals) on the MC of children. This is a quasi-experimental study, design as pre and post-intervention, approved by the Local Ethics Committee. The sample comprised 63 children (33 boys) aged 7 and 8 years of age (M = 8.2; SD = 0.3), divided into 3 groups: G1—instruction about the of movement quality/mechanics, G2—instruction only about environmental goals, and CG—control group. The MC

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was evaluated as process (TGMD-2, ULRICH, 2000) and as the product of the movement (YKEDA; AOYAGY, 2009), and from this was calculated the overall MC (z score). The interventions took place during Physical Education classes, for a period of 6 weeks, with 2 weekly sessions of 50 min each. Data were analyzed using Wilcoxon test and an alpha of p = 0.05 was assumed. The intragroup comparisons from pre to post-intervention showed a statistically significant difference in MC for boys and girls in G2 (p = 0.01). It was found that the intervention based on environmental goals was more effective for motor competence of children, what can be explained by the constrained action hypothesis, which proposes that there is a perturbation in the organization of movement when attention is directed to the body’s movements. Exploring the coordination patterns of the six-step footwork with the principal component analysis Pan, Po-Yuan, Liu, Yeou-Teh; National Taiwan Normal University The American b-boy dancer Alien Ness (Luis Martinez, Jr.) has said that footwork is the original power move. A strong footwork is even more powerful than power moves. Six-step footwork consists of some basic skills of footwork and therefore is considered the most important and fundamental move of footwork. The purpose of the study was to analyze the coordination patterns of the six-step footwork and to examine the differences of the coordination patterns between experienced and novice dancers using the principal component analysis (PCA). Twelve male college students volunteered in the study, four of them were experienced hiphop dancers and the other eight were novices. The IGS 190 motion digitizing system (120 Hz) with 18 solid-state inertial sensors (gyros) were used to capture the movement kinematics of the 13 joints, yielding a total of 39 variables of the movement for PCA. The results showed that 4 components were sufficient to account for over 95% of the whole body movement for the experienced dancers. The 4 components could further grouped into 2 patterns of movement based on the similar dominant frequency and the consistent phase relations of the trajectory of each principal component. The patterns of the first 2 PCs from the novices were similar to those of the experienced dancers whereas the rest components with higher dominant frequencies showed greater individual differences. The findings support the applicability of PCA in analyzing the complex whole-body movement. Future studies on learning the six-step footwork will extend the current knowledge of the coordination characteristics of the movement to the change process of the task. Eye movement pattern changes during sequence learning Panzer, Stephan; Vieluf, Solveig; Massing, Matthias; Saarland University; Blandin, Yannick, University of Poitiers Recent research using a visuomotor task demonstrated that patterns of eye movements differed depending on the stage of learning (Sailer, 2005). Until now little is known if the pattern of eye movements changes during learning of a dynamic complex movement sequence. In order to determine different patterns of eye movements during the course of learning, participants were instructed to acquire a complex 16-element movement sequence by performing extension/flexion movements. Therefore participants (9 in each group) were randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups: a group that was permitted to use eye movements (FREE) and another group that was instructed to fixate a marker during acquisition (FIX). Participants of both groups had to perform 50 Blocks with three repetitions in each Block, which resulted in 150 repetitions of the sequence and 2400 targets hits. Eye movements were controlled by an eye-tracking system. Time to complete the sequence demonstrated that participants of the FREE group outperformed those of the FIX group during acquisition. The number of saccades at the initial stage of learning for participants of the FREE group dwelled around the number of elements in the sequence. At the end of the acquisition phase the number of saccades was reduced to 5. This finding provided evidence that during practice the number of saccades decreased, which indicated that visual control to reach the next target to perform the sequence decreased. In addition, detailed analysis of the kinematics of the arm movements and gaze behavior showed that participants of the FREE group pursuit the manual movement with their eyes early in practice while at the end of practice the pursuing character was reduced. These findings suggested that visual control is reduced during practice by acquiring a dynamic complex 16-element movement sequence, and that there is a mapping of eye and arm movements at an initial stage of learning which is import for sequence acquisition. EMG variability of novice golfers under different focus of attention conditions Pelleck, Valerie; Amad, Yasmine; Post, Taylor; Ramos, Erica; Passmore, Steven; University of Manitoba After more than 15 years of study, the finding that an external focus of attention better serves movement performance relative to an internal focus is replicable in many contexts (Wulf, 2007). What remains undetermined is how altering the focus of attention impacts neurophysiological measures associated with task performance. The improved results from an external focus of attention are attributed to automaticity (Wulf, Shea, & Park 2001). If automaticity is the reason for the task instruction differences, will all muscle groups in the body be impacted equally (global effect) or will only those directly related to the movement task be altered (local effect)? The purpose of the present experiment was to determine if muscle activity was globally impacted by differences in task instruction related to attentional focus, or if the changes observed were focal to specific muscle groups related to task execution. Non-golfers (n = 10) were recruited to perform a putting task. Three focus conditions were used: external (the hole), internal swing (hands on the club and elbows extended) and internal stance (feet evenly balanced). Electromyography (EMG) of the extensor carpi radialis (ECR), and tibialis anterior muscles was recorded under all focus conditions during putts to targets at 3 and 5 m. When an internal swing focus of attention was used at 5 m, variability in EMG activity decreased in the muscle

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directly involved in the movement related to the task (ECR) F(2,18) = 3.758, p = 0.043. Our finding supports the idea that an internal focus of attention does not have a global automaticity effect, but rather that automaticity is specific to the region of the body most directly responsible for movement task performance. Since the finding only occurred when the task was at a greater degree of difficulty, the importance of finding an optimal challenge-point (Guadagnoli & Lee, 2003) for testing conditions is highlighted. Future studies are needed to determine if changes related to the variability of EMG activity translate to improved movement kinematics or performance accuracy. Honesty may not be the best policy: A focus of attention study Porter, Jared M., Southern Illinois University–Carbondale; Wu, Will F., California State University–Long Beach; Marchant, David C., Edge Hill University; Brumley, Shailey L., Southern Illinois University For several years research findings have demonstrated that instructing an individual to direct one’s attention externally rather than internally results in superior motor behavior. However, recent findings have revealed that biasing the expectations of the performer can negate the positive effects of adopting an external focus of attention (Porter et al., 2012). The purpose of the present study was to investigate potential mechanisms for this effect. Sixty-eight (male and female) university students participated in the study. Using a counterbalanced mixed method design, participants completed 2 standing long jumps within 4 experimental conditions (i.e., control, internal, external proximal, external distal). To bias expectancy, participants were told that one of the conditions should result in their “best jump.” The assigned bias was counterbalanced across all conditions to control for possible order effects. Jump distance, projection angle, knee flexion, and jump velocity served as the dependent variables. Consistent with previous findings (Porter et al., 2012), jumps performed in the non-biased conditions resulted in greater jumping distance as the participants’ focus of attention was directed more distally. Also consistent with previous findings, an analysis of the biased trials indicated that only the external distal condition had a reduced jump distance after having their expectancy biased. An evaluation of jump projection angle and knee kinematics revealed that movements were similar across all experimental conditions. The results of the present study suggest that positively biasing performance expectancy has a contradictory effect on motor behavior. Specifically, when participants were biased in the theoretically superior condition (i.e., external distal), they had their worst jumping performance. Our findings also suggest that changes in lower body kinematics are not likely the primary reason for this effect. Split-screen video feedback with an expert model facilitates motor learning Post, Phillip G., New Mexico State University; Aiken, Chris, Louisiana State University; Fairbrother, Jeffrey T., University of Tennessee; Laughlin, Davide, Huntingdon College Movement practitioners are increasingly using video replay as an instructional modality to assist learners in acquiring new motor skills. Prior research has demonstrated that video replay of a self- or expert-model can benefit skill acquisition (Ram & McCullagh, 2006). More recently, research has shown that learners with self-control over when video knowledge of performance (KP) or an expert-model is presented during skill acquisition benefits learning compared to learners without control (Aiken, Fairbrother, & Post, 2012; Wulf, Raupach, & Pfeiffer, 2005). Video software now allows practitioners to provide a side-by-side split screen video replay of video KP and expert-models. Research with skilled performers has shown that such split-screen video replay facilitates changes to well-rehearsed skills (Baudry, Leroy, & Chollet, 2006), but its efficacy for skill acquisition by novices has yet to be examined. Providing learners with control over the administration of side-by-side video KP and expert-models may facilitate their recognition of the essential differences between their performance and that of an expert-model. The purpose of the present study was to examine the influence of self-control over side-by-side video KP with an expert-model on the learning of a golf-chipping task. Participants were 44 college students (M = 21.1 years; SD = 2.1 years) assigned to self-controlled (SC) and yoked (YK) groups. The acquisition phase consisted of six 10-trial blocks. Participants in the SC group chose when the video replay was delivered during acquisition. Participants in the YK group were presented with the video replay based on the schedule created by their SC counterpart. Retention and transfer tests were given after 24 hr. Both groups showed improved form and accuracy scores across acquisition blocks (p < .001). During Transfer, the SC group performed with superior form and accuracy scores compared to the YK group (p < .05). These findings were consistent with previous SC research and indicated that SC over video KP with an expert-model can facilitate motor learning. Learning and exploration during the reorganization of finger coordination patterns Ranganathan, Rajiv, Michigan State University; Gothuey, Florian, Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago Several movement disorders (e.g., stroke) result in deficits of hand and finger function. These deficits adversely impact activities of daily living and highlight the need for new training methods to improve hand dexterity. We examined a new approach to eliciting novel patterns of finger coordination through the use of body-machine interfaces. Twelve healthy college-aged adults wore a Cyberglove on their right hand which measured the joint angles of the metacarpophalangeal joints. We then mapped these joint angles on to the position of a computer cursor. The goal of the participants was to learn to produce finger movements so that they could move the cursor on the screen back and forth between two targets that were along the X-axis. In order to elicit new coordination patterns, we gradually altered the weighting of a target-finger so that movement of this finger now caused the cursor to move along the orthogonal direction to the intended movement (i.e. along the Y-axis). After 200 movements where

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participants adapted to the new weights, we gradually changed the weights back to their original values. Results showed that when the weights were changed, participants were able to successfully reorganize their finger movements to reach the targets on the X-axis and minimize motion of the cursor along the Y-axis. The search process first involved scaling the existing coordination pattern followed by a period of sustained exploration to find the new coordination pattern. The final coordination pattern not only had reduced motion in the target finger, but also in the adjacent digit. Moreover, even when the weights were restored to the original values, the coordination pattern did not return to the original pattern used—suggesting that modifications in coordination patterns are not only influenced by the weights, but also depend on the prior coordination pattern used. These results show that this training protocol using body-machine interfaces can be used as a potential means to improve hand dexterity by encouraging the practice of novel finger coordination patterns. Synchronizing gait to an avatar exhibiting a fractal walking pattern Rhea, Christopher K.; Wittstein, Matthew W.; MacPherson, Ryan P.; University of North Carolina–Greensboro Researchers have begun to develop interventions designed to strengthen fractal patterns in gait, which could benefit rehabilitation programs targeting gait adaptability. Weakened fractal patterns are associated with a decrease in adaptability. Our previous worked showed that gait fractal patterns are strengthened when synchronizing to a fractal stimulus, and the newly learned fractal patterns are retained after training. This study examined whether the manner in which the fractal stimulus is presented affects gait dynamics. We hypothesized that a stimulus providing continuous information would lead to stronger fractal patterns relative to a discrete stimulus. Participants (N = 13, M age = 21.8 ± 2.9) completed two 30-min sessions of treadmill walking at a self-selected speed (0.85 ± 0.13 m/s). Each session included three 10-min phases. Participants first walked with no stimulus (pre-sync phase), then walked while synchronizing their gait cycle to a visual stimulus (sync-phase), and lastly continued walking without the stimulus (post-sync phase). The discrete stimulus displayed virtual footprints that flashed at eye height, whereas the continuous stimulus consisted of a walking avatar. The timing of the gait cycle in both stimuli was fractal (detrended fluctuation analysis α = 0.98). A 2 × 3 (stimulus × phase) repeated-measures ANOVA showed a significant interaction (F(2,24) = 23.9, p < .001). Follow-up tests indicated the fractal pattern strengthened when synchronizing to the discrete stimulus (pre-sync = 0.73 ± 0.10, sync = 0.87 ± 0.07), but the pattern was not retained after the training (post-sync = 0.75 ± 0.10). The fractal pattern was weakened when synchronizing to the avatar (pre-sync = 0.77 ± 0.14, sync = 0.58 ± 0.20), but that pattern was also not retained after the training (post-sync = 0.77 ± 0.10). The data suggest continuous fractal information about gait timing presented in an avatar may lead to a negative effect on gait adaptability during training. However, the weakened fractal pattern was not retained after training, suggesting that weak fractal patterns are difficult to learn. Focusing on the skill matters: Investigating the content of focus of attention instructions Russell, Robert B.; Campbell, Olivia; Porter, Jared; Southern Illinois University There exist two lines of research examining a performer’s focus of attention during motor skill performance: one examining the orientation of attention relative to the skill being performed (skill-focused/extraneous focus) and another relative to the performer’s movement during skill execution (internal/external). The current study sought to examine the interplay between these two variables and the effect of this interplay on performance outcomes in a dart-throwing task. Thirty-one novices were recruited to participate in the study. Participants completed a primary, dart-throwing task with the goal throwing the dart as accurately as possible. They simultaneously completed a secondary, arm-stabilizing task with their non-dominant arm, wherein they were to minimize the movement of either the arm or a sheet contingent upon experimenter instructions. Throughout the experiment two aspects of the participants’ attentional focus was manipulated via verbal instruction. Participants were instructed to attend specifically to either the primary dart-throwing task or the secondary arm-stabilizing task, and at the same time, they were instructed to focus internally or externally relative to their body. Participants completed 120 trials split evenly across each of four conditions. The conditions were created by combining the dimensions of the two variables, resulting in an internal primary-task, external primary-task, internal secondary-task, and external secondary-task orientation. Performance on the primary task was assessed during all conditions by measuring throwing accuracy. Results indicated that accuracy improved under the external, primary skill-oriented condition relative to all other conditions; no differences between the remaining conditions were observed. These findings support the predictions of the constrained action hypothesis, which posits that only those instructions directing attention towards the effect of the movement outcomes (skill-focused) on the environment (external) lead to improvements in performance. Lifespan changes in dual-task-costs: simultaneous walking and cognitive flexibility (Trail Walking Test) in children, young, and older adults Schott, Nadja M.; Klotzbier, Thomas; University of Stuttgart Background: Daily life walking often involves the added complexity of walking while doing other activities (i.e., dual-task walking). A complex walking task may require a greater proportion of physical and mental capacity, resulting in decrements in gait performance not seen for simple walking tasks. Methods: We examined dual-task performance of a cognitive and a sensorimotor task (walking) in 174 children and adults from five age groups (8- to 11-year-olds, M = 10.1 years; 12- to 14-year-olds, M = 12.9 years; young adults, 20- to 30-year-olds, M = 23.1 years; older adults, 50- to 70-year-olds, M = 61.5 years; 70- to 80-year-olds,

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M = 75.7 years). Based on the idea of the paper-and-pencil Trail Making Test, participants walked along a fixed pathway (TWTA), stepped on targets with increasing sequential numbers (i.e., 1-2-3; TWT-B), and increasing sequential numbers and letters (i.e., 1-A-2-B-3-C; TWT-C). The dual-task costs were calculated for each task. Additionally the following tests were conducted: Trail-Making Test (TMT), Block-Tapping-Test (BTT), Timed-Up And-Go Test (TUG), 30s-Chair-Rising-Test, and 10-m Walking Time Test with and without head turns. Results: In line with general resource models walking under dual-task conditions showed a U-shaped relation as a function of age with pronounced decrements in the youngest and older groups. Dual-task costs in walking were higher for the more difficult number-letter-sequencing task compared to only the number-sequencing task. In the groups of children and older adults, the correlations between the Trail-Walking-Test and BTT, TMT, 10-m walking time, and TUG were particularly strong (p < .001). Conclusion: The results indicate that high-level cognitive processes interfere with automatic processes like walking. The costs are pronounced at opposite ends of the lifespan. Our approach of testing children and older adults within a challenging dual-task paradigm holds promise for future research. This required combination of central nervous system and motor functions is crucial for activities carried out in everyday life. Self-regulation depletion and performance in an externally paced running task Schuecker, Linda, University of Muenster; MacMahon, Clare, Swinburne University of Technology This research investigated the effect of cognitive fatigue on a continuous, complex and externally paced running task. Fatigue was induced by a self-regulation depletion task. In line with findings on self-regulation, we hypothesized that participants in the fatigue condition would experience an increase in perceived effort and decline in performance compared with the non-fatigue condition. Two studies were conducted to test this assumption. In study one 12 participants performed a standard shuttle run test (beep test) once after working for 10 min on the unmatched version of the Stroop task (cognitive fatigue) and once after working on the matched version of the task (control). The two sessions were separated by one week and the order of conditions was counterbalanced. Beep test performance (time spent until withdrawal from the test) did not differ between fatigue (M = 9:09 min, SD = 1:39) and control conditions (M = 9:15 min, SD = 1:28), t(11) = .55, p = .60. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) measured at 1-min intervals, showed a significant main effect of fatigue, F(1,10) = 8.08, p = .017, η2p = .45, strikingly with higher RPE values in the control condition. The second study was conducted to examine whether the properties of the control condition might explain the absence of a difference in performance and the unexpected elevated RPE levels in the control condition (e.g., inducing boredom). In study two, 11 participants followed the same protocol as in study one. However, in the control condition, the matched version of the Stroop task was replaced with watching a video of nature scenes. Similar to study one, beep-test performance did not differ between the fatigue (M = 8:29 min, SD = 2:05) and control conditions (M = 8:27 min, SD = 2:01), t(10) = .21, p = .84. In contrast to study one, there was no significant effect for RPE. Taken together, this research did not show a detrimental effect of self-regulation depletion on the subsequent physical task. Current work in follow up is focused on exploring specific properties of the task or participant characteristics to explain these findings. Differentiated effects of an internal focus of attention in running Schuecker, Linda, Knopf, Christian, University of Muenster; Hagemann, Norbert, University of Kassel; Strauss, Bernd, University of Muenster Research on focus of attention in endurance sports has shown inconsistent results whether an external or internal focus is most beneficial for performance. The aim of this study was to deal with these contradictory findings by taking a closer look at specific aspects of internally focused attention. It was hypothesized that different kinds of internally focused attention have a differentiated influence on endurance performance. More specifically, we expect that only an internal focus of attention on automated processed is detrimental to running economy, an internal focus towards the physical sensations associated with the activity does not hinder efficient running. Thirty-two active runners ran 4 × 6 min on a treadmill at a fixed speed of moderate intensity. For three of the blocks, participants were instructed to direct their attention on different internal aspects (movement execution, breathing, or feeling of the body), for the fourth block they received no instructions. The order of the four conditions was counterbalanced. To determine running economy, oxygen consumption (VO2) was measured continuously throughout the run. A repeated-measures ANOVA revealed a main effect of attentional focus on VO2, F(2.2, 68.8) = 12.87, p < .001, η2p = .29. Post-hoc comparisons showed that VO2 in the internal feeling of the body and control condition were not different from each other, but running economy degraded significantly when participant focused on either their breathing or running movement. The results lead to the conclusion that an internal focus of attention is detrimental to performance when directed to the highly automated processes of breathing and the running movement, whereas an internal focus that does not influence automatic processes (i.e., focus on how the body feels during the endurance activity) is not detrimental to performance. Judging joint angles and movement outcome: Shifting the focus of attention in dart throwing Sherwood, David E., University of Colorado–Boulder; Lohse, Keith R., University of British Columbia; Healy, Alice F., University of Colorado–Boulder Many research studies have shown the advantage of an external focus of attention (FOA) relative to an internal focus for motor learning and performance when the focus is explicitly instructed. The current experiment varied the FOA differently by asking

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novice participants (N = 24) to judge either joint angles at the release of a dart (internal probes) or the horizontal or vertical spatial accuracy (external probes) following dart throws in which vision was removed. The probes were administered on a fourth test day following 432 acquisition trials over three days both with and without vision. Radial error (RE) and bivariate variable error (BVE) were measured on each set of 3 throws. Mixed ANOVAs indicated improvement in RE and BVE during acquisition, but larger errors on the non-vision trials. On the test day, RE scores based on 30 trials were greater during internal probes compared with external probes or a no-probe control condition. There were no differences between the conditions for BVE. Participants were generally better at detecting spatial errors in the vertical plane compared with the horizontal plane These data suggest that the advantages of an external FOA relative to an internal FOA are not fully attributable to visual processing and that these advantages can be attained using probing questions between trials, whereas previous research has explicitly instructed the FOA. Are cognitive processes mediated by the frontal lobes affected by Parkinson’s disease? Silveira, Carolina R.A.; University of Waterloo; Gillingham, Susan M.; Stuss, Donald T.; Rotman Research Institute–Baycrest; Roy, Eric A.; University of Waterloo; Almeida, Quincy J.; Wilfrid Laurier University Previous studies have argued that specific cognitive processes may be regionally organized within the frontal lobes. Since the frontal lobes are connected with subcortical areas such as the basal ganglia, it was hypothesized that basal ganglia degeneration would result in selective impairment of cognitive processes. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether Parkinson’s disease (PD) affects specific cognitive processes, including energization, task-setting, and monitoring. Twenty-one PD and 21 age-matched control participants completed three reaction time (RT) tasks that progressively increased in complexity (simple RT (SRT), easy choice RT (ERT), complex choice RT (CRT)). Outcome measures included RT as mediated by stimulus type and length of foreperiod (ISI), and errors. Individuals with PD responded slower than healthy controls on the SRT task (p = .015). Although slower, PD participants illustrated a normal foreperiod effect (decrease in RT with an increase in ISI) on the SRT task. An interaction between group and foreperiod showed that this effect was altered in PD participants in the ERT task (p = .055). A group by stimuli (target or non-target) interaction also approached significance in the ERT task (p = .077), showing that PD participants had greater difficulty making a decision in response to Target stimuli. Individuals with PD also made more errors (p = .03) of all kinds than healthy controls in the CRT task. Results from SRT in the present study might be attributed to PD motor slowness rather than cognitive deficits. However, difficulties estimating stimulus occurrence (lack of foreperiod effect) and the patterns of decision-making deficits illustrated by differential responding dependent on stimulus type and overall larger number of errors suggest a possible deficit in the continuous monitoring of performance in individuals with PD. These results suggest that dopaminergic neurodegeneration impacts frontal lobe cognitive processes. These findings may contribute to identifying the source of cognitive impairments which may influence motor dysfunction in PD.  Canada Foundation for Innovation, Sun Life Financial, and CNPq/Brasil Validation of a smartphone app to record gait acceleration profiles Smith, Brittany L.; High, Amanda E.; Long, Ben L.; University of North Carolina–Greensboro; Rider, Patrick M., East Carolina University; Rhea, Christopher K., University of North Carolina–Greensboro Smartphones typically have an internal accelerometer, which could be leveraged as a data collection device if the equipment is valid relative to standard research tools. This study compared the gait acceleration profile recorded with a smartphone to data collected from a research-grade accelerometer. Participants (N = 11, M age = 21.5 ± 2.8 years) walked for two 10-min sessions on a treadmill (100% and 120% of preferred walking speed) while the 3D acceleration profile of their right thigh was recorded with two devices. First, a smartphone was placed on the lateral aspect of the mid-thigh. The smartphone was equipped with an app we developed called AccWalker, which records the 3D acceleration profile using the smartphone’s internal accelerometer. Second, a research-grade accelerometer (Trigno Wireless system, Delsys, Inc.) was placed directly on top of the phone to record comparative data. The acceleration profiles in the X (anterior-posterior), Y (medial-lateral), and Z (vertical) planes from both systems were then analyzed using sample entropy (SampEn) to determine if similar dynamic patterns existed in each plane. A 2 × 3 × 2 (device × plane × walking speed) repeated-measures ANOVA revealed no significant interactions (all p > .05). However, a main effect of device (F(1,10) = 97.3, p < .001) and plane (F(2,20) = 25.0, p < .001) was observed. Follow-up tests showed that SampEn from AccWalker (100%: X = 0.59 ± 0.07, Y = 0.69 ± 0.11, Z = 0.87 ± 0.16; 120%: X = 0.62 ± 0.08, Y = 0.71 ± 0.11, Z = 0.96 ± 0.20) was consistently lower than the research-grade accelerometer (100%: X = 0.78 ± 0.12, Y = 0.93 ± 0.19, Z = 1.11 ± 0.25; 120%: X = 0.77 ± 0.14, Y = 0.88 ± 0.16, X = 1.17 ± 0.25), but the same directionality was observed between devices (SampEn increased from X to Y to Z). Further, significant correlations were observed between devices for the X and Y planes (r = 0.87–0.94). The data suggests that while the absolute values of SampEn differ between devices, similar relative behavior between the planes of motion is indexed. This indicates that a smartphone app can be valid tool to measure acceleration profiles during gait. A comparison of internal and external attentional foci with a distraction condition in learning balance and locomotion tasks Smith, Peter J.; Weber, Alyssa; Dicken, Andy; Illinois State University While the beneficial effect of an external over an internal focus of attention has been found to take until a third practice day to emerge for a balance task (Wulf et al., 2001), Smith & Tonsul (2013) found immediate performance benefits for a distraction condition relative to either an internal or external attentional focus. The current study sought to extend Smith & Tonsul’s findings,

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by both incorporating performance and learning conditions, and adding a second task that was intended to differ in its potential for automatic control. Ninety-six participants were randomly assigned to either one of two tasks, and one of three practice conditions. For the balance task, participants completed seven 90-s trials on a stabilometer on two consecutive days in either external, internal, or distraction conditions. The distraction condition was to count up in 2s while balancing. The attentional focus conditions followed those of Wulf et al. (2001). All participants performed a further three trials on a third day with no attentional manipulation. The second task was to learn to ride a Pedalo (Becker & Smith, 2013) over a 7-m distance under the same internal, external, or distraction conditions. All participants completed 20 7-m trials on one day of practice, followed by 4 trials on a second day with no attention manipulation. The results indicated that distraction performed better than either attentional focus over the first two days of the balance task, but that both the distraction and external focus performed better than internal focus in retention. However, for the pedalo task, an external focus resulted in better performance and learning than either of the other conditions, and distraction resulted in poorer performance than either of the other two conditions. The results suggest that distraction is beneficial only under some task conditions, and this is suggested to be due to the potential for the tasks to be learned using well established movements (balance) rather than more novel movements (pedalo). Can video training improve the accuracy and speed of teammate identification (TM-ID) in sports people? Steel, Kylie A.; Ellem, Eathan; University of Western Sydney Introduction: Within sporting contexts, the decision to pass or score is made after the perceivable options have been considered by cognitive processes. Any inhibition when classifying a player as a teammate must be avoided, especially at representative levels of competition where passing and scoring opportunities are predominantly rare, and difficult to capitalize upon. Therefore, enhancing teammate identification (TM-ID) through video-based perceptual-cognitive training may allow players to more easily take advantage of these opportunities. Increasing familiarity between teammates may prove beneficial in newly formed or long-standing representative teams. The purpose of this study was to determine if a video-based training program could improve a player’s ability to identify their teammates (subsequently referred to as TM-ID). Methods: Fifteen participants were recruited into either two training or one control group. Participants in training groups took part in a 4-week video-based training program, during which they were trained to identify a “team” of players who they were not personally familiar with. Performance in training groups was measured by differences in pre-/post-testing, specifically improvement in response accuracy and response time. Performance in training groups was also compared to the control group, who only completed pre-/post-testing sessions. Results: Both training and control groups significantly improved their performance from pre- to post-tests. The effects were greatest for training groups, specifically significant improvements in response accuracy, movement time, and total time. Furthermore, recognition in training groups improved for all performance directions with respect to response time. Conclusion: Video-based training programs are an effective means of enhancing TM-ID. This improvement is a result of more efficient perceptual-cognitive behaviors, including visual search and decision making. Future research should be more ecologically representative, and incorporate a transfer test to determine the benefits of TM-ID training. The use of video self-modeling in the improvement of a reach and grasp task for stroke patients Steel, Kylie A.; Sandoval, Remi; University of Western Sydney Background: Stroke is the second largest cause of death and disability worldwide. Over 420,000 stroke victims live in Australia alone with over one-third of these individuals suffering at least one form of long-lasting disability. Current upper limb rehabilitation options are limited; therefore the aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of video self-modeling in improving the reach and grasp skill in stroke patients, and whether the ability to retain improved motor control would have an effect on a subject’s sense of confidence, independence and general well-being. Methods: Stroke (n = 8) and healthy groups (n = 7) performed a series of reach and grasp tasks while being filmed from above and over the shoulder. Recordings were used to create personalized DVDs for each subject, which they were instructed to view three times a day, over 7 days. They were then tested again using the same protocol. Subjects were also asked to complete a Movement-Specific Reinvestment scale and Well-Being Questionnaire prior to both the pre-test and the post-test. Results: Motion analysis was divided into forwards movement time, backwards movement time, forwards maximum horizontal deviation (max HD), and backwards horizontal deviation maximum. Significant changes were observed for forwards movement time and forwards max HD for the healthy group, as well as improvements in backwards max HD for both groups. MSRS and Well-Being questionnaire results found a non-significant improvement in both MSRS and Well-Being Scores for the stroke group. No significant changes in MSRS scores were observed for the healthy group. Conclusion: Although significance for improved performance was not observed for all variables, there were positive trends present in the results, suggesting there may be potential for the use of video self-modeling in stroke rehabilitation to be explored in future studies. How do pre-service PDHPE teachers perceive the importance of skill acquisition? Steel, Kylie A.; Laidlaw, Penelope; University of Western Sydney Introduction: The purpose of this study was to examine and understand how pre-service personal development, health, and physical education (PDHPE) teachers perceive the importance of skill acquisition. Current literature describes the importance of skill acquisition to skill development and confidence building in sport. There is evidence that effective use of skill

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acquisition techniques amongst PDHPE teachers leads to higher success rates in students’ acquisition of skills and meeting curriculum expectations. However, perceptions of skill acquisition and its importance amongst pre-service PDHPE teachers is an unexplored area. Methods: Using a qualitative approach focus groups with 25 pre-service PDHPE teachers were used allowed for the identification of themes and findings. Findings and Conclusions: Three key findings emerged from this data. It was evident that pre-service PDHPE do have an appreciation for implementing skill acquisition. The participants were able to provide various scenarios where skill acquisition is vital for the development of skills. The quality, not the quantity of the units that the participants were enrolled in was another key finding. When students are engaged in the unit content, and the links are established between various units, it is beneficial to the contribution of their knowledge. Finally the factor of “just getting children and students active and involved in physical activity,” opposed to having the students acquire and perform the skills correctly was an overriding view. This seemed to derive from curriculum tension as participants suggested that the curriculum content contributed to this way of teaching skills. Gait dynamics when visual constraints are imposed Stout, Ruth D.; Wittstein, Matthew W.; Rhea, Christopher K.; University of North Carolina–Greensboro The gait cycle varies between strides and the manner in which the variability unfolds is postulated to reflect a person’s ability to appropriately respond to challenges (i.e., a trip). Gait is controlled via the integration of sensory information that can be used in a feedforward or feedback manner. Visual information offers sensory information about motion relative to the self and the environment, which could influence gait dynamics. This study examined whether constraining visual information during treadmill walking influenced gait dynamics. It was postulated that constrained visual information would lead to more random patterns in the gait variables. Thirteen participants (25.0 ± 5.5 years) walked for three 15-min sessions under different visual conditions: (1) unobstructed vision in full light, (2) obstructed vision in full light, and (3) unobstructed vision in low light. Obstructed vision was provided by goggles that blocked the lower visual field and low light was provided by turning off most of the lights in the room (160 lux in full light, 10 lux in low light). Dynamic patterns in the gait variables of step length, step width, and stride time were assessed using detrended fluctuation analysis alpha (DFA-α), with lower values indicating more random patterns. Separate repeated-measures ANOVA were used for each gait variable. For step length, an effect of vision was observed, (F(2,24) = 4.3, p = .03), with the obstructed vision condition exhibiting a higher DFA-α (0.70 ± 0.10) compared to the unobstructed vision condition in full light (0.64 ± 0.10). Stride time was also affected by vision, (F(2,24) = 6.5, p < .01), with the visual obstruction condition leading to a higher DFA-α (0.83 ± 0.12) relative to unobstructed vision in full light (0.73 ± 0.09) and low light (0.73 ± 0.03). No significant differences were observed for step width (p > .05). The data suggests that blocking the lower peripheral visual field leads to a more deterministic (less random) gait pattern. It is possible that a more rigid strategy emerged because less information was available to guide the motion. The role of visual feedback in the bimanual advantage Studenka, Breanna E.; Skabelund, Zach T.; Kent, Martin; Cummins, Daisha L.; Turnbow, Cameron; Myers, Kodey; Utah State University When two hands time instead of only one, a bimanual advantage is observed. Specifically, the internal clock variance of intervals produced by one finger is greater than the variance of intervals produced by that same finger when it taps along with the same finger of the opposite hand (Drewing & Aschersleben, 2003; Hellmuth & Ivry, 1996). Two main theories aim to explain this reduced variability. The multiple-timekeeper model proposes a coupling of internal clocks, leading to reduced clock variance (Helmuth & Ivry, 1996; Ivry & Richardson, 2002). Alternatively, reduced variance could result from additional sensory feedback from two effectors contacting the tapping surface as opposed to one (Drewing & Aschersleben, 2003). Changing tactile and auditory feedback available to one finger influenced timing variability on the opposite hand, supporting the feedback hypothesis (Drewing & Aschersleben, 2003; Drewing et al., 2002). We aimed to test the role of visual feedback in the bimanual advantage. Participants tapped unimanually and bimanually (with no table contact) in three conditions: full vision, blindfolded, and with additional visual feedback provided via a mirror reflecting the right hand. We predicted that bimanual advantage would be greater for tapping with vision versus no vision. Additionally, we would support the sensory feedback hypothesis if the bimanual advantage occurred when the left hand was represented by a mirror but did not actually tap. Bimanual advantage occurred for both full vision and no vision conditions suggesting that visual feedback was not the only necessity for bimanual advantage. Unimanual tapping variability did not differ for one versus two sources of visual feedback, suggesting visual feedback does not play a role in bimanual advantage. Furthermore, when two hands tapped with the mirror reflection of the right hand the bimanual advantage was eliminated. These findings support that importance of the interplay between sensory feedback and initiation of movements (e.g., clock signals) in the bimanual advantage. Response preparation and execution processes during step initiation Sun, Ruopeng; Guerra, Richard; Shea, John B.; Indiana University-Bloomington The purpose of this study is to compare the response preparation and response execution processes during step initiation between simple (SRT) and choice reaction time (CRT). Nine college students were recruited to participate in this study. Subjects were required to stand on an AMTI forceplate and maintain their balance at the beginning, and step forward on to the second forceplate

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with left or right foot after hearing (250 Hz/500 Hz) tones generated by a customized LABVIEW program. Bilateral surface EMG of tibialis anterior (TA) and medial gastrocnemius (GA) were recorded and synchronized with 3D motion tracking. The preparatory phase and stepping phase of step initiation was characterize by the center of pressure (COP) trajectory and its timing in response to the simple or choice reaction task were calculated. Subjects were required to perform 10 trials of step initiation on each foot in a simple reaction task, and 25 random trials in a choice reaction task. Our results showed that premotor time (interval between the stimulus to TA onset, PRT) and COP onset in CRT were significantly longer than in SRT (PRT: SRT 197 ms vs. CRT 379 ms, p < .001; COP onset: SRT 205 ms vs. CRT 319 ms, p < .001). While the preparatory phase showed no difference between SRT and CRT, the stepping phase was faster in CRT than in SRT (SRT 275 ms vs. CRT 258 ms, p = .025). The prolonged PRT and COP onset time during the choice reaction step initiation task reflects the additional cognitive processing time for stimulus discrimination and response selection. The shortened stepping time in CRT indicates the compensation mechanism adapted by subjects in order to finish the task in a timely manner. Influence of concurrent imitative motor execution during action observation on accuracy in anticipating outcomes of basketball free throws Unenaka, Satoshi; Ikudome, Sachi; Nakamoto, Hiroki; Mori, Shiro; National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya Since motor execution and observation share overlapping neural resonating mechanisms (Schütz-Bosbach and Prinz, 2007), motor experience influences action perception and anticipation in sport (Urgesi et al., 2012). Action perception is also facilitated by executing concurrent imitation movement during observation (Christensen et al., 2011). The present study aimed to clarify the influence of concurrent imitative motor execution on the accuracy of anticipating outcomes of basketball free throws. Seven right-handed male basketball players anticipated the outcomes of basketball free throws based on kinematic information about the opponent’s movement (such as occluded ball flight information in movies) under the following conditions: simple observation of free throw actions (control), and right volar flexion requiring concurrent imitative motor execution (that is, free throw movement) during action observation. Anticipation accuracy (that is, the rate of correct responses) was determined under both conditions. Moreover, the time taken to initiate motor execution and maximum volar-flexion angle under right volar flexion were compared with the actual movement of the model during free throws. Anticipation accuracy was higher than the level of chance under both conditions (p < 0.05); however, control and right volar flexion conditions did not significantly differ. The maximum angle of volar flexion between the participant’s imitative and the model’s actual movements was significantly smaller in correct than in incorrect trials (p < 0.01). In addition, right volar flexion executed during observation was similar to successful shots by the model, and correct responses included more successful than failed shot movies. These results indicated that because basketball players executed concurrent imitative movement similar to a successful shot, they were able to discriminate hand movements in the model that generated successful shots. Thus, concurrent motor execution during observation (imitation) appears to influence the accuracy of anticipation. The effects of bandwidth KR in two tasks with different demands Vieira, Márcio Mário; Carvalho, Maria Flávia; Ugrinowitsch, Herbert; Benda, Rodolfo Novellino; Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais One way to provide knowledge of results (KR) is using bandwidth KR. Most of bandwidth studies have shown its advantage on motor learning; while some of them showed higher performance accuracy other showed higher performance consistency. These conflicting results may be related to the difference on tasks demands adopted in such studies. Searching for a generalization of bandwidth KR effects on motor learning, this study aimed to investigate the effect of bandwidth KR in two tasks with different demands. Forty volunteers (n = 10), inexperienced in the tasks used participated in the study, which consisted of two experiments with acquisition phase, transfer test 10 min after the acquisition phase and retention test 24 hr after the transfer test. In Experiment 1, the task consisted in carrying a tennis ball on a platform with six containers in a predetermined sequence and target time. In the acquisition phase (30 trials) and tests (10 trials each) the sequence had to be performed in 3000 ms. In the transfer test, another sequence had to be performed in 4000 ms. The subjects were divided during acquisition phase into G100, with KR provided after every trial and BG, with KR provided when error was higher than 7%. The results of both testes showed that BG had lower constant error than G100. In Experiment 2, the task consisted of throwing a saloon dart toward a target placed on the floor. In the acquisition phase (45 trials) and tests (10 trials), the dart throwing was performed at 2.0 m away from the throwing line. In the transfer test (10 trials), the task was performed at 3.0 m away from the target. The subjects were divided into G100 and BG, such as in the experiment 1. The results showed that G100 had lower variable error than BG in the first block of retention test. The results of the two experiments showed that using bandwidth KR is better than providing KR after every trial for motor learning and the effect of bandwidth KR depends on the task demand. Bimanual and unimanual movement sequences: The role of element difficulty Wang, Chaoyi; Kennedy, Deanna M.; Boyle, Jason B.; Shea, Charles H.; Texas A&M University An experiment was designed to investigate the role element difficulty plays in determining the control process and organization of bimanual (in-phase) and unimanual sequential movements. In the initial study, participants were asked to move as quickly and smoothly as possible from one illuminated target to the next. When they achieved the target location the illumination was

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turned off and the next target in the sequence was illuminated. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups based on target size and whether the task required unimanual or bimanual movement. The manipulation of target size resulted in index of difficulty (ID) levels of 3 and 5 (Fitts, 1954). Eight participants in each bimanual (bimanual-ID3 and bimanual-ID5) and unimanual group (unimanual-ID3 and unimanual-ID5) practiced 2 sessions of 11 blocks (60 s per block). As expected, the results indicate that the higher difficulty condition (ID5) results in longer element durations than observed for the lower difficulty condition (ID3). Also, segment harmonicity values for both bimanual and unimanual groups were lower for the ID5 condition than the ID3 condition. Interestingly, for the bimanual group, when element difficulty increased, it reduced coordination between the two arms (higher relative phase errors and variability) and disrupted the chunking of elements into subsequences. Unimanual and bimanual performance for the ID3 condition was similar in terms of movement time, harmonicity, and patterns of chunking. The results support our initial hypothesis that increasing the element difficulty in sequence learning may not only delay the emergence of the chunking pattern but also interfere with bimanual coordination. The impact of an early and intense prone positioning program in infants with Down syndrome: A pilot study Wentz, Erin E.; Hauck, Janet; University of Michigan Purpose: To examine the impact of a daily, parent/caregiver implemented, tummy time (prone positioning) program (goal 90 min/day) on motor development and physical activity levels in infants with Down syndrome (DS). To determine the feasibility of parent/caregiver implementation of tummy time at 90 min/day. Methods: Six infants with DS, aged 4 to 15 weeks at study entry, from five different metropolitan areas, participated in this pilot study. Participants were asked to accumulate 90 min per day of deliberate, wakeful tummy time. Daily tummy time was logged by families over the course of the study. Monthly visits were made at each participant’s home for instruction in tummy time activities, height/weight measurements, motor assessment progress as determined by the PDMS-II and Bayley Motor Scales, and delivery of Actigraph accelerometers (2) for 24-hr (monitors were placed on the right wrist and ankle) PA measurement. Infants were monitored for up to 7 months following study entry. Pilot data was compared to historical data on a similar cohort with DS, not engaging in the tummy time intervention. Results: On average, participants engaged in 49.1 min of tummy time by 1 month after baseline, 72.4 min by 3 months, and 84.5 min by 5 months. Preliminary findings indicate that babies participating in the tummy time intervention have a lower ponderal index, higher scores on the Bayley Motor Scales, and greater raw PA count data than matched babies not participating in the intervention. Conclusion: The findings from the pilot work indicate that 90 min per day of tummy time is achievable for families with infants with DS and that increasing deliberate, wakeful tummy time positively impacts motor development and physical activity levels.  U.S. Department of Special Education Programs, Ulrich (PI) Influence of treadmill harness on gait dynamics Wittstein, Matthew W.; Stout, Ruth D.; Rhea, Christopher K.; University of North Carolina–Greensboro Studying human falls during gait is challenging because an unexpected perturbation while walking must be provided in a safe testing environment. A harness can be used to provide safety, however, this could influence gait dynamics and ultimately confound studies targeting gait dynamics as a variable for evaluation or rehabilitation. Therefore, this study examined gait dynamics during treadmill walking to determine if a support harness influences gait dynamics. We hypothesized that a harness would not alter gait dynamics in healthy adults. Twenty subjects (10 older, age 59.6 ± 10.7 years; 10 younger, age 25.2 ± 1.5 years) walked on a treadmill at a self-selected pace for 20 min in each of three conditions: wearing no harness, wearing a harness unattached from the support frame, and wearing a harness attached to the support frame. A reflective marker tracked the position of each heel and was used to calculate stride time, step length, and step width for each gait cycle throughout the 20-min trial. Detrended fluctuation analysis scaling exponent alpha (DFA-α) was used to quantify patterns within the time series for each of the gait variables. Separate 2 × 3 (age group × condition) repeated-measures ANOVAs were used to test for differences in DFA-α of stride time, step length, and step width. There were no significant interaction effects (all p > 0.10) or main effects for age group (all p > 0.50) or condition (all p > 0.25) for any of the dependent variables. These findings suggest that wearing a harness did not alter gait dynamics, whether it was attached to a support frame or not. Moreover, this supports the notion that using a harness as a safety mechanism in future studies that observe unexpected perturbations or falls during gait will not confound the gait dynamics data. Interestingly, there was no difference observed between age groups. This may be due to limitations imposed on stride time, step length, and step width during treadmill walking because the activity is spatially and temporally constrained. The effects of Taijiquan push hand training on the balance and the muscular endurance of the lower limbs of sight impaired Wu, Sheng Hsien; Chen, Hsiu Hui; National Taitung University Taijiquan, a gem in Chinese culture—the training on either the form or push hands singly—significantly strengthens both the balance of the body and muscular endurance of the lower limbs (Wu Rong-hui, 2004). Objective: This research intends to understand the effects of Taijiquan push hands the balance and the lower-limb muscular endurance of the sight-impaired and to explore the progress that they have made in their learning of Taijiquan push hands. Method: Six lazy-eyed, two half-blind, and one blind participant took a 36-class Taijiquan push hands training course, and five tests were administered: one test before the course, three during the course, and one after the course. This research used a stopwatch to measure the length of time that

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each participant was able to stand on one foot; it used a MS-288 leg press to measure their maximum counts and the muscular endurance of their thighs. Professional coaches evaluate the Taijiquan push-hands skill levels of the participants. Results: The repeated-measures ANOVA indicates that the sensitivity of the hands, sense of direction, center of gravity, continuous movements, and the length of time standing on one leg of the participants showed apparent progress, whereas leg press counts did not show apparent elevations. Conclusions: We discovered in the five tests that the blind participants gained markedly in their basic Taijiquan push hands skills and balance. Therefore, Taijiquan push hands training is helpful for the physical capabilities of the visually impaired. Future research can be extended to cover topics on blind participants and lengthened training periods in order to understand their respective effects on somatosense and muscular endurance. From the laboratory to the real world: Utilizing an external focus of attention with elite high jumpers to enhance running posture Wu, Will F.; Becker, James; California State University–Long Beach The performance and learning effects related to attentional focus have received a significant amount of attention from researchers. Based on the results of numerous studies utilizing a wide range of tasks, an external focus of attention elicits enhanced performance when compared to an internal focus of attention (for a review, see Wulf, 2012). While there is a substantial amount of literature demonstrating the benefits of an external focus of attention within the laboratory setting, there have been few studies that have investigated these findings in real-world situations. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of an external focus of attention (EFA) cue in a real-world training environment using elite athletes. Specifically, this study examined whether an EFA can enhance the running posture of elite high jumpers during a training session. Consistent with the laboratory-based data, it was hypothesized that an EFA would enhance the jumper’s posture during the approach. Participants were elite high jumpers, as defined by the standards provided by USA Track and Field’s High Performance Program. Based on prior biomechanical analyses, it was determined that the participants displayed running postures which negatively affected their performance. In order to help foster an EFA, white medical tape was placed on the shirt of each athlete, directly over the navel, and participants were told to “lead with the tape” as they transitioned from the straight to curved portions of the approach. A baseline jump and 3 jumps using the EFA cue were analyzed using a 3-D biomechanical analysis. Compared to the baseline jump, the EFA cue elicited reduced forward trunk lean during the approach, decreased contact time on the penultimate step, and a smaller loss of horizontal velocity from the penultimate step to the takeoff step, all variables associated with desired running posture and improved performance in the high jump. Results of the study provide support for the use of an EFA in real-world training environments using highly skilled performers.  USA Track and Field Additive learning benefits of enhanced performance expectancy and autonomy support Wulf, Gabriele, University of Nevada–Las Vegas; Chiviacowsky, Suzete, Cardozo, Priscila; Federal University of Pelotas Two important factors that have been shown to facilitate motor learning are enhanced performance expectancies (EE) and autonomy support (AS), or self-controlled practice. We examined the individual and combined influences of these factors. In a 2 × 2 design, participants learning a novel motor skill (throwing with the non-dominant arm) were or were not given bogus positive social-comparative feedback (EE), and were or were not provided a choice (AS) about the ball color (yellow, red, blue) on each of 6 10-trial blocks during practice. This resulted in four groups: EE/AS, EE, AS, and C (control). One day after the practice phase, participants completed 10 retention and 10 transfer trials. The distance to the target—a bull’s eye with a 1-m radius and 10 concentric circles—was 7.5 m during practice and retention, and 8.5 m during transfer. Enhanced expectancies and autonomy support had additive advantages for learning, with both main effects being significant for retention and transfer. On both tests, the EE/AS group showed the greatest throwing accuracy. Also, the accuracy scores of the EE and AS groups were higher than those of the C group. Furthermore, self-efficacy measured after practice and before retention/transfer was increased by both EE and AS. Thus, enhancing learners’ performance expectancies and supporting their need for autonomy by given them a small choice—even though it was not directly related to task performance—appeared to independently influence learning. Additive benefits of external focus and enhanced performance expectancy for motor learning Wulf, Gabriele, Pascua, Luigi; University of Nevada–Las Vegas; Lewthwaite, Rebecca; Rancho Los Amigos National Rehabilitation Center The authors examined the individual and combined influences of two factors that have been shown to benefit motor learning: An external focus of attention and enhanced performance expectancies. Another purpose of this study was to gain further insight into the mechanisms underlying these variables. In a factorial design, participants learning a novel motor skill (i.e., throwing with the non-dominant arm) were or were not given external focus (EF) instructions, and were or were not provided bogus positive social-comparative feedback to enhance their expectancies (EE). This resulted in four groups: EF, EE, EF/EE, and C (control). External focus instructions and enhanced expectancies had additive benefits for learning: The EF/EE group demonstrated the greatest throwing accuracy on both retention and transfer tests, while the accuracy scores of the EF and EE groups were lower, but higher than those of the C group. Furthermore, self-efficacy was increased by both EF and EE, and predicted retention and transfer performance. Positive affect was heightened in the EE and EF/EE groups after practice and predicted transfer

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performance. The findings suggest that the learning benefits of an external focus and enhanced expectancies mediate learning through partially different mechanisms. The coordination of volleyball serves in different skill level and task constraints Yen, Ya-Ting; National Chengchi University Volleyball serve is a self-paced task which needs the precise timing for the extrinsic object and intrinsic dynamics of intra-limb coordination. A discrepancy of movement coordination was found because of task constraints (Davids et al., 2001; Temprado et al., 1997). This study was focus on explore the effect of constraints from a movement coordination aspect. Two different skill levels each with 6 players and 2 types of over-hand serves (arm raised before and after ball toss; D & R) were examined. The movement was captured by 2 high-speed cameras (200 fps), and was digitized. Ten successful serves (served clear the net and landed into a 4- × 3-m zone) for each player were collected and analyzed for each serve type. The conclusions were as follows: (1) The sequence of max velocity (Vmax) of joint before ball strike was wrist (W), elbow (E), shoulder (S) and hip (H), respectively. The Vmax’s position between joints was sig. difference in elite group (not for the E-S in non-elite). It showed that the coordination of elite group was similar to kinetic chain which was an efficient way to generate power; thus, a significantly higher ball velocity and lower Vmax value (E, S & H) was found. (2) There were 92% of trials showed in-phase (+sign of CORR and value >.30) for the couplings of joint (WE, ES, WS, and WH). For non-elite, the strength of WH (.852) was significantly larger than elite (.550), and had no significant difference with WE (.980) and ES (.953), which revealed the movement was “freezing.” (3) With more movement request, the strength of coupling was significantly reduced in R condition (.835), and larger time lags were found for certain couplings (ES & WS) while fitted for max CORR value. For WE and WH, the max CORR value (with time lag) was significantly larger in non-elite group. The movement coordination was affected by skill level and task constraints. Further study is suggested to aim at the development of coordination and the influence of task manipulation in the strength and types of coupling, and the results may utilize to design the program that helps learning the volleyball serve. Vestibular hypofunction and perspective of balance in adults with cerebral palsy Yu, Yawen; Snell, Sara; Chudnovskaya, Irina A.; Thompson, Elizabeth D.; Lauer, Richard T.; Temple University Cerebral palsy (CP) is accompanied by sensory deficits although it is commonly thought of as a movement disorder due to musculoskeletal deficits. Our recent work has demonstrated that adults with CP are more visually dependent than adults with typical development. Such reliance on visual information may be a strategy to compensate for the insensitivity of the other sensory systems, such as the somatosensory and vestibular systems. While somatosensory deficits in this population have started to be examined, how the vestibular component is affecting their movement patterns is relatively unknown. In the current study, we examined the relations between visual dependence and vestibular function, and its relations to fear of falling in adults with CP. Twenty adults with spastic diplegic CP were recruited. Visual dependence was evaluated using the Rod and Frame Test (RFT), whereas the vestibulo-ocular reflex, serving to perceive objects accurately during head movement, was tested with clinical Dynamic Visual Acuity test (DVA). The Fall Efficacy Scale-International (FES-I) and the Activities-specific Balance Confidence scale (ABC) were used to capture the individuals’ perspective on their balance abilities. Visual dependence was significantly related to the performance on the DVA (p < .01). This suggests that adults with CP who rely on visual information to maintain balance is a result of vestibular deficits that prevent them from accurately perceiving their environment while the head is in motion. Using performances in DVA and/or RFT as a grouping factor, no significant group effect was found in FES-I and ABC (ps > .05). CP is a life-long condition with which these individuals are born. Adults with CP commonly consider themselves as “professional/ frequent fallers.” Hence, to successfully carry out daily activities, several compensatory strategies may have developed over time, with the reliance on visual information being one. However, how visual dependence affects this population in maintaining balance in terms of kinematic performance awaits further investigation.  National Institute of Health Exploratory movement as a general process for affordance perception Yu, Yawen, Temple University; Hemingway, Lauren, University of Minnesota; Bardy, Benoit, Montpellier-1 University; Stoffregen, Thomas A., University of Minnesota Affordances are potential behaviors that a given individual can carry out in the surrounding environment (Stoffregen, 2003). Affordance perception can be enhanced by bodily movement. Particularly, movement of the head and torso is causally related to the accuracy of judgments about opportunities for wheelchair locomotion (Yu et al., 2011). We asked whether movement was specific to the affordance to be perceived. We investigated the role of movement in the perception of novel affordances for wheelchair locomotion. Healthy adults without previous experience in wheelchairs executed one of two judgment tasks: either minimum passing height—the lowest lintel under which they could roll in the wheelchair, or minimum passing width—the narrowest aperture where they could roll in the wheelchair. During judgments, participants were seated in the wheelchair with the frontal plane of the trunk either parallel or perpendicular to the plane of the apparatus. That is, participants looked at the apparatus while facing either straight ahead or sideways. Judgment accuracy improved over time (across trials), even though participants received no feedback about judgment accuracy. Head movement (measured as participants were making their judgments) became more regular over time. These results suggest that refined exploratory movement is related to the improvement of the accuracy of

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affordance judgments. Additionally, the dynamics of head movement differed as a function of tasks (minimum height vs. minimum width). The results imply that exploratory movement is tuned to satisfy the intention of perceiving different affordances. Taken together, the involvement of whole body movement in affordance perception sheds light on multimodal perception and exploration as a means of general processes. An investigation of motor asymmetry on choice step reaction time between athletes and non-athletes Zhang, Jian, Shanghai University of Sport; Li, Yuhua, University of Memphis The factors which impact athletes’ agility performance have attracted a great research interest in the literature, but limited empirical evidence allow us to fully understand those related factors, such as reactive response of lower limbs. The present study aimed to investigate different characteristics of lower limb reactive performance between elite athletes and novices under either simple visual stimulus (i.e., light) or video signal conditions. Specifically, we used surface electromyography (EMG) on the tibialis anterior (TA) and gastrocnemius medial (GM) of both left and right legs to assess if there would be any different contributions from premotor time (PMT) and motor time (MT) to reaction time (RT) during Choice Step Reaction Tests (CSRT). A total of 40 right-footed male college students (20 athletes and 20 non-athlete students) aged between 19 to 22 years old were required to respond to a random light signal (LEDs) or a 3D video stimulus using foot movement as fast as possible in four different directions (i.e., forward and backward in their left or right foot). RT, PMT, and MT were recorded for a total of 80 test trials for both feet. A significant interaction between Group and Lateral (left vs. right) was found, F(1, 38) = 9.267, p = 0.004. While the novice group was slower than the athlete group in overall performances based on PMT, there was a significant difference between left and right in novice group in the test with LEDs, which indicated an asymmetry of motor performance. However, this was not the case in the athlete group. In the 3D video condition, the athlete group was significantly faster in PMT than the novice on right directions (M = 1240.77 ms, SD =16.30; M = 1360.74 ms, SD = 16.30; p < 0.001). The results suggest that athletes’ superior agility performance appeared to rely on both quick decision-making process and efficient motoric responses. Moreover, extensive training may lead to more balanced performance between the two lower limbs and reduce motor asymmetry. The impact of disrupted sensory feedback on movement performance Zheng, Ran; Brown, Kelsey; Passmore, Steven R.; Glazebrook, Cheryl M.; University of Manitoba In addition to visual feedback, somatosensory feedback provides us with ongoing feedback during movement execution. Previously we reported that paresthesia led to longer movement times (MT) and time to peak velocity (ttPV), regardless of whether or not participants had vision of the target. The present study aimed to investigate how disrupted somatosensory feedback influences reaching movements of individuals with healthy nervous systems when vision of the movement environment is removed. Twelve healthy young participants (8 males, M age = 22.9 years) were recruited to complete 400 reaching movements over two separate days. Participants performed 100 trials per condition and were motivated to improve their movement times while maintaining accuracy by having fast and accurate movements rewarded. Four possible target locations were paired with four experimental conditions: 1) paresthesia, vision of the target and limb; 2) paresthesia, no vision; 3) no paresthesia, vision; 4) no paresthesia, no vision. Order of the four conditions and associated target locations were blocked and counterbalanced across participants. Paresthesia was induced temporarily using a constant current stimulator (Digitimer DS7A) and confirmed using standardized sensory testing. Movements were recorded using a 3D motion analysis system at 300 Hz (Optotrak 3D Investigator) and analyzed using a 2 Condition (paresthesia, no paresthesia) × 2 Vision (vision, no vision) × 2 Time (early, late performance) repeatedmeasures ANOVA. Paresthesia had no effect on reaction time. A significant Condition × Vision interaction for MT revealed that participants’ MTs were significantly longer only if paresthesia was not present and vision of the limb and target was available. In addition, participants reduced their time to peak velocity only when all sensory modalities were available. Disruption in either somatosensory or visual feedback resulted in limited improvements in feed-forward planning. Findings will be discussed in the context of sensorimotor integration and the implications for upper limb rehabilitation. Older adults exhibit impaired perceptuomotor learning of novel coordination patterns and it is not just poor visual motion perception Zhu, Qin, University of Wyoming; Ren, Jie, Zhang, Jiancheng, Huang, Shaochen; Shanghai University of Sport; Wilson, Andrew D., Leeds Metropolitan University; Snapp-Childs, Winona, Bingham, Geoffrey P.; Indiana University Numerous studies have shown that novel coordination patterns (90° relative phase) can be learned with the aid of concurrent feedback. However, older adults (60 years or older) have been shown to learn more slowly than younger adults (Coats et al., 2012). This finding may have been due to age-related decline in visual motion perception. The purpose of our study was to examine whether the poor perceptuomotor learning of older adults was due to deficits in visual motion perception or instead reflected genuine decrements in the ability to learn. Seventy-two participants were recruited to represent three age groups (20s, 60s, 70s) with 24 participants in each age group. The task was bimanual coordination, moving two joysticks. Participants were initially tested in performing a novel coordination pattern (90°) with and without visual information about hand motions. In each age group, half of the participants were trained to produce 90° with visual information (two dots moving across a computer screen), while the other half were trained without visual information. All participants had proprioceptive/haptic information about hand

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movements. There were five training sessions each performed on separate days (12 trials per day). Participants were then retested on two separate days performing 90° with and without visual information. As revealed by our dependent measures (proportion of time on task and mean vector length), all participants exhibited some learning and improvement. However, participants in their 60s and 70s performed poorly compared to the 20-year-olds. Visual information did yield better performance for the young and worse performance for the old. However, the main result was that the large decrement in perceptuomotor learning performance as a function of age was present with or without the availability of visual motion information and therefore, was a genuine decrement in learning ability.

Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 2014, 36, S59-S78 © 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Official Journal of NASPSPA www.JSEP-Journal.com NASPSPA CONFERENCE

Developmental Perspectives: Motor Control/Coordination/Rehabilitation* Physiology or cognition in Texas?: Assessing the impact of physiological and attitudinal measures of body weight on mental health Acevedo, Gabriel A., Cordova, Alberto; University of Texas–San Antonio; Ammar, Diala, Lebanese American University A growing body of literature addresses the linkages between perceptions of perceived body image, physiological measures of body type and mental health. While the preponderance of the empirical evidence consistently points to the positive effects that physical health has on mental health, less is known about effects of perceptions of body weight on psychological functioning. Using a random probability sample of adults in the state of Texas (N = 1,503), the study examines the impact of physiological and attitudinal variables on mental health. Specifically, we contrast the effects of body mass index (BMI) and perceptions of being overweight on a composite measure of mental health functioning. Findings suggest that higher BMI and perceptions of being overweight are both associated with poor mental health but that the effect of perceiving oneself as overweight has a stronger and more statistically significant effect than BMI. Interactions between gender and our two key predictors indicate that BMI and overweight perceptions have a stronger impact on lowering women’s mental health when compared to men. We discuss the theoretical implications of our findings for research exploring physiological and attitudinal factors that impact mental health and overall emotional well-being. The effectiveness of proprioceptive training: A systematic review Aman, Joshua E.; Elangovan, Naveen; Yeh, I-Ling; Konczak, Juergen; University of Minnesota Objective: The notion that true proprioceptive training is a viable therapy for improving function is not clear and a significant reason for this ambiguity is the heterogeneity in how the term proprioception is defined and the manner in which training and measurements of proprioception are carried out. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review aiming to clarify the term proprioceptive training and provide a comprehensive report of the effectiveness of proprioceptive training. Methods: OVIDmedline, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and SCOPUS were searched for studies alluding to the term proprioception. Studies were then reviewed utilizing the following criteria: 1) Includes a quantified outcome measurement indicative of proprioceptive function, 2) includes an intervention or training program believed to influence proprioception and/or motor function, and 3) contains a form of treatment or an outcome measurement that relies solely on somatosensory information (e.g., no visual feedback). Results: A total of 1,284 articles were eligible for the review of which 59 were included. Training regimens included single joint position sense (JPS), target reaching and vibratory stimulation. Outcome measures included various forms of passive and active joint position matching, target location and balance assessment. Studies that applied vibration resulted in diverse outcomes although when applied above 30 Hz for longer durations (i.e., minutes vs. seconds) showed improvements up to 60%. Joint position and target reaching training consistently enhanced JPS (up to 109%) with most improvements between 40–50%. Conclusions: Studies examined in this review provide evidence for the notion that proprioceptive training, in general, yield improvements in somatosensory and sensorimotor function. Evidence also suggests proprioceptive training can induce cortical reorganization. Although methods for improving proprioceptive function vary widely, optimizing function may be best accomplished utilizing both passive and active movements with and without sensory feedback to progressively assist the patient. Is there an optimum age for learning to swim? Anderson, David I.; Rodriguez, Alicia; San Francisco State University When should a child be exposed to learning a new skill? Is there an optimum age? Despite the relevance of these questions to our understanding of skill acquisition, they have attracted surprisingly little empirical attention. The current study addressed these questions in the context of learning to swim. Longitudinal records were examined for 161 children who started formal swimming lessons at 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 years of age. ANOVAs were conducted on the number of lessons and number of months required to reach three levels of swimming proficiency: 1) forward progression in and under the water, 2) basic front crawl, and 3) proficient front *The abstracts are alphabetically arranged by the first author’s surname within each of the three sections—Motor Learning and Control, Developmental Perspectives: Motor Control/Coordination/Rehabilitation, and Sport and Exercise Psychology. A funding source, if provided, is given in italics at the end of an abstract.

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crawl, basic backstroke, and basic sculling on the back. The age at which each proficiency level was achieved was also analyzed. The ANOVAs on age at acquiring each proficiency level were all significant. Post hoc tests revealed that the only children not to achieve proficiency level 1 at significantly different ages were those who started swimming at 6 and 7 years of age. In contrast, the age at which children acquired proficiency level 3 was not significantly different for the children who started at 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 years of age. The mean ages for acquiring proficiency level 3 were between 7.3 and 8.5 years for each of the aforementioned age groups. The ANOVAs on number of lessons and number of months to reach each proficiency level were all significant. The older the starting age, the fewer the number of lessons and months required to reach each proficiency level. This finding was most apparent for the children who started lessons at age 3. These children took significantly longer and required significantly more lessons to reach each proficiency level than all of the other children. Consistent with previous research, careful consideration of the pattern of findings suggests that the optimum age to begin formal swimming lessons is between 5 and 6 years of age. The findings are discussed relative to the literature on readiness and critical periods for learning. The effectiveness of Multimove: A fundamental motor skill intervention for typically developing young children Bardid, Farid, Ghent University; Huyben, Floris, Vrije Universiteit Brussel; Deconinck, Frederik J.A., Ghent University; De Martelaer, Kristine, Vrije Universiteit Brussel; Seghers, Jan, KU Leuven; Lenoir, Matthieu, Ghent University Objective: A decline in physical activity level and motor skills of preschoolers has been observed in recent studies. These findings underline the need for motor skill interventions in early childhood settings. This study examines the influence of the Multimove program (a theoretically underpinned fundamental motor skill program) in 5- to 6-year-old children. Methods: The intervention group (n = 321; 162 boys and 159 girls; mean age = 5.93; SD = 0.58) received a weekly 45- to 75-min motor skill session over a period of 30 weeks, in addition to the regular physical education curriculum; the control group (n = 166; 83 boys and 83 girls; mean age = 5.97; SD = 0.57) did not receive additional practice. Measures of the locomotor and object control skill were assessed before and after the intervention using the Test of Gross Motor Development 2nd edition (TGMD-2). Likewise, measures of gross motor coordination were taken on both occasions using the Körperkoordinations Test für Kinder (KTK). This study also included a 4-month follow-up period. The retention tests of both TGMD-2 and KTK have recently been administered and the data are now being analyzed. Results: Preliminary analysis yielded a significant Group × Time interaction for the locomotor (F = 19.987; p < 0.001) and object control (F = 13.958; p < 0.001) scales. The intervention group revealed significantly higher locomotor and object control scores at the post-test than at pre-test whereas the control group only improved in object control skill over time. However, no significant Group × Time interaction was found for gross motor coordination (F = 2.318; p = 0.129). Further analysis (age groups, standard scores and retention-test data) will be presented at the conference. Conclusion: Preliminary findings show that the Multimove program has a positive effect on the fundamental motor skills of typically developing children, but does not seem to improve the gross motor coordination in this age group.  Flemish Government Motor competence assessment in young children: Convergent validity between the KTK and MOT 4-6 test batteries Bardid, Farid, Ghent University; Huyben, Floris, De Martelaer, Kristine; Vrije Universiteit Brussel; Seghers, Jan, KU Leuven; Lenoir, Matthieu, Ghent University Objective: The development of motor competence in early childhood substantially contributes to successful engagement in sports and other physical activities. In view of the decreasing levels of physical activity and motor skills in children over the past decades, an appropriate assessment and monitoring of motor competence in early childhood is invaluable, for both research and practice. The purpose of this study was to investigate the convergent validity between two motor competence assessment tools: the Körperkoordinations Test für Kinder (KTK) and the Motoriktest für Vier- bis Sechsjährige Kinder (MOT 4-6). Methods and results: Five hundred and thirty 5- and 6-year-old children (277 boys and 253 girls; mean age = 5.95; SD = 0.57) were tested by practiced assessors on the KTK and MOT 4-6 during the same day. From the raw scores, a Motor Quotient was calculated based on normative data of the KTK and MOT 4-6. A Pearson correlation demonstrated a moderately strong positive association between KTK Motor Quotient and MOT 4-6 Motor Quotient (r = 0.605). Crosstabs showed a fair level of agreement between the two tests (K = 0.313; p < 0.001). Conclusion: These findings show that some evidence of convergent validity between KTK and MOT 4-6 is provided in present study. However, because of the low level of agreement between KTK and MOT 4-6, practitioners and/or clinicians need to be aware of possible categorization errors when using the KTK or MOT 4-6 test to detect motor impairments. The impact of music on locomotor skills in children Berg, Julieann M.; Breslin, Casey M.; Jarvis, Christine; Temple University Facilitating timely motor skill development is essential to keeping children healthy and active. Motor skills must be taught, and the continuous interaction between the learner and his or her environment can determine the competency of skill performance that is achieved (Clark, 2007). Music and movement education programs emphasize the importance of rhythmic ability to locomotor skill performance (Derri et al., 2001). The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of music on the performance of locomotor skills in a group of children ages 9–11 years. Participants performed the six locomotor skills included on the TGMD-2 in two conditions (music and quiet). It was hypothesized that performing locomotor skills in the presence of music should improve the performance of those particular skills. A paired samples t-test revealed no significant differences in locomotor performance

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between the music and quiet conditions, F(2,20) = 6.039, χ2 = .860, p = .005). Teachers of movement programs are encouraged to include a rhythmic component in their classes, such as music, since there was anecdotal evidence to suggest that music is motivating. SKIPing to an active future: Training preschool teachers to promote fundamental motor skills Brian, Ali; Goodway, Jacqueline D.; Tsuda, Emi; Famelia, Ruri; Ohio State University The early childhood years are a critical timeframe in which to promote physical activity and motor development. NASPE (2009) identifies that young children should accumulate 60 min of MVPA per day and engage in activities that promote fundamental motor skills (FMS). Despite these national recommendations, young children who are disadvantaged demonstrate significant delays in their FMS. Early motor skill intervention provided by motor development experts shows that children significantly improve their FMS and can remediate their FMS delays with instruction. Unfortunately, motor development experts rarely exist in preschool settings and there is a dearth in the literature in regards to the ability of preschool teachers to teach FMS. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of a SKIP motor skill intervention (MSI) taught by preschool teachers on the FMS of preschool children. Participants (N = 57) consisted of a SKIP MSI group (n = 26) and a Comparison group (n = 31). The MSI group received two 30-min SKIP sessions per week for 6 weeks delivered by their preschool teacher. Prior to the intervention, teachers were provided with 30 min of pre-intervention orientation, an Apple iBook containing all intervention materials, and were coached during each MSI session by a trained expert in motor development. All preschoolers were evaluated on locomotor (LOC) and object control (OC) motor competence using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 prior to and following the intervention. There were no pretest between-group differences (p = .37). A 2 Group × 2 Time ANOVA with repeated measures revealed a significant Group × Time interaction (F(52) = 44.61, p = .02, χ2 = .608). Follow-up analyses revealed significant differences for the SKIP group in OC and LOC (p < .001) from pretest to posttest. There were no significant differences in the OC and LOC scores of the Comparison group from pre- to posttest. The findings revealed that preschool teachers who receive training can effectively promote the FMS of their children using evidenced-based curricula such as SKIP. Real cliffs and water cliffs: The role of crawling experience on infants’ behavior Burnay, Carolina, Pascoal, Joana, Cordovil, Rita; Universidade de Lisboa Studies using visual and real cliffs indicate that shortly after crawling onset, infants have a tendency to avoid falling from dangerous heights and infants with less crawling experience try to cross the cliffs more frequently. The maturation of physical skills allows the baby to develop autonomous locomotion and to explore the environment, fostering the relationship between the perception of body abilities and possibilities of action. The approach to water surfaces has also been previously studied but in swimming pools and with adults in the water. From a child safety perspective, it is important to know the behavior of infants nearby real and water cliffs and what variables influence this behavior. In this study, 31 crawling infants between 8 and 14 months (M = 11.52 months; SD = 1.56) were tested in a real cliff (80-cm height) and a water cliff (water tank). The infants’ crawling experience ranged from 3 days to 5.76 months (M = 1.94 months, SD = 6.7). Safety of the participants was guaranteed by proper climbing equipment. Five of the 31 infants fell only in the water cliff, 4 only in the real cliff and 6 in both situations. Infants with more crawling experience fell significantly less than those with less experience, both in real (t(29) = –3.03, p = .005) and in water (t(29) = –4.03, p .05 (both overestimated as predicated), the groups were different in the Standing posture, p < .01. That is, older adults underestimated while the younger group once again overestimated. The findings suggest that the older adults perceived the postural constraints in light of their own physical capabilities and elected to program a more conservative strategy, resulting in underestimation. We also speculate that the younger adults did not perceive the standing condition as demanding enough to change strategies. Discussion includes consideration of age difference (perhaps the finding would have been different with more elderly adults) and the demands of the Standing task. A comparison of the performance in a tracking task between obese and healthy-weight children Gentier, Ilse, D’Hondt, Eva, Augustijn, Mireille, Ghent University; Tanghe, Ann, Zeepreventorium VZW; De Bourdeaudhuij, Ilse, Ghent University; Deforche, Benedicte, Vrije Universiteit Brussel; Lenoir, Matthieu, Ghent University Obese (OB) children’s lower gross motor competence is mostly explained from a pure mechanical point of view implying that OB children move differently compared to their healthy-weight (HW) peers due to their additional mass that has to be moved against gravity. However, recent findings illustrate that not only OB children’s gross motor competence but also their fine motor competence is affected, which strongly suggests that differences in their motor behavior cannot solely be explained by the mechanical hypothesis. Therefore, our main purpose was to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the perceptual-motor control processes according to weight-status. Thirty-four OB children (18 boys and 16 girls, aged 6–12 years) and 34 age- and gender-matched HW peers performed a tracking task (i.e., challenging fine motor task). The task consisted of manually tracking four different automatically generated curves displayed on a computer screen with a wireless electronic pen on a tablet not leaving any ink traces. There were no differences in mean drawing axial pen pressure (N) (p = 0.852) and estimated mean overall velocity (cm/s) (p = 0.349) between both BMI groups. However, the OB children did have a greater deviation from the target (cm) (p = 0.027) and root mean square deviation (cm²) (p < 0.001) than the HW children. Obese children also displayed a greater number of lifts (#) (p = 0.075) resulting in a greater amount of their time (s) (p = 0.040) spend with the pen lifted up from the tablet. Consequently, OB children seem to have more difficulty turning sensory information into appropriate motor actions than their HW peers while performing a tracking task. This suggests that OB children might encounter difficulties with programming appropriate motor responses which might hinder their ability to adapt to demanding and changing environments, often found during physical activity. To develop targeted prevention and intervention initiatives, a more thorough understanding of the underlying mechanism(s) (i.e., mechanical and/or perceptual-motor hypothesis) is indispensable.

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Determinants of gross motor skill performance in children with visual impairments Haibach, Pamela S., SUNY–Brockport; Wagner, Matthias, Universität Konstanz Children with visual impairments (CWVI) generally perform poorer in gross motor skills when compared with their sighted peers. This study examined the influence of age, sex, and severity of visual impairment upon locomotor and object control skills in CWVI. Participants included 100 CWVI from across the United States who completed the Test of Gross Motor Development II (TGMD-II). The TGMD-II consists of 12 gross motor skills including 6 object control skills (catching, kicking, striking, dribbling, throwing, and rolling) and 6 locomotor skills (running, sliding, galloping, leaping, jumping, and hopping). The full range of visual impairments according to United States Association for Blind Athletes (USABA; B3 = 20/200 to 20/599, legally blind; B2 = 20/600 and up, travel vision; B1 = totally blind) were assessed. The B1 group performed significantly worse than the B2 (0.000 = p = 0.049) or B3 groups (0.000 = p = 0.005); however, there were no significant differences between B2 and B3 except for the run (p = 0.006), catch (p = 0.000), and throw (p = 0.012). Age and sex did not play an important role in most of the skills, with the exception of boys outperforming girls in striking (p = 0.009), dribbling (p = 0.013), and throwing (p = 0.000), and older children outperforming younger children in dribbling (p = 0.002). The significant impact of the severity of visual impairment is likely due to decreased experiences and opportunities for children with more severe visual impairments. In addition, it is likely that these reduced experiences explain the lack of age-related differences in the CWVI. The large disparities in performance between children who are blind and their partially sighted peers gives direction for instruction and future research. In addition, there is a critical need for intentional and specific instruction on motor skills at a younger age to enable CWVI to develop their gross motor skills.  American Printing House for the Blind and the Fetzer Institute Identifying sensitive periods within the developmental trajectories of motor skill development and physical activity in infants with Down syndrome Hauck, Janet L., Levine, Richard, Ulrich, Dale A.; University of Michigan Purpose: Obesity prevalence among children with Down syndrome (DS) is alarmingly high. With onset occurring early in life, it is important that we investigate motor behaviors influencing excess weight gain. Infants with DS experience motor delay and engage in less physical activity (PA). Understanding when these delays present could elicit valuable information regarding early intervention and prevention strategies. This study aimed to longitudinally examine the developmental trajectories of motor skill development and PA between infants with and without DS to assess whether a sensitive period exists in early infancy. Method: Twenty-seven infants with typical development (TD) and 8 infants with DS participated from 1 to 12 mo of age. Motor skill development and objective PA were assessed monthly using the BSID III and an accelerometer. Results: Group differences for both motor skill development and PA were determined using independent samples t-tests. For the developmental trajectory of motor skill development, a significant difference between groups emerged from 4 to 6 mo of age [TD = 34.3(5.2); DS = 26.0(5.6)] and extended through 12 mo of age [TD = 72.9(3.8); DS = 55.4(10.5)]. For the developmental trajectory of PA, a significant difference between groups emerged from 5 to 6 mo of age [TD = 122.2(46.6); DS = 69.1(56.3)] and extended through 12 mo of age [TD = 195.8(94.9); DS = 97.2(11.1)]. Conclusions: These differences reveal a divergence from typical motor development and PA for infants with DS. The co-occurrence of these deviations at the same developmental time indicates the presence of a potential sensitive period within the developmental trajectories for infants with DS. This divergence of each trajectory also suggests a possible interaction between motor skills and PA. Continued investigation of the relationship of motor related factors occurring early in life should remain a priority. Future research should consider implementing PA interventions during this sensitive period in an effort to promote motor performance and prevent excess weight gain for infants with DS.  Nicholas Leoni Foundation Indifference to chaotic motion may relate to social disinterest in children with autism Haworth, Joshua; Kyvelidou, Anastasia; University of Nebraska–Omaha; Fisher, Wayne, University of Nebraska Medical Center; Stergiou, Nicholas, University of Nebraska–Omaha Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) tend to have little interest in the presence, actions, and motives of other persons. Additionally, these children tend to present with a limited and overly redundant movement repertoire, often expressing hyperfixation and/or aversion to novelty. We explore whether this is related to a more fundamental lack of appreciation for various temporal dynamics; including periodic, chaotic, and aperiodic motion structures. Seven children with ASD (age, gender, and height matched with children without ASD) were asked to stand and watch the motion of a visual stimulus displayed on a large (55-inch) video monitor. Gaze behavior was monitored using a remote eye-tracking system (faceLAB, Seeing Machines), which reported on screen coordinates of where the child was looking. Posture movements were recorded via force platform (OR6-7, AMTI) while the child was in free stance, watching the various stimuli. Coordination of gaze and posture with the various stimulus motions was assessed using Cross Recurrence Quantification Analysis, including rate and duration of bouts of coordination. Results showed that children with ASD do not express an affinity to chaotic motion of the stimulus in the same way as children without ASD. Typically developing children show increased rate and duration of coordination with the chaos stimulus, suggesting some interest or affinity to viewing this type of motion. It has been previously been shown that chaotic motion is an integral characteristic of human movement. We contend that this indifference to chaotic motion by children with ASD is related to, and possibly responsible for, the general disinterest in biological motion shown by these children.  Autism Speaks

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Association between sports participation, motor competence, and body weight status: A longitudinal study Henrique, Rafael S., University of Pernambuco; Cattuzzo, Maria T., University of Pernambuco/University of South Carolina; Re, Alessandro H.N., University of Sao Paulo/University of South Carolina; Prazeres, Thaliane M.P., University of Pernambuco; Stodden, David F., University of South Carolina Sports participation (SP) is an important avenue for physical activity for children and adolescents and may facilitate a healthy weight status. Competency in fundamental motor skills (MC) and weight status also may be two important correlates of continued SP across childhood as they are both associated with physical activity. This study examined if baseline levels of MC and bodyweight status in early childhood would predict SP after a two-year follow-up. In 2010, structured sport participation of 292 children between 3- and 5-years-old, was evaluated using the ELOS-pré questionnaire (Oliveira et al, 2011). MC levels in locomotor (LOC) and object control skills (OC) were assessed using the standard score of TGMD-2; the children were classified as having high (LOC: 12–17; OC: 11–16), moderate (LOC: 10–11; OC: 9–10) or low (LOC: 5–9; OC: 3–8) levels of MC. Height and body mass were measured to calculate BMI (kg/m²), classify into weight status (Cole et al., 2000), and were grouped into overweight and normal weight. In 2012, 206 from those 292 children were identified and evaluated for SP. A binary logistic regression assessed the adjusted associations between SP in 2012, which were based on the preliminary measures of SP (2010), MC, and BMI status. In the final model, after adjusting by sex, previous SP in 2010 (OR = 10.00, CI: 3.75 to 26.69) and locomotor MC level (moderate MC: OR = 2.67, CI: 1.12 to 6.39; high MC: OR = 2.70, CI: 1.02 to 7.18) were significantly associated with SP in 2012. OC skills and body weight status did not predict SP after two years. In this sample, children who initially participated in sports and had higher levels of MC in LOC skills continued to participate in sports after an interval of two years. Our data indirectly support, via continued SP, the prediction of Stodden et al. (2008) model hypothesizing the development of MC contributes to a positive spiral of engagement in physical activity. As LOC skills develop earlier than OC skills, these types of skills may be better predictors of sport performance in early childhood.  CNPq - CsF Program - Brazil The effect of muscle vibration on position sense in children Holst-Wolf, Jessica M.; Yeh, I-Ling; Konczak, Juergen; University of Minnesota It is known that topical vibration of adult skeletal muscles stimulates Ia muscle spindle fibers leading to a systematic shift in position sense. It is not known, if and how this response to vibration develops during childhood. As part of a cross-sectional study to map the development of position sense during childhood, we assessed the proprioceptive acuity of children and adults (children ages: 7–13 years, n = 47; adults ages: 19–25 years, n = 20) and examined how they responded to biceps muscle vibration. Methods: Using a bimanual manipulandum the non-dominant forearm was passively moved from a 30° reference position to three different target positions: 40°, 60°, 90° of elbow extension. In each trial, participants had to actively match this target position with their dominant arm. Final angular positions were recorded via optical encoders and the differences between the bilateral elbow angles were calculated as position error (PE). Three conditions were tested: no vibration (baseline), vibration of reference arm, and post vibration baseline. Results: 1) Baseline PE increased with increasing target position in adults and children. 2) Adults exhibited a lengthening illusion as shown by a characteristic shift towards extension of the matching arm (mean: 4.2° across all target positions). In children, this response became more adult-like during adolescence. The younger children (age < 10 years) either showed a highly variable or small response to vibration. Discussion: We conclude that both the developing and mature nervous systems are affected by altered proprioceptive afferents induced by muscle vibration with the magnitude of shift in position sense increasing with elbow amplitude. Our preliminary data analysis indicates that the magnitude of the vibration response increases with age implying that the lengthening illusion is harder to elicit in younger children. It needs to be determined, if this lack of a response in younger children is due to differences in peripheral proprioceptive afferents or mediated by central processes. Longitudinal tracking of a perceptual motor development program (from preschool to kindergarten–year 1) Howard-Shaughnessy, Candice; Sluder, Brandon; Robinson, Leah; Palmer, Kara K.; Troy University Early childhood is the ideal time for acquiring fundamental motor movement skills because it is during this unique period that children build the basic movement abilities that are the foundation for learning more complex movement skills later in life. Preschool educators must provide children with developmentally appropriate motor skill instruction in an effort to build a foundation for successful participation in later childhood and adult physical activities. The National Association for the Education of Young Children recommend physical education for students enrolled in preschool programs with the assumption that it provides the minimum recommendation for physical activity while developing movement concepts and to refine skills such as striking, jumping, and balancing. Even more convincing is research that suggests school physical education programs for young children have a positive effect on children’s fundamental skill performances and health-related fitness. Phase I of the Perceptual Motor Development for Preschoolers assessed locomotor and manipulative skills of 61 preschoolers. Thirty-one randomly selected preschoolers participated in a 12-week perceptual motor program that taught locomotor and manipulative skills along with academic integration of letters, shapes, pictures, numbers, and words. Phase II (current study) tracked the 61 preschoolers a year later in kindergarten. Findings revealed a positive change in motor skills for all kindergarteners, but significant improvements were seen in the 31 kindergarteners who attended the Perceptual Motor Development program the previous year, p < .05. Findings support the long-term benefits of a movement program on preschoolers’ motor and academic competence.

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Academic readiness through movement education in preschoolers Howard-Shaughnessy, Candice; Sluder, Brandon; Troy University; Robinson, Leah; Irwin, J. Megan; Auburn University Every year, more than 200 million children under the age of 5 years fail to reach their full cognitive and social potential (WHO, 2009). There is a strong connection between the development a child undergoes early in life and the level of success the child will experience later in life. The preschool years are an optimum time for development of fundamental motor skills, language development, and other key foundational aspects of development that have lifelong implications. Developmentally appropriate programs produce short- and long-term positive effects on children’s cognitive and social development. Participation in perceptual-motor activities allows students to develop body control and encourages greater effort in all areas of the school curriculum. Perceptualmotor activities provide a proven way to meet a child’s gross motor needs early while improving his or her academic readiness and overall behavior. The current study assessed 62 preschoolers using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD2) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC2). Thirty-one randomly selected preschoolers attended a 15-week perceptual motor program that taught academic concepts (such as math, reading, and science) through movement education (locomotor activities and manipulative skills). Results indicated preschoolers who attended the 15-week perceptual motor program could perform math, read, and recollect at a higher rate than preschoolers who did not attend a perceptual motor program, p < .05. In addition, preschoolers who attended the perceptual motor program positively increased their locomotor and manipulative skills, p < .05. Findings support the use of integrating movement and academic concepts to promote school readiness in preschoolers. Fundamental motor skills and resting blood pressure in school-age children Irwin, Jacqueline M., Auburn University; Logan, Samuel, University of Delaware; Palmer, Kara K., Robinson, Leah E., Auburn University It is well known that engagement in physical activity and exercise is associated with health benefits, including cardiovascular health. An underlying assumption is that motor skill competence is required to successfully engage in a range of movement and physical activities. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between fundamental motor skills and resting blood pressure in school-age children. Participants were 134 Kindergarten–2nd grade children (65 boys, 69 females; M = 6.44 years). Fundamental motor skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development–2nd Edition (TGMD-2). Resting blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) was measured as an indicator of health. Three blood pressure readings were recorded for each child and the mean of the final two readings was used for analysis. Pearson’s correlations were used to examine relationships between motor skills (TGMD Total, Locomotor subtest, and Object Control subtest) and mean resting blood pressure. Results revealed a significant correlation between object control skills and diastolic blood pressure in boys (r = .3, p = .012). This finding warrants future investigations into the relationship between motor competence and other health-related outcomes. Additional research is also needed to understand why this relationship varies between sexes. Relationships among KOSTASS, gross motor development, and cognitive function in Korean sport talented program applicants Kim, Seok Jin, Kim, Seonjin; Seoul National University Researchers have recently insisted that negative insights and potential elements of assessment in selection for sport talented program applicants are controversial. Also, the interest in the relationship between motor abilities and cognitive function has been increasing. This study aimed at extending the area of the recent studies in order to examine relationship among KOSTASS (for test score of Korea Sport Talent Search System; KOSTASS), gross motor development (for Test of Gross Motor Development 2; TGMD-2), and cognitive function (for K-Raven Progressive Matrices) for sport talented program applicants. In this study, we found that there were positive relations in total score of all elements. These results indicate that applicants who have a high score of physical fitness are likely to have a high level of motor fitness and vice versa, as well as applicants who have a high score of physical fitness and motor fitness have it more possible to have a high score of cognitive function. We suggest that not only consideration of physical fitness and motor fitness but also cognitive process is necessary to assess accurately for sport talented program applicants.  Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism Children’s looking preference for biological motion may be related to an affinity for mathematical chaos Kyvelidou, Anastasia, University of Nebraska–Omaha; Haworth, Josh L., Johns Hopkins Medicine; Stergiou, Nick, University of Nebraska–Omaha The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of perceived object motion on concurrent sensorimotor behavior of typically developing children. Seventeen children between 4 and 6 years of age attended a single data collection. Synchronous eye movement and standing posture recordings were taken while a moving point-light stimulus was displayed on a large monitor in front of the participant. The stimulus was presented on a LCD monitor, moving according to a predefined motion trajectory, Sine, Chaos, and Brown Noise. Cross recurrence quantification analysis (cRQA) was used to assess coupling of gaze (Gaze) and posture (COP) to the stimulus, separately, as well as between gaze and posture to gauge sensorimotor coupling (SensMot). The cRQA output includes percent determinism and maxline, representing probability and duration of recurrent behavior respectively. Separate 3 × 3 (Age × Stimulus) mixed ANOVAs were used for statistical comparisons. A significant stimulus effect was found

S70  2014 NASPSPA Free Communications: Verbal and Poster

for Gaze percent determinism. Rate of coordination of gaze to stimulus motion was similar in response to Sine and Chaos conditions, but was lesser than each for the Brown Noise condition. Duration of coordination of gaze also responded to the structure of stimulus motion and was highest with Chaos. A significant stimulus effect was found for COP percent determinism. Differences were found among each of the three conditions, with the greatest rate of coordination in response to the Sine stimulus and the least rate of coordination in response to the Brown Noise stimulus. No main effect of stimulus was found for SensMot, for either percent determinism or maxline. No main effect of age or interactions was found for any outcome for Gaze, COP, or SensMot. These results raise the possibility that children may recognize chaotic motion structures and may also have a preference for coordination with them. The lack of SensMot coupling raises interesting questions for the development of perception and production of intentional action.  Autism Speaks Physical education teachers’ fundamental movement skill training influences their assessment practices Lander, Natalie; Brown, Helen; Deakin University; Telford, Amanda, RMIT University; Barnett, Lisa M., Deakin University Purpose: Certain assessment practices have been shown to help student learning, yet there is little information on physical education (PE) teachers’ assessment practices with regards to fundamental movement skill (FMS) in Year 7 girls. Methods: Australian PE teachers were recruited to an online survey. Teachers provided information on years of teaching experience, level of FMS training (both within and after their degree, potential score range 2–8); and level of confidence in verbally and practically demonstrating seven FMS (potential score range 7–21 for each). Teacher also reported on assessment practices: whether the teacher assessed using process-based assessment and whether the teacher assessed used “ideal” assessment timing (that is, before, during and after the FMS unit—coded as 1, all other assessment practices coded as 0). Independent t tests were conducted to investigate factors potentially influencing FMS assessment. Results: 168 PE teachers completed the survey. Only half (49.6%) had received more than several lectures/tutorials on FMS during their degree. Many (69.9%) had undertaken no more than 4 hours of professional development in FMS since finishing their degree. Most (86.9%, n = 146) did assess the FMS proficiency of their students. However, of those that did, the assessment quality was variable: 43.8% (n = 64) did not use the “ideal” assessment tool, and only just over half (56.2%, n = 82) assessed regularly enough. Neither years of experience nor confidence level influenced assessment practices. However, the more FMS training a teacher had, the more likely they were to use the ideal assessment frequency (t = 4.168; p = 0.000) and processes (t = 1.541; p = 0.002). Discussion: Many adolescents do not reach mastery in FMS, especially girls for object control skills. Training in FMS appears to make a difference to teachers’ assessment practices and yet teachers had limited training in FMS. Fundamental movement skill education should be a priority inclusion in pre-service PE teaching programs and professional development. Gross motor performance by children with autism spectrum disorder and typically developing children on TGMD-2 Liu, Ting; Hamilton, Michelle; Texas State University The purpose of this study was to examine the gross motor skill performance using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) on children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and their age matched peers (5-10 years). A total of 21 children with ASD (M = 7.57 years) and 21 age-matched typically developing children (M = 7.38 years) participated in this study. TGMD-2 is a standardized test to assess 12 gross motor skills for children. All study participants completed the TGMD-2 assessments. A MANOVA was conducted on TGMD-2 scores to compare motor performance of children with ASD and typically developing children. For the locomotor subtest, 67% children with ASD received poor standard scores and 40% of scores were very poor. About 60% children with ASD had poor standard scores and 33% of scores were very poor on object control skills as described in the TGMD-2 manual. For overall gross motor quotient scores, 81% children with ASD were below 79 and classified as poor and about 76% children scored below 70 and received very poor rating. A MANOVA analysis revealed significant performance difference between children with ASD and typically developing children (p < .01). The effect sizes (ES) describing motor delays of the study participants between the two groups were large (> .80). For educators, therapists, and practitioners, it is important to note that children across the autism spectrum showed significant delays in gross motor skill performance when compared to their age matched peers. Locomotion and object control skills are fundamental motor skills in which children interact with their environment and other children. Developing a therapeutic intervention includes those gross motor skills may positively impact children with ASD’s movement competence and social skills. Analysis of adult action planning in a manipulative task Marques, Inara; Costa, Marcelo Alves; Martins, Raquel de Melo; Santos, Camila Ramos; State University of Londrina; Manoel, Edison de Jesus, University of Sao Paulo; Medina-Papst, Josiane; State University of Londrina The capacity of action planning was analyzed through the end-state comfort, proposed by Rosenbaum et al. (1993), in which the selection of a proper hand position in grasping an object aims for greater articular comfort at the end of the action, allowing the achievement of the task goal more successfully. Task demand is a factor that may influence the choice of action, since the greater the demand, the greater will be the need for previous planning of the way to grasp the object. Consequently, the end-state comfort should be maximized in this condition. The aim of the study was to compare the performance of adults in a manipulative task of action planning, between the cylindrical and semi-cylindrical conditions. Forty-six college students, mean age 22.0 ± 4.6 years,

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43 right-handed and 3 left-handed, according to the Edinburgh Inventory (1971). The task consisted of grasping a wooden bar (25 cm long and 3 cm of diameter) placed horizontally on a black wooden support (10 cm in height), transport it and insert it in one of the targets positioned in each side of the support, with four possibilities for insertion of the wooden bar: yellow in yellow, yellow in red, red in yellow, red in red. The task was performed under the condition of lower (cylindrical bar) and higher (semicylindrical) demand for precision, in five blocks of randomized trials, in a total of 20 valid trials for each condition. Data were analyzed using the percentage of comfort in each condition. The Wilcoxon’s test was used to compare between conditions, with a significance level of p < 0.05. According to the results, 55% of the participants achieved an end-state comfort in the cylindrical condition, and 50% in the semi-cylindrical condition, with no significant differences (Z = 0.47; p = 0.63). This indicates that task demand was not enough to alter the participant’s performances, not demonstrating enough planning for task execution. The relationship between physical awkwardness and motor development in young children Mori, Shiro, Nakamoto, Hiroki, Ikudome, Sachi, Unenaka, Satoshi; National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya; Yuasa, Yumi Although early childhood is a period of perceptiveness as a precursor to movement with the development of the central nervous system, the increase in physical awkwardness at this time exerts a major influence on subsequent motor development. The purpose of this study was thus to investigate the developmental characteristics of physical awkwardness in young children from the perspectives of motor ability, coordinated movement, establishment of handedness and motor competence. Forty-five preschool children (age range, 4–6 years) were classified into a physically awkward (AWK; n = 14) group and a control group without physical awkwardness (CON; n = 31), based on the Movements Assessment Battery for Children (M-ABC) (Henderson & Sugden, 1992). Tasks administered to preschool children included the following four measurements: preschool children’s motor ability test (Matsuda & Kondo, 1968); Pinboard test (Sigmundsson et al., 1997); Hand Preference test (Iteya, 1998); and perceived physical competence test (Sugihara et al., 1996). As a result, AWK was significantly inferior to CON in regard to motor ability and the Pinboard test (p < 0.05). No significant difference was seen between AWK and CON in either perceived physical competence or establishment of handedness. These results supported previous findings regarding the developmental characteristics of physically awkward children (Walton et al., 1962; Henderson & Hall, 1982; Henderson & Henderson, 2003). These findings show that physically awkward children have lower motor ability and poorer hand-eye coordination compared with children without physical awkwardness. This suggests the possibility that physical awkwardness is associated with motor development and neurological development (e.g., Sigmundsson et al., 1997). Motor cortex changes with reaching development in infants Nishiyori, Ryota; Bisconti, Silvia; Ulrich, Beverly D.; University of Michigan Introduction: To date, there are no published data showing cortical-level activations in infants during acquisition of a motor skill. For this, the neural basis for the development of functional motor control has yet to be unveiled. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) has become increasingly accessible to measure the cortical hemodynamics in infants (Lloyd-Fox et al., 2010). The aim of our study was to investigate the motor cortex activation patterns of infants as they learn a new skill: reaching. We hypothesized that infants with little experience will show dispersed areas of activation within the motor cortex bilaterally; infants with several months of practice, will show more localized activation. Method: We tested two groups of infants, 6 at 6 months and 6 at 12 months. We used the CW6 (TechEN Inc.) fNIRS system with 14 optodes placed bilaterally over the motor cortex, based on head measurements for the international 10-20 system. Infants were placed in a seat with chest wrap constraint. Small toys were presented within reach at midline for 10 trials, followed by baseline measurements, during which infants watched a video for 20 s. Raw data were pre-processed using Homer2 (Huppert et al., 2009) with a wavelet-based motion correction applied (Molavi et al., 2012). Results: Preliminary results show that in 6-month old infants, seven channels show significant increases in oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO) when compared to baseline (rest) (p < 0.05). By 12 months, only three channels show significant increases in HbO compared to baseline (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Our preliminary results suggest that fNIRS is able to detect activation responses in the motor cortex during early and more highly practiced reaching in infants. As hypothesized, younger infants showed disperse activation that reduced significantly with 6 months of reaching practice. We suggest that infants explore options for achieving their motor goal and learn, with self-initiated goal-directed movements to refine the neural activity as well as the behavioral outcome. Motor cortex activity during functional motor skills: an fNIRS study Nishiyori, Ryota; Bisconti, Silvia; Ulrich, Beverly D.; University of Michigan Introduction: Until recently technology used to image brain activity during motor task performance has been limited to fine motor movements because of the need to maintain a stationary head position. Recently advances in functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) technology, which tolerates body movement while being non-invasive has expanded its use in studies of cognitive development. We believe fNIRS holds promise for study of gross motor control but very few studies have explored its applications to date (cf., Kurz et al., 2012). Here, we compare the motor cortex responses in adults during reaching and stepping in place. Methods: We used a continuous wave fNIRS system (CW6, TechEN Inc.) to monitor the primary motor cortex of 12 healthy, right-handed adults (mean age = 22.1 years, SD = 4.8; 6 females) as they performed (UR), bimanual reaching (BR), and

S72  2014 NASPSPA Free Communications: Verbal and Poster

stepping in place (S). The headgear containing the fNIRS optodes was secured over the center of each participant’s head (Cz, as identified by the international 10-20 system). For reaching, participants reached for objects presented at mid-line and mid-chest level from the seated position. For the S condition, participants were upright and stepped for 20 seconds followed by a 20-second rest, repeating this cycle for 10 trials. Results: Results showed significant increase in oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO), in all three conditions compared to their respective rest phases. In the UR condition, channels of the contralateral motor cortex showed significant increases of HbO (p < 0.05); while in the BR condition, significant increases were seen bilaterally (p < 0.05). In the S condition, channels surrounding the center of the head showed significant increases of HbO compared to the rest phase (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Our results show successful measurements of cortical responses during reaching and stepping using fNIRS. Furthermore, we were able to detect symmetric and asymmetric motor cortex activity during unilateral and bilateral tasks in areas where homunculus maps suggest the arm, shoulders, and legs are located. Children’s executive function is correlated with their locomotor skills Palmer, Kara; Irwin, Jacqueline M.; Monroe, Britton A.; Miller, Matthew W.; Robinson, Leah E.; Auburn University The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between children’s executive function and gross motor skills. Nine school-aged children (5 female, M = 6.9 years) served as participants. A modified Eriksen Flanker Task and the Test of Gross Motor Development–2nd Edition (TGMD-2) were used to assess executive function and motor skills, respectively. The modified Flanker task consisted of three blocks of 48 trials. In each trial, five cartoon fish were presented side-by-side on a screen, and children were asked to make a button press corresponding to the orientation of the middle fish. Median reaction time for correct responses was determined for each child. Results revealed that children’s reaction times were strongly correlated with their overall TGMD-2 scores (r = –.679, p = .04), and that this correlation was exclusive for their locomotor subtest scores (r = –.755, p = .02). Results from this study suggest that children’s executive function is positively associated with their motor skills, specifically their locomotor skills. Preschool physical activity engagement during a curriculum and non-curriculum based movement program Palmer, Kara K.; Harper, Natalie J.; Williams, Emily C.; Auburn University; Webster, Elizabeth K., University of Michigan; Irwin, Jacqueline M., Robinson, Leah E.; Auburn University The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a curriculum-based and a non-curriculum based physical activity (PA) movement program on PA participation. Sixty preschool-aged children from a single Head Start center served as participants (31 female, M = 4.3 years). Children participated in the 30-min curriculum-based movement program (n = 32, 17 female, M = 4.3 years) or their typical 30-min outdoor play session (n = 28, 14 female, M = 4.3 years). The curriculum-based movement program was facilitated by a trained instructor, whereas time on the playground was typical free play. Physical activity was assessed using Actical accelerometers programed for 15-s epoch lengths, and established cut points were used to determine the amount of time spent in sedentary, light, moderate, vigorous, or moderate-to-vigorous PA (Pfeiffer et al., 2006). Independent sample t-tests were used to examine differences in time children spent in varying levels of PA engagement. Results revealed that children in the curriculum-based movement program engaged in significantly more light PA (t(58) = –2.9, p = .005), vigorous PA (t(58) = –3.3, p = .002), and moderate-to-vigorous PA (t(58) = –2.5, p = .015) than their counterparts. Findings from this study suggest that the implementation of an instructor facilitated curriculum-based movement program leads to greater PA levels in preschoolers compared to traditional outdoor play time. Effects of multifrequency bimanual movements and force control across the life span Panzer, Stephan; Vieluf, Solveig; Aschersleben, Gisa; Saarland University; Kennedy, Deanna; Shea, Charles H.; Texas A & M University An experiment was conducted to determine effects of a multifrequency (2:1) coordination between the limbs and increased force control across the life span. Right handed young children (CH), young adults (YA), and older adults (OA) were instructed to perform a 2:1 polyrhythm by performing flexion-extension wrist movements over 30 s trials. The limbs were covered, and Lissajous-feedback was provided online. To determine the influence of increased force, all age groups had to perform 10 trials under three different load conditions (0 kg, 0.5 kg, 1 kg: order counterbalanced). The data indicated remarkable effective performances in cycle frequency ratio or harmonicity after 5 min of practice for all three age groups. However, performance of the YA was superior compared to the CH and the OA while OA’s did not differ in performance compared to the CH. Multifrequency coordination performance across the life span indicated a “U” shaped function. The results were also in line with previous findings, who demonstrated a decline in motor performance at OA. In addition when the initial load was increased performance of the YA decreased while no changes occurred for the CH and the OA. These findings suggest that the increased force level required to produce the 2:1 coordination pattern induced interference effects at the YA but not at the CH and the OA. Analysis of the kinematics showed that the left wrist motion was more disrupted for CH and OA compared to YA regardless of the fact if the limbs were loaded or not. Especially left wrist motion was disrupted by increasing the load for YA. In sum, the distortion at the slower left wrist motion seems to be attributed to the faster right wrist motion for the CH and the OA regardless of the increased load. It appears that adjustments were made in the velocity produced by one limb upon the velocity produced by the contralateral limb for CH, and OA regardless of the load, while YA showed this effect only by increasing the load. This type of influence may be attributed to neural crosstalk. 

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Assisted cycling therapy (ACT) improves depression in adolescents with Down syndrome Ringenbach, Shannon D.; Teslevich, Jennifer; Holzapfel, Simon; Arizona State University The purpose of the study was to examine the effectiveness of two modes of exercise on depression in adolescents with Down syndrome (DS). Twelve participants randomly completed one of two exercise interventions. The interventions were 1) Voluntary Cycling (VC), in which participants cycled at their self-selected pedaling rate 2) Assisted Cycling (AC), in which the participants’ voluntary pedaling rates were augmented with a motor to ensure they pedaled at least 35% greater than their self-selected rate. In each intervention, the participant completed three cycling sessions each week for a total of eight weeks. Depression scores did decrease or improved after both AC and VC, but not significantly. There was a greater mean improvement for participants in the AC group than VC when analyzing total score and t-score. Future research will examine the mechanisms involved in these mental health improvements found after an acute bout of assisted cycling in adolescents with DS. The effect of a multimedia demonstration on motor skill performance in school-age children Robinson, Leah E.; Palmer, Kara K.; Irwin, Jacqueline M.; Dennis, Abigail L.; Brock, Sheri J.; Auburn University; Webster, Elizabeth K., University of Michigan; Rudisill, Mary, Auburn University This study sought to examine the effect of a multimedia (i.e., video) demonstration on school-age children’s motor performance on a motor skill assessment and to measure differences in administration time between demonstration approaches (i.e., multimedia and traditional). It was hypothesized that a) no differences would be present in motor skill performance between the multimedia and traditional demonstration and b) the multimedia demonstration would take less time to complete compared to the traditional demonstration. Forty-five children between the ages of 5 and 11 years (M = 7.56, SD = 1.73) served as participants. Participants completed the Test of Gross Motor Development–2nd Edition (TGMD-2) under two counterbalanced conditions: traditional and multimedia. Participants were grouped into three age bands: 5–6 years, 7–8 years, and 9–10 years; paired samples t tests were used to examine mean TGMD-2 Total, Locomotor, and Object Control subtest raw scores and test duration in seconds. No significant differences were present between traditional and multimedia demonstrations for all age bands in TGMD-2 Total, Locomotor, and Object Control subtest raw scores. Results showed that the multimedia demonstration group took significantly more time to complete for the 5–6 (t14 = –2.617; p = 0.02) and 7–8 (t14 = –2.337; p = 0.03) years of age group. Despite taking a longer time to administer, this study provides evidence that a multimedia demonstration elicited similar motor skill performance compared to a traditional demonstration on the TGMD-2. Motor skill proficiency, athletic identity, and physical activity level among adolescents Roncesvalles, Maria N.; Manalo, Marcus J.; Texas Tech University Motor skill proficiency (MSP), physical activity level (PA), and athletic identity (AI) among adolescents were investigated. By relating (motor) skillfulness to a psychological construct (AI) that could potentially influence activity levels (PA, or exercise quantity) the broader problem of obesity among children may be addressed. While sufficient research on AI and PA (Anderson et al., 2009) is available, there is a dearth of studies on MSP and its relation to both variables. In addition, differences between genders have not been fully understood nor accounted for. Does AI have a mediating effect between MSP and PA, and will this relationship hold true for both genders? Ninety students (45 males, M, 45 females, F) between 11 and 14 years from Hutchinson Middle School (Lubbock, TX) participated in the study. They accomplished two questionnaires: 1) the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS) and 2) the Physical Activity Questionnaire (PAQ), to gauge AI and PA respectively. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children–Second Edition (Henderson, Sugden, & Barnett, 2007) was administered to assess MSP. The mediation model by Preacher and Hayes (2004, employing bootstrapping) was used to analyze data. The results revealed that MSP affects PA, as mediated by AI (indirect effect = .03, 95% CI [.01, .06]). However, separate analyses between genders indicated that data for boys (M) fit the model better (indirect effect = .06, 95% CI [.01, .11]) than data for girls (F). Among F subjects, only the association between AI and PA (B = .03, p < .05) was significant. The common association between AI and PA (both M and F) highlights the importance of self-perceptions in influencing exercise and lifestyle. Nevertheless, the data suggest contrasting strategies between genders when promoting activity. For boys (M) motor skillfulness influenced self-perceptions as an athlete, thereby increasing the pursuit of an active lifestyle. For girls (F) perceptions (AI) may be an important starting point as it is the only significant variable that impacts physical activity (PA). Emergence of independent walking: Longitudinal analysis of cruising behavior in infants Sansom, Jennifer K., Central Michigan University; Ulrich, Beverly D., University of Michigan Introduction: Learning to walk is an incredible achievement, marking an important transition to independence and is hailed as a developmental milestone in infancy. However, research studying “cruising” behavior (e.g., walking with support) is significantly lacking, despite its importance as the motor skill immediately preceding onset of independent walking. Here we investigated, longitudinally, development of cruising behavior in infants with typical development (TD) from onset of forward cruising until the initiation of independent walking. Method: We tested 9 infants w/TD, 8–11 months old, monthly, from onset of forward cruising until walk onset (> 3 independent strides). We placed 22 retro-reflective markers on anatomical landmarks and infants cruised

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while pushing a custom-made pushcart. Results: As infants approached walk onset, shank range of motion (ROM) increased (+27.84%) and trunk ROM decreased (–24.73%) allowing infants to cruise at a more consistent [F(3, 18.89) = 3.61, p = .03], faster velocity [F(3, 19.59) = 12.80, p < .001]. Strides were also longer [F(3, 22.64) = 7.08, p = .002], less variable in length [F(3, 10.04) = 3.76, p = .05], more frequent [F(3, 22.15) = 11.12, p < .001], and swing duration increased [F(3, 24.45) = 5.14, p = .01]. Dynamic examination of segmental trajectories via phase plane portraits showed improved consistency and a shift in state-space position with cruising experience. Discussion: Our results show that, with practice, infants’ cruising step patterns became more controlled, enabling independent walking to emerge. Future research examining the underlying mechanisms for adaptation and response to perturbations as infants learn to cruise (e.g., therapeutic flexible garments) will provide further insights into the development of adaptive gait control and, ultimately, independent walking. Relationship between motor skill competency and executive function in children with Down syndrome Schott, Nadja M.; Holfelder, Benjamin; University of Stuttgart Background. Previous studies suggest that children with Down syndrome (DS), a neurodevelopmental disorder, have motor problems and cognitive deficits. The aim of this study was to examine performance-based, and teacher-report measures of children’s motor performance and executive functions (EF) in school-age children with DS to investigate the relationship between these two performance domains. Methods. The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2), the Movement Assessment Battery checklist (MABC2-C; (A) movement in a static and/or predictable environment; (B) movement in a dynamic and/or unpredictable environment; (C) non-motor factors that might affect movement) and the Trail Making Test for children (Trails-P) were used to assess the motor and cognitive performances of 18 children (11 boys, 7 girls) with DS aged 7 to 11 years (9.06 ± 0.96) and an age- and sex-matched sample of 18 typically developing (TD) children (11 boys, 7 girls; 8.99 ± 0.93). Results. Most individuals with DS showed the expected difficulties in attentional control, response suppression, and distraction (p < .001, η2 = .241), in locomotor (p < .001, η2 = .585) and object control skills (p = .001, η2 = .744) as well as on sections A (p < .001, η2 = .766) and B (p < .001, η2 = .710) of the MABC2-C, but not on Section C (p = .394, η2 = .024), indicating poorer performance than TD individuals. Motor performance and EF correlated positively with medium to high effect sizes, but only for the group with DS (.35 < r < .80). At the most complex task (distraction), the children of the DS group with lower scores on locomotor skills and object control showed lower efficacy scores on the Trails-P. Additionally, strong relationships were found for the teacher’s perspective on all sections of MABC2-C and Trails-P. Conclusion. The findings from this study suggest that children with DS are not only impaired in higherorder executive function, but showing also deficits in locomotor and object control skills. This study stresses the importance of early interventions facilitating cognitive abilities and motor skills. Pre-Service teacher perceptions of teaching a perceptual motor development program for preschoolers Sluder, Brandon; Howard-Shaughnessy, Candice; Troy University The vast majority of universities that offer physical education (teacher education) programs have curriculum geared toward certification in either preschool through twelfth grade (P–12th) or kindergarten through twelfth grade (K–12th). Most traditional public schools in the U.S. have established physical education classes in K–12 grades with very few in preschool. Unfortunately, due to lack of financial resources many preschool settings are unable to offer organized physical activity instruction. Thus, most encounters pre-service teachers have with preschoolers (as it relates to physical education) are simply playing with them during recess time. The researchers suggest that organized physical education instruction (by way of a perceptual motor development program) in preschool aged children will help promote academic readiness moving forward into Kindergarten. The current study examined pre-service physical education teachers gaining teaching experience in a local preschool with an established Perceptual Motor Development Program. Specifically, the researchers sought to investigate the perceptions of the pre-service teacher’s experience as it relates to their understanding the physical, mental, and social development of children at this critical time. Does long-term passive stretching alter muscle-tendon unit mechanics and gait in children with spastic cerebral palsy? Theis, Nicola; Korff, Thomas; Mohagheghi, Amir; Brunel University Cerebral palsy (CP) causes motor impairments during development. Children with CP may experience excessive neural and mechanical muscle stiffness. The clinical assumption is that excessive stiffness is the main reason for functional impairments in CP. As such, passive stretching is widely used to reduce stiffness, with a view to improving function (e.g., gait) for children with CP. However, current research evidence on passive stretching in CP is not adequate to support or refute the effectiveness of stretching as a management strategy to reduce stiffness and/or improve function. Thus, the purpose was to identify the effect of 6 weeks of passive ankle stretching on muscle-tendon unit parameters and functional gait parameters (stride velocity, stride length, time in double and single support) in children with spastic CP. Eight children (8–14 years old) with quadriplegic/diplegic CP were assigned to an experimental group and 7 children formed a control group. The experimental group underwent 6 weeks of passive ankle dorsiflexion stretching for 15 min (per leg), 4 days per week, whilst the control group continued with their normal routine. Post-intervention, the experimental group demonstrated a 3° increase in maximum ankle dorsiflexion. This was accompanied by a 13% reduction in triceps surae muscle stiffness, with no change in tendon stiffness. Additionally, there was an increase in fascicle strain with no changes in resting length, suggesting muscle stiffness reductions were a result of alterations

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in intra-/extramuscular connective tissue. Despite reductions in stiffness, gait parameters did not improve in the experimental group. Additionally, there were no observed differences in the control group for muscle-tendon unit parameters or measures of gait. Our results demonstrate that stretching increases ROM and reduces muscle stiffness. They further let us speculate that excessive stiffness in CP may not hinder certain functional parameters of gait. This highlights a need for further research into the relationship between muscle/joint stiffness and function in CP. Impact of attention on balance control and postural adaptations of children with and without developmental coordination disorder Trapp, Jodi, University of Toronto; Przysucha, Eryk, Zerpa, Carlos; Lakehead University Attentional issues may be a contributing factor to poor balance control exhibited by many children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Research examining this issue is lacking. Thus, the purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of attentional loading on static balance control and postural adaptations in typically developing children and those with DCD. Ten children who met the criteria for DCD (8 males and 2 females) and ten without (5 males and 5 females), between 8 and 10 years of age, participated. MABC test was used to infer the degree of overall (TIS score) and balance (TBS) impairments. To investigate issues of attention, a dual-task methodology was incorporated (e.g., Laufer et al., 2007). Static balance was examined using a quiet standing task, and postural adaptations were inferred from a leaning condition. Both tasks were performed with and without attentional loading. Twelve 10-s trials, three per each condition, were completed. An AMTI force plate was used to collect data at a sampling rate set at 100 Hz. BioDaq software was used to extract the dependent measures (area of sway, anteriorposterior sway, and path length). A 2 (children with DCD vs. children without DCD) × 2 (static balance vs. postural adaptation) × 2 (attention vs. no attention) mixed factorial design, with repeated measures on the last two factors was implemented. Results revealed a Group (F(1, 18) = 5.33, p < .05, η2 = 0.23), and Attentional condition (F(1,18) = 11.95, p < .05, η2 = .40) main effects in static balance for area of sway. Children with DCD exhibited further oscillations of COP from the vertical position as compared to their peers. Overall larger excursions were observed when the attentional task was implemented. In terms of postural adaptations, no significant effects were found. The results were surprising, but robust. Outcomes indicated attentional loading had no effect on performance of either group. It is plausible that an increase in the difficulty of the postural and/or attentional tasks may differentiate between the groups/conditions. Using Rasch measurement to model a physical ability scale for German 6- to 9-year-old students Utesch, Till, Strauss, Bernd, Dreiskaemper, Dennis, Tietjens, Maike; University of Muenster; Naul, Roland; Willibald Gebhardt Institute The purpose of this study was to find a Rasch Measurement Physical Ability Scale for primary school-aged students covering condition and coordination. Using Rasch Measurement Utesch et al. (submitted) showed Rasch conformity and, therefore, homogeneity for 6 items (6-min run, push-ups, sit-ups, standing broad jump, 20-m sprint and jumping sideways) for 2852 9- and 10-year-old pupils from Muenster, Germany. Balancing backwards, as indicator of coordination, was excluded due to local model violations. The 7 items cover condition and coordination and, therefore, the general physical abilities (Bös, 1987). In the context of the German-Dutch INTERREG IV longitudinal obesity intervention project “Healthy Children in Sound Communities (HCSC)” (Naul et al., 2012) the 7 subtests were tested in three different age-cohorts (N6years = 790, N7years = 1371, N8years = 1331, N9years = 925; 48.2 % female). The data was transformed—included sex and age as covariates—into five normally distributed and five evenly distributed categories to investigate which transformation matched best. Detailed analyses based on mixed-Rasch-modeling (Rost, 1990) separately for each age group show the only acceptable fit indices with ordered threshold parameters for normally distributed categories within the one class solution for all items for 6- to 8-year-old children (.12 = Q = .16) and acceptable bootstrapping scores. For 9-year-old children analyses show the one class solution (.09 = Q = .14), in case balancing backwards is excluded due to unordered threshold parameters. No model-fit was found for the evenly distributed categories. Regarding statistical and methodological issues, our results based on Rasch measurement provide empirical evidence that it is feasible to build a general motor ability/fitness score covering condition and coordination for primary school-aged children up to eight years. This study also demonstrates the superior capacity of IRT models in the diagnosis of motor abilities, as well the options to detect non-fitting items and the importance of a proper categorization.  Willibald Gebhardt Institute Cross-cultural analysis of the postural control of Brazilian, Greek and Canadian infants assessed with the Alberta Infant Motor Scale Valentini, Nadia C., Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; Saccani, Raquel, Universidade de Caxias do Sul Objective: To compare the motor development (scores) of infants from three population samples (Brazil, Canada and Greece), to investigate differences in the percentile means of motor development in these samples, and to investigate the prevalence of motor delays in Brazilian children. Methods: Observational, descriptive and cross-sectional study with 795 infants from zero to 18 months of age, assessed by the Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) at day care centers, nurseries, basic health units and at home. The Brazilian infants’ motor scores were compared to the results of two population samples from Greece (424 infants) and Canada (2,400 infants). Descriptive statistics was used, with one-sample t test and binomial tests, being significant p < 0.05.

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Results: It was observed that 65.4% of Brazilian children showed typical motor development, although with lower mean scores. In the beginning of the second year of life, the differences in the motor development among Brazilian, Canadian and Greek infants were milder; at 15 months of age, the motor development became similar in the three groups. A non-linear motor development trend was observed. Discussion and Conclusions: The lowest motor percentiles of the Brazilian sample emphasized the need for national norms in order to correctly categorize the infant motor development. The different ways of motor development may be a consequence of cultural differences in infant care.  CAPES and CNpQ Brazilian reference values for the Alberta Infant Motor Scale Valentini, Nadia C., Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; Saccani, Raquel, Universidade de Caxias do Sul Objectives: The present study compared raw scores from Brazilian and Canadian children; it described the percentile of Brazilian children at all ages evaluated with the Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS). Methods: It was a descriptive, observational, crosssectional study in which participated 795 children aging from 0 to 18 months. Trained professionals performed the evaluations in kindergartens, homes, and Health basic Unities. Children were assessed in prone (21 items), supine (9 items), sitting (12 items), and standing (16 items). Descriptive statistics and one-sample t test were used to analyze the data (p = .05). Results: Different trajectories of motor development were observed between both countries. Brazilian children showed lower scores at specific ages, comparing to the Canadian sample. The low variation of children’s percentiles in the second month of life and after 15 months shows little sensibility of AIMS on noticing the differences of children’s motor performance at these ages. Percentiles described for characterizing the Brazilian children’s performance aging from 0 to 18 are different from Canadians. Discussion and Conclusions: This study highlights the need of using national norms for categorization of children’s performance evaluated with the AIMS, based on the different trajectories observed. Probably, differences on postural acquisitions represent a reflection of cultural and socioeconomic differences between both countries. Alberta Infant Motor Scale: Postural control acquisition from birth to 18 months Valentini, Nadia C., Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; Saccani, Raquel, Universidade de Caxias do Sul Introduction: The period of motor acquisitions during childhood can vary among individuals, due to multiple causes, such as cultural and socioeconomic differences. Objectives: Describe the trajectory of development of antigravity and postural control and skill in prone, supine, seated, and standing up positions, in Brazilian children aging from 0 to 18 months; analyze if acquisition period of postural control in Brazilian children was different from Canadian children. Methods: The study was descriptive and observational, transversal (cross-sectional), and had a sample of 795 children, from Institutions, Hospitals, Health Basic Unities and Schools and Primary Schools. The Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) was used to evaluate motor development and skill in prone, supine, seated, and standing up positions. Results: The results showed nonlinear increase in the number of motor acquisitions in Brazilian children during the years. The first position that a child acquires skill is supine, followed by prone, standing up, and seated position. The motor trajectory of Brazilian children is different from the Canadian ones; the appearance of antigravity and postural control was slower in Brazilian children. Discussion and Conclusions: Trajectory of motor acquisitions in Brazilian children is different from curves showed by Canadian children; however it is in accordance with Health Ministry and OMS. The observed differences can be derived from social cultural differences, because these can have a significant impact in a child’s development. Evaluation of a child’s normal development is very important, because it enables an early detection of delays and planning a directed intervention to the expected postural control. Nutritional status and the acquisition of fundamental motor skills in children from Brazil: A preliminary study Van Keulen, Guilherme E., Ugrinowitsch, Herbert, Federal University of Minas Gerais; Oliveira, Marcio A., University of Maryland; Resende, Raquel, Vasconcelos, Nayara M., Azevedo, Gabriela, Benda, Rodolfo N.; Federal University of Minas Gerais The acquisition of basic or fundamental motor skills is one of the most important periods of the developmental process. Several factors are involved in this process, and many of them may have a negative impact. For example, it has been shown in the literature that body weight is highly correlated to lower motor competence, causing impairments throughout development. However, it is not clear how nutritional status also relate with low motor competence in Brazilian children. This preliminary study aimed to correlate nutritional status with basic motor skill performance in children (n = 15) with 7.8 ± 0.4 years of age, students in a public school of Viçosa, MG, Brazil. The nutritional status was evaluated based on the recommendations of the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), using the Nutrition Assessment Program in Pediatrics (PED 2000). Motor performance was assessed through results quotient Motor of Test of Gross Motor Development–II (TGMD-2). The results showed that 40% of children had eutrophic condition for nutritional status, 20% were classified with malnutrition, while 20% were overweight. 13.3% were classified as obese, and 6.7% rated severe obesity. Regarding the motor performance, 13.3% of children were classified below average, 40% with poor performance and 46.7% with very poor performance. The Spearman correlation analysis showed a significant inverse correlation between nutritional status and motor performance (r = –.543, p = .036), indicating that children with eutrophic condition showed a better performance of fundamental motor skills as compared to those classified as obese, and severe obesity. Overall the results showed that the high rate obesity may be hindering the process of motor skill development. Hence, an intervention program especially designed for this group of children should first focus on increasing the level physical activ-

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ity to: a) reduce the overweight status and, b) to consecutively allow for a better performance of these basic phylogenetic motor skills. Muscle excitation and kinetic performances during upright cycling in young children with cerebral palsy Van Zandwijk, Renate; Jensen, Jody L.; University of Texas–Austin Selective dorsal rhizotomy and botox treatments are recommended procedures for the reduction of spasticity in children with CP, the goal of which is a more typical movement pattern. Research is sparse in showing the effects of such treatments in gait, and no studies were found regarding other cyclic movements. As cycling has become a common rehabilitation strategy, there is a need for descriptive data regarding the performances of children with CP to establish the range of performance differences in this population. In this study, 8 children with CP (5–7 years of age), with a range of severity (GMFCS I to IV) were compared to 8 neurotypical peers (NT). The children performed a cycling task; a restrained movement pattern, in which the power output and velocity was held constant. The maximum RPM for children with CP ranged from 30 to 80. All children with CP struggled with the resistance, a low setting of 5 W. Data revealed that children with CP applied the same patterns of power as their NT peers to accelerate the crank. Those with CP showed increased lateral sheer forces on the pedal eccentric to the sagittal plane of motion (CP: 15 N compare to NT: 5 N), demonstrating less efficiency in applying force to the crank. NT produced symmetric muscle activation patterns, 180° out of phase. Children with CP showed greater asymmetry as observed in prolonged muscle excitations in one leg, while the muscle activations in the other leg were shortened and often out of phase. The higher the GMFSC score, the greater the asymmetry. In conclusion, children with CP showed substantially reduced capacity for cadence and work load and were less efficient than their peers in applying pedal forces. Those with CP were characterized by greater asymmetric in motion and muscle involvement, potentially predisposing them to secondary injuries. We acknowledge high variability within this clinical group, yet such descriptive information can be used to define thresholds of training parameters and evaluate the outcomes of treatments in children with cerebral palsy. Reliability and validity of the Test of Gross Motor Development 3 (German Version): Design and sample size calculations Wagner, Matthias O., University of Konstanz; Ulrich, Dale A., University of Michigan Children`s motor competencies are of continuous interest within the German motor behavior research community. However, following the review by Wagner et al. (2011), a lack of process-oriented measures hinders the development of targeted interventions. One of the internationally most accepted process-oriented measures is the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD). The most recent TGMD-3 (Ulrich, 2014) covers six locomotor as well as seven ball skills for children aged between 3 and 10. The overall aim of the presented research project is the implementation of a German version of the TGMD-3 between 2014 and 2016. On the basis of an expert rating, three different sub-studies for establishing test–retest reliability as well as criterion-related and convergent validity of the recently translated TGMD-3 were designed as follows. First, test–retest reliability of the German TGMD-3 will be established within a two-week interval (cf. Ulrich, 2000) observing 100 kindergarten and 100 primary school children. Second, criterion-related validity of the German TGMD-3 will be established by predicting children`s peer acceptance over a six-month interval (cf. Jiang & Cillessen, 2004) observing 189 kindergarten and 277 primary school children; sample size calculations (each with a priori a = .05 (one-tailed), 1 – β = .80, exact) are based on the findings by Gulay et al. (2010; r = .18; p < .05) and Livesey et al. (2011; β = –.149: p < .05), respectively. Third, convergent validity of the German TGMD-3 will be established by comparing its ball skill sub-scores with corresponding sub-scores of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2 observing 30 kindergarten and 59 primary school children; sample size calculations (each with a priori a = .05 (one-tailed), 1 – β = .80, exact) are based on the findings by Logan et al. (2011; r = .44; p < .05) and Logan et al. (2012; r = .32; p < .01), respectively. Latest results out of the validation process will be discussed at the conference. Frequency domain analysis of ground reaction force in preadolescents with and without Down syndrome Wu, Jianhua; Beerse, Matthew J.; Ajisafe, Toyin D.; Georgia State University Children with Down syndrome (DS) display less stable and coordinated gait patterns in the time domain than their healthy peers. However, little is known whether this group difference exists in the frequency domain. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in vertical ground reaction force (GRF) in the frequency domain between preadolescents with and without DS. Twenty children at 7–10 years of age with and without DS participated in this study. Participants walked on an instrumented treadmill at two speeds and with and without external ankle load. Vertical GRF was collected and the data were processed through a Fourier transform. Frequency content variables included fundamental frequency, power of the first five harmonics, and the frequency and the number of harmonics at 95%, 99%, and 99.5% of total power. Preadolescents with DS had a similar fundamental frequency as their healthy peers even though the DS group walked at slower speeds. The DS group displayed a different power spectrum of the first five harmonics, and had the lower frequency and number of harmonics at 99% and 99.5% of total power. However, walking at a faster speed and with external ankle load helped the DS group produce a power spectrum more similar to healthy children. Frequency content of vertical GRF provides additional assessment parameters in functional gait evaluation of children with DS. Treadmill intervention at a faster speed and with external ankle load appears to be clinically promising and needs further investigation.

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Effect of external ankle load on ground reaction force in children and young adults Wu, Jianhua; Ajisafe, Toyin D.; Beerse, Matthew J.; Georgia State University This study aimed to investigate the effect of external ankle load on ground reaction force in preadolescent children and young adults while walking on a treadmill. Twenty-two children at 7–10 years of age and 20 young adults participated in this study. We presented three external ankle load conditions: no load, 2% of body mass, and 4% of body mass on each side. We used an instrumented treadmill to collect vertical ground reaction force (GRF). We calculated the timing and magnitude of the first and second peak GRF, and frequency content of vertical GRF including the frequency at 99% of total power and the power of the first 12 harmonics. Results demonstrate that both groups decreased the timing of the first peak GRF but increased the timing of the second GRF with ankle load. However, children showed an earlier timing of the first peak GRF but a similar timing of the second peak GRF compared to young adults. While both groups increased the magnitude of two peak GRFs, children produced a higher magnitude of both peak GRFs than young adults. In the frequency domain, both groups decreased the frequency for 99% of total power with ankle load. However, children had a higher frequency than young adults across three load conditions. In addition, both groups decreased the power of the first harmonic but increased the power of the second to tenth harmonics with ankle load. Children displayed a similar power in the second and third harmonics compared to young adults, but showed a lower power in the first harmonic and a higher power in the fourth to tenth harmonics. It was concluded that children at 7–10 years of age may have developed some adult-like kinetic strategies to adapt to external ankle load during treadmill walking; however, their kinetic gait maturation continues until adolescence.  The Jerome Lejeune Foundation and Georgia State University

Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 2014, 36, S79-S121 © 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Official Journal of NASPSPA www.JSEP-Journal.com NASPSPA CONFERENCE

Sport and Exercise Psychology* Effects of material incentives on shooting proficiency among college handball players Adegbesan, Olufemi Adegbola, University of Ibadan; Adebiyi, Oyekunle, Taraba State College of Education; Hamafyelto, Steve, University of Maiduguri; Ogu, David, University of Ibadan Incentive has been identified as one of the most potent determination of athletic performance. It has become so focal that coaches and sports administrators all strive to get their athletes well motivated in order to ensure optimal performance most of the time. There has been a dramatic increase in the use of tangible incentive, physical items that are not cash, yet contingent upon performance. This study, therefore investigated the effects of material incentives on shooting proficiency among college handball players. Pre-test post-test experimental research design was used and sixteen handball players participated in the study. An eight-week training of dive and jump shot was administered to the experimental group only, while the control group was given a placebo. A rating scale named Shooting Proficiency Scale (r = 0.82) was developed and used to collect data. Data collected were analyzed using mean, standard deviation, and t test at 0.05 level of significance. Significant difference in shooting skill proficiency was observed between experimental and control group. Post-test mean score of experimental group of 17.8750 ± 2.1671 was higher than that of control group of 12.2500 ± 1.6690 and that the t value of {5.816}; p < 0.05 in dive shot and post-test mean score in jump shot of experimental group of 17.0000 ± 2.8785 was higher than that of control group of 13.0000 ± 1.5119 with t value {3.480}; p < 0.05. Material incentives are capable of exerting effect on mastering, improvement, and performance in shooting proficiency. It is therefore recommended that physical education teachers, coaches, athletic trainers, and sports psychologists should adopt the use of material incentive as motivational strategy in enhancing skill proficiency especially in learning difficult skills. Influence of exercise on mental well-being of psychiatric patients in Nigeria Adegbesan, Olufemi Adegbola; University of Ibadan; Akinola, Eniola O., Yaba Psychiatric Hospital; Olatunji, Taiwo O., NeuroPsychiatric Hospital–Aro; Kelechi, Benson, University of Ibadan; Mohammed, Sanusi, Nigeria Football Federation There is impressive evidence for psychological benefits of exercise for mentally healthy individuals, and even stronger for psychiatric populations. Studies have demonstrated a positive relationship between exercise and mental health in people with schizophrenia, clinical depression, stress, and anxiety. Exercise as an adjunct therapy for patients with mental illness is gaining attention among psychiatrists, sport and exercise scientists with the use interviews, questionnaires and different aerobic exercise programs in the developed world and there is need to investigate this trend as it relate to mental well-being and improved aerobic fitness of the patients. Therefore, this study investigated the perceived influence of exercise on the mental well-being of selected psychiatric patients in Nigeria. Descriptive research design was used. Participants consisted of (91) male and female in patients of two psychiatric hospitals in Nigeria and their mean age was (33.26, SD 4.33).With ethical approval from the appropriate authority as well as informed consent from the participants, data were collected with an open ended Physical Activity Questionnaire, and Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (r = .84).Statistical analysis was performed on the data with percentage, Cramér’s V chi-square and t test. Exercise significantly influenced mental well-being χ2 = 37.79; (N = 91) p < .036. The contingency coefficient was (r = 0.27). This implied a mild relationship. 97.8% of the patients enjoy aerobic activities. 70.3% observed that they sleep better after every exercise activities. There was no significant difference in the well-being status of the participants following participation in exercise activities by sex, but the overall well-being of the male patients was better(mean = 52.30) than the females (51.85). Evidence suggests that exercise is a potent indicator that can be used to promote well-being of mental health patients. Therefore there is need for mental health care givers to integrate this therapy when necessary into the rehabilitation program. Perceived influence of self-talk and imagery techniques on emotions of non-elite athletes in Nigeria Adegbesan, Olufemi Adegbola, University of Ibadan; Mohammed, Sanusi, Nigeria Football Federation; Uzoma, Christian, University of Ibadan Several athletes have been reported to experience emotions that are dysfunctional and these have led to slump in performance outcome because they lack strategies that should be employed when such a discrepancy exists between current and desired emotions. Growing attention in scientific literature for the development of comprehensive approaches to investigate variables involved *The abstracts are alphabetically arranged by the first author’s surname within each of the three sections—Motor Learning and Control, Developmental Perspectives: Motor Control/Coordination/Rehabilitation, and Sport and Exercise Psychology. A funding source, if provided, is given in italics at the end of an abstract. S79

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in the regulation of emotions that are detrimental to athletes’ performance are overwhelming. This study, therefore investigated the perceived influence of self-talk and imagery techniques on non-elite athletes’ emotion. Survey research design was used and participants consisted of (86) male and female non-elite athletes and their mean age was (19.24, SD 5.17).With ethical approval from the appropriate authority as well as informed consent from the participants, data were collected with the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (r = .82) Sport Self-Talk Scale (r = .73) and Emotional Sport Climate Scale (r = .78). Statistical analysis was performed on the data with Pearson’s correlation coefficient and regression analysis. Positive relationship of (r = .77; p < .000) was observed between the self-talk and emotional climate variables. Similar result was also observed between imagery and emotional climate variables (r = .61; p < .000). Self-talk and imagery techniques were compositely dependent on the athletes’ emotional climate. While 82% of both the self-talk and imagery techniques variables were accounted for in the variance of emotional climate. Evidence suggests that performance enhancement strategies when used appropriately can create appropriate emotional climate for non-elite athletes during competitions and outside competitions. It was therefore recommended that sport psychologists and coaches should recognize the best sport performance enhancement psychological management strategies for emotional regulation in the course of their athletes’ sport involvements. Predicting preschool children’s screen time: The role of parent’s regulatory behaviors Albin, Carly; Wilson, Kathleen S.; Rigsby, Vanessa; California State University–Fullerton Children in the U.S. average over four hours of screen time a day (Tandon et al., 2011), which is well above the recommended two hours daily. This is important because as screen time becomes more prevalent among children, associated health risks such as obesity increase (Hancox & Poulton, 2006). Little is known about the strategies that parents implement to regulate their children’s hours of screen time or the parent’s satisfaction regarding their children’s amount of daily sedentary activity. The purpose of this study was to examine whether parents’ regulatory behaviors surrounding screen time would be associated with screen time and parents satisfaction with screen time in their preschool children. This study consisted of 26 parent-child pairs (15 boys & 11 girls; M age = 3.9 years). Parents answered a background questionnaire and completed a daily diary for 10 days. During the diary, parents reported the time their child spent watching television or on the computer as well as their satisfaction with their child’s amount of screen time. Parent regulatory behaviors surrounding screen time were assessed as part of the background questionnaire and included questions about if parents tracked television, had rules about television use, had the television on during meals, and whether the child had a television in his/her bedroom. Separate multiple regressions were used to predict screen time and satisfaction with screen time. The predictor variables included the presence of rules, tracking television use, television use during meals and presence of television in bedroom. Parent regulatory behaviors significantly predicted children’s average screen time [R2 = .39, F(4,21) = 3.4, p = .027]. Allowing TV use during meals (B = 48.9, p < .009) and having a TV in the child’s bedroom (B = 54.2, p < .005) were both predictors of daily screen time. The regression predicting parents’ satisfaction with screen time approached significance [R2 = .34, p = .06]. After examining these results, it appears that having easy access to television maybe an important predictor of preschool children’s screen time. Relationships among physical fitness and physical activity to academic and cognitive performance in sixth-grade students Alderman, Brandon L.; Gralla, Morgan H.; Olson, Ryan L.; Rutgers University Aerobic fitness and exercise have been associated with higher levels of scholastic achievement and cognition among youth (Castelli et al., 2007; Sibley & Etnier, 2003). However, less well studied are the effects of physical education or physical activity (PA) accrued during the school day on cognitive performance. This has important implications given the decline in school-based PA opportunities that have coincided with federal mandates aimed at improving national scholastic achievement rates. The purpose of this study was to (1) further confirm the association between physical fitness and academic achievement and (2) explore the relation between an active school day (with PE) versus less active school day (without PE) on cognitive performance. In study 1, performance scores on the President’s Challenge youth physical fitness test and a statewide assessment of language arts and mathematics (NJ-ASK) were examined among 216 sixth-grade students (age = 11.54 years; n = 106 girls). Fitness was associated with overall academic achievement scores, with significant associations emerging for the mile run/walk, r = –.33, sit-ups, r = .21, and flexed arm hang, r = .15. In study 2, PA behaviors of 70 sixth-grade students were monitored via pedometers across 6 school days, 3 of which included PE (active days). Students also completed a brief cognitive assessment on an active (PE) and a less active (no PE) school day using the d2 Test of Attention and Trail Making Test (TMT) A & B. Students took significantly more steps per day on PE than non-PE days, primarily due to steps taken during PE (1,123). A significant two-way interaction of Gender × Condition, F(3,48) = 4.18, η2p = .21, p = .01, revealed that boys scored higher on the d2 Test of Attention on active school days. Although no significant effects were found for TMT parts A&B, a trend favored active school days. Our findings have implications for incorporating PA into the school day to benefit cognitive and scholastic performance. The relationship between body image and spirituality of female college athletes Avans, Diana E.; Meister, Caleb; Vanguard University There are numerous studies examining the female athletes and body image. In general psychology literature there are studies related to body image and spirituality pertaining to spiritual connectedness and its influence on one’s body image. Carlson,

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Kelbley, and Likins (2004) found that the higher an individual’s spirituality, the lower the individual’s body dissatisfaction score. The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a relationship between body image as measured by Multidimensional Body-self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) and Spiritual Experience Index (SEI) for female college athletes. A second purpose was a difference in scores based on if the athlete participated in either a team or individual sport. Eighty participants from both team and individual sports at three western universities completed the two indexes. Preliminary results showed a moderate relationship between body image and spirituality. There was a significant difference between the SEI score and individual and team sport athletes and no significant difference between the groups on the MBSRQ. Team sport athletes scored higher on the spirituality index. Further research will explore how spirituality influences athletes and their body image, as well if spirituality has an influence on performance. Discovering what some of the explanations for the differences found between team and individual sports will also be explored. Improving exercise adherence in people with type 2 diabetes and prediabetes using self-monitoring strategies: A feasibility study Bailey, Kaitlyn J.; Jung, Mary E.; University of British Columbia Self-monitoring is a crucial skill for facilitating health behavior change (Bandura, 2004). Self-monitoring blood glucose (BG) can improve many clinically relevant health markers in individuals with prediabetes or type 2 diabetes (T2D; Welschen et al., 2000). Exercise can regulate BG up to 24 hr post-workout; pivotal for individuals with chronically uncontrolled BG. The impact of self-monitoring BG to improve exercise adherence is not well established. The purpose of this pilot study was to test the efficacy of a self-monitoring group-based intervention using continuous glucose monitors (CGM) at increasing exercise behavior in individuals with impaired BG. Thirteen participants with either prediabetes or T2D were randomized to an 8-week standard care exercise program (CON; n = 7) or an 8-week self-monitoring exercise program (SM; n = 6). Participants in SM were taught how to self-monitor their exercise and BG using CGM, goal-set, and observed how exercise influenced their BG. It was hypothesized that monitoring and being privy to real-time personal BG feedback would facilitate the learning of and one’s confidence to selfmonitor, resulting in greater exercise adherence. Self-monitoring, goal-setting, self-efficacy, and exercise behavior (assessed by the 7-Day Physical Activity Recall) were measured at baseline, weeks 5, 8, and 4 weeks post-program. RANOVA revealed significant group × time interactions for exercise self-monitoring (p = .006), goal-setting (p = .010), and self-efficacy to self-monitor exercise (p = .040), such that participants in the SM condition increased significantly more over time as compared to the CON condition. Total exercise minutes were not significantly different between conditions, but appear higher in SM compared to CON at the end of the 8-week program (168 vs. 113 min) and at 4-week follow-up (122 vs. 53 min). These findings suggest self-monitoring is a valuable skill for increasing exercise adherence in people with impaired BG control, and provide initial support for the use of CGM to foster the learning of self-monitoring. Does participation in summer camp fulfill youth’s basic needs and facilitate life skill development? Bean, Corliss N.; Kendellen, Kelsey; Forneris, Tanya; University of Ottawa For over 150 years, the summer camp experience has been an important life experience for many youth (Garst, Browne, & Bialeschki, 2011). Researchers propose that participation in summer camp can lead to cognitive, social, affective, and physical benefits that serve in the development of life skills (Weiss & Wiese-Bjornstal, 2009). Further, previous research has illustrated that supporting psychological needs such as autonomy, relatedness, and competence can also lead to optimal psychological functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2002) and within the field of positive youth development (PYD), a number of researchers have begun to examine whether youth programs can support these three psychological needs. Camp Smitty is a summer camp for youth that has been administered by the Boys and Girls Club of Ottawa since 1924. Although the goal of this camp it to provide a positive experience that will help foster the development of youth, particularly those from families living on low incomes, no evaluation has examined the impact of attending camp on youth participants. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to examine if camp was successful in supporting the basic psychological needs of the campers and whether needs support predicted PYD outcomes. The Learning Climate Questionnaire and Youth Experience Survey 2.0 were completed by 104 youth who attended the camp. Results indicated that the camp environment was successful in supporting campers’ basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness and these three needs significantly predicted various PYD outcomes including identity reflection, effort, time management, goal setting, problem solving, diverse peer relationships, physical skills, and prosocial norms. Exploring life skill transfer in a physical activity-based life skills program: Planting the seeds for growth and success in female youth Bean, Corliss N.; Kendellen, Kelsey; Forneris, Tanya; University of Ottawa Research has indicated that physical activity programs are appropriate contexts to foster positive youth development (PYD) as they are active and can provide opportunities to acquire various life skills (Hellison, Martinek, & Walsh, 2008). However, as mere participation does not guarantee positive outcomes, these programs must be deliberately structured to help youth learn and transfer life skills into numerous life domains (Gould & Carson, 2008). The Girls Just Wanna Have Fun (GJWHF) program is a physical activity-based life skills program designed to foster PYD outcomes for female participants that is currently in its third year of implementation. The purpose of this research was to understand the participants’ perceptions of life skill transfer from the

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GJWHF program to other life domains such as school, work, and the community. Interviews were conducted with eighteen youth and ten leaders over the course of the two years. Results indicated that the youth learned various life skills including leadership, emotional regulation, responsibility, and inclusion/acceptance and applied these skills to situations at home, school, and with their peers. In addition, leaders perceived the first year of implantation as helping youth learn how to transfer life skills while the second year was perceived as helping to reinforce and strengthen the transfer of life skills. These findings offer further support for recent literature indicating that when programs focus on helping youth learn how to transfer life skills the youth can succeed and apply what they have learned beyond the context of the programs in which they participate.  SSHRC Coaching behaviors, need satisfaction, and young athletes’ sportspersonship behaviors: A test of basic needs theory Bolter, Nicole D., Boise State University; Kipp, Lindsay, University of Kentucky; Coon, Audrey, Boise State University According to Basic Needs Theory (BNT; Ryan & Deci, 2002), coaching behaviors that fulfill athletes’ needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness can lead to improved well-being. One indicator of well-being is sportspersonship, defined as how athletes behave toward teammates and opponents. Bolter and Weiss (2013) found that high school athletes’ prosocial and antisocial behaviors were predicted by coaches’ behaviors focused on sportspersonship, as assessed by the Sportsmanship Coaching Behaviors Scale (SCBS). One purpose of the present study was to establish further validity and reliability for the SCBS by examining sportspersonship coaching behaviors as perceived by middle school athletes. In line with BNT, we also sought to determine whether athletes’ need satisfaction, specifically relatedness with coaches and teammates, would mediate the relationship between perceived coaching behaviors and athletes’ prosocial and antisocial behaviors. Participants included 171 middle school-aged boys and girls (M age = 12.3, SD = 1.3) involved in a team sport (e.g., basketball, volleyball, soccer). Participants completed a survey to assess study variables. Results from a confirmatory factor analysis showed a good fit to the data for a 5-factor model, suggesting the SCBS is appropriate to use with early adolescents. Path analysis revealed that the hypothesized meditational model showed an acceptable fit to the data. Perceptions of coach behaviors showed significant indirect effects on athletes’ prosocial and antisocial behavior. Modeling good sportsmanship was associated with greater coach relatedness and, in turn, greater prosocial behavior toward teammates and less antisocial behavior toward teammates and opponents. Teaching good sportsmanship was associated with greater teammate relatedness and, in turn, greater prosocial behavior toward teammates. Collectively, findings support the validity of the SCBS for assessing coaching behaviors focused on sportspersonship and the use of Basic Needs Theory for understanding athletes’ sportspersonship behaviors. Perception of obese individuals by professors teaching PETE majors Boros, Piroska, Fontana, Fabio E., University of Northern Iowa; Furtado Jr., Ovande, California State University–Northridge Professors teaching physical education teaching education (PETE) majors prepare professionals expected to influence youth physical activity habits. Anti-fat bias from professors teaching PETE majors may limit their ability to positively influence the physical activity habits of their future students. Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the attitude of professors in PETE departments toward obese individuals. A total of 94 professors from randomly selected institutions across all four US regions participated in the study (Nfemales = 47; Nmales = 47). Participants answered the Anti-Fat Attitude Scale (AFAS) and took the Implicit Association Test (IAT). The AFAS measures explicit attitudes towards obese individuals. The IAT is a timed assessment measuring automatic attitudes towards obese individuals through word categorizations: good/bad and lazy/motivated. In addition, participants answered two questions specifically designed to measure their attitudes toward physical education teachers and majors who are obese. One-sample t tests were used to analyze the data. Professors teaching PETE majors demonstrated explicit (t93 = 3.46, p < .01) and implicit good-bad and lazy-motivated (t93 = .37, p < .01 and F93 = .44, p < .01 respectively) anti-fat biases. Professors also favored accepting majors who are obese (t93 = 3.7, p < .01), but in order to be good role models to students thought that physical education teachers should not be obese (t93 = 2.05, p < .01). The anti-fat bias shown by professors teaching PETE majors may be a barrier for the promotion of youth physical activity. It is contradictory to agree to accept PETE majors who are obese but feel that physical education teachers should not be obese. Research comparing the graduation rate of obese to non-obese PETE majors is recommended. In order to more effectively combat obesity, awareness prevention programs may be necessary to diminish anti-fat bias among professors in PETE programs. Responses to perceived effort in children Braun, Robyn, University of Texas of the Permian Basin; Tenenbaum, Gershon, Florida State University The majority of research on perceived effort in children has emanated from a physiological perspective and has generally focused on the development of ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) scales for children. Although Tenenbaum (1999, 2001) and others have investigated the psychological factors related to perceived effort in adults, research with children has not examined these factors. The current study examined the differences in psychological factors involved in three components of effort perception between two cohorts of children at different stages of cognitive development (concrete operational stage and formal operation stage) during an exertive task. According to Piaget (1969) children in the concrete operational stage of development are often 7 to 11 years of age; while those in the formal operational stage are 11 years and older. Study participants were recruited from two general age groups: 9 years of age and 13 years of age. Participants were screened on the PPVT-4. Children who scored in

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the average range of receptive vocabulary were selected for this study. Fifty children completed the study: concrete operational n = 23; formal operational n = 27. Three dimensions of perceived effort sensations (i.e., breathing, exertion, determination) were measured at regular intervals for the duration of a stepping task. Each dimension was measured separately, using a weighted backpack at a physical load of 0% or 20% of the participant’s body weight. Results of this study revealed that children perceived the three effort dimensions differently across the duration of an exertive task and physical load. Children in the concrete operational group were not expected to differentiate their ratings. Exertion and breathing sensations were reported with increased intensity in a linear fashion and also increased with intensity in physical load for both groups. Unlike adults, determination ratings did not remain stable over time for children in either stage of cognitive development, indicating that children may perceive this dimension differently than adults. Characterizing women’s physical activity behavior after treatment for breast cancer: Associations with motivational regulations Brunet, Jennifer, University of Ottawa; Sabiston, Catherine M., University of Toronto An active lifestyle can help women prevent health complications in the aftermath of a cancer diagnosis. While evidence suggests physical activity (PA) levels are low in women after treatment for breast cancer, it is not clear if there are different groups of women with diverse patterns (i.e., trajectories) of change in PA behavior. In this study, we investigated if there are groups of women with distinct trajectories of moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) behavior in the first year after treatment for breast cancer. We also contrasted the trajectory groups on motivational regulations for PA. Motivational regulations were assessed at baseline [mean = 3.46 months post-treatment] and PA was assessed at baseline and follow-up months 3, 6, 9, and 12 from via questionnaires. Among the 199 women who participated in this study, five trajectory groups were found based on semi-parametric groupbased modeling: consistently inactive (7.1%), decreasing levels (12%), inactive with increasing levels (12%), consistently active (59.9%), and active with minimally decreasing levels (9.1%). A multivariate analysis of variance revealed that the groups differed on ratings of motivational regulations (F = 4.20, p < .001, χ2 = .10), namely intrinsic motivation (F = 17.18, p < .001, χ2 = .27), identified regulation (F = 14.49, p < .001, χ2 = .24) and amotivation (F = 8.23, p < .001, χ2 = .15). This study advances knowledge on women’s patterns of change in MVPA behavior after treatment for breast cancer. Women who remain inactive or who decrease their MVPA levels over time should be considered high priority when selecting candidates for intervention. Findings suggest that interventions developed to enhance intrinsic and identified regulations may help increase MVPA initiation and maintenance among women treated for breast cancer. Breast cancer survivors’ decisions to join a dragon boating team Byrer, Beth K., McDonough, Meghan H., Purdue University Breast cancer survivors often face significant challenges that affect their well-being. Therefore, there is a critical need for methods of enhancing quality of life post-cancer. Physical activity is associated with psychosocial and physical health benefits for breast cancer survivors. Little is known, however, about survivors’ decision-making processes when considering joining group physical activity programs designed for survivors. The purpose of the present investigation was to examine how BC survivors come to make a decision to join a physical activity group and how they understand and interpret this process. Guided by interpretive description methodology (Thorne, 2008), N = 15 female breast cancer survivors (M age = 54 years) who were considering or had made the decision to join a dragon boating team were interviewed twice each about their understandings and interpretations of their decisions to participate. Participants described attractive (e.g., developing physical competence, social support, positive attitude, accessibility) and challenging (e.g., physical demands, side effects of treatment, logistical issues, and social difficulties) elements of dragon boating and personal beliefs and values (e.g., breast cancer leading to new opportunities, fate, valuing physical activity, prioritizing own well-being, and support from family and friends) that played a role in their decisions. Four patterns of decision-making processes were identified: searching for an activity, just dove in, breast cancer as an opportunity, and hesitant to join that highlighted the variation in approaches to this decision-making process. Results have implications for understanding decisions to participate in physical activity groups in this population and overcoming challenges to participation. Developing a supervision model in order to strengthen professionalism for sport psychology consultants Chang, Duksun, National Sport University; Parker, Paula M., East Stroudsburg University; Chung, Jihye, Sookmyung Women’s University This study aims at developing a supervision model that can be applied to sports fields in order to strengthen the capacity of sport psychology consultants. The subject of this study is 32 sport psychology consultants certified by the Korean society of sport psychology. An opened questionnaire included questions regarding the need and recognition of the supervision, knowledge, techniques, and value and attitude. The data (435 raw data) analysis adopted the grounded theory methodology and followed the three stages process: developing coding, axial coding, and selective coding. First of all, Korean sport psychology consultants expect to have a supervision in a way to gain professional counseling skills, to utilize effective counseling method, and to obtain professional knowledge and ability. Secondly, the perceived idea about the supervision is developing professionalism, enhancing effectiveness of counseling, and improving counseling quality. Thirdly, the knowledge needed for the supervision is understanding on athletes and game characteristics, and planning programs. Fourthly, supervising skills should be communication skills, data collecting

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skills, performance feedback, and an objective evaluation. Fifthly, the value and attitude of the supervision is the responsibility for the job, and the efforts to grow continuously as a professional and having professionalism. Finally, based on analysis from literature review, models, and opened questionnaire, the new supervision model was established. As a result, in order to apply the supervision to Korean sport psychology consultants, it is required to develop a practice guideline for improving professionalism, field applicability, consultants’ qualification and athlete’s performance under the clear purpose of the supervision. Creating robust attitudes toward physical activity: Investigating mechanisms of attitudinal inoculation Clear, Sarah E.; Jackson, Ben; Dimmock, James A.; University of Western Australia The central principle of inoculation theory is that when individuals are presented with a weak form of a persuasive attack against their attitudes, the individual becomes inoculated against future attacks or challenges to those attitudes. Research has demonstrated that inoculation messages are effective in creating resistance to counter-attitudinal attacks. However, beyond the medical analogy that is often used to explain inoculation effects, our understanding of the mechanisms underpinning attitudinal inoculation is not fully developed. It is possible that inoculation messages might confer resistance through the stimulation of both thoughtful and nonthoughtful processes, similar to those routes suggested within the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion. Fifty-three undergraduate kinesiology students participated in one of 13 semistructured focus groups, lasting 50 min on average. To examine inoculation mechanisms, participants were instructed to think about their preexisting beliefs in physical activity/sport and how these might be protected through inoculation. Content analysis revealed several themes and sub-themes, including general support for inoculation. There was evidence for a dual-route pathway to developing resistance following inoculation, and analyses revealed insight into the variables that might moderate individuals’ responses to inoculation messages (e.g., ability, motivation). Analyses also revealed that responses to an attack could differ depending on the route that individuals employ. This study advances our understanding of the ways in which inoculation creates resistance, and provides a framework for exploring inoculation in future physical activity research. It is the goal of health professionals to promote both positive and unwavering attitudes toward healthy behavior; this research provides practical insight into how this might be accomplished. Forewarned is forearmed: The effects of inoculation messaging on attacks to self-efficacy Clear, Sarah E.; Dimmock, James A.; Anthony, David; Whiddett, Ryan; Jackson, Ben; University of Western Australia Much like the medical vaccination process, the central premise of inoculation theory is that when individuals are presented with a message that contains weak arguments against attitudes they hold, the individual becomes inoculated against future attacks or challenges to those attitudes. Although inoculation messages have been shown to be effective for inducing resistance to counter-attitudinal attacks, researchers have yet to examine the extent to which inoculation principles might support challenges to psychological phenomena other than attitudes (e.g., self-efficacy). Prior to completing a balance task, undergraduates (N = 127, M age = 19.20, SD = 2.16) were randomly assigned to receive either a control message or theory-derived inoculation message, and reported their confidence in their ability regarding the upcoming task. During the task, a confederate provided standardized negative feedback to all participants regarding their performance, and following the completion of the task, participants again reported their self-efficacy along with measures assessing potential explanatory mechanisms. Controlling for pre-task self-efficacy, task performance, and a range of other relevant psychosocial variables (e.g., resilience, self-confidence robustness), participants in the inoculation condition reported greater confidence in their ability than those in the control condition at post-task. Relative to those in the inoculation condition, participants in the control condition also experienced greater concentration disruption and self-presentation concerns during the task. Finally, although control participants reported that the confederate had a weak negative impact on their task performance, those in the inoculation condition felt that the confederate had a weak positive impact on their performance. These findings represent a novel integration of the self-efficacy and persuasion literatures, by demonstrating the way in which inoculation messages might enable individuals to withstand challenges to their confidence in their ability. Validity evidence for State Mindfulness Scale scores in a physical activity context Cox, Anne E.; Ullrich-French, Sarah; French, Brian F.; Washington State University Mindfulness, attention and openness to the present moment, is linked to positive outcomes (Bishop et al., 2004). However, few state measures of mindfulness exist and none have been tested in a physical activity context. The purpose of this study was to gather score validity evidence for the State Mindfulness Scale (SMS; Tanay & Bernstein, 2013) in a physical activity context. The measure contains both mind (items = 15) and body (items = 6) subscales. We created eight additional body-related items to increase its relevance to the physical domain. Physical activity participants (N = 208, 61.1% female, 82% White, Mage = 34.09) completed a survey immediately following a session of yoga (32%), aerobic activity (31%), strength training (10%), sport (11%) or some combination of these (16%). The survey included the modified SMS, the Toronto Mindfulness Inventory (TMI; Lau et al., 2006) and a state version of body surveillance (McKinley & Hyde, 1996). To evaluate the factor structure of the modified SMS, item level confirmatory factor analyses were conducted. A bi-factor model, χ2(348) = 921.59, p < 0.05, RMSEA = 0.089, CFI = 0.93, WRMR = 1.15, with moderate to high item loadings on the primary dimension(i.e., mindfulness) and varied loadings on the body and mind factors fit the data better than a 2-factor or unidimensional model. Internal consistency reliabilities were .93 and .94 for mind and body subscales, respectively. Mind- and body-related mindfulness scores were positively correlated with the

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TMI (r = .75, .49, respectively, p < .01). Body-related mindfulness was negatively correlated (r = –.22, p < .01) with body surveillance. MANOVA revealed that mind- and body-related mindfulness were significantly higher for participants in yoga compared to other types of physical activity, Pillai’s trace = .13, F(2, 189) = 13.99, p < .01, η2p = .13. Initial score validity evidence for the modified SMS was demonstrated in a physical-activity context. Working hard or hardly working at sport camps: Examining the effects of others Crozier, Alyson J., Spink, Kevin S.; University of Saskatchewan There would be few who would challenge the suggestion that effort is a key component in becoming better as an athlete. How hard one works is typically thought of as being internally generated. However, given that effort is a discretionary resource, it might be assumed that one’s interpretation of the immediate performance environment also might influence how hard one works. It has been reported that how hard others were perceived to be working on sport teams positively affected how hard individual members worked over the course of a season (Spink et al., 2013). The purpose of this study was to examine whether perceiving others as working hard in a one-week summer sport camp would be positively associated with a camp participant’s self-reported effort during the camp. Also, given the implied importance of the coach as a motivator in getting players to work hard (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003), we also examined whether perceptions of the leader’s approval of effort would impact individual effort. Female summer camp participants (N = 144) partaking in a one-week volleyball training skills camp completed a survey assessing descriptive norms (i.e., perceptions of how many of their group members worked hard), perceptions of how much the group instructor approved of them working hard, and individual effort. Regression results revealed a significant overall model, F(2, 142) = 10.9, p < .001, accounting for 13.3% of the variance in self-reported effort. In particular, descriptive norms, (i.e., the perception of how hard others worked (β = .24, p < .01)), and the group instructor’s approval of working hard (β = .23, p < .01) were both significant predictors of individual effort. Findings suggest that perception of others, be they group members or leaders, may be associated with how hard individual members work. Further, the finding that perception of the effort levels of others in the group was associated with individual effort levels extends the relationship between descriptive norms and effort from groups that exist over a full season to those only lasting one week. Perceiving the camp as a group: Effects on intention to return Crozier, Alyson J., Spink, Kevin S.; University of Saskatchewan Differentiating between individuals as a collection versus a group has received attention in the activity area with respect to adherence. It has been noted that members who reported greater perceptions of groupness in their self-identified collection of exercisers also reported better adherence in a structured exercise setting (Spink et al., 2010). At least two questions emerge from this seminal study. Similar to other group constructs such as cohesion (Spink, 1998), would perceptions of groupness also be associated with adherence that occurred outside the original setting (i.e., intent to return to the group)? Second, would a relationship emerge between adherence and perceptions of groupness in a setting where the lifespan was considerably shorter than a typical structured exercise class (i.e., one-week summer camp)? The purpose of this study was to examine whether perceptions of groupness reported by members attending a one-week summer sport camp would be associated with an individual’s intention to return to the camp. Participants were females (N = 140) who attended a one-week volleyball summer camp. The camp was structured so that participants were assigned to small groups (n = 13) that remained intact for the week. On the last camp day, participants completed a survey assessing perceptions of groupness (Spink et al., 2010) and a 2-item intention to return to their camp group in the future measure. After controlling for nesting of participants within camp groups (ICC = .07), the results from a multilevel model revealed that intention to return to the same camp group in the future was predicted by perceptions of groupness (b = .31, p < 0.001). Similar to findings with other group constructs such as cohesion (Spink, 1998), these results suggest perceptions of groupness also are associated with adherence measures occurring outside the original context. Further, the fact that this was found following a one-week camp extends previous findings to groups with a considerably shorter lifespan. Extracurricular school sports as a springboard to an active lifestyle among 5th- and 6th-grade children De Meester, An; Aelterman, Nathalie; Cardon, Greet; De Bourdeaudhuij, Ilse; Haerens, Leen; Ghent University Purpose: Extracurricular school sport programs are considered an ideal channel to reach children who are not active in leisure time. The purposes of this study were to evaluate whether children, who participate in extracurricular school sports compared to children who don’t, 1) are more autonomously or controlled motivated, or amotivated to participate in sports; 2) participate more or less in organized sports (outside school), and 3) are more or less physically active in daily life. Method: One thousand forty-nine children (53.7% boys; M age = 11.02 years, SD = .02) out of 60 classes from 30 Flemish elementary schools, with an extracurricular school sports offer, completed a validated questionnaire to assess physical activity (Flemish Physical Activity Questionnaire, Philipaerts, 2006) and motivation towards sports (Behavioral Regulations in Exercise Questionnaire, Markland & Tobin, 2004; Aelterman et al., 2012). Results: Seventy-six percent of the children reported to participate in extracurricular school sports during the current school year. Almost one-fifth of the total sample (17.64%) reported not participating in community sports, but did participate in extracurricular school sports, whereas 9.53% reported to participate in neither one. Most children (64.91%) not participating in community sports stated that they participate in extracurricular school sports. Participants

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in these sports were significantly more physically active than non-participants (β = 157.62, p < .001), even after controlling for participation in PA more generally. Conclusions: If extracurricular school sports are offered at school, the vast majority of children participate. Although extracurricular school sports attract many children already engaging in community sports, they also reach almost two-thirds of the children who do not participate in community sports. As children participating in extracurricular school sports are more physically active than their counterparts, extracurricular school sports participation can be considered to contribute to an active lifestyle. Relationship status and mental and physical functioning in a targeted sample of former professional football athletes DeFreese, J.D.; Cox, Leah M.; Guskiewicz, Kevin M.; University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill Research suggests that former professional football athletes (FPFAs) reporting a history of three or more concussions are at a greater risk for maladaptive mental health outcomes such as depression (Guskiewicz et al., 2007). Based on the importance of social relationships to health outcomes (Burleson et al., 2013), supportive relationships with a spouse/romantic partner merit examination in relation to the mental and physical functioning of FPFAs. Such work will enhance understanding of FPFA mental and physical health and has potential to inform socially driven health interventions. The purpose of this study was, after accounting for empirically specified correlates, to examine the association of relationship status with mental and physical functioning in a targeted sample of FPFAs. We hypothesized that, after controlling for age and concussion history, being married or living with a romantic partner would be positively associated with higher levels of self-report mental and physical functioning for FPFAs. Retired American professional football players, aged 45 years and younger (N = 277; M age = 32.4 years), completed self-report assessments of study variables following their playing careers. The majority (n = 214; 77%) of FPFAs sampled endorsed being married or living with a romantic partner. Remaining participants (n = 63; 23%) endorsed a single, divorced/separated, or widowed status. Group difference analyses revealed FPFAs who were married or living with a romantic partner to exhibit significantly higher mental (t = –3.2, p < 0.01) but not physical (t = –0.86, p > .05) functioning scores. Regression analyses further showcased relationship status as a positive contributor to mental (β = 0.21, p < 0.001) but not physical (β = 0.10, p > 0.05) functioning beyond age and concussion history. Study results substantiate the positive link between FPFA relationship status and perceptions of mental functioning. Future examinations of relationship quality are needed to inform couple-based interventions aiming to improve mental and physical health outcomes for FPFAs. Psychological effects of ostracism following an acute bout of physical activity Delli Paoli, Anthony G.; Smith, Alan L.; Pontifex, Matthew B.; Michigan State University Ostracism is the process of socially excluding or ignoring others (Williams, 2007). The negative psychological effects of ostracism are well documented; however, less work exists on how to mitigate these effects. Physical activity (PA) produces positive psychological benefits (Ortega, Ruiz, Castillo, & Sjostrom, 2008) and therefore has potential to dampen the effects of subsequent ostracism. The purpose of this study was to investigate the psychological effects of ostracism following an acute bout of PA. Using a within-subjects design, participants (N = 48) were randomly assigned to a counterbalanced sequence of three conditions across three days (PA & ostracism, PA & inclusion, rest & ostracism). Participants walked on a treadmill at 60% of their HRmax or rested for 20 min. Following PA or rest participants played Cyberball (Williams & Jarvis, 2006)—a virtual ball toss game—to elicit feelings of inclusion or ostracism. After finishing all three conditions, participants completed condition-specific ostracism manipulation checks as well as needs threat and mood scales (Williams, 2009). Participants reported feeling more ignored and excluded in both ostracism conditions than the inclusion condition (all p < .001). A greater threat to primary needs (belonging, control, self-esteem, meaningful existence) was observed in both ostracism conditions compared to the inclusion condition, with the rest condition showing the greatest threat (all p < .01). Participants reported the lowest positive mood in the rest condition and higher negative mood in both ostracism conditions than the inclusion condition (all p < .001), although some variability in mood responses was observed. Findings show that PA may partly mitigate the effect of subsequent ostracism on primary needs, with mood effects less clear. Further examination of PA and ostracism effects is warranted, with promising future research directions including the examination of post-ostracism PA, specific social sources of ostracism, and ostracism specific to PA tasks. Perceptions of the group environment on individual sport teams: Experimentally comparing interdependence structures Evans, Blair, Eys, Mark; Wilfrid Laurier University Individual sport teams often range according to interdependence structures—differences that may shape whether teammates experience positive and collective interactions. The current study examined athletes’ perceptions of teams that differed according to (a) the presence of collective outcomes and (b) whether all members compete against one another in the same event. Eightyfour athletes competing on track teams at university or club levels in the United States and Canada (M age = 20.52, SD = 2.28, 62% female) participated in an online experimental questionnaire-based study. Participants were randomly assigned to read one of four hypothetical team recruitment letters from a prospective coach. Although their passage content was largely identical, the four conditions differed according to whether (or not) the team that was described pursued collective team outcomes as well as whether (or not) all team members competed within the same event. Participants then rated their perceptions of the track team regarding their interest in joining as well as predicted ratings of cohesion and competitiveness. Analyses revealed that cohesion was

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rated highest for teams pursuing a collective team outcome, F(1, 80) = 10.48, p = .002, whereas team favorability was greatest on teams where all members compete within the same event, F(1, 80) = 8.63, p = .07. In addition, competitiveness perceptions were greatest when all members competed in the same event, but with no collective outcome, F(1, 80) = 3.96, p = .05. These results reveal that collective goals and individual-level competition among team members are fundamental sources of interdependence for understanding group interactions. Interdependence structures could provide a direct pathway for coaches and practitioners to design groups that engender member satisfaction and group cohesion. Stability and change of personality characteristics in youth soccer Feichtinger, Philip, Höner, Oliver; University of Tübingen Understanding stability and change of personality characteristics is important in the context of sport psychological research. Interindividual stability is a prerequisite for predicting future performance. Possible interventions are more effective when based on findings about changes in personality characteristics. The present study focuses on different types of stability and change (differential stability, mean-level change, individual-level change, structural stability; De Fruyt et al., 2006) within a group of youth players in the talent development program of the German Soccer Association. The study sample consists of 4321 male youth players in the U12 to U14 age groups. Personality data were collected across longitudinal sections for one cohort (year 1999) over a time period of three seasons (2010–2013). Psychological diagnostics captures personality characteristics that are assigned to the areas of motivation, volition, self-referential cognition and emotion (Feichtinger & Höner, 2013). Product–moment correlations, one-factor repeated-measure analyses of variance, reliable change indices, and an autoregressive latent model were computed. Differential stabilities are higher for one-year intervals (.41 = rxx = .66) than for a two-year interval (.30 = rxx = .50). The personality characteristics’ average levels differ significantly between the age groups with only small effect sizes (η2p = .06). Furthermore, interindividual differences in the amount of intraindividual change are found, and the associations between the psychological characteristics remain relatively stable. These results provide important insight for the sport psychological support of talent development in German soccer. De Fruyt, F., Bartels, M., Van Leeuwen, K.G., De Clercq, B., Decuyper, M., & Mervielde, I. (2006). Five types of personality continuity in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(3), 538–552. Feichtinger, P., & Höner, O. (2013). Psychological diagnostics in the talent development program of the German Football Association: Psychometric properties of an Internet-based test battery. Manuscript submitted for publication. Typical versus appropriate: Effects of different norms on activity Fesser, Kayla; Spink, Kevin S.; Priebe, Carly S.; Ulvick, Jocelyn D.; Crozier, Alyson J.; McLaren, Colin D.; University of Saskatchewan Norms refer to the standards understood by group members that guide member behavior (Cialdini & Trost, 1998). According to focus theory (Cialdini et al., 1990), norms refer to two different types of social information. One refers to what is typical and normal within the group (descriptive norm). Several studies within the activity setting have established a positive relationship between perceptions about the prevalent behavior of others (i.e., descriptive norms) and the self-reported activity of individuals (e.g., Priebe & Spink, 2011, 2012). The other type of information captured in norms refers to an individual’s perception of what others perceive to be appropriate behavior (injunctive norm). This norm type has received no attention in the activity setting. The purpose of this experimental study was to assess the impact of both descriptive and injunctive norms on a measure of muscular endurance. University students were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: descriptive (D, n = 13), injunctive (I, n = 11), or control (C, n = 12) and asked to perform two planks to maximal exertion separated by a 3-min rest period. Immediately after performing the first plank, those in D received a verbal message that 80% of similar others held their second plank for at least 20% longer than their first, those in I received a message that 80% thought individuals should hold their second plank for at least 20% longer, C received no message. Results from an ANCOVA controlling for plank one time revealed significant between-group differences, F(2, 32) = 5.623, p < 0.01. Post hoc analyses revealed that individuals in D held their second plank significantly longer than those in I (p < 0.01) and the C conditions (p < 0.05), with no difference emerging between those in the C and I conditions (p > 0.05). Given that those in the I condition did not differ from the control provides initial evidence that norms providing information about appropriate behavior may not be as effective as that providing information about typical behavior in an activity setting.  Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada Do sedentary behavior and physical activity moderate the association between body-related stress and post-traumatic growth among post-treatment breast cancer survivors? Fong, Angela J., University of Toronto; McDonough, Meghan H., Purdue University; Sabiston, Catherine M., University of Toronto Diagnosis of breast cancer and related treatments are distressing events. Nonetheless, positive experiences emanating from cancer have been reported as post-traumatic growth (PTG). Based on the PTG model, stress and self-perceptions are proposed direct predictors of PTG experiences. Little is known about the association between specific stress, such as body-related stress, and PTG among women in the aftermath of a cancer diagnosis. Furthermore, researchers are encouraged to identify mechanisms linking stress and PTG. Based on emerging findings, physical activity may be a moderator of this association between body-related stress and PTG. No studies have examined sedentary behavior in this capacity. The purpose of the current study is to examine the association between social physique anxiety (SPA) and PTG in a sample of breast cancer survivors and to test physical activity

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and sedentary behaviors as moderators of the association. Women who were diagnosed with breast cancer (N = 199, M age = 55, SD = 11) and who were within 3 months post-treatment completed demographic (age, body mass index, background and stage of cancer diagnosis), SPA and PTG questionnaires and wore accelerometers for one week to assess both moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary behavior. Predictors of PTG were examined using hierarchical multiple regression. Controlling for demographic factors, SPA (β = 0.17) and time spent in sedentary behavior (β = –0.16) significantly (p < .05) predicted variance in PTG (R2 = 0.11). Sedentary behavior and MVPA did not moderate the association between SPA and PTG. The positive association between SPA and PTG is consistent with theoretical tenets such that women require some stress to experience growth. However, the negative association between sedentary behavior and PTG suggests that immediately post-treatment, it may be more important to decrease sedentary time than engage in MVPA to maintain growth in this population. Cyber buddy is better than no buddy: A test of the Koehler motivation effect in exergames Forlenza, Samuel T., Feltz, Deborah L., Winn, Brian; Michigan State University; Kerr, Norbert L., Michigan State University, University of Kent Although exergames are popular, few take advantage of the potential of group dynamics to motivate play. One motivation gain phenomenon has shown promise for increasing effort in partnered exergames: the Koehler effect (working at a task with a more capable partner where one’s performance is indispensable to the group). Previous research has demonstrated a Koehler effect when participants are paired with more capable human partners in exergame settings (e.g., Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin, 2011). This research examined whether a Koehler effect can be observed in an exergame with moderately superior software-generated partners. Male and female (n = 120) college students held five plank exercises for as long as they could using CyBuddy Exercise, developed for this study. Participants completed the exercises individually, and after a rest, completed the same exercises with either a “live” human partner presented virtually (HP) (in reality, a pre-recorded confederate), a nearly-human-like partner (NHP), a hardly human-like software-generated partner (HHP), or no partner at all (IC). Exercise persistence, perceived exertion, self-efficacy beliefs, enjoyment, and intentions to exercise were recorded and analyzed. A significant Koehler motivation gain was observed in all partner conditions compared to the control, such that participants in the HP condition held the planks for 80.1 s longer during the second block than the IC controls, while participants in the NHP and HHP conditions held planks for 25.6 s and 17.2 s longer, respectively (F(3,112) = 12.91, p < .001). This increase in persistence was significantly greater in the HP condition than in either the NHP or HHP conditions (p < .05). No significant differences were observed among the partnered conditions on the remaining measures. These results suggest that software-generated partners can elicit the Koehler motivation gain during exergame play resulting in greater exercise duration, but at least for the present particular software-generated partners, not as much as when exercising with a partner thought to be human. The role of authentic and hubristic pride in motivating physical activity behaviors Gilchrist, Jenna D., University of Toronto; Mack, Diane E., Wilson, Philip M., Brock University; Sabiston, Catherine M., University of Toronto When it comes to motivating behavior, pride may be the most important human emotion (Tracy & Robins, 2007). However, little empirical research has actually tested pride’s relationship to behavioral outcomes, including certain health behaviors. Two facets of pride have been identified and differences in the outcomes and quality of motivation associated with each have been noted (Damien & Robins, 2012; Tracy & Robins, 2007). Authentic pride is often associated with adaptive outcomes and forms of motivation (i.e., valuing activities, enjoyment) while hubristic pride is often associated with maladaptive outcomes and forms of motivation (i.e., social validation; Cheng et al., 2010; Damien & Robins, 2012). The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between authentic and hubristic pride, motivation for exercise, and physical activity behavior. Participants (N = 119) were young adults (nwomen = 57; M age = 20.34 ± 1.48 years) who completed self-report questionnaires pertaining to pride in fitness contexts, behavioral regulations for exercise, and physical activity at a single time point. Using path analytic techniques, the following goodness-of-fit statistics were found (χ2(7) = 10.85, p = .15, RMSEA = 0.07, CFI = 0.99, NNFI = 0.95). In accordance with the proposed model, authentic pride was linked to the more autonomous motivational regulations and hubristic pride was linked with the more controlling motivational regulations. Authentic pride was associated with physical activity through identified regulation. There were no direct or indirect associations between hubristic pride and physical activity. These findings are consistent with previous research (Sabiston et al., 2010) and highlight the utility of experiences of authentic pride in promoting behaviors that are deemed personally important or valuable. Results are in line with previous findings (Tracy & Robins, 2007; Carver, Sinclair, & Johnson, 2010) demonstrating the functional role of authentic, but not hubristic, pride in promoting adaptive outcomes and behaviors.  Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada Perfectionism and passion within intercollegiate sport: A person-oriented approach Gotwals, John K.; Lakehead University The Dualistic Model of Passion (Vallerand et al., 2003) distinguishes between harmonious passion and obsessive passion. Vallerand et al. (2006) contend that healthy and unhealthy perfectionistic athletes should report different levels across these two types of passion. The purpose of this study was to investigate this contention. A sample of 122 intercollegiate varsity student-athletes (M age

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= 21.13 years, SD = 2.42) completed the Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-2 (Sport-MPS-2; Gotwals & Dunn, 2009) and a sport-based version of the Passion Scale (Vallerand et al., 2003). An iterative cluster analytic protocol indicated that the athletes could be grouped into four clusters based on their Sport-MPS-2 subscale scores. Across subscales reflecting perfectionistic strivings, Clusters 1 and 2 had levels equal to each other and higher than Clusters 3 and 4. Across subscales reflecting perfectionistic concerns, Cluster 2 showed the highest levels, Cluster 3 showed higher levels than Cluster 4 on subscales reflecting self-oriented concerns, and Cluster 4 showed higher levels than Cluster 3 on subscales reflecting socially prescribed concerns. In line with the tripartite model of perfectionism (Stoeber & Otto, 2006), the four clusters were respectively labeled Healthy Perfectionists, Unhealthy Perfectionists, Self-oriented Nonperfectionists, and Socially Prescribed Nonperfectionists. Inter-cluster comparisons indicated that both the healthy and unhealthy perfectionists reported (a) higher levels of obsessive passion in comparison to both clusters of non-perfectionists and (b) higher levels of harmonious passion in comparison to the self-oriented nonperfectionists (all ps = .05). However, contrary to expectations, the healthy and unhealthy perfectionists did not significantly differ across either passion type. Discussion focuses on an interpretation of the results within the context of the dualistic model of passion and the controversial distinction between healthy and unhealthy perfectionism. Do youth’s perceptions of psychological need satisfaction during physical activity predict changes in physical activity? Gunnell, Katie E., Brunet, Jennifer; University of Ottawa; Bélanger, Mathieu; Université de Sherbrooke Physical activity (PA) fosters healthy physical and psychosocial health in youth. However, 93% of Canadian youth are insufficiently active (Colley et al., 2011). While theorists and researchers have hypothesized and found support for the importance of psychological need satisfaction for behavior, few have examined how need satisfaction relates to change in PA behavior over time. In the current research, we examined if the three psychological needs derived from basic needs theory (i.e., competence, autonomy, relatedness) predict changes in PA levels over a 2-year period. Participants were grade 5 and 6 students (n = 310, 52.3% female) participating in the Monitoring Activities of Teenagers to Comprehend their Habits (MATCH) study (Bélanger et al., 2013) who had complete data on psychological need satisfaction variables. Psychological need satisfaction was measured at the start of the school year in 2011, and self-reported moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) was measured at this time and every 4 months thereafter for a total of 6 times. Results from multilevel modeling indicated that competence (β11 = .06, SE = .03) and relatedness (β13 = –.07, SE = .03), were significant predictors of change in MVPA levels. Our findings suggest fostering perceptions of competence may help promote MVPA in youth. In contrast, they suggest that autonomy may not be relevant for understanding changes in MVPA over time in this population. The finding that youth with higher perceptions of relatedness had lower MVPA levels over time is contrary to expectation, and warrants further investigation. Future research examining how changes in psychological need satisfaction predict changes in PA over time could further elucidate the dynamic influence of psychological need satisfaction on PA. A sport officials’ citation network analysis: Examining the most cited articles Hancock, David J., Indiana University–Kokomo; Rix-Lièvre, Géraldine, Université Blaise Pascal; Côté, Jean, Queen’s University Empirical investigations into sport officials began in the 1970s, and have increased in frequency since then. Despite this influx of research, few reviews of the literature exist, which inhibits the creation of cogent theories in the domain. To address this, we conducted a citation analysis, which allows for a descriptive examination of the articles, or groups of articles, that are most influential in a given domain. Our particular focus was that of “sport interactors”—those officials who interact with athletes during competition (MacMahon & Plessner, 2008). We searched three databases for articles that met the following criteria: 1) peer-reviewed, 2) English-language 3) published before 2012, 4) and centered on psychosocial or perceptual-cognitive aspects of officiating. The search generated 115 articles for analysis. For this paper, we focused on the descriptive results of the citation analysis. Initially, we noted very little connectivity within the network, as the average number of citations per article was 4.25 (median = 2.0). We then focused on the top-12 most cited articles in the network, with several findings. First, the most cited articles were published between 1990 and 2004, though half were published after 1998. Next, the publication venue was diverse, with a total of nine different journals represented in the top-12 articles. Third, the participants used in these studies varied from intramural officials, to professional and international officials. Fourth, there was considerable homogeneity in the sex of the participants, as no studies reported using only female participants. Finally, there was congruence in the article type, as 11 of the 12 articles were original articles, while only one article was a review article. Herein we expand on how these findings affect the knowledge structure and theory development of sport officiating research and offer directions for future research. Development of the Positional Competition in Team Sports Questionnaire (PCTSQ) Harenberg, Sebastian; Riemer, Harold A.; Karreman, Erwin; Dorsch, Kim; University of Regina Competition is an integral part of sports. Depending on the context, it can occur in different forms. In elite sports, competition occurs between teams but also within a team. Specifically, elite team sport athletes usually have to compete for playing time at their position (i.e., positional competition). To date, this competition has not received sufficient attention in the sport psychology literature. In an exploratory study, Harenberg et al. (2013) defined positional competition as the process of teammates vying for the same limited playing time with the awareness of the coach. These authors presented a model of positional competition. To confirm this model, a measurement instrument is needed. The objective of this study is the development of such a tool. An initial

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set of 128 items reflecting Harenberg et al.’s (2013) conceptual model was generated and administered to expert and participant panels. Based on the quantitative and qualitative feedback, individual items were revised or deleted. Afterwards, the questionnaire was administered to 221 undergraduate students. Based on descriptive statistics, item-to-item correlation, and item-to-total correlations, items were eliminated. The remaining 58 items were administered to 792 CIS and NCAA Athletes. Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed a 27-item structure with 7 dimensions reflecting processes of positional competition. All dimensions had acceptable internal consistency (a > .70) and showed anticipated correlations to other group dynamic processes (e.g., satisfaction, performance, leadership). The PCTSQ provides the first measurement of competitive processes for playing time in elite team sports. It provides a tool to further evaluate the construct validity of the model of positional competition. Future research should confirm the psychometric structure of the questionnaire and explore how positional competition relates to other team processes (e.g., conflict, role clarity, and acceptance). When men and women think alike: An experiment of opposite-sex competition Harenberg, Sebastian; Fitzgerald, Ryan; McCaffrey, Rob; Willfong, Fleesha; Dorsch, Kim; Riemer, Harold A.; University of Regina Experimental research has demonstrated that men and women react very differently to competition. Men tend to enjoy competitive situations and attribute success to their own abilities. Women are less likely to seek out competitive situations and attribute failure to inability to perform in competition. However, Harenberg et al. (2013) showed that the interpersonal relationship between women plays a pivotal role in the interpretation of same-sex competitive situations. In particular, women who compete against female strangers show decreasing determination to win when they lost. On the contrary, women who competed against friends showed higher determination to win when they lost. What is not clear, however, is if the same pattern of effects can be found in competition between opposite-sex friends and strangers. Therefore, this study examines the effects of gender, interpersonal relationship, and outcome on the interpretation of an opposite-sex competitive motor task game. Two hundred and thirty individuals (male n = 115) participated in the study. Each participant was paired up with an opposite-sex friend or stranger and played a competitive target game. Then, the participants completed a questionnaire measuring task enjoyment, perceived challenge, and determination to win. The results indicated only main effects between friends and strangers (i.e., friends enjoyed the competition more and perceived the competition as more challenging), winners and losers (i.e., winners enjoyed the competition more, losers perceived it more challenging). No main or interaction effects were found for the determination to win. The study provides further evidence that pre-existing relationships between opposite-sex individuals influence the perception of competitive situations. This study confirms main effects (e.g., friends enjoy competition more than strangers) that occurred in competition between competitors of the same sex. The absence of any effect for the variable determination to win provides further evidence for the differences between same-sex and opposite-sex friendships. Dynamics of elite athletes’ activity during the preparation of the Olympics games Hauw, Denis; Mohamed, Sara; Antonini Philippe, Roberta; University of Lausanne The use of routines or plans has proven to be successful factors for preparing competitions (e.g., Singer, 2002). However, recent research has also underlined online and dynamics adaptations using detailed description of the multitude practical courses of action before and during a competition (e.g., Grant & Shempp, 2013, Hauw & Durand, 2007). The purpose of this study was to provide additional knowledge of these adaptations analyzing the preparation during an Olympiad and using a situated activity approach. Seven Olympic and Paralympic athletes volunteered to participate in this study. Data were collected from secondary sources, biographical and self-confrontational interviews. Data were gathered and coded in types of activity (i.e., execution, exploration, change of mind, planning, and stifled activities). Their occurrences were identified for all the successive meaningful periods during the Olympiad. Then, data were compared to identify the general dynamics transforming the activity and patterns representing typical co-ordinations between these activities per period. Results showed that the activity evolved through periods of relative stability (medium number balanced of types of activity) interspersed by edges of density (increasing number of various types of activity). In the majority of cases, patterns observed showed a co-ordination between stifled and execution activities. Some patterns also involved change of mind activity and others were additionally composed by exploration and planning. At the edges of density, almost all types of activity were gathered. These results showed that the preparation of such events is never easy, almost always affected by continuous problems and describing a current activity. Periods marked by change of mind demonstrated, according to the situated activity theory, online processes of reorganization of the activity. Exploration and planning suggested that adaptations were also turn on to futures possibilities. These dynamics are more condensed or deeper in relation to edge periods. “Choices” and “voices” can promote adaptive goal striving in athletes: A self-determination theory perspective on coach behavior, goal motivation, and well-being Healy, Laura; Ntoumanis, Nikos; Veldhuijzen van Zanten, Jet J.C.S.; University of Birmingham; Paine, Nicola J., Duke University Combining the hierarchical model of motivation (Vallerand, 1997) and the self-concordance model (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999), this investigation sought to clarify mixed results in the literature exploring coach behaviors, basic psychological needs, goal motivation, and well- and ill-being. Furthermore, goal motivation was examined over the course of a competitive season in relation to goal progress. Regional level team sport athletes (N = 241) completed questionnaires on the aforementioned variables at the beginning

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of the season. A subsample (n = 70) provided saliva samples to assess physical ill-being. At the end of the season, athletes (n = 98) reported their goal motivation and attainment. Structural equation modelling demonstrated that coach behaviors were related to both needs satisfaction and thwarting, which were related to autonomous and controlled goal motives respectively. Both autonomous and controlled goal motives were related to ill-being; however, only autonomous motives were related to well-being. Initial goal motives predicted goal motives at the end of the season, which were related to higher goal attainment. The findings confirm that both coach autonomy support and controlling behaviors play a role in development of adaptive goal motivations through the satisfaction or thwarting of the basic psychological needs. In addition, the results showed that autonomous and controlled goal motives have differential relations with well- and ill-being. It also seems pertinent that athletes start the goal striving process with adaptive motives, as this can lead to higher goal attainment over time. The study highlights the importance of athletes being exposed to an environment which promotes autonomous goal motives, leading to effective goal striving and greater well-being. Motivational profiles of scholarship athletes and differences in goal motivation and well-being: A cluster analytical approach Healy, Laura, Ntoumanis, Nikos; University of Birmingham; Arthur, Calum, University of Stirling Within the self-determination theory literature, research has generally adopted a data-centered approach to examine the relations between autonomous and controlled motivation, and well- and ill-being. The present study utilized a person-centered approach to explore the sport and academic motivation profiles of British university scholarship athletes. These profiles were used to examine differences in levels of well- and ill-being. Further, we incorporated aspects of the self-concordance model (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999) to examine differences across motivational profiles in the level of autonomous and controlled motivation athletes have for their sporting and academic goals. At the beginning of an academic year, 78 scholarship athletes (47 male, 31 female, M age = 17.58 years, SD = 1.88) from two British universities completed questionnaires pertaining to their self-determined motivation for their sport and academic studies. They also identified their most important sporting and academic goals for the year, and completed measures assessing their motivation for pursuing these goals, and levels of positive and negative affect, physical symptoms of ill-being, and subjective vitality. The results of hierarchical (Ward’s method) and non-hierarchical (k means) cluster analyses identified four different clusters, which displayed different profiles in the levels of autonomous and controlled motivation, and amotivation across the two domains. A MANOVA revealed group differences in autonomous goal motives for academic goals and in controlled goal motives for sporting goals. Further group differences were seen in separate ANOVAs in physical symptoms of ill-being and subjective vitality, and in a MANOVA for positive and negative affect. Data will also be presented exploring how profiles from the beginning of the academic year might identify differences in goal progress, goal motivation, and well-being over time. The findings may provide insight for promoting adaptive goal striving with benefits for goal progress and well-being. Motivation and goal orientation in Division III basketball: Gender and playing status differences Hepler, Teri J., University of Wisconsin–La Crosse; Witte, Kelly S., Griffin, Paul T.; University of Wisconsin–Whitewater The purpose of this study was to explore the motivation and achievement goal orientation of collegiate basketball players. Two hundred fourteen Division III basketball players (92 males, 112 females) participated in the study. The Sport Motivation Scale-28 (SMS-28) and Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire were used to measure motivation and goal orientation, respectively. Participants were classified as starters (20 or more minutes per game; N = 80), substitutes (6–20 min per game; N = 65), or benchwarmers (5 min or less per game; N = 63) based on average playing time per game. One objective of the study explored differences in motivation and achievement goal orientated based on gender and/or playing status while a second aim investigated the influence of goal orientation on motivation. Results indicated that males scored significantly higher than females on the Extrinsic Motivation–external regulation subscale. Significant differences between playing status groups were found on 5 out of the 7 SMS-28 subscales, with starters expressing lower levels of extrinsic motivation than substitutes and benchwarmers. In terms of goal orientation, males were found to be more ego oriented than females. There were no differences in goal orientation between the three playing status groups. Achievement goal orientation was significantly related to motivation. Specifically, task goal orientation was significantly and positively related to all forms of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. Ego orientation was a significant negative predictor of all three types of Intrinsic Motivation and also positively related to Extrinsic Motivation–external regulation. Results of this study suggest that the motivation and goal orientation of Division III basketball players may differ based on gender and playing status. By understanding what motivates athletes to participate in sport, coaches can tailor their coaching techniques to increase the performance, enjoyment, satisfaction, and retention of their student-athletes. A profile-based analysis of the link between perceived motivational climate and psychosocial well-being in adolescent female athletes Horn, Thelma S., Miami University; Martin, Eric M., Michigan State University Recent research in sport psychology (e.g., Hall, 2012, 2013; Vallerand, 2012) has identified some dispositional constructs (passion, athletic identity, perfectionism) that serve as indicators of athletes’ psychosocial well-being. Importantly, these constructs are multidimensional in nature, with some dimensions appearing to be more positive and others less so. The purposes of the current study were to examine these multidimensional variables in adolescent female athletes and then to assess their links to the coach-initiated motivational climate. Self-report questionnaires (PMCSQ-2, S-MPS-2, AIMS, Passion Scale) were administered

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to 242 female athletes (16 to 19 years) in attendance at elite-level sports camps. Data were analyzed using both person- and variable-centered procedures. Specifically, two-step cluster analyses were conducted to separate participants into profile groups based on their perceptions of their team’s motivational climate. Cluster groups were then compared on the subdimensions of the three dispositional constructs. Additionally, canonical correlation procedures assessed the predictive link between the subdimensions of perceived motivational climate and athletes’ dispositional profiles. Results revealed that a task-oriented team climate was positively associated with high levels of harmonious passion and personal standards perfectionism. An ego-oriented team climate was positively linked to high levels of obsessive passion, evaluative concerns perfectionism, and the negative affectivity subscale of athletic identity. However, some specific subdimensions of an ego-oriented team climate were positively associated with harmonious passion and personal standards perfectionism. These results verify the multidimensional nature of the constructs of passion, athletic identity, and perfectionism in elite adolescent female athletes and also provide support for the idea that the type of team climate initiated by coaches can have an effect on the psychosocial health and well-being of such athletes Verbal presentation abstract: Self-presentation motives in group-based physical activity Howle, Timothy C.; Dimmock, James A.; Whipp, Peter R.; Jackson, Ben; University of Western Australia Self-presentation acts reflect individuals’ attempts to create a desired social image in order to influence others’ impressions of themselves. In the context of physical activity, little attention has been directed towards elucidating the nature of the motivational drives thought to underpin these acts. In a series of studies, we developed a framework for the study of self-presentation motives within group-based physical activity settings. Four motives were proposed, termed “acquisitive-agentic,” “acquisitivecommunal,” “protective-agentic,” and “protective-communal.” In line with established approach-avoidance distinctions, acquisitive motives involve a desire to gain social approval, whereas protective motives reflect a desire to avoid social disapproval. In addition, agentic motives involve a focus on demonstrating influence, control, and mastery, whereas communal motives relate to a focus on demonstrating a connection with others. We collected multi-sample data using an instrument designed to measure these motives. We analyzed data to (a) assess the reliability and validity of measures derived from this instrument, (b) identify the correlates of these motives (e.g., efficacy beliefs), and (c) examine how these motives may align with individuals’ goals and behavior. This work was conducted using group-based exercise class attendees (study 1), high school physical education students (study 2), and undergraduate kinesiology students (study 3). Analyses revealed that these motives correlated with relevant goal constructs (e.g., achievement goals, social goals) and behavioral markers (e.g., physical performance) in a way that was consistent with theory. It also emerged that the motives correlated with task self-efficacy, self-presentational efficacy, and anxiety. This framework represents a new perspective on understanding self-presentational processes in group-based physical activity. Our findings should encourage researchers to consider future investigations that explore the utility of these motives in a variety of group-based physical activity settings. Predictors of self-presentation motives in group-based physical activity Howle, Timothy C.; Dimmock, James A.; Whipp, Peter R.; Jackson, Ben; University of Western Australia The purpose of this study was to examine trait and state factors thought to predict individuals’ self-presentation motives prior to participation in a group-based physical activity. Four motives were measured, acquisitive-agentic, acquisitive-communal, protective-agentic, and protective-communal motives. Congruent with approach-avoidance distinctions, acquisitive motives involve a desire to gain social approval, whereas protective motives reflect a desire to avoid social disapproval. Agentic motives involve a focus on demonstrating influence, control, and mastery, whereas communal motives relate to a focus on demonstrating a connection with others. These self-presentation motives are theorized to predict the goals an individual sets (e.g., achievement goals, social goals) and their behavior (e.g., task persistence) in group-based physical activity. Little is known, however, about the dispositional and situational factors that might predict the motives that individuals endorse in a given situation. Undergraduate kinesiology students (N = 124) participated in a basketball game as part of their laboratory class. Before the game, participants completed measures assessing their self-presentation motives, task self-efficacy, self-presentational efficacy, state anxiety, trait anxiety, extraversion, and neuroticism. For each motive (which were treated as criterion variables), we ran a regression model that included the three state-based and three trait-based factors. Analyses showed that task self-efficacy positively predicted the acquisitive-agentic motive, and state anxiety and neuroticism positively predicted the protective-agentic motive. Communal motives were not significantly predicted by any of the factors. The results of the study indicate that both state and trait factors may predict agentic self-presentation motives. In future, it would be interesting to examine the degree to which these relationships hold when using an experimental design, and to broaden the scope of research that targets possible predictors (e.g., social self-efficacy) of communal motives. The effect of social network on sport-confidence and goal orientation in youth sport Hwang, Seunghyun; National Collegiate Athletic Association The present study examined social networks as antecedents of changes in sport-confidence and achievement goal orientation in youth sports. A longitudinal data was collected from children (from the age of 8- to 15-years-old) who were playing for a winter indoor soccer league. In the beginning of the season, 141 children completed Sport-Confidence Inventory (SCI: Vealey & Knight,

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2002), which has three types of sport-confidence (i.e., physical skills and training, cognitive efficiency, and resilience) and Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ: Duda, 1989; Duda et al., 1991). Among children who participated in the first data collection, in the end of the season, 51 children completed SCI, TEOSQ and a social network measure (i.e., frequency of social interaction with referred peers), which was used to quantify social interaction with peers by an actor-by-actor matrix of frequency value. The influence model of social network analysis (Frank, 1998) was employed to estimate the effect of social network (i.e., social interaction). In result, the social interaction with peers in a same age group positively influenced changes in cognitive efficiency (.20) and resiliency (.30), and in task (.21) and ego goal (.48) orientation. In addition, the interaction with peers in different age groups positively influenced change in ego goal orientation (.13). These findings support that social interactions with peers have an impact on sport-confidence and goal orientation in a youth sport setting, which is meaningful for understanding children’s motivation in sport participation. Source of stress of collegiate student-athletes Hwang, Seunghyun; National Collegiate Athletic Association Mental health is one of the most important issues of college students with increases in suicide, substance use, eating disorders, depression and anxiety (Kitzrow, 2003; Zivin, Eisenberg, Gollust, & Goberstein, 2009). They can feel even higher stress than non-athletes due to their dual demands as students and athletes (Storch, Storch, Killiany, & Roberti, 2005). Therefore, identifying sources of stress of student-athletes is important to prevent the mental illness of student-athletes. To explore sources of stress, this study used a survey, Growth, Opportunities, Aspirations, and Learning of Students in College (GOALS), administered by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Student-athletes (N = 19,967) participated in the survey. Cohen’s Perceived Stress (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983) was used for measuring perceived stress in general. The hypothesized predictors included academic and athletic experiences, such as GPA and athletic ability, time commitment, school satisfaction, social engagement, financial concern, coach’s leadership and resource for mental health. Also demographics, such as gender, race, year in school, NCAA-Division, scholarship status and sport, were entered as controls in a multiple regression model. In result, academic anxiety (β = .28), abusive coaching behavior (.08), NCAA-Division I (.05) and II (.03), and academic motivation (.03) were significantly related to higher stress, while body image satisfaction (–.15), sleep quality (–.14), inclusive team climate (–.10), GPA (–.06), ethical coaching (–.04), and academic attitude (–.04) were significantly related to lower stress. Most athletic variables were not significant, except for NCAA-Division. Participating in Division I (.05) and II (.03) were related to higher stress compared to Division III. The R2 value was .23. These findings suggest that academics, physical well-being, and social context were most associated with stress. Effects of physical activity on visual biases and mood of children on the autism spectrum Jassal, Yasmine; Jensen, Jody L.; University of Texas–Austin Exercise is widely used with human subjects to modify mood states. Numerous reports in the literature assert that exercise improves mood and functioning in neurotypical children (NT) and those with neuro-behavioral disorders often comorbid with autism. There is limited information, however, on the effects of exercise on either self-perceptions of mood or physiological indicators of mood for children on the autism spectrum. Mood disorders have a greater prevalence in children with autism when compared with NT peers, most likely attributable to the stereotyped deficits in emotional regulation. This study is a preliminary test of the hypothesis that children on the autism spectrum (n = 4; 7–11 years of age) will respond comparably to NT peers (n = 5; 7–11 years of age) in demonstrating a positive mood shift in response to an acute bout of exercise. Two indicators of mood were used. Pre- and post-intervention surveys were used to document self-reports of mood. Self-reports, however, are subject to the expectancy effect and thus the use of the eye-tracking was coupled with the measures of preferential looking and pupil dilation to quantify the involuntary physiological responses to the various stimuli pre- and post-exercise. An acute bout (15 min) of physical activity was induced by interactive gaming on the Nintendo Wii. We found marginally significant mood shifts in the autism group in the preferential looking task (p = .053) and significant results for the NT group (p = .017). Likewise for the self-report, both groups showed a positive shift post-exercise. These preliminary findings support the hypothesis that physical activity alters mood in children with autism and neurotypical children. The magnitude of the shift for children on the spectrum may not be as great or require greater intervention intensity. Future research would utilize a larger sample in order to increase the statistical power of the results and examine the application of exercise regularly to observe long-term changes in mood states.  University of Texas Undergraduate Research Scholarship Examining psychological literacy through the Long Term Athlete Development Model (LTAD): Preliminary findings on parental roles and influence Kamal, Adlul; Strachan, Leisha; University of Manitoba; Leslie-Toogood, Adrienne, Canadian Sport Centre Manitoba; Nelson, Kendra; Penelton, Stephanie; Kristjanson, Kevin; University of Manitoba Despite widespread use and acceptability, a major limitation of the Long Term Athlete Development Model (LTAD) is the absence of psychological aspects of development. The current study examines parental roles in psychological literacy through the LTAD model. A number of models within developmental psychology (Piaget, 1952; Erikson & Erikson, 1997; Kohlberg,

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1984; Vygotsky, 1978) were used as framework to investigate the psychological components of development. A theory building approach was used to analyze and interpret data collected from in-depth interviews with 13 parents. Since parents’ involvement could be that as a provider, interpreter, and role model (Fredricks & Eccles, 2004), themes generated were synthesized within these contexts. Findings illustrated that motivation for parents to act as a provider was fueled by a number of factors. Parents with previous sport experience were more likely to put children in the same sport and appeared to be more active in providing support and feedback when children were faced with adversities. However, most parents also allowed a degree of autonomy when it came to children choosing their own sport and also displayed a profound understanding of various aspects of their role as an interpreter in children’s participation (i.e., provision of support and encouragement towards child during times of failure). Most parents also seemed to display a mindset parallel with the suggestions embedded by models of developmental psychology used for this study. At least five parents, however, reported that their child struggled to cope with anxiety and did not indicate the knowledge of how to provide support in such circumstances. Therefore, even though most parents appeared well equipped to be a provider, role model, and interpreter, there may be a lack of knowledge regarding dealing with specific situations. Further investigation could clarify the need for educating parents about how to assist children in coping with adversities in sport.  Canadian Sport Centre Manitoba Habit in exercise phases: Assessing automaticity in exercise preparation and performance Kaushal, Navin; Rhodes, Ryan E.; University of Victoria Social cognitive theories have dominated research in understanding physical activity (PA) behavior. However, the absence of automatic processes in these theories has been a notable shortcoming. Hence, some researchers have used the dual process theory, which incorporates both: conscious and automatic/habitual processes. Habit is defined as a system of actions which become automatic responses to certain situations. A model by Lally & Gardner (2011) proposes that habit formation depends on four antecedents: consistency, reward/affect, environment, and low behavioral complexity. It has been assumed in PA research that psychological constructs act linearly throughout an exercise process. However, we propose that there are at least two phases: preparation and performance. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate how habit strength in each phase predicts exercise behavior. The secondary purpose was to determine the strength of antecedents in both exercise phases. Participants (n = 181) were a sample of adults (18–65) recruited across nine recreation centers who completed baseline and follow-up questionnaires after six weeks. When predicting exercise behavior via dual process theory, habit preparation (β = .209, p = .003) was a much stronger predictor than intention (β = .087, p = .212), z = 5.14. Exercise performance revealed similar results of habit performance (β = .163, p = .021) and intention (β = .114, p = .104), z = 2.01.When the antecedents were tested, linear regressions revealed that affective attitude (β = .220; p = .003) and consistency (β = .144; p = .043) both predicted strength of habit preparation. However, only affective attitude (β = .154, p = .042) predicted habit strength of exercise performance. These results suggest that consistency is important for preparation but a positive affective attitude is required in both phases. The general intention construct may not be valid for regular exercisers due to ceiling effect of scores. Hence, alternative an approach, such as the action control framework, could further distinguish between different types of intenders. A deeper investigation of exercise habits: Automaticity antecedents and the action control framework Kaushal, Navin; Rhodes, Ryan E.; University of Victoria Intention has been theorized as the most proximal determinant of enacting behavior in several physical activity theories. However, remerging issues such as the intention-behavior discrepancy necessitate a detailed investigation between this relationship. The action control (AC) framework was specifically designed to provide further insight via various intention-behavior groups. Habit has been proposed to function with intention in the dual process theory. However, assessment of advanced exercisers has resulted in ceiling effect of intention scores. It has been proposed that habit is formulated by four antecedents, which include reward/affect, consistency, environment, and ease of behavioral complexity. A detailed approach of examining elements of habit in intention-behavior groups could identify the variability of habit strengths between AC groups. The purpose of this study was to understand how habit antecedents differ among AC groups. Participants (N = 181) were a sample of adults (18–65) recruited across nine exercise facilities who completed questions at baseline and a follow-up after six weeks. In the present study, participants were categorized into three action control profiles which include (1) successful intenders (SI) (n = 94), (2) unsuccessful intenders (UI) (n = 11), and (3) non-intenders (NI) (n = 23). Multivariate analysis of variance of predictors found a significant difference across the action control groups [Wilks’s Λ = .87, F(8, 252 = 2.19), p = 0.028]. Pairwise comparisons with LSD corrections of antecedents and action control groups revealed that complexity scores significantly differed when SI was compared with both NI (p = 0.010) and UI (p = 0.003) groups, and affective attitude differed between SI and NI (p = 0.019). The results suggest that SI who habitually exercise are driven by affect and ease of behavior compared to NI. However, intenders may not deliver their actions if they view exercise as a complicated behavior. Categorizing an exerciser in AC groups can help identify which antecedents should be developed in making exercise habitual.

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Habit models and theories: A systematic review Kaushal, Navin; Rhodes, Ryan E.; University of Victoria Researchers have predominantly applied conscious regulatory models to predict physical activity (PA) behavior in the past twenty years. Although these models have helped provide insight into the mediators of PA, considerable variance remains unexplained between conscious regulation and behavior. Some researchers have proposed that an automatic process that controls behavior could be a significant component to consider, but the integration of automaticity into a theoretical frame has been limited. The primary purpose of this review was to identify models and theories that specifically include habit formation with a focus in the psychology and health literature. The secondary and tertiary purposes were to highlight the attributes of the frameworks, and to understand how these models could help advance PA research. Studies were searched from November 2013 to December 2013 using Medline, PsychInfo, PubMed, Scopus SportDiscus, databases which yielded 160 potential articles. Papers were considered eligible if they proposed a model or theory which predicted habit formation. After screening and manual cross-referencing, 15 different models were found which met the eligibility criteria from two disciplines (eight were extracted from psychology, and seven from economic journals). Models from the psychology literature were analyzed based on i) structure of model (antecedents, heuristics, or transference) and ii) type of repeating mechanism. Economic habit models were organized under i) origin of habit (internal or external) and ii) goal-direction (myopic or rational). Models that follow structure with antecedents provide the researcher of “what” to evaluate in their participants. On the other hand, heuristic models provide a navigation to study “how” participants progress in habit formation. Theories from both disciplines displayed similar processes of habit, which include past behavior, reward/value, consistency, and lack of rational processing/myopic goals. Validation is very limited and future research is warranted to test these models. Worth their weight? An examination of the effectiveness of childhood obesity programs Kaye, Miranda P., Ithaca College; DiNallo, Jennifer M.; Gungor, Darcy; Perkins, Daniel; Pennsylvania State University In light of the increased prevalence of childhood obesity in the US (Odgen & Carroll, 2010), there has been a reactive increase in the number of publicly available programs developed to address this issue of epidemic proportions. To understand the impact of these programs on the public sector, we examined the effectiveness of manualized childhood obesity programs. Program evidence was systematically identified in peer-reviewed journals. The statistical and practical significance of the results were assessed in terms of hypothesized outcomes and programs were placed on a Clearinghouse Continuum of Evidence (Continuum). To determine a program’s placement on the Continuum, several factors were considered including 1) whether or not the program resulted in a statistically significant, highly desired outcome; 2) how long the program effects lasted; and 3) if the program has been evaluated by a group independent of its developer. Programs were placed into one of four main categories, effective (significant and sustained effects using a randomized controlled trial design or a well-matched quasi-experimental design), promising, unclear, or ineffective. One hundred ninety programs were evaluated. The majority of programs (93%) were identified as having unclear evidence (16% as unclear +, 77% as unclear ∅, and .05), hardiness (F = .351, p > .05), or optimism (F = .006, p > .05). Most injuries occurred at practice, and most skaters still competed despite being injured. Notably, the majority (53%) reported playing while injured. Most skaters (60%) indicated that they report their injury to multiple sources (e.g., teammate, spouse/partner, family), but they do not seek medical attention. These findings add insight into the psychological skills and injury responses of a unique population. Relationships among mental toughness, hardiness, optimism, and coping mirrored findings in other athletic populations. Also, the results provide insight into injury responses and highlight the prevalence of playing through injury. These findings add to our understanding of mental toughness and injury, and suggest further work on these relationships and the issue of playing through injury.

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Disguised by the eyes: Gaze direction as a deceptive cue in sport Mann, David L.; Van der Kamp, John; Stolk, Joni C.P.; Pouwelse, Vincent S.; Savelsbergh, Geert J.P.; VU University Amsterdam Skilled athletes learn to deceive their opponents, and conversely, their opponents learn to “see through” this deceptive intent. The direction of an actor’s gaze is a potentially powerful deceptive cue because it is encoded automatically by observers, and accordingly, can change where an observer orients their attention (Kunde et al., 2011). The aim of this study was to determine whether the direction of gaze is an effective means of deceiving opponents in an in-situ setting. Footballers (eight skilled and nine less-skilled) attempted to intercept passes kicked to their left or right by a kicker in-situ. The kicker’s gaze direction matched the direction of the kick in half of the trials (non-deceptive), and was in the opposite direction to the kick in the remainder of trials (deceptive trials). Further, to determine whether knowledge of the likely outcome mediated the influence of gaze, in a no-bias set of trials the kicker was equally likely to kick to the left or right, and in a bias set of trials 80% of kicks were directed towards one direction (and participants knew the kicker had a bias). Performance was assessed by (i) the accuracy of initial movement (% trials where initial movement matched the ball direction), and (ii) the % trials successfully intercepted. Movement timing was measured using video analysis and EMG. The direction of the kicker’s gaze had a powerful effect on performance, decreasing in the deceptive trials both the accuracy of the initial movement (p < .001), and the percentage of passes intercepted (p < .001). These effects held even in the bias condition when participants knew that the ball was likely to be kicked in one direction (ps > .20). Skilled players moved earlier than less-skilled players in all conditions (p < .01), though this meant they were marginally more likely to move in the wrong direction (59.7 vs. 69.6% accuracy; p = .06). The direction of gaze is a powerful deceptive cue even (i) if the gaze direction has no relation to the movement outcome, and (ii) when the opponent has prior knowledge about the likely Encouragement in exergames: Partner pronoun use and the cheerleader effect Max, Emery J.; Ede, Alison; Forlenza, Samuel T.; Feltz, Deborah L.; Michigan State University Objective: Exergames are a promising alternative to more traditional exercise modalities due to their convenience and privacy, but few capitalize on the potential of group dynamics to boost motivation. The Koehler effect, which boosts task motivation for weaker group members in conjunctive tasks, has been demonstrated to be effective in exergames (Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin, 2011). A recent study (Irwin, Feltz, & Kerr, 2013) on exercise with virtually present partners found that, contrary to expectations, encouragement attenuated the Koehler effect. The present study examined exclusive and inclusive encouragement as potential moderators of the Koehler effect in an exergame with a virtually present partner and the effect of encouragement on motivation in the absence of a partner altogether. Methods: Female and male college students (N = 240) were assigned to one of five conditions (individual control, individual control with encouragement, partner-without-encouragement, partner with inclusive-language encouragement, partner with exclusive-language encouragement) and each performed two blocks of isometric abdominal plank exercises. Participants in all conditions worked alone in silence for the first performance block and received the manipulation for the second block. Performance changes were assessed with mean difference scores between blocks. Results: A significant motivation gain was observed in all partnered conditions compared to the control, t(235) = 8.37, p < .001. Encouragement from a virtually present partner, regardless of inclusivity, did not moderate performance outcomes attributed to the Koehler effect. Encouragement in the absence of a partner altogether also boosted exercise motivation over the control group, but to a lesser degree than the Koehler effect, t(235) = 3.23, p = .001. Conclusion: These findings suggest that encouragement from a superior partner does not boost the Koehler effect in exergames, and in games without a partner, an encouraging voice may be better than playing in silence. The effect of a self-determination theory based intervention on social relationships and psychological outcomes in a youth physical activity program McDavid, Lindley; McDonough, Meghan H.; Blankenship, Bonnie T.; Purdue University Positive staff-youth relationships in physical activity-based positive youth development (PYD) programs support the development of assets that help youth experience life successes. This study examined the effects of an intervention designed to train staff to employ autonomy support, involvement, and structure, and youths’ perceptions of autonomy support, involvement, structure, psychological need fulfillment, hope, and self-esteem. Twenty-four staff members (75% girls, M age = 20 years, 50% White) and 409 youth (50% girls, M age = 10 years, 44% Latino/a) in a four-week PYD program took part in the study. Staff were randomly assigned to a control or intervention group, and youth were randomly assigned to age-stratified teams led by a staff member. The intervention group completed training on implementing autonomy support, involvement, and structure. Staff behaviors were observed and youth were surveyed on their perceptions of autonomy support, involvement, structure, need fulfillment, hope, and self-esteem. The intervention was hypothesized to be positively associated with each variable, and youths’ perceptions of staff behaviors were hypothesized to predict need fulfillment, hope, and self-esteem. Multilevel modeling showed no significant clustering of youth within teams. Therefore, hypotheses were tested with MANOVAs and follow-up ANOVAs. The intervention group engaged in more autonomy supportive (F(1,407) = 115.72, p < .001), involved (F(1,407) = 107.52, p < .001), and structured (F(1,407) = 70.68, p < .001) behaviors, but youths’ perceptions of staff behaviors and psychological outcomes did not differ across groups. Youths’ perceptions of staff behaviors significantly predicted psychological need fulfillment (β = .36 – .52, p < .001), hope (β = .36 – .40, p < .001), and self-esteem (β = .21 – .27, p < .001). Findings show that staff training influences staff behaviors, and

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youths’ perceptions of staff behaviors are critical to youth outcomes, but additional research is necessary to develop interventions to affect staff behavior and youth outcomes. Perceptions of the peer-initiated motivational climate and cohesion among youth sport participants Mclaren, Colin D., University of Saskatchewan; Newland, Aubrey, University of Utah; Eys, Mark A., Wilfrid Laurier University; Newton, Maria, University of Utah Research has consistently highlighted the relationship between the motivational climate and group cohesion among youth sport participants (e.g., Eys et al., 2013). However, this research has focused primarily on the motivational climate as initiated by the coach. A more recent emphasis has concerned the relative impact of peers (i.e., teammates) on athletes’ assessments of the motivational climate (Jõesaar et al., 2012). The current study, therefore, aimed to explore the relationship between perceptions of the peer-initiated motivational climate and group cohesion. Male and female athletes (N = 355, M age = 13.12 ± 1.97 years) representing 26 competitive youth soccer teams completed measures of the peer-initiated motivational climate (Ntoumanis & Vazou, 2006) and group cohesion (Eys et al., 2009; Martin et al., 2012) prior to a weekly practice session during the first and second half of the competitive season. As hypothesized, bivariate correlations indicated positive relationships between a task-related climate and both task and social cohesion, .51 = r = .70, all p < .01, and negative relationships between an ego-related climate and both task and social cohesion at the second measurement period only, –.19 = r = –.37, all p < .01. Further, two hierarchical regression analyses were conducted with athletes’ perceptions of group cohesion at the second measurement period as dependent variables (i.e., task and social cohesion) and perceptions of peer-initiated motivational climate (i.e., task- and ego-related) at the first measurement period entered as independent variables in step 2 after controlling for initial perceptions of cohesion in step 1. Results revealed that perceptions of ego-related climate predicted perceptions of task, R2 adj = .35, p < .001, β = –.16 sr = –.16, and social cohesion, R2 adj = .45, p < .001, β = -.12, sr = –.11. Findings cement the importance of motivational climate perceptions in relation to group cohesion, and offer new insight into the nature of task- and ego-related peer behaviors in the context of competitive youth sport. The dynamic nature of cohesion and intention to return in a youth sport setting McLaren, Colin D., University of Saskatchewan; Eys, Mark A., Wilfrid Laurier University Research in youth sport has highlighted the importance of the group environment in relation to the overall athlete experience (e.g., Smith, 2003). A key variable considered in the perceived environment is group cohesion (see Carron & Eys, 2012). As a consistent predictor, cohesion has been linked with intention to return from one season to the next (e.g., Spink, 1995)—an indicator that experiences within this environment (i.e., cohesive group) may direct behavioral intentions. In addition, this relationship has been suggested to differ between male and female athletes (e.g., McLaren & Eys, 2012). As such, the current study aimed to explore the dynamic nature of cohesion in predicting behavioral intentions, while further exploring sex differences. Male and female competitive soccer players (N = 442; M age = 12.28 ± 2.47 years) completed measures of cohesion and intention to return during the first and second half of the competitive season. Using hierarchical regression analyses, intention to return (i.e., to the team and coach) values at time 2 were entered as the dependent variables, and changes in cohesion (i.e., task and social) were entered as the independent variables after controlling for intention at time 1. Overall, changes in perceptions of social cohesion (β = .16) were predictive of intention to return to the team, while changes in perceptions of task cohesion (β = .12) were predictive of intention to return to the coach. However, moderating effects (Frazier et al., 2004) of sex were found for both intention to return to the team, F(1,239) = 3.83, p = .05, and coach, F(1,240) = 4.84, p = .03. Specifically, significant positive relationships between task cohesion and intention to return to the team and coach were found for female athletes but not for male athletes. In relation to future sport participation, findings provide (a) implications for the importance of developing cohesion within youth sport teams and (b) specific insight into the salience of task and social cohesion across male and female sport groups. Are the measurements of attention allocation and perceived exertion trustful? Meir, Gily; Habeeb, Christine M.; Shaffer, Cory T.; Boiangin, Nataniel M.; Bloemke, Olivia; Allen, Taylor S.; Basevitch, Itay; Tenenbaum, Gershon; Florida State University The relationship between ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and attention allocation has been studied extensively in the exercise domain (Razon et al., 2009). Findings have indicated that as exertion increases, attention allocation is less flexible and shifts from dissociative to associative. The paradigm that is most frequently used in the area requires participants to report perceived exertion and attention allocation at temporal intervals (e.g., every 30s) during an exertive task (Bolgar et al., 2010). However, a consistent criticism of the paradigm is that participants’ reporting of these ratings while might generate a biased response. Specifically, the criticism has focused on the presentation order (i.e., RPE → attention or attention → RPE) and on the reporting frequency (e.g., every 30 s compared to every 60 s) of the measurements. Thus, the purpose of this study was to test whether differences exist in reporting RPE and attention allocation when measured at varying order and time intervals while performing a stepping task. Sixty-nine young adults were randomly assigned to two order conditions: Providing their RPE followed by their attention rating or rating their attention allocation followed by their RPE. All participants completed three trials (4.5 min per trial), in which they were instructed to go up and down a step to a set rhythm while carrying a backpack that contained 20 percent of their body

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weight. In the different trials participants were asked to give their ratings every 30, 60, or 90 s. Results showed that the order by which the questionnaires were presented did not affect the responses. However, the frequency by which the questions were asked did have an effect on the responses. Specifically, RPE was lower and attention allocation was more dissociative when participants were asked to provide their ratings every 90 s in comparison to every 30 s. The findings of this study suggest that while attempting to study the relationship between RPE and attention in physical tasks it may be useful to minimize the interruptions to the task. Coaches’ idealized influence predicts their ability to develop successful collegiate sports teams from teams previously lacking success Miller, Matthew W., Auburn University; Baker, Robert E., George Mason University; Shannon, David M., Auburn University Organizations strive for success, an endeavor that is apparent in intercollegiate athletics, wherein teams aspire to win games and avoid losses. As a team’s success in winning is affected by its head coach, understanding the factors that contribute to a coach being successful in developing a winning team is crucial. As a coach’s leadership style is a major factor in determining whether s/he will be successful, identifying the leadership style of coaches who develop successful teams is of interest. Distinguishing the leadership style of coaches who develop successful teams out of those previously lacking success is of particular interest. This is because coaches are frequently hired to turn previously unsuccessful teams into successful ones. In addition to being of interest to coaches, insight into the leadership style of coaches who develop successful teams from those previously lacking success is of interest to the general population. This widespread interest is evidenced by the numerous news articles, books, and major motion pictures featuring such coaches. Given the prevalent interest in coaches who develop successful teams from those previously lacking success, the absence of knowledge regarding the leadership style of these coaches is surprising. However, it has been theorized that coaches who develop successful teams from those previously lacking success practice the transformational leadership style. The present study tested this hypothesis. Specifically, 32 intercollegiate athletic coaches, 13 of whom developed successful teams from those previously lacking success and 19 of whom did not, completed the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire to index their practice of transformational leadership. A logistic regression indicated the idealized influence (charisma) component of transformational leadership predicted whether coaches developed successful teams from those previously lacking success 82.1% of the time (p = .002, Nagelkerke’s R2 = .399). This result supports the hypothesis, has implications for coaches, and is of interest to the general population. Abbreviating the Perceived Motivational Climate in Exercise Questionnaire from 27 to 12 items Moore, E. Whitney G., University of North Texas; Brown, Theresa C., Fry, Mary D.; University of Kansas The Perceived Motivational Climate in Exercise Questionnaire (PMCEQ; Brown, Fry, & Little, 2013) assesses participants’ perceptions of the task- (individual effort and improvement emphasis) and ego-involving (normative ability and competition emphasis) climates in an exercise context. Though the PMCEQ has evidenced quality psychometrics, the instrument’s length (27 items) can be a deterrent in applied situations. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop a psychometrically sound, abbreviated version. Sport and exercise psychology professionals systematically selected a smaller pool of items by using the following guidelines: (1) maximize the representation of the task- or ego-involving climate construct’s nomological net, (2) minimize item redundancy; and (3) include only items that offered the most clear wording. The item selection went through several iterations until there were two abbreviated versions consisting of 17 and 12 items, respectively. To determine validity of the newly abbreviated version, previously collected survey responses from a national franchise’s members (N = 5,427) were randomly divided into three smaller datasets, so that the original, 12-, and 17-item versions could be compared to one another in a multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. The validation step compared the model results of the original PMCEQ and the PMCEQ-A (12-items) in order to determine whether the PMCEQ-A could adequately reproduce the original PMCEQ’s relationships and descriptive statistics. This validation was conducted across two other, previously collected exercise setting datasets (N = 414 and 770), also utilizing CFA and SEM techniques. The PMCEQ-A performed comparably in all validation comparisons with the original PMCEQ. Therefore, the PMCEQ-A is a more parsimonious version of the PMCEQ that can be used easily in both applied settings, and by researchers examining task- and ego-involving climate relationships. Maximizing data collected & quality: Three-form planned missing data survey design Moore, E. Whitney G.; University of North Texas A planned missing data study design is one in which researchers intentionally planned the data that they may not collect from each participant. For example, three survey forms could be designed that most items overlap between every pair of surveys, but not on all three surveys. Such a design could decrease the data directly collected from each individual by 25%. Thus, a researcher could collect data asking approximately 100 items of each participant, and yet across the sample have collected data on 125 items. This decreases the researchers’ expense, the participants’ burden, fatigue, and potential learning effect, and can, thereby, improve the overall data quality. The data that is intentionally not collected from some, but not all participants, is missing completely at random, which is the type of missing data that is most easily inferred by multiple imputation (MI) and full-information maximum likelihood (FIML). Such planned missing data study designs have theoretical and simulation study support (Enders, 2010; Graham, Taylor, Olchowski, & Cumsille, 2006; Little, Jorgensen, Lang, & Moore, 2013). They enable researchers to measure the

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constructs they are most interested in with validated measures, while using shorter individual surveys that will be less likely to fatigue their participants. Although, planned missing data study designs are starting to be used by applied researchers, further training is needed on how to properly design planned missing data studies and handle the missingness after data collection. This session will cover how to: a) successfully design three-form planned missing data surveys, b) assign forms during data collection, and c) handle the planned missingness that is present once you are ready to analyze your data. To make this concrete, data from a sport and exercise psychology study that utilized three-form planned missing data designed surveys will be used as the walk through example. In addition, lessons learned by applied researchers who have collected data with three-form planned missing data surveys will be shared. Applying expectancy value theory to evaluate a youth bike safety program Myrold, Rebecca; Ullrich-French, Sarah; Washington State University Bike safety education (BSE) programs serve to educate youth about safe biking techniques. Increases in bike safety knowledge and helmet use have been shown, but other outcomes have not been explored. Further, the limited BSE evaluation research has not been grounded in theory thus limiting the ability to understand mechanisms of change. The purpose of this study was to apply expectancy value theory (EVT; Eccles et al., 1983) to examine the outcomes of a school-based BSE program for 5th grade students (N = 130). Specifically this study examined whether (a) general bike safety knowledge increased; (b) autonomy support, parent support and school support predict increases in value, enjoyment, perceptions of competence, and bike safety knowledge; and (c) value, enjoyment and perceived competence mediate the relationship between perceived support and bike safety knowledge. Constructs were assessed at pre- and post-program. Knowledge of bike safety increased significantly (t = –23.41, p < 0.01), as did perceptions of biking competence (t = –7.98, p < 0.01), value (t = –2.89, p < 0.01), and enjoyment (t = –2.66, p < 0.01). Autonomy support from BSE staff and parent support positively predicted changes in EVT constructs (b = .22 – .52, p < .05), but did not predict bike safety knowledge. Mediation was not supported. Results suggest that BSE programs not only link with increased bike safety knowledge but also link with EVT constructs. Specifically, students appear to benefit in the perceptions of biking enjoyment, value, and perceptions of competence. These factors are important facilitators of physical activity and future research should examine behavior effects of BSE. Lastly, this study provides evidence that perceived parental support is important in predicting student perceptions of competence, enjoyment and value of biking, therefore, highlighting the importance of parent support for biking. Transformational leadership in sport: A qualitative examination with female athletes Newland, Aubrey; Newton, Maria; Podlog, Les; Legg, Eric; Tanner, Preston J.; University of Utah Leadership is one essential aspect of effective coaching. Burns (1978) originally conceptualized transformational leadership (TL) as a wholly transformative relationship wherein followers are transformed into better people. The transformative nature of TL is not as apparent in current conceptualizations of TL (Bass, 1985; Podsakoff et al., 1990). Furthermore, researchers in sport have adopted previous conceptualizations of TL assuming a seamless conceptual transfer from business to sport. This study addressed these issues by qualitatively exploring female athletes’ experiences with coaches whom they viewed as “transformational.” Using a phenomenological approach, 11 female collegiate athletes were interviewed. While interview questions were driven primarily by Bass’s TL components, an inductive analysis approach was adopted to explore possible TL behaviors unique to sport. Recordings were transcribed verbatim, and meaningful quotes were identified and categorized. Four major themes emerged: caring, pushing them, teaching life lessons, and trusting. Coach behaviors characterizing these themes included showing support after a bad performance, getting to know players outside of sport, providing a greater perspective on life, and trusting experienced athletes to guide others. Of note, caring was woven throughout the shared experiences and was a catalyst for effecting change. One athlete said, “A coach can have such an effect on you outside of sports. They can change the way [athletes] live their lives. The more the coach walks the walk or talks the talk . . . it’s going to change your life. I wouldn’t be the same without basketball. The highs and the lows, and the bus trips, the countless pairs of shoes, and everything the coach provides for you, is a life-changing experience, and they can do so much good in your life.” Emergent themes are compared with current conceptualizations of TL and literature in sport (Callow et al., 2009; Vella et al., 2012). Findings indicate that TL in sport may be conceptually distinct from other domains and further exploration is warranted. Effects of warm-up activities on college students’ situational motivation and physical activity levels Ning, Weihong; Hart, Melanie A.; Fish, Amy; Texas Tech University Purpose: This study aimed to (a) compare college students’ situational motivation (intrinsic motivation [IM], identified regulation [IR], external regulation [ER], and amotivation [AM]) toward three types of warm-ups (general warm-up [GW], dynamic warm-up [DW], and sport specific warm-up [SW]); and (b) investigate the influence of those warm-ups on students’ warm-up, in-class, and total physical activity (PA) levels. Methods: A total of 78 college students from three personal fitness and wellness basketball classes participated in the study. After a preliminary test, a warm-up activity intervention was conducted for three weeks, during which each class was randomly assigned and performed a warm-up protocol. Participants completed the Situational

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Motivation Scale (Guay, Vallerand, & Blanchard, 2000) at the end of two classes. The PA levels were quantified as activity counts per minute by Actical accelerometers. Results: Repeated-measures ANCOVA showed there was no main effect on participants’ IM, F(2, 74) = .578, p > .05; IR, F(2, 74) = .57, p > .05; ER, F(2, 74) = .39, p > .05; and AM, F(2, 74) = .087, p > .05. However, SW class reported significant change in IM, Wilks’s Λ = .94, F(1, 74) = 4.63, p < .05, η2 = .06, and IR, Wilks’s Λ = .94, F(1, 74) = 4.84, p < .05, η2 = .06, across time. Repeated-measures MANCOVA revealed there were significant main effects on participants’ PA levels, Wilks’s Λ = .38, F(4, 72) = 11.18, p < .01, η2 = .38. Post-hoc analyses indicated SW class had higher levels of warm-up PA, F(2, 37) = 23.22, p < .01, η2 = .56, and total PA, F(2, 37) = 11.31, p < .01, η2 = .38, than other two classes; and DW class had higher in-class PA levels, F(2, 37) = 2.56, p < .01, η2 = .12, than GW class. In addition, SW class had continuously increasing levels of warm-up and total PA over weeks. Conclusion: The results suggest carefully designed warm-ups may promote increases in college students’ self-determined motivation (IM and IR) and PA levels in activity-based courses. Cognitive performance during acute cycling: Neuroelectric and dose-response effects Olson, Ryan L.; Kwok, Andrea N.; Gordon, Valentina; Alderman, Brandon L.; Rutgers University Cognitive performance has been consistently shown to improve following an acute bout of moderately intense aerobic exercise performed for 30–60 min. Fewer studies have examined cognition during exercise and the dose-response effects of exercise on in-task cognition remain relatively unexplored. In addition to the mixed findings for behavioral performance measures (i.e., reaction time and response accuracy), limited explanations about the neural structures that mediate acute exercise effects on cognition have been provided. The use of event-related brain potentials (ERPs) may provide insight into underlying mechanisms and extend our understanding beyond behavioral measures alone. The purpose of this study was to assess neuroelectric and behavioral task performance during a 30-min bout of aerobic exercise performed at 40% and 60% of maximal aerobic capacity (VO2peak). A secondary purpose was to examine the time course of effects measured at 5-, 15-, and 25-min during the 30-min bout of exercise. Thirty participants (20.4 years; n = 17 males) completed a maximal fitness test to determine maximal heart rate (HR). On three separate days, ERPs and task performance were measured during cycling at a HR corresponding to 40% and 60% of VO2peak and at rest while performing congruent and incongruent trials of a flanker task. Preliminary findings suggest that reaction time was faster for both exercise conditions relative to rest, with no speed-accuracy tradeoff. Increased P3b amplitude and reduced latency at parietal sites were found for the 40% VO2peak condition at all three time points, suggesting faster cognitive processing speed and greater resource allocation. No differences in P3b were found between high intensity and rest. The findings suggest no impairments in cognition during exercise and a possible inverted-U trend with moderate intensity exercise resulting in facilitated neurocognitive function. Validation of the psychometric properties of the Group Conflict Questionnaire Paradis, Kyle F., Carron, Albert V., University of Western Ontario; Martin, Luc J., University of Lethbridge Conflict is “a dynamic process that occurs between interdependent parties as they experience negative emotional reactions to perceived disagreements and interference with the attainment of their goals” (Barki & Hartwick, 2004, p. 234). Recently, the Group Conflict Questionnaire (GCQ; Paradis, Carron, & Martin, 2014) was developed to assess conflict in sport teams. The GCQ consists of 14 items that measure two dimensions: task and social conflict. Although initial reliability (task conflict, a = .92; social conflict, a = .92) and validity (CFI = .946, RMSEA = .086, SRMR = .042) for the GCQ are promising, validity testing is an ongoing process (Carron et al., 1985) and cross validation with other samples should be performed whenever possible (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). Thus, the purpose of the present study was to assess the convergent, discriminant, known-group difference, and factorial validity of the GCQ. Athletes (N = 305) completed the GCQ along with the Group Environment Questionnaire (Carron et al., 1985), the Passion Scale (Vallerand et al., 2003), and the Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire (Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998). Evidence of reliability was supported for both task conflict (a = .90) and social conflict (a = .92). In terms of validity, results yielded evidence of convergent validity with significant inverse relationships between conflict and cohesion, and conflict and satisfaction. Partial support was found for discriminant validity with a significant inverse relationship between conflict and harmonious passion, however no significant relationship was found between conflict and obsessive passion. Support for known-group difference validity was demonstrated through a significant differentiation in perceptions of conflict between sport type (i.e., individual vs. team) and team tenure (i.e., = 1 year vs. = 2 years). Finally, the factorial validity of the GCQ was supported through adequate fit indices via Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFI = .903, RMSEA = .109, SRMR = .060). Implications for the measurement of conflict in sport are discussed. Decision-making: Role of delayed video feedback in rugby Pharamin, François, Université de Poitiers; Barthes, Didier, Université de Bordeaux; Augereau, Bertrand, Université de Poitiers; Boutin, Arnaud, Leibniz-Institut für Arbeitsforschung an der TU Dortmund; Blandin, Yannick, Université de Poitiers Making a rapid and accurate decision is an important skill in collective sport. In the present experiment, we tested whether delayed video feedback can help players to decide, when carrying the ball, to keep or pass the ball to a partner when confronted to two against one situations. Participants involved in the regular Physical Education program took part to rugby courses during six weeks and were videotaped during simple game situations. Two against one situations were selected and edited to built up two

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delayed feedback conditions. In the Subtitles condition, subtitles on the result of the action (successful or failed try) and choice relevance appeared on the screen. In the Commentaries condition, the same information was provided verbally together with comments on the context surrounding the decision (e.g., partner, opponent position). Following the six weeks program, to assess the effect of video feedback, participants were administered a computer decision-making task. Short video clips with two against one situations were presented and participants had to decide whether the ball carrier is about to pass the ball to a partner (visible on the video) or to keep it. Clips were stopped before the end of the action and participants had to press the key that corresponds to their decision (the pass- and keep-key association was counterbalanced among participants). A Control group that did not take part to the training program was included. Mean reaction time (RT) and percentage of correct decision were the main dependent variables. Anticipation (< 150 ms) and lengthy RT (> 2000 ms) were equal in each group and excluded from the analysis. Results revealed accurate and faster decisions in the Commentaries than in the Subtitles condition. These data indicated that delayed video feedback might be an efficient tool for decision-making learning when carefully elaborated. The Physical Activity and Alzheimer’s Disease (PAAD) Study: Feasibility of recruiting persons with a family history of Alzheimer’s disease for an 8-month physical activity intervention Piepmeier, Aaron T.; Shih, Chia-Hao; Karper, William B.; Castellano, Michael A.; Williams, Lauren M.; Park, Se yun; Wideman, Laurie; Labban, Jeff D.; Dudley, William N.; Etnier, Jennifer L.; University of North Carolina–Greensboro The prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is increasing and is predicted to reach 65.7 million by 2030 (Alzheimer’s Disease International, 2009). Because a cure for AD has not been identified, it is important to explore preventive strategies that may reduce the risk of or delay the onset of AD. The purpose of the PAAD study is to explore the effects of an 8-mo physical activity program on cognitive performance relative to apolipoprotein E (ApoE), a susceptibility gene for AD. Results are presented relative to recruitment efforts, the feasibility of recruiting a sample with sufficient ApoE e4 carriers for statistical comparisons, and the representativeness of the sample relative to the community. Recruitment efforts were targeted at inactive persons aged 50–65 years with a family history of AD, and resulted in 151 participants contacting the research office at an average cost to the grant of $41 per participant. The most productive recruitment tactic was the newspaper (n = 44), with word of mouth (n = 22) and radio (n = 21) being the next two most effective methods. Of 151 interested participants, 139 completed a telephone screening interview to explore eligibility with regards to inclusion and exclusion criteria. This resulted in 81 persons deemed eligible. Of these, 66 completed baseline testing and 53 began the exercise intervention. Data support that the recruitment strategy resulted in the desired disproportionate representation of e4 carriers. In the sample, 41% were ApoE e4 carriers which is a significantly greater percentage than in the general population (33%), χ2(4, n = 51) = 47.63, p < .001. The interested participants and the sample of exercisers were representative of the community with regards to age group and ethnicity, but included significantly (p < .05) more Whites and fewer Blacks and more women and fewer men than in the community. Results support the use of a broad range of recruitment efforts, provide evidence that more or different efforts are necessary to attract male and minority participants, and demonstrate the benefits of using telephone screening.  National Institute of Aging of the National Institutes of Health under award number R21AG040310. Daily diary assessment of body-related upward social comparisons and links to physical activity behavior Pila, Eva, University of Toronto; Barlow, Meaghan, Wrosch, Carsten; Concordia University; Sabiston, Catherine, University of Toronto Social comparison theory states that some individuals make more upward social comparisons than others. Although a high prevalence of upward social comparisons in women may predict negative psychological outcomes, upward social comparisons may also foster learning and associated adaptive behaviors. For women, upward social comparison targeting the physical self may be particularly important for cognition, affect, and behavior. This study examines the association between daily body-related upward social comparisons and physical activity, and tests body dissatisfaction as a moderator of the association. Female participants (N = 47; M age = 21.6 ± 1.8 years, MBMI = 22.1 ± 3.3 years) completed online daily diary assessments of body-related upward social comparisons and moderate to vigorous physical activity participation for 7 consecutive days, as well as a measure of body dissatisfaction. Findings using hierarchical linear modeling suggest a cross-level moderation effect of level-2 body dissatisfaction on level-1 associations between frequency of body-related upward social comparisons and physical activity (β = .15, SE = 0.06, t(45) = 2.25, p < .05). Participants with higher body dissatisfaction report more physical activity on days when they make more frequent body-related upward social comparisons, compared to days with fewer body-related upward social comparisons (β = .16, SE = 0.08, t(45) = 2.05, p < .05). Upward social comparisons were unrelated to physical activity among participants who reported body satisfaction (β = –.11, SE = 0.07, t(45) = –1.54, p = .13). These findings support research on other health behaviors such as restrained eating, and suggest that body-related upward social comparisons may prompt physical activity behavior for appearance-management reasons in body-dissatisfied women. Giving consideration to body-related upward social comparisons may be useful in promoting future physical activity interventions in women with high body dissatisfaction. Are we saying the same thing?: An exploration of social control reported by parent and child dyads Pinkerton, Sean T.; Wilson, Kathleen S.; California State University–Fullerton Social control (SC) is a regulatory type of social influence where one individual prompts or persuades another to perform a desired behavior. Use of this regulatory type of influence by parents has been linked to increased physical activity in children (Wilson &

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Spink, 2011; Wilson et al., 2010). However, previous studies have used either parent reports of SC provided (Wilson et al., 2010) or child reports of SC provided by parents (Wilson & Spink, 2010). The purpose of this study was to explore if parent and child reports of SC are related to each other. Parent and child dyads (ndyads = 12) were recruited from faculty and staff at a university and their children aged 8–14 years (M = 11.2, SD = 1.6). Both parents and children completed an online survey, which measured positive (encouragement), collaborative (being active together) and negative (nagging) SC (Wilson & Spink, 2010). Reported data was analyzed using a one-way random effects intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) to compare the ratings of SC by parents and children. The ICC for positive SC was 0.84 (CI: .45 to .96) suggesting an excellent consistency in the rating between parent and child (Mp = 5.4, Mc = 5.7). Ratings for collaborative SC (Mp = 4.3, Mc = 4.9) showed good consistency with an ICC of 0.62 (CI: –0.35 to 0.90). For negative SC, the ICC was –1.40 (CI: –7.45 to 0.35), which suggests an inconsistency in the rating (Mp = 2.0, Mc = 3.2). These findings suggest that parent and child reports of both positive and collaborative SC were similar whereas negative SC reports may show a trend towards a difference where parents may report lower levels than children. These findings show a need to further investigate differences in parent and child reports especially with negative SC. Does a player’s crying out make a foul seem more severe? Pizzera, Alexandra, German Sport University Cologne; Lex, Heiko, Bielefeld University; Kurtes, Marija, Hochschule Koblenz; Schack, Thomas, Bielefeld University The lens model approach by Brunswick (1952) states that social judgments on distal events are based on sets of observable cues. This means that otherwise inaccessible properties of objects are estimated by proximal cues. This perspective does not seem to be restricted to basic perceptual processes. When applied to referees’ decision-making processes, cues such as the crowd noise (Unkelbach & Memmert, 2010) can influence their judgments whether a contact between players is legal or illegal. The aim of the study was to examine if referees use the players’ verbal behavior (e.g., crying out as if in pain) during potential foul play to judge whether a foul has been committed. Expert soccer referees (N = 50, M age = 26.62 years, Mrefereeing experience = 9.88 years) were asked to judge potential foul situations with regard to rule violations and the severity of the foul. They were divided into two homogeneous groups according to the parameters age and refereeing experience. Both groups judged 52 randomly presented video clips with and without noise (crying out of the player potentially being fouled). The results revealed that the verbal behavior of the players did not influence the foul play decision. However, if a foul was called, referees awarded significantly more yellow cards in the noise condition (30.8%) than in the no-noise condition (23.6%), F(1.50, 73.70) = 6.95, p < .01, η2 = .124. Verbal behavior of players seems to be used by referees as indicators for the severity of the foul. In addition to the crowd-noise effect, this auditory cue seems to be one of the proximal cues used by referees to make judgments on distal events such as rule violations in soccer. Further studies are needed to test under which conditions such cues are used and if their usage changes if, for example, visual information is limited. Injuries and illness in the National Basketball Association: Their relationship with team performance Podlog, Leslie, University of Utah; Buhler, Craig, Buhler Athletic Injuries & Human Performance Clinic; Hopkins, Paul, Burgess, Paul R.; University of Utah For professional sport teams, maintaining a healthy roster would seem to be of paramount importance in facilitating team performance. Within the National Basketball Association (NBA), scant research has tested this assumption or examined injury trends over a substantial time period. The purpose of this study was therefore to survey injury/illness in the NBA over a 25-year period and to examine the relationship of injury/illness to team performance. A historical correlational design was employed in the present investigation. Trends were examined in reported numbers of players injured/ill during a season and games missed due to injury/illness from seasons ending in 1986 through 2005. This period was compared to years 2006–2010, when NBA teams were allowed to increase the total number of players on the team from 12 to 15. There was a highly significant trend (p < 0.0001) of increasing numbers of players injured/ill and games missed from 1986 through 2005. After the team expansion in 2006, these rates fell abruptly by 13% and 39% respectively (both p < 0.0001 compared to the previous 5-year period). We also found a significant inverse association between games missed due to injury/illness and percent games won (r = –0.29, p < 0.0001). Results demonstrate an increased rate of injury in the NBA up until the expansion of team size in 2006. Following 2006, team expansion was positively associated with decreased injury/illness rates. Several possibilities for the post-2006 decrease in injury rates exist, including fraudulent injury reporting prior to 2006, increased player motivation to play through injury following 2006, or injured athletes being falsely unreported after 2006. The number of games missed as a consequence of injury/illness was inversely related with the number of team wins. The latter finding suggests the importance of maintaining a healthy roster with respect to winning outcomes. Further research is needed to examine why team size expansion was associated with decreased injury rates. Why do athletes remain committed to sport after severe injury? an examination of the sport commitment model Podlog, Leslie, University of Utah; Inigo, Melissa M., University of Maryland; Hall, Morgan, University of Utah Previous research has yet to directly address the question of why athletes remain committed to their sport following a severe injury. The purpose of this study was to address this issue using the sport commitment model (SCM; Scanlan et al., 1993). Eleven

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varsity athletes (9 males and 2 females) from the University of the Philippines (UP) Diliman participated in the study. Participants competed in a variety of sports and had sustained a severe injury requiring surgical intervention (e.g., ACL rupture). Athletes were interviewed using the Scanlan collaborative interview method (Scanlan et al., 2003), a mixed-method approach involving direct testing of existing SCM constructs along with player-identified sources of commitment. Interview data were transcribed and analyzed using deductive and inductive methods outlined by Scanlan et al. (2003). Findings revealed that five of the six existing SCM constructs represented important sources of commitment to return to sport following injury. These included: (1) Sport Enjoyment (n = 9; e.g., “a love of the game”); (2) Valuable Opportunities (n = 10; e.g., company of friends); (3) Personal Investments (n = 7; e.g., time and effort in training and developing sport skills); (4) Social Constraints (n = 8; e.g., parents refusing to let athletes retire prior to graduating); and (5) Social Support (n = 9; e.g., belief from coaches and teammates that one could successfully return). Although eight out of the 11 participants did not consider Other Priorities to be a factor influencing their return from injury, those who did, suggested that this construct strengthened their commitment by bringing a sense of balance into their life. Several novel sources of commitment were also identified, namely, “the desire to be the best,” self-affirmation of one’s performance abilities, contract obligations, and the desire to provide assistance and share valuable knowledge with one’s teammates/sport. Findings suggest strong support for the SCM model in explaining sources of commitment to remain involved in sport following injury. Affective Response to Acute Physical Activity: A Heart Rate Variability and EEG Examination Quartiroli, Alessandro, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse; Krupenevich, Rebecca L., Murray, Nicholas P., East Carolina University Although there is a considerable amount of literature examining the effects of exercise on affective response, particularly in acute bouts of resistance and aerobic exercise, few have examined the impact of exercise intensity on the affective response utilizing heart rate variability (HRV) and electroencephalography (EEG) asymmetry. Heart rate variability provides a quantitative multidimensional measure of sympathetic and parasympathetic modulation of cardiac function. Heart rate variability is a nonspecific marker of autonomic nervous system function and therefore is a good measure of emotion. Additionally, EEG frontal asymmetry is a well-established marker of affective response and has been shown to correlate with affective response post exercise. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate effects of aerobic intensity on positive and negative affect as measured by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule survey (PANAS), HRV, and EEG frontal asymmetry. We collected EEG and HRV data on 32 active college aged participants while they ran on a treadmill for 30 min at low, medium, or high intensity. Participants completed the PANAS before and after the exercise bout. Biometric data were analyzed using a 3 (Group) × 5 (Time) ANOVA whereas PANAS data were analyzed using a 3 (Group) × 2 (Time) ANOVA; post hoc tests were run on significant interactions. Correlations were calculated between all variables and demonstrated a significant negative relationship (p < 0.01) between HRV and EEG asymmetry; that is, as HRV decreased positive affect increased. We found a significant group × time interaction in HRV measures (p < 0.05). In addition, negative affect as measured by the PANAS decreased in all groups post exercise (p < 0.05). Exercise intensity did not influence affect, nor did it appear to influence EEG frontal asymmetry. However, the correlation between HRV and EEG indicates that effort influences affective response, in that participants who gave an increased effort regardless of their prescribed intensity during exercise had greater left frontal asymmetry activity and increased positive affect. Evaluating the impact of a theory-based pedometer intervention on step counts and self-efficacy Raedeke, Thomas D.; East Carolina University Researchers evaluating pedometer interventions typically find that pedometer use combined with keeping a step log and/or goal setting result in an approximately 2000–2500 daily step increase for nonclinical populations. This study evaluated the impact of a 10-week social cognitive theory based pedometer intervention on step count and self-efficacy. Specifically, we evaluated whether combining pedometer (Omron HJ-720 ITC) use with weekly health coaching in part targeting self-efficacy would result in greater step count and self-efficacy increases compared to receiving one time physical activity counseling on activity guidelines and being encouraged to gradually increase step counts. For this study, 68 faculty and staff were randomly assigned to either a (a) walking or (b) walking combined with health coaching condition. Each group met separately once a week for a 30-min walk and participants in both groups maintained a step count log. Those in the health coaching condition also received a 30-min group based health coaching session following the weekly walk. A 2 (condition) × 10 (week) repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant interaction, F(9, 58) = 4.0, p = .002 with participants in the health coaching condition showing an approximately 2000 daily step increase. However, increased step counts were not maintained following a 10-week no treatment follow-up. Participants in the walking condition showed minimal step count changes. In evaluating the impact of the intervention on self-efficacy, both groups showed an increase in physical activity efficacy (d = .58) while only the group receiving health coaching reporting increased barrier efficacy (d = .29). Both physical and barrier self-efficacy were positive predictors of step counts with correlations in the moderate range. Overall findings suggest that although health coaching and pedometer use resulted in a short-term physical activity increase, changes were not maintained. In addition, the step count increases were not higher than typically reported in past research simply encouraging goal setting.

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Gaining an understanding of the psychosocial context of coached competitive Masters swim programs from the lived experiences of athletes Rathwell, Scott, University of Ottawa; Callary, Bettina, Cape Breton University; Young, Bradley W., University of Ottawa Understanding psychosocial contextual variables in sport training environments helps inform approaches of sport programmers (Danish et al., 2005) and coach practitioners (Côté et al., 1995). Research on contextual characteristics of organized competitive sport has disproportionately focused on younger athletes, with few qualitative studies of Masters athletes. The purpose of this study was to examine Masters swimmers’ understandings of psychosocial contextual variables influencing their experiences in coached competitive programs. Semi-structured open-ended interviews were conducted with 10 competitive Masters swimmers (M age = 53; range: 45–65). Participants were screened to ensure all had regular and organized personal training (Mweekly hours = 3.6; range: 2.5–7), trained with a coach, and acknowledged that they trained in order to compete. Interviews were analyzed using an interpretative phenomenological approach (Smith, 2010), complemented by rigorous member checking, and consensus agreement on themes. Participants discussed interpersonal relationships, competition, club structure, and perspectives on adult sport development. Resultant themes reflecting swimmers’ shared experiences included the importance of “serious but not overly competitive environments,” “social relationships formed with like-minded individuals,” sensitivity to “shared leadership between coaches and club committees,” and views on how “adult swimmers had unique learning needs.” Discussion focuses on how the Masters context is unique and how contextual characteristics influence training needs of Masters in coached environments. Swimmers noted how adults strongly prefer contexts that cater to personal participatory motives and how commitment depends on involvement opportunities aligning with personal interests. Coaches and sport programmers may use these results to tailor programs to meet contextual wants and needs to improve Masters athletes’ experience in organized sport. Identity, motivation, and physical activity participation in former college athletes Reifsteck, Erin J., Gill, Diane L.; University of North Carolina–Greensboro Research indicates that many athletes fail to maintain regular physical activity participation after transitioning out of competitive sports. Despite health consequences for athletes who drop from high activity to inactivity after completing their athletic careers, long-term physical activity maintenance among former college athletes is understudied. Research suggests that self-identity influences physical activity participation, and individuals who are motivated by self-determined and volitional reasons are more likely to maintain their exercise behavior over time. Exercise identity has been consistently shown to be related to participation in exercise and maintenance of exercise behavior over time. Whether athletes have an exercise identity or transition from an “athlete” identity to an “exerciser” identity is not clear. How these active-based identities relate to physical activity motivation and participation has yet to be determined in the former athlete population. Thus, the current study examined the relationships among athletic and exercise identity (AIMS, EIS), motivation (BREQ-2), and physical activity (Godin LTEQ) in former Division I college athletes using a combined identity and self-determination theoretical framework. Following IRB approval, online surveys were sent to student-athlete alumni through each institution’s athletic department. Initial results suggest that both exercise identity and athletic identity demonstrated positive relationships with physical activity, but exercise identity had stronger relationships with both physical activity participation (particularly strenuous exercise) and with more self-determined forms of motivation (rs >.50) for exercise. Structural equation modeling analyses to test the theoretical model with a larger sample of former athletes are presented. These findings suggest that interventions targeting self-determined motivation (i.e., through autonomy, competence, relatedness) and promoting a shift to exercise identity may promote lifelong physical activity among college athletes. Dispositional mindfulness is positively related to physical force consistency, but eight minutes of mindful breathing is not Rietschel, Jeremy C., Veterans’ Health Administration; Godwin, Maurice M.; Dyke, Ford; Buchanan, Taylor; Harrington, Staci; Auburn University; Hunt, Carly, University of Maryland; Miller, Matthew W., Auburn University Motor performance is facilitated by maintaining attention to task-relevant cues. Thus, the ability to maintain attention is likely a critical factor in maximizing motor performance. In this regard, the psychological construct mindfulness, which has been defined as the maintenance of attention to the task at hand, may be associated with superior motor performance. However, research on this relationship is still in its early stages. Two studies were conducted to contribute to this developing area of research. Study 1 examined the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and the ability to maintain a constant force production on a handgrip dynamometer. Mindfulness was assessed using the Mindful Attention and Awareness (Lapses Only) Scale, and two aspects of motor performance were quantified: (1) physical force consistency (i.e., less variability in force production as a function of time) and (2) physical force duration (i.e., ability to sustain the force goal). A moderately strong positive correlation between dispositional mindfulness and physical force consistency (p = .041; r 2 = .137) but not physical force duration (p > .05) was observed. Study 2 investigated whether participants simply instructed to perform 8 min of mindful breathing prior to the force production task would exhibit superior performance relative to control group participants instructed to either relax or read for 8 min prior to the task. No significant group effects on task performance were observed (ps > .05), even when accounting for individual differences in dispositional mindfulness. Together, the results of the two studies suggest that dispositional mindfulness facilitates motor performance but a mindfulness induction exercise does not. This implies that in order to enhance motor performance via mindfulness, it may be necessary to implement formal mindfulness training to increase dispositional mindfulness. However, it

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is also possible that a mindfulness induction exercise could enhance motor performance if the exercise were more guided than the exercise employed in the present study. The effects of taste cues on attention and exertion during an exercise task Ritchie, Jason L., Basevitch, Itay, Boiangin, Nataniel, Florida State University; Braun, Robyn A., University of Texas of the Permian Basin; Ungo, Carolina, Foster, Brian J., Tenenbaum, Gershon, Florida State University The research on perceived exertion provides robust support for the negative effects of internal focus on exercise enjoyment and adherence (Beilock, Carr, MacMahon, & Starkes, 2002). Numerous environmental stimuli (e.g., auditory, olfactory, visual) have been found to delay the attentional shift from external focus to internal focus that occurs with increasing exertion (Basevitch, Thompson, Braun, Razon, Arsal, Tokac, et al., 2011). This experiment was designed to investigate the effect of taste on perceived exertion and attentional shift. Participants completed a weighted stepping task in one of three conditions (taste, placebo, and control). Participants in the taste and placebo conditions wore flavored (MoGo Sport LLC., 2014) and unflavored mouth guards respectively. Alternatively, participants in the control condition completed the task without a mouth guard. During the task, participants rated their perceived exertion and attention every 30 s. Additionally, participants’ skin conductance and heart rate were recorded every 30 s. Results indicate that participants’ skin conductance was higher for both mouth guard conditions. Participants in the taste condition reported greater increases in arousal level than participants in the control or placebo conditions. In addition, participants in the taste condition reported higher levels of diversion of attention due to taste. Flavored mouth guards were reported as having a more pleasant and intense taste than unflavored mouth guards. These results indicate that the attentional shift may be delayed by introducing a flavor stimuli during exercise. Further research may investigate the timing of the stimulus during exercise. Interestingly, both mouth guard conditions resulted in higher skin conductance. Given the prevalence of mouth guards in sport, this result should encourage future research on the psychological and physiological effects of mouth guards. Predictors of athletes’ satisfaction with their university choice Ross-Stewart, Lindsay C., Holler, Elena M., Southern Illinois University–Edwardsville; Rex, Chelsea, Ritter, Kameron, Garcia, Brianna, Francis, Hannah; Saint Francis University The purpose of the present study was to assess how athletes’ perceptions of their coaches abilities and behaviors affect athletes overall satisfaction with their university choice. Specifically, 122 NCAA Division I university athletes (M = 38, F = 84) were given a 45-question electronic survey that asked them questions about both their recruiting and current sport experience. Correlational analysis found numerous variables (14) to be correlated with the overall dependent variable of an athletes’ satisfaction with their decision to attend their specific university. Based on the correlational data four questions were entered into a stepwise multiple regression to predict participants satisfaction. The four questions entered into the regression dealt with the honesty of the recruiting process, parents respect for the coach, and the coaches’ ability to make practice a productive and enjoyable experience. Questions related to recruiting and parental perception were entered at step 1. A significant regression equation was found (F(2, 91) = 31.203, p = 0.00), with an R2 of .407. At step 2, two practice questions were added which led to a significant F change (F change (2, 89) = 9.453, p = 0.00). The final regression analysis was (F(2, 91) = 23.227, p = 0.00) with an R2 of .511. It was found that perception of honesty during the recruiting process, parent’s respect of the coach and perception of practices, predicted 48.90% of a player’s satisfaction with their choice of university. Life stress: A psychological predictor of injury in marathon training? Russell, Hayley C.; Rhodes, Greg; Lundstrom, Christopher; Wiese-Bjornstal, Diane M.; Ingraham, Stacy; University of Minnesota Life event stress has been found to be a psychological predictor of injury in athletes (Williams & Andersen, 1998; Johnson & Ivarsson, 2011). Limitations of this research; however, are that it has primarily been conducted with athletes in sports where acute injuries are more common than chronic injuries and “injury” has primarily been studied as a dichotomous variable (i.e., injured or not injured) rather than examining the number of days athletes are impacted by injury. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine if life stress was found to be a significant predictor of number of days impacted by injury in novice marathon runners completing a six-month marathon training program, running an average of 4 days per week. As part of a larger project, 96 participants were recruited from a university marathon training class. Participants completed daily training logs to record days of running impacted (i.e., training was lessened or altered) by injury and completed a monthly assessment of life event stress using the Inventory of College Students Resent Life Events (Kohn et al., 1990) during training. Approximately 80% of participants had at least 1 day of training impacted by injury with mean of approximately 1 week (M = 7.80, SD = 11.52) impacted by injury. Most of the injuries reported in this study were chronic injuries. Contrary to research primarily on athletes with acute injuries; however, life event stress was not found to be correlated with number of days impacted by injury or whether a runner experienced injury or not during training. The only exception where life event stress was found to be correlated with number of days impacted by injury was month five of training (r(93) = .322, p < .01); therefore, this correlation may indicate a response to injury, rather than a predictor of injury. This study provides evidence that life event stress may be a less important predictor of injury in chronic injuries than acute injuries and highlights the need for additional examination of psychological predictors of chronic injuries.

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Psychophysiological study on competitive anxiety in female university tennis players Sakuma, Haruo; Ritsumeikan University This study examined the psychophysiological responses at the different service point in the tennis game situation. Twenty-nine female university tennis players completed the Japanese version of Sport Competitive Anxiety Test (JSCA). Based on the results of JSCA, two players who recorded the typical highest score, called high trait anxiety (HTA), and the lowest score, called low trait anxiety (LTA), were selected as subjects of this experiment. They were also measured heart rate, and respiration rate during games. The main results were that the player who showed HTA was higher state anxiety than the player of LTA before competition and also they showed the completely different physiological response tendencies as functions of their opponent players’ skill level and different service situations during games. When the player of HTA competed with the lower skill level of opponent than him, he showed significantly higher values of cognitive and somatic anxieties and lower value of confidence than the player of LTA. Furthermore, in every service performance at three different competitive scenes, i.e., leading point, same point, and losing point, the player of HTA showed the higher heart rate and respiration rate in spite of the opponents’ skill level than the player of LTA. These results suggest that the player of HTA is more sensitive to competitive stress than the player of LTA. Exergames, Koehler effect, & obesity: Partner characteristics as a moderator of exercise motivation Samendinger, Stephen; Beckles, Joelle; Forlenza, Samuel; Feltz, Deborah; Michigan State University Introduction: Previous research employing Koehler effect dynamics (task-oriented social comparison and indispensability) with a virtually presented partner in exergames have demonstrated a significant increase in physical activity persistence (e.g., Feltz, Irwin, & Kerr, 2012). Yet, little is known about partner characteristics as potential moderators of this motivation effect. Exergaming with an older or heavier virtually presented partner did not attenuate persistence gains in non-obese college students (Forlenza, Kerr, Irwin, & Feltz, 2012). This ongoing research examines the effect of exercising with a lighter or same weight virtually presented partner in an obese community sample. Method: 31 female community members with a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or greater (M = 38.2, SD = 5.9) completed two blocks of three isometric abdominal exercises. After completing the first block alone, each participant was randomized to complete the second block alone, with a lighter weight partner, or a same weight partner. Partners were confederates recorded earlier and presented virtually as live, from another lab, using EyeToy: Kinetic software, an exergame designed for the PlayStation 2 gaming console. A Koehler conjunctive partner condition (moderately better partner, performance based on weakest team member) was created for the participant by providing visual and verbal feedback on her partner’s performance. Results: Mean persistence difference scores were greater for participants in the lighter weight partnered condition (M = 28.2, SD = 31.24) than for those in the control condition (M = –14.64, SD = 29.94), F(2,32) = 4.74, p < 0.05. No difference was demonstrated between the control condition and the same weight partner condition or between the two-partnered conditions. No differences in self-efficacy, enjoyment, or exertion were noted for all participants across conditions. Conclusion: Preliminary results indicate obese adults may persist longer with an exercise task when partnered with a moderately better, lighter weight partner. Who’s meeting physical activity guidelines? An examination of demographic factors associated with achieving activity recommendations Scarapicchia, Tanya M.F.; Sabiston, Catherine M.; Faulkner, Guy; University of Toronto To achieve health benefits, the Canadian and American physical activity guidelines suggests that adults between the ages of 18 and 64 years old should accumulate at least 150 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical aerobic activity per week. Additionally, fairly overlooked in practice, these guidelines also suggest engaging in 8–10 muscle-strengthening exercises at least 2 days per week (Haskell et al., 2007; Tremblay et al., 2011). While it is documented that few adults are achieving these guidelines (Colley et al., 2011), little is known about the behaviors of university students. The purpose of this study was to examine demographic (gender, age, BMI, ethnicity) correlates of meeting aerobic, muscle-strengthening and both aerobic and muscle-strengthening guidelines. Randomly selected students at the University of Toronto (N = 2680; female = 71.60%, M age = 22.11 ± 5.24 years; MBMI males = 23.77 ± 4.39 kg/m 2; MBMI females = 22.38 ± 4.33 kg/m 2) completed the National College Health Assessment-II survey in spring of 2013. Of those surveyed, 12.5% of students met the aerobic physical activity guidelines, 25% met the musclestrengthening guidelines and 7.8% met both aerobic and strength training guidelines. In a binary logistic regression, being male (OR = 2.02, 95%CI = 1.59–2.57), older age (OR = 1.02, 95%CI = 1.00–1.04) and Caucasian (OR = 2.17, 95%CI = 1.66–2.84) significantly predicted aerobic physical activity guidelines. Being male (OR = 2.22, 95%CI = 1.84–2.68), higher BMI (OR = 1.03, 95%CI = 1.01–1.05) and Caucasian (OR = 1.44, 95%CI = 1.19–1.74) significantly predicted meeting muscle-strengthening recommendations. Being male (OR = 2.49, 95%CI = 1.86–3.33) and Caucasian (OR = 2.27, 95%CI = 1.61–3.18) also predicted meeting both aerobic and strength training guidelines. This cross-sectional analysis suggested that males, being older, higher BMI and identifying as Caucasian were positively associated with attaining the physical activity guidelines. Exercise psychology practitioners may target initiatives at those individuals who are not meeting guidelines.

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Measurement invariance of the Passion Scale across three samples: An ESEM approach—test Schellenberg, Benjamin J., University of Manitoba; Gunnell, Katie E., University of Ottawa; Mosewich, Amber D., University of South Australia; Balls, Daniel S., University of Manitoba Researchers rely on the Passion Scale (Vallerand et al., 2003) to assess levels of harmonious and obsessive passion for many different types of activities (Vallerand, 2010). An assumption of this research is that items from the Passion Scale are interpreted with the same meaning across all activity types. Using exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), we tested this assumption by examining the invariance of scores from the Passion Scale across three groups that are often studied in sport and exercise psychology research: (a) recreational athletes/exercisers (N = 562), (b) competitive athletes (N = 438), and (c) sports fans (N = 256). We tested invariance using Marsh and colleagues’ (2009) 13-step procedure, which incorporates assessments of configural, weak, strong, and strict invariance. We found that the ESEM analysis fit the data better than the more common independent clusters confirmatory factor analysis (ICM-CFA) approach and resulted in lower correlations between harmonious and obsessive passion factors. Using ESEM, we found evidence of configural, weak, and partial strong invariance across the three groups. We did not find support for strict invariance, meaning that mean differences between the three groups may be biased by group membership. Nevertheless, given that the most common applications of the Passion Scale involve testing relationships between passion types and various intra- and interpersonal outcomes (Vallerand, 2010), evidence of partial strong invariance is encouraging because it suggests that the measure is interpreted in a similar manner across different groups (Horn & McArdle, 1992). Further research is needed to examine the assumption of invariance across other groups studied in sport and exercise psychology research, such as coaches and referees. Lifestyle stability affects cognitive status in older nuns/monks, master athletes, and inactive adults Schott, Nadja M.; Krull, Katja; University of Stuttgart Background: Epidemiological studies of the effect of physical activity on cognition demonstrated an inverse relationship between physical activity and cognitive decline. However, such health behaviors are hardly invariable over time. The relative homogeneity of the adult lifestyle of nuns/monks as well as master athletes reduces the likelihood of confounding due to differences in their participation in regular life-long physical activities. The purpose of this study was to determine if there were differences in cognitive functions between nuns/monks, master athletes, and sedentary, but otherwise healthy, older adults. Methods: We recruited three groups of healthy participants without cognitive deficits: (1) Nuns/Monks (NM; n = 20; age 77.5 ± 5.56; 5 M, 15 W), (2) Master Athletes (MA; n = 20; age 76.5 ± 5.33; 12 M, 8 W), and (3) Sedentary (S; n = 20; 76.4 ± 5.96; 6 M, 14 W). Cognitive performance was measured with a n-back task, a mental rotation task, and a flanker task; participation in physical activities with the German-PAQ-50+; and physical fitness with the 30-s chair stand and arm curl test. Results: As predicted, ANOVA comparing groups revealed the three groups differed in cognition, physical activity, and physical fitness with inactive older adults performing lower on all tests than the other two groups. The stepwise discriminant analysis gave eight variables for distinguishing NM, MA, and S: exercise, arm strength, job-related physical activity, physical activity leisure, physical activity in housework, working memory (response accuracy and RT), and inhibitory control (response accuracy). Using these variables, the percentage of correct classifications among MA was 90.0% and among NM and S, 100%. Conclusion: Life-long stability of an active lifestyle may confer benefits to some aspects of working memory, attention, and inhibitory control. Longitudinal studies are recommended to further examine the causal relationship of lifestyle stability and cognitive function in such specific cohorts. Social support, physical challenge, and psychological growth in a group physical activity program for people with Parkinson’s disease Sheehy, Tammy L., McDonough, Meghan H., Purdue University; Zauber, S. Elizabeth., Indiana University School of Medicine Research with clinical populations has shown that participating in group physical activity programs provides opportunities for social support and physical challenge which can facilitate posttraumatic growth outcomes such as appreciation of life, closer relationships, new possibilities, personal strength, and spiritual growth. In Parkinson’s disease (PD), high intensity physical activity can decrease motor symptoms and positively affect quality of life. Social support is also important for psychological functioning in people with PD. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how people with PD experience social relationships and physical challenges in a high intensity group physical activity program, and to investigate what role they think those experiences play in posttraumatic growth and quality of life. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009) methodology guided the study. Twenty participants (n = 12 women; age = 56–79 years) were interviewed. Main themes included support in a physically active program, comparison with others with PD, and posttraumatic growth facilitated by competence gained from participation. Participants typically valued social support from trainers and other participants. Support from participants was often characterized as special because it came from those who understood what it feels like to have PD. This support was also valued, as it was perceived as aiding them to be physically proactive to help slow down the progression of PD. Many participants discussed their initial fear and upset at seeing others at a more advanced stage of PD; however, for most, these emotions lessened as their relationships became closer and they were motivated by their own and others’ successes. Many participants also experienced improved competence which facilitated posttraumatic growth outcomes such as improved

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perceptions of strength, new possibilities, and ability to relate to others. Overall, the participants perceived benefits from being in the program, but remained realistic about the degenerative nature of PD. African-American children’s in-school physical activity: The influence of mothers’ beliefs and role modeling Shen, Bo; McCaughtry, Nate; Centeio, Erin; Wayne State University; Garn, Alex, Louisiana State University; Martin, Jeffrey; Kulik, Noel; Wayne State University African-American children’s obesity has reached epidemic proportions. Researchers have initiated attempts to identify the factors that shape children’s physical activity (PA). With the unique role of mothers’ in African-American culture, it is critical to understand how mothers influence children’s PA. The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which African-American mothers’ beliefs and PA behavior could predict their children’s value, perceived competence, and in-school PA. African-American children (N = 274; 160 females and 114 males, mean age = 9.80 years) and their mothers completed questionnaires assessing relevant psychological constructs. Mothers’ physical activity was measured with a 1-week recall format whereas children’s in-school physical activity was quantified with Actigraph accelerometers. The Time 1 assessment took place at the beginning of a semester and the Time 2 assessment occurred after 4 months. A trans-contextual model was hypothesized and tested using structural equation modeling. Results show that the hypothesized model provided a good fit to the data (χ2/df = 1.28, CFI = .95, SRMR = .05, RMSEA = .04). The pathway from mothers’ PA to their children’s was significant (β = .17, p < .05) after controlling for the Time 1 variables. Similarly, mothers’ beliefs predicted the child’s value (β = .23, p < .01) and perceived competence (β = .21, p < .01). Children’s perceived competence predicted their PA participation (β >.15, p < .05). Using multisample modeling, we further examined the path differences in the model across gender. There were two pathways showing significant differences. Compared to boys, the associations between mothers’ PA and their children’s and between mothers’ belief and their children’s value were much stronger for girls. Findings support that African-American mothers can affect their children’s in-school PA through their beliefs and role modeling of PA. Family socialization factor should take into consideration when we design effective intervention strategies for enhancing African-American children’s in-school physical activity. Cognitive performance after acute exercise by children with and without ADHD Shih, Chia-Hao; Etnier, Jennifer L.; Castellano, Michael A.; Williams, Lauren M.; Piepmeier, Aaron T.; Park, Se Yun; Henning, David A.; Davis, Matthew E.; Calkins, Susan D.; University of North Carolina–Greensboro Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common psychiatric disorder affecting approximately 3–7% of school-age children (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Problems including cognitive deficits, poor academic performance, and impairment in social functioning are common for ADHD children (Biederman, 2005). Research with children has shown that single sessions of moderate intensity exercise benefit cognitive performance. There is also evidence from meta-analytic reviews that the effects may be task specific. However, there is limited research in which the effects on various aspects of cognitive performance have been tested within a single study and there is no research in which benefits of acute exercise on cognitive performance have been tested relative to ADHD. The purpose of the current study was to test the effects of acute exercise on various aspects of cognitive performance in children with and without ADHD. Children (n = 32, 8–14 years old) came for two days of testing with the treatment order randomized and counterbalanced. On one day, participants performed a 5-min warm-up, 20-min of exercise at moderate intensity, and a 5-min cool-down on a stationary bicycle. On the other day, participants watched a DVD for 30 min. Following treatment, participants performed the Tower of London (TOL), the Trailmaking Test (TMT), and the Stroop task. These tests provide measures of information processing, inhibition, planning, and interference. Results showed that exercise significantly (p < .05) improved performance on the Stroop task but had no effect on TOL or TMT measures (ps > .05). In addition, the effect of acute exercise was not different between children with or without ADHD. These findings indicate that the beneficial effects of acute aerobic exercise are task specific and that equal benefits are possible for children with ADHD. Future research designed to further our understanding of how exercise affects cognitive performance by children with and without ADHD and in children with ADHD who are on or off their ADHD medication is warranted. The mediating effect of attitude toward dance learning in the relationships between teacher-student interactions and emotions Shin, Jihae, Chung, Jihye; Sookmyung Women’s University; Chang, Duksun, Korea National Sport University The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between teacher-student interaction and dance emotions and the effect of attitude toward dance learning as a mediator. Moreover, it was designed to examine the cross-validity of the study models to provide practical information that could be used in the field of dance. In the study, the participants (N = 534, MS = 184, HS = 350) completed the tested questionnaire so the relationship between teacher-student interaction and dance emotion and the effect of attitude toward dance learning as a mediator were examined. First, the attitude toward dance learning mediated the effects of the teacher-student interaction on the positive/negative emotions. Second, the attitude toward relationship with teachers played a role as a mediator in the relationship between the teacher-student interaction and the positive/negative emotions. Finally, the attitude toward the relationship with friends mediated the effects of the teacher-student interaction on positive emotions. The result of the multi group analysis showed that the structure, structural weights, structural covariance but not structural residuals were confirmed. In conclusion, as this study examined the relationship between the teacher-student interaction and dance emotions

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and the mediating role of attitude toward dance, more focus and attention should be drawn for the importance of understanding the teacher-student interaction in dance. Physical activity behavior of young children with ADHD risk versus typically developing children Smith, Alan L.; Michigan State University; Hoza, Betsy; University of Vermont; Montoye, Alexander H.; Delli Paoli, Anthony G.; Michigan State University; Schmidt, Andrew; University of Vermont; Graupe, Margaret; Purdue University; Pfeiffer, Karin A.; Michigan State University A defining feature of childhood attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is excessive motor activity, such as fidgeting, inability to remain seated, and inappropriate running or climbing. This implies that children with ADHD may engage in more physical activity (PA) than typically developing (TD) children, yet children with ADHD have shown higher obesity prevalence, motor coordination difficulties, and risk for poor fitness than TD children (Harvey & Reid, 2003; Holtkamp et al., 2004; Nigg, 2006). There is a need to objectively assess PA in children with ADHD to explore these seemingly paradoxical observations. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to compare children with ADHD risk and TD children in time spent in different PA intensity levels across one week. Children from grades K–2 involved in an art-based before-school program wore an ActiGraph GT3X accelerometer for seven days during all times except water-based activities and sleeping. Seventy children (32 ADHD risk, 38 TD) met wear time requirements of 8 hr/day on at least 3 weekdays and 1 weekend day. Group status was determined via a two-stage process involving first home and school ratings on the ADHD-IV Rating Scale (DuPaul et al., 1998) and then a parent interview (NIMH DISC-IV; Shaffer et al., 2000). There were no significant group differences across the full week in total activity counts, wear time, or PA at various intensities. However, segmented analyses (weekdays during school, weekdays outside of school, weekends) showed the ADHD risk group exhibited significantly less sedentary behavior (16 min/day; p < .05) and greater light PA (13 min/day; p < .05), as well as a trend for greater moderate-to-vigorous PA (4 min/day; p < .09), than the TD group for weekdays during school. There were no differences outside of the school day or on weekends. The during school findings are interesting in light of the attentional and other demands of the school context and suggest that contextualized examination of PA behavior should complement assessment of overall PA in children with ADHD symptoms.  NIMH R01 MH08 “Getting connected”: High school physical education teacher behaviors that facilitate students’ perceived relatedness support Sparks, Cassandra; Dimmock, James; Whipp, Peter; University of Western Australia; Lonsdale, Chris, University of Western Sydney; Jackson, Ben, University of Western Australia Research within high school physical education has demonstrated that the creation of an interpersonally involving (or relatedness-supportive) environment is important for student enjoyment, self-efficacy, and motivation in class. To date, investigators have focused primarily on the role of teacher-derived behaviors that promote students’ feelings of relatedness, and the potential outcomes that stem from the fulfillment of this psychological need. Yet to be explored in detail, however, is the full range of specific teacher behaviors inside and outside of the classroom that students deem to be relatedness supportive, and the potential downstream consequences with which these behaviors are associated. Given that physical education serves as a primary context for the promotion of healthy, active lifestyles for children and youth, it is important to further explore the effects of relatedness supportive teacher behavior on students’ PE experiences. In this study, 11 semi-structured focus group interviews were conducted with year 8 and 9 physical education students (males = 24, females = 24, M age = 13.54 years, SD = 0.58), and data were content analyzed using deductive and inductive procedures. Themes that were identified as being highly relatedness-supportive emerged in relation to (a) teacher persona (e.g., “bubbly,” sense of humor, outgoing), (b) teacher in-class support and awareness, and (c) teacher out-of-class attention and interest. Results also revealed the emergence of a number of salient affective (e.g., enjoyment) and behavioral (e.g., effort) student outcomes stemming from students’ perceptions of their teacher’s relatedness support. These findings provide insight into the specific teacher behaviors that students identify as relatedness-supportive, and reinforce the potential implications these behaviors might have for students’ experiences in PE. Experimental and intervention-based work is encouraged in future that seeks to bolster students’ perceptions of relatedness support. Physical activity and its association with perceived stress and diurnal cortisol patterns among breast cancer survivors Speranzini, Nicolas A.; Brunet, Jennifer; University of Ottawa; Wrosch, Carsten, Concordia University; Sabiston, Catherine M., University of Toronto Perceived stress and disruptions in diurnal cortisol patterns are linked to a range of health outcomes. Understanding lifestyle factors that can decrease perceptions of stress and promote optimal diurnal cortisol patterns is necessary. Physical activity (PA) may ameliorate stress and diurnal cortisol patterns through its effects on emotional regulation. The aim of this study was to test if perceptions of stress and diurnal cortisol patterns differed based on longitudinal PA patterns in a sample of 145 breast cancer survivors (BCS). PA data were collected via questionnaires at baseline (M = 3.46±2.33 months post-treatment), and 3, 6, 9 and 12 months thereafter, and used to estimate PA trajectories in semi-parametric group-based modeling. At 12-month follow-up, participants completed a questionnaire assessing perceived stress and provided six saliva samples over the course of two nonconsecutive days. The latter were assayed for cortisol, averaged across the two days, and used to calculate diurnal cortisol slope (i.e., awakening scores minus bedtime scores; Adam & Kuman, 2009). Controlling for age, perceptions of stress differed according

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to trajectory group (F = 4.41, p = .01, χ2 = .07), such that BCS who were consistently inactive or had decreasing PA levels reported more stress than those with consistent moderate or high levels. No differences were observed for cortisol slopes (F = .05, p = .95, χ2 = .001). While no association between PA and diurnal cortisol slope was detected, the prospective nature of the data suggests that PA has beneficial effects on perceptions of stress in BCS. Further research is needed to understand the mechanisms by which PA may influence perceptions of stress. How does engagement behavior characteristics relate to physical activity levels in PE classes? Spessato, Barbara C., Catholic University of Pelotas; De Souza, Mariele S.; Coutinho, Monia T.; Valentini, Nadia C.; Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul Physical education classes provide a regular opportunity for a child to be physically active and develop movement skills. Physical activity (PA) can vary due to engagement behavior characteristics of the child. Understanding children’s engagement behavior and the relationship with PA levels can help teachers provide opportunities that lead to increased levels of PA and movement skills development. Our purpose was to investigate the relationship between child engagement behaviors and physical activity levels. We assessed 4- to 10-year-old children (N = 295) in 4 physical education lessons, 45 min long each, in public schools of Porto Alegre, Brazil. Physical activity was assessed with pedometers SW200 (YAMAX corp.) and engagement behavior characteristics with an observational coding interval system adapted from Martin (2001). Engagement behavior was characterized every 10 s during the class as one of the following: motor engaged with appropriate responses (successful or unsuccessful); motor engaged with inappropriate responses (free play, task change); non-motor engaged but supporting motor activities (organizes equipment, wait for a turn, receives instruction) and non-motor engaged with inappropriate responses (off task, disturbs). We found positive correlations between PA and motor engaged successfully at the task (r = .31, p < .05); and between PA and changing tasks behavior (r = .18, p < .05). We found negative correlations between PA and being unsuccessful at the task (r = –.11, p < .05); PA and off task behavior (r = –.13, p < .05) and PA and receiving instruction (r = –.26, p < .05). No other correlations were found between engagement behavior and PA. Interestingly frequent changing tasks behavior considered inappropriate to the lesson purpose was related to higher levels of PA. The development of motor proficiency, as well as increasing children autonomy to choose tasks and difficulty levels can be important strategies in increasing physical activity in PE classes. Competition level-differences in theory-based predictors of sport among parasport athletes with mobility impairments Stapleton, Jessie N.; Martin Ginis, Kathleen A.; McMaster University Research has shown that parasport athletes who compete at high levels of competition engage in higher intensity, longer duration LTPA than parasport athletes who compete at lower levels of competition or do not compete at all. This is important because persons with physical disability must engage in moderate to heavy LTPA to acquire fitness benefits. Therefore, since high-level parasport competition may elicit the greatest fitness benefits, the purpose of this study was to examine competition level-differences in theory-based predictors of sport among parasport athletes with mobility impairments who participate in low- (recreational and club) and high-levels (provincial/state and national) of competition. Social cognitive theory constructs (social support, self-regulatory efficacy, task self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and self-regulation) were measured among parasport athletes who competed at high- (n = 49) and low-levels of competition (n = 52). ANOVA was conducted to identify competition-related differences within social cognitive constructs for sport. The ANOVA revealed that self-regulatory efficacy (F(1,88) = 5.65, p = .02) and self-regulation, (F(1,98) = 5.59, p = .02) were significantly different between parasport athletes of high- and low-levels of competition. Parasport athletes who competed at high-levels reported higher self-regulatory efficacy (M = 6.26, SD = 1.29) and self-regulation (M = 6.52, SD = 0.66) than parasport athletes who competed at low-levels of competition (M = 5.63, SD = 1.22), (M = 6.03, SD = 1.33). There were no significant differences for social support, task self-efficacy, or outcome expectations between the high- and low-level parasport athletes (all ps > .05). Self-regulatory efficacy and self-regulation may be targeted by interventionists, community sport organizations, and coaches as a potential way to promote high-level competition for parasport athletes with mobility impairments, and thus encouraging heavy intensity, long duration LTPA and subsequent gains in physical fitness.  Ontario Neurotrauma Foundation and Rick Hansen Institute Soccer coaches’ expectations, goals, and tactical decisions in home and away games Staufenbiel, Kathrin, Utesch, Till, University of Münster; Lobinger, Babett, German Sport University Cologne; Strauss, Bernd, University of Münster The home team wins about 60% of decided games across different sports (Jamieson, 2010). So far, the causes of this home advantage have not been revealed (Pollard, 2008). Most of research conducted has focused on external variables (e.g., crowd, referee) as possible causes. There is a shortcoming of research on the psychological states of the actors involved, especially of the coaches (Carron, Loughhead, & Bray, 2005). Irrespective of the importance coaches have for sport competitions very little is known of the expectations and the tactical decisions in home and away games (Dennis & Carron, 1999). In this study we examined soccer coaches’ expectations, goals, and tactical decisions as a function of game location. We used an experimental, online management game to control for other possibly influencing parameters. Altogether 298 soccer coaches (96.31% male, M age = 36.31, SD = 11.66, 71.38% with coaching license) participated in the online game and were randomly assigned to one of two groups, home

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game (HG) or away game (AG). Participants received information about their own team, the opponent, and the next game, for which they were asked to make decisions in multiple points in the game. The only differing information between the groups was the game location. Coaches of the HG group had higher expectations to win prior the game (t(281.04) = 3.77, p < .001, d = .44), set more challenging goals (F(1,295) = 41.42, p < .001, η2p = .123) and decided for more offensive playing tactics (F(1,296) = 4.30, p < .05, η2p = .014) in the beginning of the game and at half-time. Therefore, soccer coaches’ expectations, goals, and their tactical decisions differ as a function of game location. As a consequence of their expectations, coaches decide for more offensive tactical strategies at home, which could eventually lead to a higher winning percentage of the home team. Predictors of overuse sport injuries: A proposed model Steele, Reed; University of Minnesota–Twin Cities Williams and Andersen’s (1998) model of stress and athletic injury suggests that when placed in stressful athletic situations, various psychosocial factors independently or conjunctively increase an athlete’s stress response, which subsequently increases the risk for sport injuries. Although Williams and Andersen highlight the validity of the model of stress and athletic injury to account for psychosocial factors that influence the risk for acute sport injuries, the authors suggest that overuse sport injuries may not be “mediated by mechanisms within the stress response” (p. 20). Regardless, Williams and Andersen indicate that psychosocial factors may explain why athletes overuse their body. Thus, in regard to overuse sport injuries, psychosocial factors may still increase the risk for sport injuries, albeit through a different mechanism: overuse. While a large body of research provides evidence that overuse sport injuries result from continuous overuse or repetitive microtrauma to muscles, tendons, bones, and joints (e.g., Wen, 2007), there is a dearth of literature analyzing the role of psychosocial factors in the incurrence of overuse sport injuries. To address this gap, the proposed model, based on a review of literature on sport injury, provides a potential framework for understanding the role of psychosocial factors in overuse sport injuries. The model suggests that mental health issues (e.g., Thein-Nissenbaum et al., 2011), specific personality traits (e.g., Meyer, 1995), and social pressures (e.g., Parker et al., 2011) directly increase the likelihood of engaging in overtraining, which leads to overuse. While continuous overuse or repetitive microtrauma to parts of the body may independently increase the risk for overuse sport injuries, the model suggests that the combined effect of overuse and a history of sport injuries significantly increase the risk for overuse sport injuries (Kucera et al., 2005). The proposed model may serve as a guide for research to further explore psychosocial factors that indirectly increase the risk for overuse sport injuries. Investigating the use of Project SCORE! in a summer sport camp context Strachan, Leisha; Hobday, Kayla; University of Manitoba; MacDonald, Dany J.; University of Prince Edward Island; Cote, Jean; Queen’s University Project SCORE! (www.projectscore.ca) is an online resource to help coaches deliberately incorporate themes related to positive youth development (PYD) into sport programs. This 10-lesson program was developed based on research in the field and focuses on the growth of the 5 C’s related to positive development: competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring (Lerner, 2003). Research has found that Project SCORE! is helpful and appropriate for coaches (Strachan et al., 2012) but is this program appropriate in a summer sport camp context? The purpose of the current study was to examine the use of Project SCORE! in summer sport camps and to determine if the program can be used to enhance sport experiences for youth. A mixed method design was employed. Five sport camp instructors took part in the study; two instructors completed Project SCORE! and three instructors received training through the sport camp program. In addition, 41 youth sport participants were recruited for the study to examine youth experiences. The YES-S (MacDonald et al., 2012) was administered to the control group (n = 24) and the intervention group (n = 17). As a group, the sport participants generally displayed an increase in initiative (F = 5.141; p = 0.026) over the course of the one week sport camps. No significant differences between the groups were found relating to the other YES-S subscales. The focus group data with the instructors revealed that the time period was too short to properly administer the program but all instructors who used Project SCORE! observed small changes in the youths’ effort and attitude. Instructors also commented that Project SCORE! allowed them to learn more about their own coaching style and enabled personal growth. Results relating to temporal trends in PYD research and the implications of Project SCORE! will be discussed.  Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council The effect of barrier efficacy on weight management clinic adherence Stumpf, Jamie A., Ross-Stewart, Lindsay, Eck, Kevin; Southern Illinois University–Edwardsville; Kirk, Erik, Southern Illinois University; Knuth, Alexa, Southern Illinois University–Edwardsville; Anderson, Marissa, Lox, Curt, Smith, Bryan; Southern Illinois University The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of efficacy levels on participants’ adherence to a weight management program. Sixty-five participants between the ages of 22 and 70 (M = 47) volunteered to be part of a university-run weight management clinic that focuses on becoming healthier through education sessions on both nutritional and psychological variables. Participants completed the Barriers to Exercise Questionnaire at baseline, and 3 months to assess the influence of their baseline efficacy on adherence at 3 months and their baseline and 3-month efficacy scores on 6-month adherence. Because the dependent variable was categorical, a logistic regression was run. Results indicated that adding Barrier self-efficacy to the model

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significantly increased the ability to predict those who would drop out of the program and those who would adhere than when not included (p < .05). Overall, these findings lend support to previous research showing the importance of efficacy in adopting a weight management program, while also lending support to Bandura’s assertion that belief in one’s ability to succeed in a desired behavior is of greatest importance during adoption (Bandura, 1997). Effects of walking speed on dual-task interference costs Tomporowski, Phillip; Okumura, Michelle S.; Cotton, Amy K.; Sims, Matthew P.; University of Georgia Individuals routinely encounter situations during which they must concurrently perform motor movements while engaging in decision making. The capacity to allocate attentional resources and perform efficiently under dual-task (DT) conditions is of both theoretical and practical interest. Purpose: To examine the effect of walking speed on DT interference. Methods: 13 young adults (M age = 20.69 years; 10 female) performed an attention-demanding cognitive test under five conditions: sitting, standing, and treadmill walking at three different speeds—50% below, at, and 50% above their calculated preferred walking speed (PWS). Prior to testing, each participant was instructed to self-adjust treadmill speed to a PWS. The average treadmill speed of 7 trials served as the individual’s PWS. An auditory switch test, which measured the time required for the participant to inhibit an ongoing mental task and to initiate a different mental task, was performed under single-task (ST) and DT conditions. The 60-item switch-task trials consisted of letter (vowel/consonant) or number (even/odd) discriminations to stimuli presented on headphones and recorded via two keys on a hand-held computer mouse. Global switch costs (SC) and percent change in switch costs (%SC) were calculated for each condition. Results: Compared to the SC in the sitting condition, the %SC change during PWS was –7.13, the %SC change during slow walking was 2.02, and the %SC change during fast walking was 47.84. Conclusion: Locomotion is typically considered to be highly automated and, as such, thought to produce minimal interference on executive function (EF) tasks. Our findings suggest that minor alterations in young adults’ speed of locomotion can significantly influence specific aspects of mental shifting, which is a component of EF. These findings are particularly important for the study of attentional resource allocation that is associated with aging, injury, or disease conditions. Effects of task type and practice on young adults’ perceived workload Tomporowski, Phillip D.; Pendleton, Daniel M.; S, Monica L.; Moore, Morgan L.; University of Georgia Background: Perceived workload during task performance has been studied extensively. Few studies, however, have assessed changes in ratings of workload as a function of task type and practice. Methods: Ten young adults (mean = 22.5 years) were randomly assigned to learn either a complex cognitive task (maze learning) and a complex psycho-motor task (bimanual tracking) or a simple cognitive task (picture discrimination) and a simple psycho-motor task (tapping). Participants performed five practice trials of each task during each of three training sessions, which were separated by two days. The NASA Task Load Index (TLX) workload scale was administered following each block of practice trials. TLX sub-scales assessed mental effort, physical effort, temporal demand, performance, and frustration. Results: ANOVAs performed on each scale revealed significant main effects for task-type for mental effort (p < 0.001), physical effort (p < 0.001), and performance (p < 0.05) subscales. Ratings of mental effort changed across sessions (p < 0.05). Analyses of maze task performance revealed significant reductions in moves per second (p < 0.05) and time to completion (p < 0.01). Conclusion: Workload ratings of cognitive tests were higher than those of psychomotor tasks. Further, practice on both tasks led to decreases in their workload ratings. However, the effects of both task-type and practice on perceived workload were restricted to specific dimensions of the TLX. These findings support a multi-dimensional perspective of perceived workload and suggest practice results in specific, as opposed to general, changes in perceived workload. Tales from the trails: Linking classroom learning to ultra marathon training Torok-Gerard, Sarah; University of Mount Union Quantitative and qualitative research investigating the relationships between self-regulatory behaviors, motivational orientation, and self-efficacy in athletic, academic, and career domains was conducted. The sport of running was used as the context for the athletic domain. Much of the research focused on motivation and self-regulation was derived from self-determination theory, originally conceived by Deci and Ryan, and expanded upon by Vallerand and colleagues. An 86-item survey was created that included demographic questions and questions regarding the frequency, duration, and nature of training for running. It also included four research-based measures that were used to assess athletic self-regulation, motivational orientation in sport, academic/career self-regulation and motivation, and general self-efficacy. A follow-up interview was developed once data collection began. The 7-item interview was based on 1) initial responses from survey participants, 2) the research of Dan Coyle (The Talent Code, 2009) on talent hotbeds, and 3) the research of Carol Dweck (Mindset, 2006) on mindset and motivation. For the survey research, a sample was gathered that included 207 participants from northeast Ohio. There were 107 female and 83 males participants, ranging in age from 14 to over the age of 66. With respect to participants’ current levels of education, 4.3 percent said they were in high school (n = 9), 54.6 percent were in college (n = 113), 10.6 percent (n = 22) said they were in graduate school, and 22.2 percent (n = 46) were no longer in school. For the qualitative research, a total of 51 participants who took the survey volunteered for the interview. Definite connections between age and levels of self-regulation for sport and academic/professional domains

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were found. Furthermore, of those interviewed, 61% indicated that they perceive levels of effort in training to be more important than innate talent, and they often used their successes in running to help them through other life challenges. Coaches’ controlling style, basic needs thwarting, and well-/ill-being in Mexican university players Tristán, Jose L., López-Walle, Jeanette M.; Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León; Balaguer, Isabel, Universidad de Valencia; Duda, Joan L., University of Birmingham; Aguirre, Hilda B., Universidad Juarez del Estado de Durango; Rios, Rosa M., Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León Controlling interpersonal coaching styles have negative implications for the psychological experiences of young athletes (Balaguer, González, Fabra, Castillo, Merce, & Duda, 2012; Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, Ryan, Bosch & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2011; Castillo, González, Fabra, Mercé, & Balaguer, 2012). In the present study, a model with the following sequence was tested: controlling interpersonal coaching style to basic psychological needs thwarting to positive and negative affect. Participants were 821 Mexican university athletes (525 males and 288 female) aged between 17 and 27 years old (M = 21.16, SD = 1.99) They respond to a set of Spanish versions of the following questionnaires: Controlling Coach Behaviors Scale (Castillo, Fabra, Marcos, Gonzales, Bartholomew, Fuentes, & Balaguer 2010); Psychological Need Thwarting Scale (Balaguer, Castillo, Mercé, Ródenas, Rodríguez, García-Merita, & Ntoumanis, 2010); and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Caballo, 2006). The results confirmed the theoretical factors for each of the questionnaires, and offered an adequate reliability (α = .84 to .95). Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis revealed that perceptions of a controlling interpersonal coaching style were a positive predictor of psychological need thwarting (β = .48, p < .01), and these in turn, positively predict negative affect (β = .47, p < .01) and predict negative positive affect (β = .47, p < .01) in last week. In turn, perceptions of a controlling interpersonal coaching style were a positive predictor of positive affect (β = –.33, p < .01). In addition, the results (Δχ2(2) = 2.449, p < .05) showed that psychological need thwarting partially mediated the path between social context and negative affect (β = .15, p < .01) and totally mediated this relationship in terms of positive affect (β = .01, p > .01). These results support the importance of coaches reducing their use of controlling behaviors, as they have negative implications for the psychological experiences of university athletes.  PROMEP, PIFI Effect of classroom-based physical activity interventions on cognitive and academic performance: A meta-analysis Vazou, Spyridoula; Mischo, Amanda; Iowa State University As multiple reports indicate, there is national concern about student’s academic achievement. With the No Child Left Behind Act, school time provided for physical activity (PA) has continued to decline, primarily due to increased time focused on meeting literacy and math goals. An evolving literature suggests that PA in the classroom has positive effects on children’s PA levels, on-task behavior, and academic performance. However, the literature has not been reviewed meta-analytically. Purpose: The purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine the effect of classroom-based PA on cognitive and academic performance of children. Methods: A systematic search of electronic databases and examination of the reference lists of relevant studies resulted in identifying 14 intervention studies with classroom-based PAs. Interventions conducted in the classroom, had a control group, and measured cognitive performance or academic achievement were eligible for inclusion. Eleven studies that met the criteria for inclusion were identified. Results: Full data was provided for eight studies (N = 4071, n = 2097 intervention). Interventions ranged from 3 weeks to 32 weeks. Meta-analysis showed significant, small effects in favor of the intervention on cognitive performance and academic achievement (g = .34; 95% confidence interval [CI]:0.00–0.68; p = .05). Conclusions: As PA in the academic classroom is a new school-based strategy, more intervention studies are needed. However, existing evidence is encouraging, suggesting that classroom-based PA is not merely non-antagonistic to students’ performance but may even work synergistically to promote academic achievement. This finding has important implications for teachers, who constantly struggle to find time to help students achieve academically and, at the same time, protect students from the wide-ranging harmful effects of physical inactivity. The effect of a physical education intervention on classroom engagement among preschoolers Vazou, Spyridoula; Mantis, Konstantinos; Luze, Gayle; Krogh, Jacqueline S.; Iowa State University The well-rounded development of the child, including physical, cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions, is considered the most efficient route to school readiness and academic success. Objective: The purpose of this pilot study was to examine the effect of Physical Education (PE) on classroom engagement in preschool children. Methods: Two intervention (N = 27) and two control (N = 13) preschool (3–5 years) classes were observed at the beginning (T1) and at the end (T2) of a 12-week intervention. The intervention included two 30-min structured Physical Education lessons per week delivered by pre-service PE teachers. The PE lessons took place at the atrium of the pre-school and at a gym area in a building close to the pre-school. Engagement during classroom time was assessed through direct observations for 25 min. The intervention group was observed immediately after PE and on a separate day without PE. Results: Intervention fidelity results showed that all lessons included complex movements, activities that practiced self-control, social and emotional engagement, at least one new fundamental skill, and at least 50% duration of moderate-to-vigorous PAs. Classroom cognitive engagement (verbally participates, asks/answers questions) at T1 was low but similar (27–56 s) between groups (intervention vs. control) and across conditions (with vs. without PE), whereas, at T2, preschoolers in the intervention group were more verbal after PE (169.67 s) than without PE (102.41 s) and compared to the

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control group (42.02 s). Additionally, in the intervention group, social engagement (being on-task by interacting with others) was higher after PE (66.06% of time) than without PE (40.87%) and compared to the control group (21.38%) at T1. Social engagement after PE was highest at T2 despite some improvement on the days without PE in both groups. Conclusions: The present results suggest that a PE intervention may improve cognitive and social aspects of classroom behavior among preschoolers, which are important for children’s future academic achievement at school. Parental involvement in youth sport: Perceptions of perfectionist youth hockey players Wachter, Lindsey E.; Gotwals, John; Farrell, Joey; Lakehead University In the past, most studies involving parenting in youth sport have failed to include the athlete’s perspective and the possible influence his/her individual personality traits might have on those perceptions. Given the multiple roles parents play in their child’s athletic career and that sport is an environment conducive to the development of perfectionist tendencies, the importance of parental criticism and praise may be exaggerated in the case of perfectionist athletes. The purpose of this study was to examine whether perceptions of parenting styles differ in relation to adolescent athletes’ perfectionist orientations. A total of 93 male youth hockey players (M age = 16.21 years; SD = 1.41; range, 12.92–18.33 years) completed multiple measures of sport-based perfectionism and a measure of perception of parenting styles. Cluster analyses conducted on perfectionism responses produced independent clusters of unhealthy perfectionists, healthy perfectionists, and nonperfectionists. MANOVA results demonstrated that unhealthy perfectionists reported higher levels of both perceived parental authoritarianism and authoritativeness (p < .05 and p < .01 respectively). Results suggest that athletes with unhealthy perfectionist orientations might perceive their parents as more demanding than those athletes without perfectionist tendencies. Dose-Response relationship between exercise duration and cognition Wang, Yi-Chun C.; Chang, Yu-Kai K.; Wang, Chun-Chih C.; Chu, Chien-Heng H.; National Taiwan Sport University The study aimed to provide evidence-based recommendations for the prescription of a single session of exercise to improve cognitive performance. In particular, the purpose was to determine the dose-response relationship between exercise duration and cognitive performance for a moderate intensity session of aerobic exercise. Twenty-six healthy young men participated in a reading control treatment and three exercise treatments presented in random order. The exercise treatments were designed based upon ACSM guidelines and consisted of a 5-min warm-up, a 5-min cool-down, and cycling at moderate intensity exercise (approximately 65% heart rate reserve) for 10 min, 20 min, or 45 min. The Stroop Test was administrated following completion of each assigned treatment. The results revealed Exercise at moderate intensity for 20 min resulted in significantly better cognitive performance as assessed by shorter response time and higher accuracy. This result was found regardless of the type of cognitive function assessed. Additionally, a dose-response curvilinear relationship was observed between exercise duration and cognitive performance. In conclusion, an exercise session consisting of a 5-min warm-up, 20 min of moderate intensity exercise, and a 5-min cool-down improves cognition, whereas shorter or longer durations of moderate exercise have negligible benefits. This study provides the foundation for the prescription of a single session of moderate exercise to facilitate cognitive function in healthy younger adults. MVPA and time on-task for preschoolers’ during a classroom-based physical activity break Webster, Elizabeth K., University of Michigan; Wadsworth, Danielle D., Robinson, Leah E.; Auburn University Purpose: To examine the acute effects of a teacher-implemented classroom based physical activity (PA) break on moderateto-vigorous PA (MVPA) participation and time on-task for a preschool-age population. Methods: Preschoolers from one Head Start center (118 students, M age = 3.80 ± 0.69 years) participated in this study. Participants were monitored over the course of four days: classroom teachers implemented ten-minute PA breaks into their classroom for two days and two days served as a control, typical instruction (TI) condition. Actical accelerometers were used to measure MVPA during the school day. Time on-task was measured by direct observation, momentary time sampling procedures immediately before and following the PA break implementation and TI for each child. Results: The classroom-based PA break did elicit more MVPA behaviors compared to the control time period (t(116) = 18.08, p < .001). Additionally, PA breaks did promote more on-task behavior immediately following an in-class PA break. On average, preschoolers’ increased their percent of time on-task by 16%, compared to immediately prior to the break and pre-post on control days (F(1, 117) = 18.86, p < .001). Specifically, the most off-task students prior to the break improved on-task behavior by 30% (p < .001). Conclusion: The findings from this acute intervention indicated that with an increased bout of PA in the classroom, teachers’ may adequately improve preschool students’ time on-task post-break, especially in children who were the most off-task prior to breaks. Classroom based PA breaks are also an adequate catalyst to prompt MVPA in this population.  NASPSPA Preschoolers’ compensate with sedentary behavior following classroom-based physical activity breaks Webster, Elizabeth K., University of Michigan; Wadsworth, Danielle D., Robinson, Leah E.; Auburn University Purpose: Examine whether after the implementation of a short bout of planned physical activity (PA) preschoolers compensate and become more sedentary the rest of the school day. Methods: Eleven classrooms from one Head Start center from the southeast

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region of the United States participated in this study over four consecutive days (N = 118, M age = 3.79 ± 0.69 years). Conditions were counterbalanced; two days were typical instruction (TI) and two days teachers implemented a 10-min classroom-based PA break. PA was assessed with Actical accelerometers for the entire school day. The percentage of time spent in each PA category (i.e., sedentary, light, moderate, vigorous) was calculated prior to the activity break, during the break, and following the activity break. Results: 70% of the break was spent in some form of activity; however, following the breaks preschoolers did exhibit compensatory behaviors and become more sedentary and less active. Preschoolers spent significantly more time being sedentary (t = –2.6, p = .011) and less time in light PA (t = 2.65, p = .009) and moderate PA (t = 2.25, p = .026) after the break compared to days in which PA breaks were not held. Conclusion: Preschoolers are recommended to obtain 120 min of daily PA and classroom PA breaks were designed to provide an extra bout during the school day to help achieve this recommendation. It appears that PA breaks negatively influenced PA for the remainder of the school day. However, this was an acute intervention only examining a short time frame of activity; perhaps longitudinal work may find improvements in cardiorespiratory endurance and/or fitness. Further investigation is needed to explain this compensation behavior in preschoolers.  NASPSPA Impact of a yearlong middle school fitness program on adolescents’ physical, psychosocial, academic, and behavioral outcomes Weiss, Maureen R., Phillips, Alison C.; University of Minnesota; Kipp, Lindsay E., University of Kentucky School-based interventions have the potential to stem the tide of youth physical inactivity and obesity (Stratton et al., 2008; Ward et al., 2006). Physical education (PE) is a context available to all students that can provide opportunities to improve health and well-being. CHAMPIONS (http://www.mychampions.com/) is a physical fitness program with an intentional curriculum and instructors trained to deliver twice-weekly lessons in PE. We evaluated the impact of the CHAMPIONS program on middle school students’ physical, psychosocial, academic, and behavioral outcomes over an entire year. Male and female students in CHAMPIONS (n = 328) and Control PE classes (n = 698) completed physical fitness indices (BMI, wait-to-hip ratio [WHR], PACER) and Harter’s (1988) Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents at pre- (August), mid- (December), and post-intervention (April). Schools provided academic and behavioral data (e.g., state reading score, absenteeism) for previous and current years. A series of group by gender by time repeated measures MANOVA’s revealed that students in CHAMPIONS significantly improved in PACER and maintained healthy values for BMI and WHR; PACER scores compared favorably to Controls. For self-perceptions, girls (sport competence, physical appearance) and boys (physical appearance, peer acceptance) in CHAMPIONS improved; Controls showed similar improvements. Participants in CHAMPIONS showed a decline in number of absences over the year whereas Controls stayed the same. State reading and math scores improved for both CHAMPIONS and Controls. Collectively, results show that CHAMPIONS had a positive impact on biometric indices, self-perceptions, and absenteeism over a 9-month period. Although many findings compared favorably to Controls, those students also improved over time. Findings contribute to the knowledge base on multidisciplinary approaches to school-based physical activity interventions, and recommendations point to modifying curricular lessons and coach training to explicitly target psychosocial and behavioral benefits of physical activity. Revisiting the mediational model of sport commitment Weiss, Windee M.; Aloe, Ariel M.; University of Northern Iowa Research exploring sport commitment has yielded considerable debate concerning the “picture” of commitment (e.g., Scanlan et al., 2003, 2009; Weiss et al., 2010). Quantitative research has supported a mediational model of commitment with enjoyment mediating the relationship between the other predictors and psychological commitment (e.g., M.R. Weiss et al., 2001). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to further test alternative models of sport commitment with the addition of perceived costs (e.g., downsides) and specific sources of social constraints and support (i.e., parents, coaches, teammates, best friends). Competitive female gymnasts (N = 792, ages 8–19, M = 11.68, SD = 2.33) completed measures designed to tap the predictors of and psychological sport commitment. In order to test our hypothesized model, we conducted path analyses using the lavaan package in R (Rosseel, 2012). Although our original proposed model (i.e., placed enjoyment as a mediator between the determinants of and psychological commitment) had a fair fit (χ212 = 176.99, p < .05), CFI = .904, TLI = .799, SRMR = .027, RMSEA = .133, 90% [.116, .150]) the significant χ2 and the large RMSEA indicate a misfit of the data to the model. Thus, a modified model was explored, with the direct and indirect effects of psychological constructs assessed. This model showed an adequate fit of the data (χ28 = 13.83, p = .09), CFI = .997, TLI = .989, SRMR = .011, RMSEA = .031, 90% [.000, .057]). The final model revealed that attractive alternatives, involvement opportunities, investments, costs, parent and best friend social constraints, and coach and teammate social support had direct effects on enjoyment. Additionally, enjoyment, involvement opportunities, investments, and attractive alternatives had direct effects on psychological commitment. This final model suggests that enjoyment mediates the relationship between the social influence constructs and psychological commitment, whereas the psychological constructs tend to both directly and indirectly (via enjoyment) influence commitment. Predicting competitive level using sport commitment constructs Weiss, Windee M.; Aloe, Ariel M.; University of Northern Iowa Research examining sport commitment has used a variety of samples ranging from recreational and competitive youth sport participants to professional level athletes (e.g., Scanlan et al., 2003; Weiss et al., 2010). However, due to differing methodologies

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and competitive sport levels the ability to distinguish between the most salient constructs depending on competitive level becomes difficult. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine if competitive level could be predicted based on sport commitment constructs. Competitive female gymnasts (N = 792; ages 8–19, M = 11.68, SD = 2.33) participated. Sport commitment constructs included the following: commitment, enjoyment, involvement opportunities, investments, costs, attractive alternatives, and social constraints and support from parents, coaches, teammates, and best friends. Preliminary analyses revealed that the most parsimonious regression model for predicting commitment included enjoyment (β = .49), investments (β = .30), involvement opportunities (β = .20) and attractive alternatives (β = –.19) [F(4, 783) = 399.72, p < .001]. Next, gymnasts were grouped based on competitive level: Levels 4–6 (lower level, n = 430) and Levels 7–10 (higher level, n = 362). An ANOVA revealed that lower (M = 4.38, SD = .67) and higher level gymnasts (M = 4.29, SD = .76) did not differ on psychological commitment [F(1, 787) = 2.96, p = .09]). Next, a binary logistic regression was conducted to determine if commitment constructs could predict competitive level. Nine constructs emerged as significant predictors of competitive level (predicting accurately 73%): attractive alternatives, investments, enjoyment, costs, social constraints from teammates, and social support from parents, coaches, teammates, and best friends (Nagelkerke R2 = .32). Interestingly, none of the social constructs emerged as significant predictors of commitment; however, social influence constructs were predictors of competitive level. Thus, social influence may not be critical in predicting commitment, but may be a critical factor in relation to competitive level. An examination of the relationship between parental impulsivity and an obesogenic home environment Werstein, Kira M., Iowa State University; Eldridge, Samantha, Southern Illinois University–Carbondale Childhood obesity has tripled in the past 30 years and affects nearly 20% of children ages 2 to 19 years, and less than 10% of children engage in the recommended amount of physical activity. Childhood obesity and physical inactivity negatively affect physical and emotional health and well-being of children, families, and society. Because the majority of a child’s time is spent at home, parents have a responsibility to manage factors in the environment that effect obesity including food quality, quantity of screen time, and quantity of physical activity. Since these factors are modifiable, childhood obesity rates could effectively decline with lifestyle interventions. Thus, understanding parental tendencies that aid or hinder the ability to create a healthy home environment becomes essential. Impulsivity, the degree to which one acts on the spur of the moment without stopping to think and is more concerned with immediate gratification even at the cost of a future goal, predicts adult health behaviors and outcomes. Research is needed to examine the extent to which parental impulsivity is associated with the health-related home environment. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between parental impulsivity an obesogenic home environment (factors in an environment that encourage obesity) in a random sample of Iowans. A mail survey was completed by 87 central Iowans, 42% men and 58% women with an average age of 40.8 ± 9.5 years. Impulsivity and the obesogenic environment were measured by the Grasmic Self-Control Scale and the Family Nutrition and Physical Activity screening tool. Impulsivity was significantly related to an obesogenic environment when controlling for income and education. The multiple regression model with all three predictors produced r 2 =.158, F(3, 84) = 5.25, p < .05. More research is needed to understand the link between parents and an obesogenic home environment. Eventually, prevention programs that target parental behaviors, including impulsivity, may hold promise for improving the home environment and decreasing childhood obesity.  Departmental Grant (Pease Grant) Prompting physical activity in preschool-aged children: The role of parental social control Wilson, Kathleen S.; Rigsby, Vanessa; Albin, Carly; California State University–Fullerton In preschool-aged children, parents have the potential to play a powerful influence in their child’s physical activity (PA) behavior (Loprinzi & Trost, 2010). One type of social influence that has received little attention in this age group is social control (SC), which is a regulatory influence that is performed to prompt or persuade another to perform a desired behavior (Lewis & Butterfield, 2005). Parental SC has been associated with PA behavior change in adolescents (Wilson & Spink, 2010). The purpose of this study was to explore if SC provided by parents would be associated to behavior change in preschool-aged children. Further, this study also explored the relationship between SC and feelings of both the parent and the child. Parents (N = 26) of preschool children (M age = 3.9 years, SD = 1.2 years) completed a daily online diary. As part of the diary, parents described any attempts they made to get their child to do PA and the strategies reported by parents were classified into positive (encouraging), collaborative (being active with them) or negative (ordering) SC. Additionally, parents reported their perceptions of how their child’s behavior changed, how their child felt and how they felt. Separate multilevel models were performed for each dependent variable (behavior change, parent and child feelings). The type of SC was entered into the model as a dummy coded variable. In predicting behavior change, collaborative SC was associated with a more positive behavior change (b = 1.6, p = .015) and positive SC approached significance (b = 1.1, p = .1). In predicting how the child felt in response to the attempt, both collaborative SC (b = 1.9, p = .001) and positive SC (b = 1.5, p = .007) emerged as predictors. In the prediction of how the parents felt, collaborative SC was positively associated with more positive feelings (b = 1.2, p = .01) and positive SC approached significance (b = 0.8, p = .08). These findings suggest that collaborative SC appeared to have the most positive effects in terms of behavior change and feelings.  CSUF Junior Faculty Research Grant

Sport and Exercise Psychology  S121

Perceived barriers to physical activity as correlates of physical activity participation among youth Wing, Erin; Gunnell, Katie E.; Brunet, Jennifer; University of Ottawa; Bélanger, Mathieu, Université de Sherbrooke Physical activity (PA) is essential for proper development and health in youth. However, only 7% of Canadian youth are meeting moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) guidelines (Colley et al., 2011). Further, there is a decline in PA levels from childhood to adolescence, and this decline is even greater for girls (Wall et al., 2011). A better understanding of factors preventing youth from participating in PA could inform the development and implementation of more effective PA interventions. The objectives of this cross-sectional analysis were to: (1) examine sex differences in perceived social, environmental, and personal barriers to PA, and (2) assess the associations between perceived barriers and self-reported MVPA in youth. Participants were grade 5 and 6 (10–12 years old) students participating in the Monitoring Activities of Teenagers to Comprehend their Habits (MATCH) study (N = 802). Data were collected via self-reported questionnaires. Listwise deletion was used to remove cases with missing values. In a multivariate analysis of variance (n = 633, 45% boys), boys reported significantly lower levels of social (d = .24) and personal barriers (d = .20) compared to girls (p < .05). Based on multiple regression analysis (n = 628), social, environmental and personal barriers explained 6% of the variance in self-reported MVPA (p < .05). Personal barriers emerged as a unique correlate of MVPA (β = –.23, p < .001). Results suggest that girls perceive more social and personal barriers to PA than boys. They also suggest that programs aimed at increasing PA in youth should take into their perceived personal barriers.

Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 2014, 36, S122 © 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Official Journal of NASPSPA www.JSEP-Journal.com NASPSPA CONFERENCE

Withdrawn Please note that these accepted abstracts were withdrawn after this publication went to press and will not be presented at the 2014 conference. Can video training improve the accuracy and speed of teammate identification (TM-ID) in sports people? Steel, Kylie A.; Ellem, Eathan; University of Western Sydney The use of video self-modeling in the improvement of a reach and grasp task for stroke patients Steel, Kylie A.; Sandoval, Remi; University of Western Sydney How do pre-service PDHPE teachers perceive the importance of skill acquisition? Steel, Kylie A.; Laidlaw, Penelope; University of Western Sydney Predictors of overuse sport injuries: A proposed model Steele, Reed; University of Minnesota–Twin Cities

S122

Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 2014, 36, S123-132 © 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Official Journal of NASPSPA www.JSEP-Journal.com NASPSPA CONFERENCE

Abdollahipour, Reza 17 Acevedo, Gabriel A. 59, 64 Adebiyi, Oyekunle 79 Adegbesan, Olufemi Adegbola 79 Aelterman, Nathalie 85 Aguirre, Hilda B. 117 Aiken, Christopher A. 17, 47 Ajisafe, Toyin D. 77, 78 Akinola, Eniola O. 79 Akpan, Akanimo D. 98 Alami, Arya 17 Albin, Carly 80, 120 Alderman, Brandon L. 80, 104 Alguire, Katherine S. 18 Allen, Taylor S. 101 Almeida, Quincy J. 19, 28, 39, 50 Aloe, Ariel M. 119 Alphonsa, Sushma 18 Alsharji, Khaled E. 18 Amad, Yasmine 46 Aman, Joshua E. 59, 65 Ammar, Diala 59 Anderson, David I. 59 Anderson, Marissa 115 Andrade, Andre P. 31 Andrieux, Mathieu 21 Anthony, David 84 Antonini Philippe, Roberta 90 Arthur, Calum 91 Aschersleben, Gisa 72 Athanasopoulos, Peter 5 Augereau, Bertrand 104 Augustijn, Mireille 66 Avans, Diana E. 80 Avigdor, Zask 9 Azevedo, Gabriela 76 Bailey, Kaitlyn J. 81 Baker, Joseph 41 Baker, Robert E. 102 Balaguer, Isabel 117 Balls, Daniel S. 111 Bardid, Farid 60 Bardy, Benoit 56 Barlow, Meaghan 105 Barnett, Anna L. 15 Barnett, Lisa M. 9, 10, 70 Barthes, Didier 104 Note. The page numbers listed in this index refer to the pages numbered S1 through S121 in this publication.

Basevitch, Itay 11, 101, 109 Bastos, Flavio Henrique 22 Bean, Corliss N. 81 Beatty, Garrett F. 19 Beaty, Andrea A. 97 Beck, Eric N. 19 Becker, James 55 Becker, Kevin A. 29 Beckles, Joelle 110 Beerse, Matthew J. 77, 78 Bell, Shane T. 40 Benda, Rodolfo N. 26, 31, 40, 45, 53, 76 Benham-Deal, Tami 18 Berg, Julieann M. 60 Berg, William P. 20 Bingham, Geoffrey P. 44, 57, 66 Bird, Michael 37 Bischoff, Matthias 20 Bisconti, Silvia 71 Blandin, Yannick 21, 46, 104 Blankenship, Bonnie T. 100 Blischke, Klaus 20 Bloemke, Olivia 101 Bo, Jin 21 Boiangin, Nataniel M. 101, 109 Bolter, Nicole D. 7, 82 Bordini, Fábio L. 23 Boros, Piroska 82 Boutin, Arnaud 21, 104 Boyle, Jason B. 21, 35, 53 Braun, Robyn A. 82, 109 Breslin, Casey M. 7, 8, 22, 60 Brian, Ali 61 Brock, Sheri J. 73 Brown, Helen 70 Brown, Kelsey 22, 57 Brown, Theresa C. 102 Bruce, Andrew C. 12 Brumley, Shailey L. 47 Brunet, Jennifer 83, 89, 113, 121 Bruzi, Alessandro Teodoro 22 Buchanan, Taylor 108 Buhler, Craig 106 Burgess, Paul R. 106 Burnay, Carolina 61 Byrer, Beth K. 83 Bélanger, Mathieu 89, 121 Cai, Liu Yang 63 Calkins, Susan D. 112 Callary, Bettina 108

S123

S124  Abstract Author Index

Camata, Thiago V. 23 Camiré, Martin 96 Campbell, Olivia 23, 48 Campos, Carlos Eduardo 26 Campos, Carolina M.C. 62 Campos, Simone B. 38 Capio, Catherine M. 62, 65 Cardon, Greet 26, 85 Cardozo, Priscila 55 Carducci, Filippo 14 Carlsen, Anthony N. 24 Carnaby, Giselle 19 Carron, Albert V. 104 Carter, Michael J. 24, 43 Carvalho, Maria Flávia 53 Castellano, Michael A. 105, 112 Cattuzzo, Maria Teresa 45, 62, 68 Caçola, Priscila M. 61 Centeio, Erin 112 Cesar, Guilherme M. 63 Chan, John S.Y. 63 Chang, Duksun 83, 112 Chang, Yu-Kai K. 118 Chen, Fu-Chen 16, 33 Chen, Hsinlin, 33 Chen, Hsiu Hui 54 Chen, Jen-Wei 41 Chen, Jenn-Yeu 33 Chen, Jing 24 Chen, Yi-Chou 63, 64 Chiang, Han Yun 25 Chien, Jung Hung 28 Chitale, Aditi 25 Chiviacowsky, Suzete 25, 55 Choi, Cynthia S.Y. 62 Chu, Chien-Heng H. 118 Chudnovskaya, Irina A. 56 Chung, Jihye 83, 112 Clear, Sarah E. 84 Coker, Cheryl A. 26 Collins, Courtney 40 Coon, Audrey 82 Corbetta, Daniela 17 Cordova, Alberto 59, 64, 66 Cordovil, Rita 61, 99 Corrêa, Humberto M. 38 Costa, Marcelo Alves 23, 42, 70 Côté, Jean 89, 115 Cotton, Amy K. 116 Coutinho, Monia T. 114 Couto, Crislaine Rangel 26 Cox, Anne E. 84 Cox, Leah M. 86 Craig, Dana 32 Cranley, Nicole M. 19 Cregar, Cassi C. 29 Croce, Ron 13 Crozier, Alyson J. 85, 87 Cruz, Madson Pereira 26

Cummins, Daisha L. 52 D’Hondt, Eva 66 Dai, Boyi 18 Davis, Matthew E. 112 De Bourdeaudhuij, Ilse 66, 85 De Martelaer, Kristine 60 De Meester, An 26, 85 De Souza, Mariele S. 114 Deconinck, Frederik J.A. 60 Deforche, Benedichte 66 DeFreese, J.D. 86 Delli Paoli, Anthony G. 86, 113 Dennis, Abigail L. 9, 10, 73 Dicken, Andy 50 Diekfuss, Jed A. 27 Dieringer, Shannon T. 65 Dimmock, James A. 84, 92, 113 DiNallo, Jennifer M. 95 Ding, Kirby K. 18 Dorsch, Kim 89, 90 Dorsch, Travis E. 6, 7 Dotan Ben-Soussan, Tal 14 Dreiskaemper, Dennis 75, 97 Ducharme, Scott W. 28 Duda, Joan L. 117 Dudley, William N. 105 Dunn, Ryan 6 Dyke, Ford 108 Dzikus, Lars 17 Eck, Kevin 115 Ede, Alison 100 Edim, Felipe Raso 26 Efthymiou, Nicolena 95 Eguia, Kathlynne F. 62, 65 Ehgoetz Martens, Kaylena A. 28 Eikema, Diderik Jan 28 Ekkekakis, Panteleimon 1, 11 Elangovan, Naveen 59, 65 Eldridge, Samantha 120 Eliasz, Kinga L. 18 Ellard, Colin G. 28 Ellem, Eathan 51 Ellemberg, Dave 21 Ertz, Josiah 29 Espinosa, Rodrigo M.O. 23 Etnier, Jennifer L. 4, 105, 112 Evans, Blair 86 Eys, Mark A. 86, 101 Fairbrother, Jeffrey T. 17, 29, 47 Famelia, Ruri 61 Farrell, Joey 118 Farshchiansadegh, Ali 39 Fath, Aaron J. 66 Faulkner, Guy 110 Fawver, Bradley J. 19, 29 Feichtinger, Philip 87

Abstract Author Index   S125

Feltz, Deborah L. 88, 100, 110 Fesser, Kayla 87 Figueiredo, Lucas S. 45 Filho, Edson 11 Fish, Amy 103 Fisher, Kevin M. 29 Fisher, Wayne 67 Fitzgerald, Ryan 90 Fong, Angela J. 87, 97 Fontana, Fabio E. 29, 82 Forlenza, Samuel T. 88, 100, 110 Forneris, Tanya 81 Forte, Roberta 13 Foster, Brian J. 98, 109 Francis, Hannah 109 French, Brian F. 84 Frith, Amy L. 95 Fry, Mary D. 102 Fulton, Timothy 29 Furtado Jr., Ovande 82 Gabbard, Carl P. 39, 66 Gainforth, Heather L. 5 Gallo, Lívia G. 30, 45 Garcia, Brianna 109 Garcia, Daniel 30 Garn, Alex 112 Garro, Eunate 97 Genoves, Giovanna G. 29 Gentier, Ilse 66 Gentili, Rodolphe J. 30 Gilchrist, Jenna D. 88 Gill, Diane L. 99, 108 Gillingham, Susan M. 50 Givens, Daniel 32 Glazebrook, Cheryl M. 22, 57 Glicksohn, Joseph 14 Godwin, Maurice M. 108 Gomes, Thabata B. 31 Gonzalez, Dave A. 18 Goodway, Jacqueline D. 26, 61 Gordon, Valentina 104 Gothuey, Florian 47 Goto, Kana 31 Gotwals, John K. 88, 118 Gow, Irene N. 63 Gralla, Morgan H. 80 Graupe, Margaret 113 Grierson, Lawrence E.M. 30 Griffin, Paul T. 91 Guerra, Richard 52 Gungor, Darcy 95 Gunnell, Katie E. 89, 111, 121 Guskiewicz, Kevin M. 86 Haaland, Eric J. 31, 37 Habeeb, Christine M. 101 Haerens, Leen 26, 85 Hagemann, Norbert 41, 42, 49

Haibach, Pamela S. 7, 8, 67 Hall, Morgan 106 Hamafyelto, Steve 79 Hamer, Mark 12 Hamilton, Michelle 70 Hancock, David J. 89 Hannigan, Aaron M. 20 Harenberg, Sebastian 89, 90 Harper, Natalie J. 72 Harrington, Staci 108 Harrison, Henry 31 Harrison, Steven J. 32 Hart, Melanie A. 103 Hatfield, Bradley D. 30 Hauck, Janet L. 36, 54, 67 Hauw, Denis 90 Haworth, Joshua L. 67, 69 Healy, Alice F. 49 Healy, Laura 90, 91 Hemingway, Lauren 56 Henderson, Sheila 15 Henning, David A. 112 Henrique, Rafael S. 68 Hepler, Teri J. 91 Hessler, Eric E. 32 High, Amanda E. 50 Ho, Rachel 32 Hobday, Kayla 115 Hohmann, Tanja 36 Holfelder, Benjamin 74 Holler, Elena M. 109 Holst-Wolf, Jessica M. 68 Holzapfel, Simon 73 Hopkins, Paul 106 Horn, Thelma S. 91 Horvat, Michael 13 Howard-Shaughnessy, Candice 68, 69, 74 Howle, Timothy C. 92 Hoza, Betsy 113 Hsinlin, Chen 33 Hsu, Yu 40 Huang, Shaochen 57 Huang, Tzu-Jung 33 Hung, Ting-Hsuan 63, 64 Hunt, Carly 108 Hutchinson, Jasmin C. 11 Huyben, Floris 60 Hwang, Seunghyun 92, 93 Höner, Oliver 87 Ikudome, Sachi 33, 44, 53, 71 Ingraham, Stacy 109 Inigo, Melissa M. 106 Irwin, Jacqueline M. 69, 72, 73 Ishikura, Tadao 33 Iwatsuki, Takehiro 34 Jackson, Ben 84, 92, 113 Janelle, Christopher M. 19, 29

S126  Abstract Author Index

Januário, Marcelo S. 45 Jarvis, Christine 60 Jassal, Yasmine 93 Jensen, Jody L. 77, 93 Johnstone, Jill 64 Jones, Leighton 11 Joohyun, Rhee 24, 36 Joutras, Dawn M. 63 Judge, Lawrence W. 65 Jung, Mary E. 81 Kagerer, Florian A. 34 Kamal, Adlul 93 Kamei, Mio 34 Kane, Thomas D. 97 Kantak, Shailesh S. 35 Karageorghis, Costas I. 10, 11, 12 Karper, William B. 105 Karreman, Erwin 89 Kaushal, Navin 94, 95 Kaye, Miranda P. 95 KC, Srijana 95 Kelechi, Benson 79 Kendellen, Kelsey 81, 96 Kendzierski, Deborah 96 Kennedy, Deanna M. 21, 35, 53, 72 Kennel, Christian 36 Kent, Martin 52 Kerr, Norbert L. 88 Ketcheson, Leah R. 36 Khoo, I-Hung 32 Kim, Jingu 29 Kim, Seok Jin 69 Kim, Seonjin 69 Kim, Taewon 36 King, Adam C. 37 King, Michael 6 Kipp, Lindsay E. 82, 119 Kirk, Erik 115 Klawitter, Dylan 24 Klein, Tyler G. 96 Klotzbier, Thomas 48 Knight, Camilla J. 6, 7 Knopf, Christian 49 Knuth, Alexa 115 Kolze, Maryjo A. 97 Konczak, Juergen 3, 59, 65, 68 Korff, Thomas 74 Koslucher, Frank C. 37 Kovacs, Attila J. 37 Kovacs, Christopher R. 38 Krenn, Bjoern 97 Kristjanson, Kevin 93 Krogh, Jacqueline S. 117 Krull, Katja 111 Krupenevich, Rebecca L. 107 Krüger, Britta 20 Kubo, Masayoshi 38 Kulik, Noel 112

Kurtes, Marija 106 Kwok, Andrea N. 104 Kyvelidou, Anastasia 67, 69 La, Julian D. 22 Labban, Jeff D. 105 Lacombe, Jason 97 Ladwig, Matthew A. 98 Lage, Guilherme M. 38 Laidlaw, Penelope 51 Land, William M. 98 Lander, Natalie 70 Latash, Mark L. 1 Latimer-Cheung, Amy E. 5 Lauer, Richard T. 56 Laughlin, Davide 47 Lebeau, Jean-Charles 98 Lee, Cho-Kang 40 Lee, Jihye 39 Lee, Mei-Hua 39 Lee, Timothy D. 18 Lefaivre, Shannon C. 39 Legg, Eric 103 Leite, Claudio M. 40 Lenoir, Matthieu 60, 66 Leslie-Toogood, Adrienne 93 Levine, Richard 67 Lewis, Simon J.G. 2 Lewthwaite, Rebecca 55, 63 Lex, Heiko 106 Li, Yuhua 40 Lin, Ju-Han 40 Lin, Yen-Nan 40 Liong, Grace 10 Liu, Guan Min 63 Liu, Suyen 41 Liu, Ting 70 Liu, Yeou-Teh 25, 41, 46 Lobinger, Babett 114 Loffing, Florian 41, 42 Logan, Samuel 69 Lohse, Keith R. 49 Long, Ben L. 50 Lonsdale, Chris 113 Lox, Curt 115 Lundstrom, Christopher 109 Luo, Yue J. 63 Luz, Carlos 99 Luze, Gayle 117 Lyons, James L. 30 López Felip, Maurici 42, 98 López-Walle, Jeanette M. 117 MacDonald, Dany J. 115 Mack, Diane E. 88 Mack, Mickey 29 McMahon, Clare 49 MacPherson, Ryan P. 48 Madrigal, Leilani 99

Abstract Author Index   S127

Maes, Jolien 26 Malangré, Andreas 20 Malloy-Diniz, Leandro F. 38 Manalo, Marcus J. 73 Mann, David L. 100 Manoel, Edison de Jesus 70 Mantis, Konstantinos 117 Marayong, Panadda 32 Marchant, David C. 47 Marchetti, Rosalba 13 Marotta, Jonathan J. 22 Marques, Inara 23, 42, 70 Martin, Eric M. 91 Martin, Jeffrey 112 Martin, Luc J. 104 Martin Ginis, Kathleen A. 5, 114 Martins, Raquel de Melo 42, 70 Massing, Matthias 46 Masters, Rich S.W. 62 Matos, Cíntia Oliveira 26 Max, Emery J. 40 McCaffrey, Rob 90 McCaughtry, Nate 112 McDavid, Lindley 100 McDonough, Meghan H. 83, 87, 100, 111 McKay, Brad 43 McLaren, Colin D. 87, 101 Medina-Papst, Josiane 42, 70 Meir, Gily 101 Meister, Caleb 80 Meyer, Ben 43 Miller, Matthew W. 72, 102, 108 Miranda, Débora M. 38 Mirich, Todd G. 44 Mischo, Amanda 117 Mohagheghi, Amir 74 Mohamed, Sara 90 Mohammed, Sanusi 79 Monroe, Britton A. 72 Montoye, Alexander H. 113 Moore, E. Whitney G. 102 Moore, Morgan L. 116 Moore, Spencer 5 Mori, Shiro 31, 33, 44, 53, 71 Mosewich, Amber D. 111 Mukherjee, Mukul 28 Munafo, Justin G. 31, 44 Munzert, Jörn 20 Murray, Nicholas P. 107 Myers, Nicholas D. 3 Myers, Kodey 52 Myrold, Rebecca 103 Nakamoto, Hiroki 31, 33, 44, 53, 71 Naul, Roland 75 Nelson, Kendra 93 Newell, Karl M. 41 Newland, Aubrey 101, 103 Newton, Maria 101, 103 Ning, Weihong 103

Nishiyori, Ryota 71 Ntoumanis, Nikos 90, 91 Ogu, David 79 Oh, Hyuk 30 Okumura, Michelle S. 116 Olatunji, Taiwo O. 79 Oliveira, Dayana Silva 45, 62 Oliveira, Fernanda S. 45 Oliveira, Ilana Santos 45 Oliveira, Marcio A. 7, 8, 76 Olson, Ryan L. 80, 104 Osai, Keith Q. 7 Paine, Nicola J. 90 Palmer, Kara K. 68, 69, 72, 73 Palomo Nieto, Miriam 17 Pan, Po-Yuan 46 Pan, Zhujun 17 Pant, Mohan 61 Panzer, Stephan 35, 46, 72 Paquette, Max R. 40 Paradis, Kyle F. 104 Park, Se Yun 105, 112 Parker, Paula M. 83 Parvez, Alia H. 63 Pascoal, Joana 61 Pascua, Luigi 55 Passmore, Steven R. 22, 46, 57 Paulsen, Trevor 38 Pelleck, Valerie 46 Pendleton, Daniel M. 116 Penelton, Stephanie 93 Perkins, Daniel 95 Pesce, Caterina 13, 14 Petranek, Laura 7 Pfeiffer, Karin A. 113 Pharamin, François 104 Phillips, Alison C. 119 Pickett, Karla 37 Piepmeier, Aaron T. 105, 112 Pila, Eva 97, 105 Pilgramm, Sebastian 20 Pimenta, Bruno J.F. 23 Pinkerton, Sean T. 105 Pizzera, Alexandra 36, 106 Podlog, Leslie 103, 106 Pontifex, Matthew B. 86 Porter, Jared M. 23, 42, 47, 48, 98 Portes, Leonardo L. 26, 30, 31 Post, Phillip G. 47 Post, Taylor 46 Pottratz, Suzanne T. 12 Pouwelse, Vincent S. 100 Prazeres, Thaliane M.P. 68 Priebe, Carly S. 87 Prime, Steve L. 22 Proteau, Luc 21 Przysucha, Eryk 75

S128  Abstract Author Index

Psotta, Rudolf 17 Quartiroli, Alessandro 107 Raab, Markus 36 Raedeke, Thomas D. 107 Raisbeck, Louisa D. 27 Ramon, Molly 64 Ramos, Camila 42, 70 Ramos, Erica 46 Ranganathan, Rajiv 47 Rathwell, Scott 108 Ray, Christopher 61 Razon, Selen 11, 98 Re, Alessandro H.N. 62, 68 Reggia, James A. 30 Reifsteck, Erin J. 108 Ren, Jie 57 Resende, Raquel 76 Rex, Chelsea 109 Rhea, Christopher K. 48, 50, 52, 54 Rhee, Joohyun 24, 36 Rhodes, Greg 109 Rhodes, Ryan E. 94, 95 Ricard, Mark 61 Richards, Brian J. 20 Rider, Patrick M. 50 Ridgers, Nicky D. 9, 10 Riemer, Harold A. 89, 90 Rietschel, Jeremy C. 30, 108 Rigsby, Vanessa 80, 120 Ringenbach, Shannon D. 73 Rios, Rosa M. 117 Ritchie, Jason L. 109 Ritter, Kameron 109 Rix-Lièvre, Géraldine 89 Robinson, Leah E. 9, 10, 68, 69, 72, 73, 118 Rodrigues, Luis P. 99 Rodriguez, Alicia 59, 117 Rohler, Abraham 29 Romano-Silva, Marco A. 38 Roncesvalles, Maria N. 73 Ross-Stewart, Lindsay C. 109, 115 Rothlisberger, Kevin 6 Roy, Eric A. 50 Rudisill, Mary 73 Ruhe, Brian 32 Russell, Hayley C. 109 Russell, Robert B. 42, 48 S, Monica L. 116 Sabiston, Catherine M. 83, 87, 88, 97, 105, 110, 113 Saccani, Raquel C. 75, 76 Sakuma, Haruo 34, 110 Salmon, Jo 9 Samendinger, Stephen 110 Sandoval, Remi 51 Sansom, Jennifer K. 73 Santos, Camila Ramos 70

Santos, Juliette Noadya 45 Savelsbergh, Geert J.P. 2, 100 Scarapicchia, Tanya M.F. 110 Schack, Thomas 106 Schellenberg, Benjamin J. 111 Schmidt, Andrew 113 Schorer, Jörg 41 Schott, Nadja M. 48, 74, 111 Schubotz, Ricarda I. 36 Schuecker, Linda 49 Seghers, Jan 60 Shaffer, Cory T. 101 Shannon, David M. 102 Shea, Charles H. 21, 35, 53, 72 Shea, John B. 25, 52 Sheehy, Tammy L. 111 Shen, Bo 112 Sherwood, David E. 49 Shewokis, Patricia A. 30 Shih, Chia-Hao 105, 112 Shin, Jihae 112 Shuggi, Isabelle M. 30 Sigward, Susan M. 63 Silva, Laísla Camila 42 Silveira, Carolina R.A. 50 Simons, Johan 65 Sims, Matthew P. 116 Sit, Cindy H.P. 65 Skabelund, Zach T. 52 Sluder, Brandon 68, 69, 74 Smith, Alan L. 86, 113 Smith, Brittany L. 50 Smith, Bryan 115 Smith, Peter J. 50 Smith, Victoria 24 Snapp-Childs, Winona 57, 66 Snell, Sara 56 Sousa, Maria Carolina A. 26, 40 Sparks, Cassandra 113 Speranzini, Nicolas A. 113 Spessato, Barbara C. 114 Spink, Kevin S. 85, 87 Stapleton, Jessie N. 114 Stark, Laura 37 Stark, Rudolf 20 Staufenbiel, Kathrin 114 Ste-Marie, Diane M. 24, 43 Steel, Kylie A. 51 Steele, Reed 115 Stergiou, Nicholas 28, 67, 69 Stevens, Rebecca C. 12 Stier, Carly 30 Stodden, David F. 62, 68 Stoffregen, Thomas A. 31, 37, 44, 56 Stolk, Joni C.P. 100 Stout, Ruth D. 52, 54 Strachan, Leisha 93, 115 Strauss, Bernd 49, 75, 114 Stuart, Morag 15

Abstract Author Index   S129

Studenka, Breanna E. 52 Stumpf, Jamie A. 115 Stuss, Donald T. 50 Sugden, David 15 Sun, Ruopeng 52 Tanghe, Ann 66 Tani, Go 22 Tanner, Preston J. 103 Telford, Amanda 70 Tenenbaum, Gershon 11, 82, 98, 101, 109 Teslevich, Jennifer 73 Theis, Nicola 74 Thompson, Elizabeth D. 56 Tietjens, Maike 75 Tomporowski, Phillip D. 13, 116 Torok-Gerard, Sarah 116 Trapp, Jodi 75 Tristán, Jose L. 117 Tseng, Tzu-Chang 63, 64 Tsuda, Emi 61 Tu, Jui-Hung 33 Turnbow, Cameron 52 Ugrinowitsch, Alessandra Coca 26 Ugrinowitsch, Herbert 26, 30, 31, 40, 45, 53, 76 Ullrich-French, Sarah 84, 103 Ulrich, Beverly D. 71, 73 Ulrich, Dale A. 67, 77 Ulvick, Jocelyn D. 87 Unenaka, Satoshi 33, 44, 53, 71 Ungo, Carolina 109 Utesch, Till 75, 114 Uzoma, Christian 79 Valentini, Nadia C. 75, 76, 114 Van der Kamp, John 100 Van Gemmert, Arend W.A. 17 Van Keulen, Guilherme E. 76 Van Raalte, Judy L. 34 Van Zandwijk, Renate 77 Vasconcelos, Nayara M. 76 Vazou, Spyridoula 117 Veldhuijzen van Zanten, Jet J.C.S. 90 Vieira, Márcio Mário 53 Vieluf, Solveig 46, 72 Wachter, Lindsey E. 118 Wade, Michael G. 14, 16, 18, 44 Wadsworth, Danielle D. 118 Wagner, Matthias O. 67, 77 Wang, Chaoyi 21, 35, 53 Wang, Chun-Chih C. 18

Wang, Yi-Chun C. 118 Wanless, Elizabeth A. 65 Ward, Paul 27 Watson, Carol 66 Webb, Angela 15 Weber, Alyssa 50 Webster, Elizabeth K. 9, 10, 72, 73, 118 Weiler, Jeffrey 5 Weiss, Maureen R. 119 Weiss, Windee M. 119 Wentz, Erin E. 54 Werstein, Kira M. 120 Whaley, Diane E. 96 Whiddett, Ryan 84 Whipp, Peter R. 92, 113 Wideman, Laurie 105 Wiese-Bjornstal, Diane M. 109 Willfong, Fleesha 90 Williams, Emily C. 72 Williams, Lauren M. 105, 112 Wilmut, Kate 15 Wilson, Andrew D. 44, 57 Wilson, Kathleen S. 80, 105, 120 Wilson, Philip M. 88 Wing, Erin 121 Winn, Brian 88 Witte, Kelly S. 91 Wittstein, Matthew W. 48, 52, 54 Wozencroft, Angela 17 Wright, David L. 24, 36 Wright, Perry 34 Wrosch, Carsten 105, 113 Wu, Jianhua 77, 78 Wu, Sheng Hsien 59 Wu, Will F. 28, 32, 47, 55 Wulf, Gabriele 4, 55 Yan, Jin H. 63 Yeh, I-Ling 59, 68 Yen, Ya-Ting 56 Yli-Piipari, Sami 40 Yotani, Kengo 44 Young, Bradley W. 108 Yu, Yawen 56 Yuasa, Yumi 71 Zauber, S. Elizabeth 111 Zentgraf, Karen 20 Zerpa, Carlos 75 Zhang, Jian 57 Zhang, Jiancheng 57 Zheng, Ran 57 Zhu, Qin Arthur 18, 44, 57