DEDICATION ...... of the right species and provenance which works best if seed sources are ... The area was therefore seen as a good focus to study informal.
INFORMAL AGROFORESTRY TREE SEED QUALITY AND SUPPLY SYSTEMS: A CASE OF PERI-URBAN NAIROBI, MERU AND WESTERN KENYA
KIURA JONATHAN MURIUKI
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES (AGROFORESTRY AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT) OF KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
JANUARY 2005
i DECLARATION Candidate′s Declaration The thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university or any other award _________________________
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Jonathan Muriuki Kiura (N50/9017/2000)
Date
Declaration by supervisors This work has been submitted with our approval as supervisors _______________________________
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Dr James B. Kung′u
Date
School of Environmental and Human Sciences
Kenyatta University
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Dr Daniel N. Mugendi
Date
School of Environmental and Human Sciences Kenyatta University
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Dr Anthony J. Simons
Date
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)
ii DEDICATION
To Esther, Grace and Victor
iii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Declaration......................................................................................................................i Dedication.. ....................................................................................................................ii Table of contents..…………........................................................................................ iii List of Tables…. ......................................................................................................v List of Figures…. ...................................................................................................vii List of abbreviations and acronyms ..................................................................... viii Definition of key concepts (Glossary) ....................................................................ix Acknowledgements........................................................................................................x Abstract ……. ............................................................................................................xi Chapter 1: Introduction ..............................................................................................1 1.1 Background of the study ....................................................................................1 1.2 Statement of the research problem.....................................................................2 1.3 Research questions.............................................................................................3 1.4 Objectives ..........................................................................................................4 1.5 Research hypotheses ..........................................................................................4 1.6 Research rationale..............................................................................................4 1.7 Theoretical framework.......................................................................................5 Chapter 2: Literature review......................................................................................7 2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................7 2.2 Agroforestry comes of age.................................................................................7 2.3 Need for quality germplasm...............................................................................9 2.4 Emerging decentralised germplasm supply systems........................................12 2.5 Gaps in literature..............................................................................................14 Chapter 3: Research methodology ...........................................................................16 3.1 Study area description......................................................................................16 3.2 The sampling design ........................................................................................19 3.3 Primary data collection ....................................................................................20 3.4 Seed quality tests..............................................................................................21 3.5 Determination of seedling vigour ....................................................................23
iv 3.6. Secondary data collection ...............................................................................24 3.7 Data analysis ....................................................................................................24 Chapter 4: Results and discussion............................................................................25 4.1 Background of respondents..............................................................................25 4.1.1 Gender proportions of the respondents .................................................. 25 4.1.2 Respondents’ age-groups ........................................................................26 4.1.3 Education levels of the respondents....................................................... 27 4.1.4 Seed dealers introduction into the seed vending business ..................... 28 4.2 Sources of seed used by nursery operators in peri-urban Nairobi, Meru and Western Kenya.................................................................................................32 4.3 Seed sources comparisons by nursery operators..............................................37 4.4 Seed quality and handling by decentralised seed dealers ................................42 4.5 Seed storage by seed dealers and nursery operators in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya.............................................................................49 4.6. Laboratory tests for the quality of seeds procured from informal seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya ............................................53 4.7 Perception of seed demand by the seed dealers and client relationship ..........57 4.8 Informal seed dealers’ constraints, associations and linkages .........................63 Chapter 5: Conclusion and recommendations ........................................................68 5.1 Conclusion .......................................................................................................68 5.2 Recommendations............................................................................................69 References...................................................................................................................74 Appendix….................................................................................................................81
v List of Tables
Page
Table 1:
Gender proportions for nursery operators and informal seed dealers in selected parts of Kenya ..............................................................................25
Table 2:
Age categories for nursery operators and informal seed dealers in selected parts of Kenya ..............................................................................27
Table 3:
Education levels for nursery operators and informal seed dealers in selected parts of Kenya ..............................................................................28
Table 4:
Duration of training attained and experience in handling of seeds by seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and western Kenya...................30
Table 5:
Content of seed related training that seed dealers in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya had participated in .....................................................31
Table 6:
Frequency of tree seed suppliers as mentioned by nursery operators in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya for the season between June and October 2002..............................................................................................32
Table 7:
Efforts undertaken by nursery operators in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya to ascertain the quality of seeds procured.......................................34
Table 8:
Problems observed with informal seed dealers by nursery operators in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya ............................................................35
Table 9:
Factors considered by nursery operators in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya when deciding which seed dealers to purchase tree seeds from ..................................................................................................37
Table 10: Ranking of different seed suppliers by nursery operators in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya.......................................................................38 Table 11: Germination rates of seeds of different species procured by nursery operators in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya from different sources expressed as percentage of expected germination rates as given in literature .....................................................................................................41 Table 12: Seed access shortfalls by nursery operators in selected parts of Kenya ....42 Table 13: Factors considered by seed dealers in peri-Nairobi, Meru and Western Kenya as describing good quality tree seeds .............................................43 Table 14: The influence of training in agroforestry and experience in seed handling by seed dealers on the average number of mother trees harvested and their average separation distance in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya...........................................................................................44 Table 15: Correlations of average number of mother trees harvested by seed dealers and their separation distances with the seed dealers’ level of
vi training, education and experience in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya .........................................................................................................46 Table 16: Criteria used by seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya to select mother trees for seed harvesting.......................................48 Table 17: Reasons given by seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya for the number of mother trees harvested from in seed collection............................................................................................49 Table 18: Containers used by nursery operators and seed dealers for seed storage in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya..........................50 Table 19: Average seed storage period by seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya comparing training category and experience of the seed dealers....................................................................51 Table 20: Means of verification on the viability of stored seeds by nursery operators and seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and western Kenya .........................................................................................................52 Table 21: Seed test results for Eucalyptus saligna supplied by seed dealers of different training categories and levels of experience in seed handling from Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya..................................54 Table 22: Comparisons of purity levels and germination rates of seeds collected from different seed dealers in Meru, western Kenya and peri-urban Nairobi .......................................................................................................55 Table 23: Seedling heights of Eucalyptus saligna procured from Meru and Western Kenya seed dealers and Cupressus lusitanica procured from peri-urban Nairobi seed dealers after 60 days in the nursery.....................56 Table 24: Average clients turn-over and prices charged for seeds for four top dealt with tree species by seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya ....................................................................................60 Table 25: Information supplied with seed consignments to clients by the informal seed dealers in Meru, Western Kenya and peri-urban Nairobi..................63 Table 26: Interactions of informal seed dealers in Meru, Western Kenya and peri-urban Nairobi with the Seed Centre of the KEFRI ............................67
vii List of Figures
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Figure 1: Conceptual model for quality seed supply factors and outcomes ..................6 Figure 2: Map of Kenya showing the target study areas ............................................19 Figure 3: Reasons given by seed dealers in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya as to why they got into tree seed business ....................................................29 Figure 4: Agencies that had offered training to seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and western Kenya...........................................................................30 Figure 5: Seed collection methods used by seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya..........................................................................47 Figure 6: Species encountered by seed dealers as having highest seed demand .........58 Figure 7: Constraints identified by seed dealers in their business ...............................64 Figure 8: Suggested points of interaction between informal seed dealers in Meru, Western Kenya and peri-urban Nairobi ........................................................65
viii List of abbreviations and acronyms AFRENA-ECA -Agroforestry Research Networks for Africa; East and Central Africa ICRAF - International Centre for Research in Agroforestry KENGO - Kenya Energy Non-Governmental Organisation JICA - Japan International Co-operation Agency NGO - Non-Governmental Organisation CBO - Community Based Organisation GTZ - Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit HIV-AIDS - Human Immuno-deficient Virus that causes Acquired Human Immune Deficiency Syndrome ISTA - International Seed Testing Association KWAP - Kenya Woodfuel and Agroforestry Programme KEFRI - Kenya Forestry Research Institute KFSC - Kenya Forest Seed Centre of KEFRI
ix Definition of key concepts (Glossary) Agroforestry is a collective name for land use systems and practices where woody perennials are grown on the same land management unit as agricultural crops and animals either in a spatial mixture or temporal sequence. There must be significant ecological and economic interactions between the woody and nonwoody components. Seed viability is the percentage of seeds in a seedlot, which germinate under the test conditions, or the number of seeds that germinate per unit weight of the seedlot. Germination energy is a measure of the rapidity of germination, and can be expressed as the percentage of the viable seeds in the sample, which germinate within a given time, or as the number of days required for a given percentage (for example 50 %) of the viable seeds to germinate. Propagules are seedlings, cuttings or grafts or any parts of plants with the potential for producing new individuals (Huxley and Houten, 1997). Informal systems are systems that operate outside the spheres of central government or organized (formal) private sector running and supply products and/or services to the users alongside formal service systems. Genepool is the total genetic information possessed by the reproductive members of a population of sexually reproducing organisms. Seedlot is a quantity of seeds having uniform quality produced at a specific location and collected from a single crop. Seed supply systems are systems that ensure that users are able to get the desired tree seeds in order to establish successful agroforestry systems Peri-urban Nairobi as used in this study refers to the city of Nairobi (in Kenya) and the bordering administrative divisions namely Limuru, Ruiru, Athi River, Kiambaa, Kikuyu and Ngong. Meru as used in this study refers to Meru Central district in the Eastern Province of Kenya and the neighbouring Muthaara division in Meru North district. Western Kenya as used in this study refers to Vihiga district in the Western Province of Kenya and part of the neighbouring Yala, Impala and Winam divisions in Nyanza province.
x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank the almighty God for the enablement and renewal of energy through the whole process from proposal development through data collection and to thesis write-up. This work would not have been possible without the support of the Department for International Development of the British government (DfID) through the domestication of agroforestry trees project, ANAFE (African Network for Agroforestry Education) East and Central Africa both of who supported my research work and Rockeffeler Foundation (FORUM) who supported my studies in tuition fees. I am very grateful for their support. I also acknowledge the support of my supervisors; Dr James B. Kungu, Dr Daniel N. Mugendi and Dr. Tony Simons for their guidance in the whole process ensuring that it maintained science quality. Alongside them, the invaluable contributions of Mr. Jens Peter Barnekow Lillesø who ensured to read every draft in time and communicate very precious comments cannot be overlooked. In ICRAF I wish to acknowledge other colleagues in the trees and markets theme that contributed in various ways, Lucy Mwaura, Gertrude Mundia and Carol Njau for the seed tests, Benson Mutua and Bernard Muia with the laboratory experiment, Alexious Mutua with data entry and Sammy Carsan with handling part of my office work when studies would not allow me, I greatly appreciate. This also extends to Steve Ruigu and John Were in ICRAF Maseno for their help in facilitating surveys and seed collection. Thanks go to Rita Mulinge and Dr. Kebadire Mogotsi for their efforts in facilitating disbursing of ANAFE funds in time and to Mr. Joseph Kanyonyo who facilitated my transport home when I had to inevitably miss the bus in order to clear the pile on my desk. It was a hard time for Esther and Grace when I had to be away most of the times from what was then a very young family in order to study and I appreciate their patience and encouragement. I would not have made it without them. I also remember my classmates in Kenyatta University particularly Mercy, Kinyua and Mairula for helping me out in handling some course issues when I was tied up in office duties and other friends, colleagues and relatives who contributed in many ways to make sure that I could make it to the end. I can never thank you enough though it may be hard to mention each person by name. MAY GOD BLESS YOU ALL.
xi ABSTRACT
The supply of germplasm in sufficient quantities and quality at the small-scale users level is a limiting factor to agroforestry development. While the past trend has been to put more emphasis on central supply systems such as national tree seed centres and government nurseries, policies are now being adopted to encourage decentralized supply of seeds, seedlings or vegetative propagules. This study was therefore carried out to investigate the mechanisms of supply and quality of the seeds supplied by the informal supply systems, the species and amounts supplied by these systems in selected parts of Kenya. The study focused on the seed supply systems in Nairobi, Central (Meru district) and Western Kenya (Vihiga district). The selected districts were representative of the regions and though nurseries were based in the districts, seed suppliers from neighbouring districts were considered. The study involved a survey of the nursery operators and seed dealers in the districts and seed tests and nursery experiments at ICRAF to compare seed quality and early seedling vigour. The seed tests at the laboratory followed the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) rules on seed testing while the nursery experiment was on a completely randomised design to analyse seed quality and seedling vigour issues.
Results revealed that informal suppliers were supplying more seeds at the farm level than formal systems with many seed dealers having joined the business after working with the formal sector. They however, mainly supplied seeds of orthodox exotic species that were easy to handle (collect, process and store). Many nursery operators considered physiological quality factors in their choice of tree seeds and thus the seed dealers’ seeds were of similar physiological quality (purity and germination potential) as the seeds from the formal sector. This was also confirmed by the results of seed
xii tests in the laboratory and seedling heights in the nursery experiment. These results were found to agree with others observed with supply of agricultural crops in different parts of the world. The genetic quality of the informally supplied seeds was found to be low as revealed by a low number of closely spaced mother trees the seeds were harvested from. Results were similar even for seed dealers who had undergone some training or had some level of experience in seed handling. The linkages between seed dealers and the formal sector represented by the Kenya Forest Seed Centre were found to be low and limiting their operations. Thus the seed dealers were not able to meet existing tree seed demand that they also had observed to be increasing. The study recommends the recognition of the informal tree seed suppliers since they contribute positively to agroforestry development by the formal sector. The formal sector should devolve the supply of the seeds of majority species to the seed dealers and only work to ensure that information on genetic quality issues is available to all actors so that seed quality is maintained. The study also recommends that the seed dealers form associations for closer linkages between themselves and the formal sector. The farmers who were found to be major recipients of the seeds from the informal suppliers should also be made more aware of quality issues so as to raise the quality premiums with the informal suppliers when procuring seeds.
1
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study Trees and shrubs have significant contributions to climate amelioration, carbon sequestration and other desirable environmental benefits. As the world changes in respect to industrial capacity and other human activities that lead to reduced environmental stability, the need for more trees can not be over-emphasized. The trend however, has been the reduction of total tree cover in forests especially in the tropics (Roper and Roberts, 1999). In Kenya alone, gazetted forest cover has reduced from about 10% to less than 2% of the total land-size in the last three decades (Kenya Land Alliance, 2002; Wass, 1999; Ngece, 2003). These forests also serve as water catchment zones and their unabated conversion to agricultural land and other land uses leads to reduced water flows in the river systems as well as siltation in water reservoirs which reduces the amount of water available to the population as well as other side effects such as reduced hydro-power generation. Reduced water catchment also implies less agricultural productivity as about 70% of water consumption in Kenya goes to agricultural activities (Mogaka et al., 2002).
A possible mitigating factor against these environmental threats is to take trees to farms, which is the core mission of agroforestry, which simply can be defined as the incorporation of woody perennials into farming systems, whether croplands or pastures. The discipline involves technologies that play key roles in soil fertility replenishment, provision of fodder as well as other tree products such as fruits, fuelwood, timber and medicine. There are promising levels of adoption of agroforestry systems and technologies in various regions, which are even expected to
2 increase as farmers become increasingly aware of the potential of agroforestry to alleviate economical and ecological problems. This uptake results in increased demand for woody perennials to be planted in farms, which then raises the demand for suitable tree germplasm for both exotic and indigenous species in form of seeds or seedlings by farming communities.
Farmers currently meet their seed or seedling demands in a variety of ways. The sources of seed, seedlings or wildings are either from forests or other public lands, central nurseries, neighbours or their own farms, amongst others. Less than half of the trees on farms originate from seedlings retained on the site; the rest are planted on purpose (Jaenicke, 2001; Lengkeek and Carsan, 2003). Some farmers produce seedlings only for their own use while others produce for sale. The International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) has established that the major constraints facing nursery operators include seed supply among others such as marketing information and technical issues (Muriuki and Jaenicke, 2001; Basweti et al., 2001).
1.2 Statement of the research problem Shortage of tree germplasm in sufficient quantities and quality has hindered widespread adoption of agroforestry technologies by farmers. While use of wildlings with high genetic quality as tree regeneration materials was common in the past due to abundance of forests and natural woodlands, the widespread conversion of these sources to agricultural use and increased planting of exotic tree species have led to minimal use of wildlings. Governments and development agencies are also devolving production of seedlings for on-farm use from their central nurseries to community
3 group and individual nurseries within the farming populations (Muriuki et al., 2001). The increase of these nurseries as well as agroforestry technologies that require direct seeding such as improved fallows has raised the demand for tree seeds to figures that cannot be supplied by established formal institutions (ICRAF, 2000; Ruigu et al., unpublished). Farmers and nursery operators thus turn to informal decentralised mechanisms such as seed dealers and own collection to satisfy the high seed demand. While the role that these informal seed dealers can play in alleviating the shortage of tree germplasm is appreciated, their functioning in terms of amounts and species supplied as well as their reach remains unknown. The quality of the seeds supplied by the informal seed dealers in terms of both genetic and physiological aspects is also unknown. This can have far reaching effects on the establishment and productivity of the trees established on the farms. The purpose of this study was therefore to assess the functions and the quality of the seeds supplied by these informal seed dealers in order to identify ways of developing them as a useful channel to address the constraint of insufficient tree seed supply.
1.3 Research questions In carrying out this study, the following were the guiding research questions:1. What are the existing informal mechanisms for the supply of agroforestry tree seed at the farmers’ level and do the systems meet the demand that exists? 2. What is the quality (genetic and physiological) of the seeds that are supplied by these informal seed supply systems as compared with the formal systems? 3. Does training and/or experience on seed handling by informal seed dealers affect the quality of seeds supplied by these systems?
4 1.4 Objectives The main aim of this study was to investigate the mechanisms of supply and quality of the seeds, the species and amounts supplied by the informal tree seed supply systems in selected parts of Kenya. The specific objectives pursued were:1. To assess the mechanisms of informal tree seed supply and their effectiveness 2. To assess the species and quality (genetic and physiological) of the tree seed supplied by the informal decentralised systems and compare with that supplied by formal institutions 3. To assess the effect of training and experience on seed handling by seed dealers on the quality of seeds supplied by the informal systems
1.5 Research hypotheses 1. Informal seed supply systems are not effective in meeting the current demand for agroforestry tree seeds 2. The seeds supplied by the informal seed supply systems are of low genetic quality 3. Training and experience on seed handling by seed dealers has no impact on the quality of seeds supplied by the decentralised systems
1.6 Research rationale Tree seed and seedling supply for agroforestry trees establishment has been done by formal institutions for about two decades ensuring that the propagules are of high quality. This supply however, has been limited in quantity and can not meet the increasing demand at the farmers’ level. To ensure increased adoption of agroforestry as a livelihood option for small-scale farmers in the tropics it is imperative that there
5 is ensured supply of tree seeds in sufficient quantity and quality. Many farmers are unable to reach centralised seed sources and have had to collect seeds for themselves implying that they plant only the species that can be accessed locally and therefore the species diversity in farms is reducing. The alternative tree seed sources are the informal seed dealers who supply to both the farmers and the on-farm tree nursery operators. While some efforts have been geared towards developing tree nursery operators’ skills, little has been done about the informal seed dealers who fill a big gap in tree seeds supply. These seed dealers are a channel that can be developed to ensure that they are aware of and take into consideration seed quality issues in their operations. This would build their capacity to handle seeds of diverse tree species in appropriate genetic and physiological quality and to develop systems that meet tree seed demand among farmers and users.
1.7 Theoretical framework Supply of germplasm to the farmers is crucial to the scaling up of agroforestry adoption. Cooper and Denning (1999) gave ten fundamentals of scaling up agroforestry technologies uptake, which included ensured supply of quality tree germplasm. Since the continued supply by organisations is not adequate and sustainable, informal systems develop to bridge the gap between demand and supply. Quite often, these systems reach out to majority of the users and will continue to satisfy demand even long after organisations have devolved their activities. Efficient supply of seeds in terms of quality and quantity by these systems is therefore important in scaling up agroforestry adoption. The factors that determine seed quality as well as effectively functioning seed supply systems are envisaged to interact and ensure these systems are successful given an enabling environment (Fig 1). By
6 opening these systems up to interact more with the formal systems, they are expected to evolve and improve on their efficiency in seed supply. More interactions with these systems as well as self-regulation evolving from within can provide efficient systems that will ensure high productivity, minimum loss of investments and genepool conservation in agroforestry systems. This will ultimately contribute to sustainable production systems especially through public-private sector collaboration. The summary conceptual framework for sustainable quality tree seed supply is given in Figure 1 below:
Environmental benefits by trees Supply systems issues
Decentralised seed supply Less central supply dependency
Matching supply to demand
Local investment options
Packaging and information Associations and linkages Regulatory mechanisms
Physiological quality issues
Accelerated AF adoption
Better tree establishment
Good collection methods
High germination rates
Efficient storage
Users’ confidence
Continued tests
Genetic quality issues > 30 mother trees
Quality AF tree seeds
Inter & intra-specific diversity
Better tree-zone matching
Good selection criteria
High product potential
Bulking seedlots
Posterity uses
Contributing factors
Outcomes
Figure 1: Conceptual model for quality seed supply factors and outcomes
7
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Seed supply systems are pivotal to the success of any afforestation efforts whether in plantations or farmlands. Unlike in agriculture where farmers have learnt to value crop seeds, there has been less concern about the quality of seeds used in the establishment of trees. Bonner (1998) recognizes that even in the developed world where seed technology is advanced, most of the knowledge is about agricultural crop seeds as compared to tree seeds. We cannot however, ignore the importance of provision of quality tree seeds to users as agroforestry adoption continues to increase. This review is about the work on agroforestry research and the missing gap in studying the quality of the tree seeds that informal systems avail at the farmers level especially in Kenya.
2.2 Agroforestry comes of age Agroforestry has been promoted as a viable solution to land-use problems especially in the developing world where agricultural technologies that are successful in the developed world (mainly monocultures) have seen less success (Masangano, 1996). Martin and Sherman (1992) observed that agroforestry technologies are designed to reduce risks associated with agriculture and to increase its sustainability by helping to conserve and even improve the soil. The discipline implies a land-use system in which trees and shrubs are grown in association with crops, pastures or livestock in sequential or spatial arrangement yielding interactions between the components. The aim of introducing the tree component is to increase the benefits of the land user (farmer) either in income earnings or savings.
8
The establishment of ICRAF after the recognition of the need to intercrop farming systems in the 1970s has spearheaded research in agroforestry for the past two and a half decades. There have been noted adoption rates in various regions where ICRAF is working in conjunction with national research and extension partners. In East and Central Africa where agroforestry research and development was initially undertaken through the AFRENA -ECA, various technologies have been developed to solve landuse problems using a thematic approach in various zones (AFRENA, 1998). Other networks have also reported success in various parts of the globe leading to technologies that solve soil fertility problems (ICRAF, 2000), improved animal nutrition at low input costs (Franzel et al., 2001), and provision of wood products at farm level mitigating against deforestation trends. These efforts, coupled with the existence of a tree planting culture in some communities, have made the number of trees planted in farmlands so far to exceed the forest plantations and the gap tends to widen (Simons, 1997).
Cooper and Denning (1999) submitted that quality tree-germplasm supply, or lack of it, is often the single greatest factor affecting large-scale adoption of agroforestry. Failure to access good germplasm makes farmers to plant whatever is available and this is often of inferior quality. Enthusiasm to continue planting trees is also likely to fade quickly if no germplasm is available. Many organisations involved in tree planting programmes find it expensive to purchase large quantities of high quality seeds from established seed centres to meet their demand at the local level making them turn to informal systems such as farmer suppliers. Nathan and Thomsen (2001) pointed to the one kilogramme mode of packaging as a major disincentive and
9 advocated the use of small packets of seeds at the local level supply. In other instances, the germplasm coming from those central seed supplies cannot meet the demand at the local programme level and the gap has to be bridged by the informal systems (Kamondo et al., 1996; Harris, 1993).
2.3 Need for quality germplasm Among the disincentives noted in tree planting is the length of time it takes for the user to access benefits. This implies that a major goal of research in agroforestry activities is to avail benefits to farmers in reasonable time. Seeds have a lot to contribute in this goal if provided in appropriate quality. Omondi (1991) observed that quality seed is a product of specialized handling and no amount of silvicultural or agronomic practice can compensate for use of poor quality seed. He pointed out that since seed is a living thing that is subject to physiological and genetic transformations and even death, the production and delivery of good quality seed is vital and calls for an organized and technically sound system. Seed quality has therefore been taken in terms of the physiological and genetic status. Losses due to physiological quality can be determined early as reflected in low germination rates or poor quality seedlings which can then be discarded. Genetic losses, however, appear far later but with more far-reaching effects such as when all trees are wiped out by a disease or fail to produce optimally because poorly adapted seed has been used (Nathan and Thomsen, 2001). Farmers are however able to notice reduction in yields in agricultural crops when they recycle seeds for a few subsequent seasons as reported by rice farmers in Andhra Pradesh, India (Tripp and Pal, 2001).
10 Genetic quality results from a diverse genepool ensured by the collection of seeds from many mother trees with desirable characteristics. This means that the seed collector and supplier must have the end-use in mind to be able to choose the right mother trees. A good separation distance between the mother trees is also important especially in natural forests, to ensure that one does not collect half-sibs which ultimately lead to inbreeding of the resultant population. About thirty mother trees with a spacing of about one hundred metres between them is recommended for a majority of species (Dawson and Were, 1998). The drawback with genetic quality determination is that it cannot easily be tested in a seedlot. It has to depend on the deliberate efforts of the seed collector to maintain the genepool diversity in the said ways. For indigenous tree species which already exist in a diverse pool, the genetic erosion likely to happen from improper seed collection is less (depending on how degraded the natural collection site is) than for exotic species which in most cases come from a narrow genetic source at the initial introduction (Kamondo et al., 1996; Ard Lengkeek pers comm.). Most of the species being used in agroforestry technology development however are exotic especially in Kenya although recent introductions might have taken genetic diversity issues into consideration and could have been broad based.
Genetic quality also entails that different species and seed sources will be best at different planting sites, and the challenge is therefore to match species and seed sources to planting site. Well adapted seed sources may ensure a reliable yield for farmers, while maladapted seed sources may result in loss - or even total failure of a tree crop (Lillesø et al., 2001). A tree that will not adapt to its growing site will not deliver benefits to the farmer and the cost, though high, may have to be judged far
11 later in field establishment which is worse than the purchase of seeds that fail to germinate. A seedlot should produce trees that grow well in the midst of its environmental range and also be able to withstand periodic harsh conditions. This implies that the seed dealer or supplier should be aware of the variations within a species or provenance range and ensure that all site variations are reflected in the seedlot and not over-rely on one habitat. However some human activities such as continual grazing can alter a site and even its vegetation make-up and seed collectors should be able to distinguish such sites.
Physiological quality has to do with the success of early establishment and subsequent plant growth (Ochsner et al., 2001). Mainly reflected in the germination potential and germination energy of a seedlot, it ensures returns on investment in seed procurement by farmers and tree planting programmes. There is need for viability testing due to the tremendous variation that exists between trees within a species in the number of viable seeds per unit weight of a seedlot. Within a species variability arises from genetic variation and differences arising from factors such as year-to-year variation in the physiological status of the trees, and timing of the collection in relation to seed crop maturity. Improper collection and storage methods are also likely to produce less viable seeds especially when immature or diseased seeds are collected. The performance of a seedlot can be summarised in terms of its viability and germination energy (Hampton and Hill, 2002). A seedlot with higher germination energy is likely to be more valuable for direct seeding which is being applied in some agroforestry technologies such as improved fallows and anywhere outside of the laboratory where the germination conditions are not optimal (Poulsen, 1993;
12 Stubsgaard, 1992). Old seeds have low viability and germination energy levels making them less suitable for use in seedling establishment.
Documentation of a seedlot is very important in seed supply systems. Analysis of seed purity is important to determine whether the dominating part of the sample corresponds to the species indicated by the supplier (Esbo, 1980). Some species are difficult to distinguish and can easily be mixed while in some cases the wrong species is supplied in another’s name altogether. In the later case it is important to test the seedlot for genuineness followed by the purity tests. High presence of other filler material occupying the seedlot means that the seed user has a very low proportion of useful seeds in the seedlot. This erodes confidence in the users on the suppliers. Esbo (1980) advises that users should be careful in their choice of seeds even when quality is declared especially where there are low prices offered.
2.4 Emerging decentralised germplasm supply systems Initiatives to promote agroforestry have been mainly based on central seed supplies. The supporting organisations purchase seeds and supply them to farmers who can either establish nurseries or sow the seeds directly. These purchases are either from international or national seed networks but often also from informal systems such as farmers, or they offer contractual agreements for supply of seeds (Harris, 1993). As the adoption scales up, the question of seed shortages keeps coming up (ICRAF, 2000) and organisations are often unable to purchase sufficient quantities of tree seeds to supply to the users. While admitting that centralized seed supplies provide seeds of the best genetic quality, Tengnas (1994) also encourages local seed
13 collection as a more effective way of ensuring a timely supply to the user of the seed of the right species and provenance which works best if seed sources are available.
The policy in the recent past has been to devolve seed and seedling supply from the central to the decentralised systems though little support has been given to the development of the latter. A possible reason for this decentralisation is the declining financial support to national tree seed centres, which may lead to scaling down on some of their operations (Graudal and Kjaer, 2000). Most of these central systems were also established targeting plantation forest regenerations and have tended to be disconnected to farmers who are now recognised as the majority of tree planters. Having recognised that demand at the farmer’s level far outstrips supply, authors advocate decentralised systems of supply to the farmers so that they can access the appropriate trees species (Shanks and Carter, 1994; Place and Kindt, 1997). This has seen increase in the number of people involved in the production and supply of seeds and seedlings to farmers. Farmers adopting various technologies have also been encouraged to produce and save seeds of the species in various places. Other efforts such as the use of retail stockists to reach farmers at the local level with the seeds of species in high demand as observed in Western Kenya (Franzel et al., 2001; ICRAF, 2000), have also pointed at encouraging the participation of informal players in tree seed supply.
The benefits of local seed collection and supply according to Tengnas (1994) can be seen in the absence of provenance complications with indigenous species, seeds of the desired species being available at the right time, lower costs for the users and short storage requirement for seeds especially the recalcitrant type. This is very
14 effective if the seeds were to be collected by farmers themselves with facilitation and advice by the extension staff on where and how to collect good seeds. As farmers find themselves busy with many activities around their farms, and with limited number of desirable mother trees for many species, the local collection approach does not always work. This has created opportunities for the seed dealers to collect seeds and sell them to the farmers and small-scale agroforestry projects encouraging tree planting in many localities. Little consideration is given to the quality of seeds in this case and physiological condition is based on visual assessment (Omondi, 1991).
2.5 Gaps in literature Recent work has concentrated on assessing the quality of seedlings coming out of decentralised tree nurseries and ways of improving them (Wightman, 1999; Basweti et al., 2001). There has been little focus on the functioning of the seed dealers in the informal sector and the quality of tree seeds they supply although a great deal of work has been directed to crop seeds (Lossau et al., 2000). There is however agreement that the seed supplied by informal seed dealers is unlikely to conform to desired quality standards and measures need to be put in place to ensure that these suppliers are aware of quality measures and can at least achieve truth in labelling (Simons, 1997; Kamondo et al., 1996; Tripp, 1997). Many authors agree on the need to have in place a national seed supply strategy and it is important to understand how these decentralised systems have been meeting seed demand in form of quality and quantity in the recent past and what role the national seed centres can play in line with the strategy proposed by Kamondo et al. (1996). The functioning of the informal seed supply systems and their networking with formal systems is also a missing link
15 necessary in understanding seed supply mechanisms which will be applicable in future as more farmers adopt agroforestry technologies.
16
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Study area description The study was carried out in Meru (central Kenya), peri-urban Nairobi (Nairobi city and the peri-urban zone bordering the city) and western Kenya (mainly Vihiga district and parts of the neighbouring Kisumu and Siaya districts). The Nairobi urban and peri-urban zone has experienced a lot of agricultural activities recently and the agroforestry potential is seen by the prevalence of decentralised tree nurseries, which supply seedlings to various parts of the country (Basweti et al., 2001; Foeken and Mwangi, 1998). The area was therefore seen as a good focus to study informal systems of germplasm supply in form of both seeds and seedlings. The other two areas were selected as representative of rural areas where agroforestry research and development activities have been started and/or encouraged by the government and other research and development organisations.
Vihiga district is situated between longitude 34o 30' and 35o East and latitude 00o11, and 00 15" North and covers an area of about 613 square kilometres. The altitude ranges from 1300 m above sea level in the west to 1500 m in the east although hills may rise above these limits. The district experiences bimodal rainfall which is reliable, adequate and well distributed throughout the year ranging from 1800mm to 2000 mm. The average farm size is 0.72 ha with a population density of over 1100 people per square kilometre. Maize (Zea mays L.), often intercropped with beans (Phaseolus spp.), dominates the cropping pattern. The soils have low fertility with deficiencies of phosphorus (P) and low levels of other nutrients. The agricultural practice is continuous cropping with low soil replenishment and a high demand for
17 wood products making agroforestry interventions a possible solution (AFRENA; 1996, 1997). Agroforestry research efforts in the area have concentrated on soil fertility improvement and high value tree species planting and adoptions rates are good. Farmers have developed ways of seed production for useful species in their scaling
up
efforts
(Ruigu
et
al.,
unpublished).
The Meru area covered by the study cuts across two districts namely Meru North and Meru Central. The two districts which lie on the eastern slopes of Mount Kenya straddling the equator and sloping from the 5199 m peak of Mount Kenya in the west to around 800 m in the east. The area is approximately 5331 square kilometres and lies within longitudes 37o and 38o East. The annual distribution of rainfall is bimodal occurring from mid-October to December and from March to June. The south-eastern slopes of Mt. Kenya receive 1250 to 2500mm of rainfall annually but this reduces in the lowlands (northwards towards Isiolo and eastwards near Tharaka) to below I000 mm annually. Soils are moderately to highly fertile with dark loams that are derived from volcanic turf predominant in the Timau area and dark peaty loams traceable in the alpine meadow between 2,800 m and 4,200 m. The soils in the western part of the district are volcanic in nature and hold high potential for agriculture. In the south and south-east, the soils are formed by sedimentation and are also of high potential for agriculture. The typical red colour of the soils in most parts of the district indicates accumulation of iron oxide in fine soil (Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1983).
Agriculture is the economic mainstay of Meru districts with people mainly practising mixed farming (crop cultivation and animal husbandry). The main crops cultivated in the high potential agricultural zones include coffee, tea, cotton, potatoes and maize
18 while few crops survive in the low potential areas without irrigation. Tree planting has been promoted by various projects, which has resulted in high on-farm tree planting rates especially Grevillea robusta and other timber and fruit species (Betser et al., 1999; Spiers and Stewart, 1992).
Nairobi is located 500 km from the Kenyan coast and is situated at an elevation of about 1670 m above sea level. The peri-urban zone extends from the foothills of the Aberdares in the north to the Ngong hills in the south and from Embakasi plains in the east up to the slopes of the Great Rift Valley wall in the west (Hide et al., 2001). The city covers an area of about 700 square kilometers with a population of about three million people having a density of about 3000 people per square kilometre. The total average annual rainfall is 800 to 1500 mm, which follows a bimodal pattern. The soils in the northern part of Nairobi are moderately well drained, shallow, yellowish red to dark brown friable clays (ironstone soils), while in the southern part, they are imperfectly drained, very deep, dark grey to black clays (Sombroek et al., 1980). The city borders with Kiambu and Thika districts of Central province, Machakos district in Eastern province and Kajiado district of the Rift Valley province. The divisions in these districts that immediately border the city have a peri-urban setting with a great city influence in product markets and seedling trade is a viable enterprise (Basweti et al., 2001; Njenga and Frost, 2001). Tree planting is a viable practice with many farmers establishing fruit, timber and ornamental species and accessing seedlings from peri-urban nurseries. Many of the farms in the eastern side of the city are just being settled and a lot of tree planting is being practiced (Muriuki; unpublished data).
19
Figure 2: Map of Kenya showing the target study areas 3.2 The sampling design The sampling units in the survey comprised informal seed and seedling supply actors who included nursery operators (individuals and groups) and seed dealers (vendors). A multistage purposive sampling procedure was adopted with random sampling used to select the seed and seedling suppliers in the three areas. The nursery flagship project at ICRAF was used to provide a list of the nurseries, which it was working with in the peri-urban Nairobi and Meru sites while staff at the ICRAF Maseno office provided a list of contact nurseries they worked with together with their partners in western Kenya. These lists were also enriched by additions from the Forest Department from which a random sample of twenty nurseries was selected in every zone. The operators of these nurseries then gave the names of the seed dealers from whom they procured tree seeds. This list was also verified with the Forest Department
20 offices in each zone for any additions so that a total of ten seed dealers were selected for interviews in each zone and seeds collected from them were used for laboratory tests.
3.3 Primary data collection Primary data was collected by use of an informal tree germplasm supply system analysis from seed collection to seedling production by nursery operators and seed dealers. The following research instruments were administered:
3.3.1 Nursery operators’ survey: A semi-structured interview schedule was administered to nursery operators. The focus was on seed procurement and aspects of seed quality in relation to the supplier and the resultant seedling quality guided by a checklist (Case, 1990; see Appendix 1). Twenty nursery operators were interviewed in each site making a total of sixty respondents for the survey.
3.3.2 Seed dealers’ survey: Formal interviews were conducted in which a questionnaire was administered to seed dealers and the nursery operators who collected seeds for themselves. The survey aimed at capturing information on collection methods, number of mother trees and criteria for choice, storage conditions and client details among others (see Appendix 2). Ten seed dealers were interviewed in each site making a total of thirty respondents for the survey.
3.3.3 Supplementary information: Informal interviews were also conducted with the Forestry Department officers on their role in informal seed and seedling supply as
21 well as review of any pertinent information from Kenya Forestry Seed Centre (KFSC) in the linkages of these systems with the Centre.
3.4 Seed quality tests Information on seed physiological quality was assessed through tests in the ICRAF seed laboratory using seeds from ten seed dealers from each area and samples from the Kenya Forest Seed Centre (KFSC) for comparison. The seeds collected from the seed dealers were mainly of the species that were most commonly dealt with in the different areas. They were tested for their genuineness, purity, seed weight, moisture content and germination capacity. The germination capacity and germination energy were taken as indicators of good quality seeds. Four replicates per seedlot were tested. Samples of seedlings were then pricked out to polythene tubes and established at the nursery in order to observe differences in seedling vigour (height being the measured parameter) for seeds from different sources. The seed tests followed the rules of the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA, 1999) using the procedures outlined below.
3.4.1 Genuineness test: Seeds collected from seed dealers were compared with seed samples at KFSC and ICRAF to ascertain that they were true to type (species).
3.4.2 Purity test (analysis): The objective was to determine the percentage composition by weight of the sample being tested, and by inference the seedlot, and the identity of the various species of seeds and inert particles constituting the sample. The seeds in each sample were separated from the impurities (seeds of other species
22 and non-seed material) to give the proportion by weight of the pure seed in comparison with the total sample weight.
3.4.3 Moisture content (MC): Seed working samples were placed evenly in containers and the weight of the containers taken before and after filling. The containers were then placed in an oven and dried at 103oC for 17 hours. The container was cooled and weighed together with its cover and contents. The moisture content was then calculated as:MC% = (M2 – M3)/(M2 – M1) x 100 Where M1 = Weight (g) of the container and its cover M2 = Weight (g) of the container, its cover and its contents before drying M3 = Weight (g) of the container, its cover and its contents after drying.
3.4.4 Germination test: The percentage germination indicates the proportion by number of seeds that have produced seedlings classified as normal under the germination conditions. From every seedlot, four replicates of one hundred seeds each were germinated in petridishes with filter paper (for small seeds) and in trays filled with sterilized neutral sand (for big seeds). The average number of seeds that germinated were taken as the percent germination capacity for each seedlot calculated as follows:-
Germination % = (N1 + N2 + N3 + N4) / 4 Where N1, N2, N3 and N4 are the numbers of seedlings that germinated in trays/petridishes 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively
23
3.4.5 Germination energy: This is a measure of the rapidity of germination, and can be expressed as the percentage of the viable seeds in the sample, which germinate within a given time, or as the number of days required for (e.g.) 50 % of the viable seeds to germinate. The parameter was observed depending on the percentage of the seeds that was germinating in each week from the first week that germination was progressing. The germination trend was observed for the four replicates (in germination test above) for every week from the week that germination commenced until the last week it ended. The average germination for each week was taken (as in the calculation below) until there was no more germination observed for each seedlot.
Germination energy week 1 = (N11 + N12 + N13 + N14)% / 4
Where N11, N12, N13 and N14 and the numbers of seedlings that germinated in trays/petridishes 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively in the first week that germination commenced. The same was done for each week and recorded in a table (see results).
3.5 Determination of seedling vigour The nursery experiment used a randomised design with KEFRI seed samples representing a standard and those from seed dealers as the variables. Among the seed dealers, levels of experience and training in seed handling was used as a varying factor so that seeds from experienced and trained dealers were separated from those of recent entries, which produced the measured variation. From a combination of training and experience categories, five seed dealers were selected in each area and the performance of the seedlings from their seeds (measured in height after sixty days
24 from germination) compared to those from the Kenya Forest Seed Centre in KEFRI. The study concentrated on the species that were found to be in more abundant supply at the time of the survey in order to compare early seedling vigour. These were established at the first seed collection (survey) so that there were not many species per seed dealer. The most common species were Eucalyptus saligna, Cupressus lusitanica and Grevillea robusta. Eucalyptus saligna seeds were tested for the Meru and Western Kenya seed dealers while Cupressus lusitanica was tested for the Nairobi seed dealers and each was compared with seeds from KEFRI.
3.6. Secondary data collection Secondary data was collected from the relevant sources, which included: •
Reports and unpublished data from any projects working in the areas concerning seed and seedling provision
•
Review of past literature on seed and seedling supply systems in the country and the region
3.7 Data analysis The data collected from surveys and the tests was entered in Microsoft Excel and analysed using a combination of Microsoft Access and Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS). Frequencies, correlations and standard deviations were used to interpret interview and seed test data while ANOVA was used to compare the seedling heights in the nursery experiment. From interview data analysis, the average number of mother trees, distances between them, the extent of demand and supply, experience of seed dealers and their linkages were analysed. These were tabulated and presented as charts and percentages.
25
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Background of respondents 4.1.1 Gender proportions of the respondents The survey revealed that majority of the nursery operators and seed dealers were men who constituted 83% of nursery operators and 93% of seed dealers (Table 1). On average, more women (17%) were found to be engaging in nursery operations than in seed dealing (7%) with women seed dealers only encountered in Western Kenya.
Table 1: Gender proportions for nursery operators and informal seed dealers in selected parts of Kenya Site
Meru Western Kenya Nairobi Average
Nursery operators (N=20 per zone) Males Females Number % Number % 17 85 3 15 15 75 5 25 18 90 2 10 17 83 3 17
Seed dealers (N=10 per zone) Males Females Number % Number % 10 100 0 0 8 80 2 20 10 100 0 0 9 93 1 7
The entry into the business by both men and women gives an opportunity for people who have minimum resources in form of land to benefit from agroforestry either as seed dealers or nursery operators. Since trees on farm have been viewed in many rural settings as an activity for men, this could have contributed to the observation that the majority of the nursery operators and seed dealers were men. The urban nurseries can also be viewed as off-farm income generating business which initially was associated with the male gender. The fact that more women were found to invest in nurseries than seed vending can be attributed to the hardships involved in the seed dealer business such as risks in harvesting (tree climbing) and more traveling in search of
26 seeds and market supplies in comparison with nursery management, which is mainly stationery.
The higher number of women involved in seed business in Western Kenya could have been as a result of the efforts of the Kenya Woodfuel and Agroforestry Programme (KWAP; formerly Kenya Woodfuel Development Programme) that introduced women into tree planting. KWAP’s initial efforts were geared towards fuelwood production later developing to general agroforestry and eventually to seed sales (Carter and Bradley, 1994). Some of the women scaled up their seed businesses to supply to both NGOs and other farmers. This shows that once when women farmers are able to get over gender related prejudices, they are very receptive of tree planting information and can invest in the seed business. Bockari-Kugbei (1994), reported that women in Gambia were more receptive to advice and demonstrated greater responsibility in business and some of them were already successful seed dealers and commission agents (quoted by Ocran, 1997). Women were also observed to form spontaneous networks that exchanged crop seeds among themselves in Kenya, Malawi and East Java among others, hence maintaining genetic variety of farming systems (Jiggins, 1993). Such networking capability can be developed to make women successful tree seed dealers who also factor in all seed quality aspects.
4.1.2 Respondents’ age-groups The main age group of the respondent nursery operators (65%) and seed dealers (53%) was between thirty and fifty years. Twenty one percent (21%) of the nursery operators and 17% of the seed dealers were below thirty years old and the rest (14% of the nursery operators and 30% of the seed dealers) were older than fifty years
27 (Table 2). Meru was exceptional with 40% of the seed dealers being over 55 years old possibly because they had been nursery operators who graduated into seed dealers as the number of nursery operators and correspondingly seed demand, increased. It is notable that the majority of the seed dealers and nursery operators were in the middleage group. This shows that tree germplasm can offer livelihood to the age group where society demands a lot of productivity. Keeping them employed in germplasm production and supply business in their most energetic phase of life, by building their capacity as better entrepreneurs, can ensure more productivity since they are still in the most receptive age for development information.
Table 2: Age categories for nursery operators and informal seed dealers in selected parts of Kenya Respondents Site Age category 56 Total
Meru No % 0 0 0 0 1 5 3 15 3 15 4 20 7 35 1 5 1 5 20 100
Nursery operators W. Kenya Nairobi No % No % 1 5 1 5 5 25 1 5 3 15 1 5 2 10 2 10 1 5 3 15 2 10 5 25 3 15 4 20 2 10 1 5 1 5 2 10 20 100 20 100
Av % 3 10 8 12 12 18 23 7 7 100
Meru No % 1 10 0 0 1 10 0 0 1 10 0 0 2 20 1 10 4 40 10 100
Seed dealers W. Kenya Nairobi No % No % 0 0 0 0 1 10 1 10 0 0 1 10 1 10 1 10 2 20 1 10 2 20 2 20 2 20 2 20 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 10 10 100 10 100
4.1.3 Education levels of the respondents Majority of the nursery operators (32%) and seed dealers (30%) had attained primary school education while a significant number of the seed dealers (30 %) and of the nursery operators (28%) had acquired secondary education. Tertiary training (not necessarily related to agroforestry), had been attained by only 13% of seed dealers and 17% of the nursery operators, while the remaining minority had not received any education at all (Table 3). The basic education most of them had attained is a useful
Av % 3 7 7 7 13 13 20 10 20 100
28 background to develop them to better entrepreneurs who generate higher income and supply better quality seeds.
Table 3: Education levels for nursery operators and informal seed dealers in selected parts of Kenya Respondents Nursery operators (N = 20 per zone)
Seed dealers (N = 10 per zone)
Site Meru W. Kenya Nairobi Average Meru W. Kenya Nairobi Average
None No. % 2 10 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 20 0 0 1 10 1 10
Primary No. % 8 40 12 60 11 55 10 52 5 50 5 50 5 50 5 50
Secondary No. % 5 25 6 30 6 30 6 28 0 0 5 50 4 40 3 30
Tertiary No. % 5 25 2 10 3 15 3 17 4 40 0 0 0 0 1 13
4.1.4 Seed dealers introduction into the seed vending business Thirty percent of the seed dealers had started the seed business mainly through interactions with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and working in forestry related activities (Figure 3). Others (17%) got involved due to their love of trees while others had operated nurseries and encountered the seed needs. Only 7% of the seed dealers got into the business through their interaction with the Ministry of Agriculture. Since until recently tree seed vending had not been established as a private entrepreneurial activity, it is only the people who had experienced the demand of tree seeds as they engage in agroforestry activities who would be expected to start such ventures. These findings agree with Tripp and Pal’s (2001), observations with private rice seed dealers in India where most of them had experience with seed dealings either as contract seed growers for private seed companies or as organizers for seed outgrowing activities for such companies.
% of respondents stating reason
29
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Worked in forestry projects
Interaction with M oA
Initiated thru NGOs
Operated nursery
Love of trees
Reason
Figure 3: Reasons given by seed dealers in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya as to why they got into tree seed business Majority of the seed dealers (53%) had recently joined the tree seed supply business and had only one to five years working experience while 30% of the seed dealers had operated the business for between six and ten years (Table 4). Only 17% of the respondents had more than 10 years experience in seed handling and vending. On training relevant to tree seed handling, 10% of the seed dealers had attended courses for more than four weeks, 23% for between two and four weeks while 20% had attended one week or a few days (less than one week) of training courses. Forty-seven percent (47%) had attended no training course at all (Table 4). The category of seed dealers with over four weeks of training was taken as the most enlightened on issues of seed handling among all the respondents.
30 Table 4: Duration of training attained and experience in handling of seeds by seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and western Kenya Item Training duration
Experience in seed handling
Category None 1 week or less 2-4 weeks Over 4 weeks 1-5 years 6-10 years Over 10 years
No of respondents 14 6 7 3 16 9 5
Percentage 47 20 23 10 53 30 17
Figure 4 shows that the tree seed related training courses had been offered by government departments (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Department; 33%) and non-governmental organizations. The NGOs included the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and KEFRI (13% each), KWAP (10%), the Kenya Energy Non-governmental Organisation (KENGO), ICRAF, VI Agroforestry and GTZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit; 7% each) and Plan International (3%).
JICA (13%) KEFRI (13%) KWAP (10%) KENGO (7%) ICRAF (7%) GTZ (7%) VI (7%) Plan International (3%) MoA and FD (33%)
Figure 4: Agencies that had offered training to seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and western Kenya
31 The contents of training courses undertaken included seed collection, processing, storage, testing, treatment and general handling (Table 5). Others included general agroforestry, tree nursery operations, tree management for seed production and seed harvesting (tree climbing). With a great variety of topics in rather short sessions of training, it is possible that quality tree seed production did not really get emphasized in the training that majority of the seed dealers participated in. Muturi (1999) observed that farmers were co-opted in training sessions together with extension agents in the development efforts of many organisations of 1980s, which were rather uncoordinated and this could result in poor adoption which could then influence the quality of seeds supplied by the seed dealers.
Table 5: Content of seed related training that seed dealers in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya had participated in Number of responses
Percentage†
Agroforestry
1
3
Climbing trees for seed collection
2
7
Nursery operations
7
23
Seed collection
14
47
Seed handling
8
27
Seed processing
3
10
Seed storage
5
17
Seed testing
2
7
Seed treatment
1
3
Tree management for seed collection
3
10
Training content
†
Percentages add up to more than 100 because some dealers had attended more than once and most courses included more than one topic
32 4.2 Sources of seed used by nursery operators in peri-urban Nairobi, Meru and Western Kenya Nursery operators reported procurement of seeds from both formal and informal sources. The formal sources included the Forest Department of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (FD), KEFRI, Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and various NGOs. These suppliers contributed only 16% of the seeds while all the rest came from the informal dealers (Table 6). Informal sources included selfcollection (57%), purchase from seed dealers (24%) and seed exchanges with other nursery operators (3%). Table 6: Frequency of tree seed suppliers as mentioned by nursery operators in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya for the season between June and October 2002
†
Seed supplier / Species stock present contribution Frequency Percent† Dealer 49 25 FD 9 5 KEFRI 6 3 MoA 1 1 NGO 7 4 Nursery operator 4 2 Self 115 60 Total 191 100
Species not present Average Formal/ Frequency Percent† percent Informal 39 22 24 I 18 10 7 F 3 2 2 F 1 1 1 F 14 8 6 F 6 3 3 I 97 54 57 I 178 100 100
The percentage calculation is based on the number of species and not the total amount of seeds supplied
It can be observed from Table 6 that informal sources were supplying five times the amount of seeds that was supplied by the formal channels to the nurseries in the three areas covered by the study. As the amounts being supplied by the formal sources continue reducing and demand increases due to more dissemination of agroforestry related information, it is expected that there will be more entries into the informal tree seed business. There is an indication that since most of the entrants into the business had been influenced by NGOs and other agroforestry promoters to meet the increasing demand (as shown above); entrepreneurship was not their initial driving
33 factor. This could have limited their vision of expansion as well as quality assurance since they had not yet been able to meet demand in a competitive manner. This situation may have led to nursery operators only being concerned with physiological quality factors such as germination potential as the only parameters to check out for in seed supply.
Table 7 shows that after getting seeds from any source, 28% of the nursery operators sowed them without undertaking any quality test, others (3%), relied on the information supplied by the supplier to decide on the quality while 3% of the nursery operators were working closely with forestry extension staff to determine the quality of the seeds they purchased. Two percent (2%) of the nursery operators reported comparing with other seeds from their own experience while another 2% would only buy from seed dealers who collected seeds from known sources. The nursery operators who conducted quality tests before sowing the seeds reported conducting cutting tests on the seeds to check if they were still alive (30%), germination of a sample of the seedlots (11%) or judging from visual observation on pest attacks or colour of the seeds (12%). Attempts to sort the data using Microsoft Excell by the level of education received by nursery operators did not relate any differences in these efforts to ascertain seed quality to the seed dealers’ level of education.
34 Table 7: Efforts undertaken by nursery operators in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya to ascertain the quality of seeds procured Quality check item
Frequency
Percent
Compare with others from experience
1
2
Cutting test
19
30
Germination of sample
7
11
Seek help from extension staff
2
3
Sends dealers to collect from known sources
1
2
Visual observation
8
12
Rely on information given by supplier
2
3
No other seed source except self collection
6
9
No test done
18
28
Some of the problems nursery operators had observed with seed dealers, as shown in Table 8, included dishonesty (4%), high seed costs (6%), delivery of immature, unhealthy or old seeds (32%), late deliveries of seeds (3%), and low purity and germination rates (32%). Other problems included poor seed information and species confusion (4%), poor seed sources and sites mismatch (3%), poor seedling quality (3%) and low species variety (3%). A few nursery operators blamed the seed dealers for not being easily reachable (6%) and for only having monetary rather than quality interests (3%). Thirty seven percent (37%) of the nursery operators reported having stopped dealing with an average of two seed dealers each because of irregularities in seed supply. This shows that nursery operators in the three zones did not view seed dealers as fully reliable.
35 Table 8: Problems observed with informal seed dealers by nursery operators in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya Problem
Frequency
Percentage
Dishonesty
3
4
Expensive
4
6
Immature seeds
13
17
Late deliveries of seed
2
3
Low germination rates
20
29
Low purity
2
3
Poor species variety
2
3
Not easily reachable
4
6
Supply of old seeds
7
11
Only monetary interests
2
3
Poor information on seeds
3
4
Poor seed sources
1
1
Poor seedling quality
2
3
Site mismatch
1
1
Species confusion
2
3
Unhealthy seeds
2
3
It is worthy noting that out of the problems mentioned in Table 8, 67% of the issues were related to physiological quality while only 10% were related to genetic quality. The rest of the issues (13%) concerned functional mechanisms. This can be attributed to the possibility that nursery operators did not put premium on genetic quality possibly because of ignorance. Lengkeek et al. (2003b), reported that nursery operators in East Africa did not consider genetic quality when collecting their seeds and thus may not have bothered cross checking this aspect with seed dealers. More training of the nursery operators and their closer interactions with relevant organisations as well as between themselves will ensure more capacity building and could change this view of seed quality aspects.
36 Nursery operators could have chosen to invest more in physiological quality since it ensures production of seedlings that can easily attract market. Issues concerning functional mechanisms such as delivery of seeds in good time ensure efficient utilisation of the small window of time when seedlings’ demand is high after the rains come for maximum returns. The low investment in genetic quality implies that there should be attention given to this quality factor at the seed collection level as the nursery operators and farmers may not alter that. Nursery operators however can ensure broadening of the genetic base of seedlings by acquiring small quantities of the same species from more than one supplier and bulking them. This is however only achievable if they have understood the implications of genetic quality from training and interaction with research and development agents.
As shown in Table 9, the factors that nursery operators considered when deciding which seed dealers to buy tree seeds from were closely related to the problems mentioned in Table 8 above. These included requirements such as seed dealers did the seed collection themselves and not merely seed vending, they collected from known sources or had operated (or were still operating) nurseries (4%), supplied credible information about seeds or followed up on the performance of the seeds they supplied (16%) and supplied in time (3%). The major quality factor was high germination of the supplied seeds (48%), while other factors were minor such as delivery at the nursery site, delivery of sorted seeds (each 1%) and credit facility offers (3%). Genetic quality related concerns again only featured as a low priority (3%) as reflected in self-collection, collection from known sources and a bit on the supply of information on the seeds supplied. Since seed dealers can supply seeds of fair germination potential and can deliver in good time, then nursery operators did not
37 seem to mind the other quality factors apart from prices which were negotiable. Unlike formal suppliers, seed dealers can supply seeds in as little quantities for fair prices as needed by their clients hence the clients are not put off by highly priced fixed quantities. Oyalo (1994), Nathan and Thomsen (2001), reported that farmers were more willing to buy tree seeds in small quantities and thus would more readily buy from seed dealers than the formal suppliers. Tripp (2000) observed the same readiness in the purchase of crop seeds in small packs in several parts of Africa.
Table 9: Factors considered by nursery operators in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya when deciding which seed dealers to purchase tree seeds from Dealer quality/factor Collects from known sources
Frequency 1
Percentage 1
Credibility in consistent supply
2
3
Offers credit facility
2
3
Dealers do collection themselves
1
1
Delivery at nursery site
1
1
Follow-up on seeds
1
1
High germination
37
48
Supply information on the seeds
12
15
Lowest price
15
20
Should have own nursery
2
3
Sorts seeds
1
1
Supply in good time
2
3
4.3 Seed sources comparisons by nursery operators Nursery operators were asked to compare their main seed suppliers in regard to selected quality items such as germination rates, seed prices, seedling quality and seed delivery time. The comparisons are shown in Table 10 where one (1) indicates
38 best case for that quality aspect such as highest germination rate, lowest price of seeds, best seedling quality and the most timely delivery (earliest chance of acquisition) of seeds when needed and a high figure shows a low rank. Nursery operators regarded the seeds they collected themselves as the most preferable with most of the parameters. Self collected seeds were ranked first in germination rates and delivery time and third in seedling quality. They were given rank zero for the price because there was no financial cost involved in the collection. This is in agreement with Tengnas’ (1994) observation that the benefits of local tree seed collection include timely seed delivery and lower costs to the users but high germination rates could only have been for those orthodox species whose seeds are easy for nursery operators to collect and handle.
Table 10: Ranking of different seed suppliers by nursery operators in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya Ranking factor/ Supplier
Germination rates Mean N† Std. rank Dev 1 54 0.6 3 42 0.8 2 13 1.2
Prices of seeds Mean N Std. rank Dev 0± 53 0.0 4 42 0.3 3 12 0.8
Seedling quality In time delivery Mean N Std. Dev Mean N Std. Dev rank rank 3 32 0.6 1 48 0.5 5 19 0.7 3 39 0.8 1 9 0.4 5 12 0.8
Self collection Dealers Forest Department NGOs 1 12 0.5 2 12 0.8 2 7 0.5 4 10 0.7 KEFRI 5 10 1.0 5 10 1.0 4 4 1.0 3 8 0.9 Ministry of 4 4 0.5 1 4 0.5 6 2 0.0 6 3 1.5 Agriculture ≠ Other nursery 1 6 0.5 0± 6 0.0 0 2 5 0.6 operators † N represents the number of nursery operators that gave a rank to the supplier for that factor ± There is no price for seeds when self collected or exchanged with nursery operators hence ranked as zero ≠ No nursery operator gave a rank for the seedling quality aspect for seeds exchanged with other nursery operators.
The formal sources were ranked rather well in terms of germination rates, seed prices and seedling quality (apart from KEFRI seed centre) but could not be relied on to always deliver seeds in time. The poor ranking of KEFRI may have been as a result
39 of late procurement of seeds of the species not accessible elsewhere by the nursery operators from the seed centre, which may not have performed well. The fact that the other formal sources were ranked well in seed prices can be attributed to the provision of free and/or subsidised seeds by the Forest Department, Ministry of Agriculture and many NGOs. Lillesø et al. (2004a) observed this kind of market distortion through delivery of free or subsidised seeds in Uganda and recommended that it should be discontinued. Informal seed dealers were also ranked poorly in the price of seeds and seedling quality but fairly well in delivery time and germination rates. The ranks given about seedling quality were often confusing and given by only a few nursery operators such that they were not reliable. However the fact that nursery operators were able to give an estimate rank of various seed sources shows that they may still get a rough idea of germination percentage of seed from different dealers even if many of them do not test seeds.
The similarity in ranking between self collected seeds and seeds exchanged with other nursery operators can be related to the exchange of agricultural seeds between farmers. Farmers were reported to select and save seeds of different varieties especially in remote areas where formal seed systems were not accessible and even where they were accessible (Cromwell et al., 1993; Tripp and Pal, 2001). Tripp and Pal (2001), also observed that the proportion of seeds exchanged between farmers was higher than that coming from other sources in Andhra Pradesh, India. Farmers also accessed new varieties even before the private seed suppliers. This implies that nursery operators also need to understand seed quality issues so as to exchange seeds of high quality. With a good number of seed dealers having started as nursery operators, it is clear that both nursery operators and seed dealers are closely linked
40 and should be developed together to ensure easier supply of seeds of high quality at the farmers’ level.
The formal sources supplied seeds of high quality (reflected by high rank of germination levels) but not in good time for coinciding with peak demand season. These sources can be useful in supplying seeds of newly introduced species and provenances to nursery operators and seed dealers which can be established into seed stands which then will serve as the sources of seeds for the nursery operators. Cromwell et al. (1993), reported that even in crop seeds, farmers are more interested in the timeliness of seed delivery, accessibility of seed delivery points and the appropriate quantity. As pertains to quality, the same authors reported that ISTA standards do not bother farmers as long as seeds are of proven and reliable physiological quality which agrees with the observations noted with the nursery operators in this study.
The germination rates reported by nursery operators from the seedlings of the species that were found in the various nursery stocks were very varied. The rates reported by each nursery operator were expressed as percentages of those expected as given in literature by Salim et al. (2002), and Albrecht (1993), for each species (Table 11). Comparison of the percentages showed unreliable deviations for the sources (see standard deviations for self, other nursery operators and general average) and although ANOVA showed a significant difference (F = 0.863, P = 0.01; Appendix 5), it was difficult to rely on the nursery operators’ reports. Many of the nurseries did not have records to verify the germination rates and some of the reported seedlings had grown for about three to four months hence nursery operators could have forgotten
41 the original germination figures. There was however no significant difference (P = 0.01) observed between the seeds procured from formal and informal sources (average 25% for both). Better record keeping by nursery operators could have given a better indication of the germination rates, which would help them to judge their seed sources in a better way.
Table 11: Germination rates of seeds of different species procured by nursery operators in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya from different sources expressed as percentage of expected germination rates as given in literature Seed supplier Mean percent Number of cases Std. Dev SE Mean Self collected 27 115 91 8 Seed dealers 16 47 23 3 Forestry Department 3 9 4 1 NGOs 74 7 76 29 KEFRI 3 6 3 1 Ministry of Agriculture 16 1 Other nursery operators 61 4 94 47 Neighbours 33 2 47 33 Total / Average 25 191 75 5 As shown in Table 12, only 27% of the nursery operators were able to procure enough seeds to meet their clients’ demand, in the three areas where the survey was carried out. Others had shortfalls of some species that were in demand with the highest shortfalls being reported by the urban and peri-urban nursery operators in Nairobi. Many nursery operators however indicated that they were able to access surplus seeds of some species such as Azandrachta indica, which were reported as not being sufficient by others (see Appendix 7). This revealed unequal demand segments of seeds, which could be met through proper linkages between nursery operators and seed dealers resulting in less surplus for some and deficit for others. Surplus seeds were given out or sold to other nursery operators, stored until the next season or
42 sowed and the seedlings displayed in the market until they could be purchased even beyond the target season. Table 12: Seed access shortfalls by nursery operators in selected parts of Kenya Area Meru Western Kenya Nairobi Overall
Number of nurseries getting enough seeds Number Percentage 8 40 5 25 3 15 16 27
Number of nurseries not getting enough seeds Number Percentage 12 60 15 75 17 85 44 73
With the informal seed systems supplying five times the quantity of formal suppliers as shown in Table 6, the diversity of species in agroforestry systems is likely to reduce if only those species that can be found in abundance locally are supplied. The failure by the informal seed dealers to supply seeds of some species is also likely to impact negatively on their enterprises as farmers may be forced to look elsewhere for the species they need. This can be resolved through vegetative propagation techniques for the rare species to avoid cases of poor genetic diversity when farmers are forced to collect seeds and exchange from the very few trees of such species that may exist in a community. Better linkages between nursery operators, seed dealers and the formal sources such as the Forest Department can help meet the demand for the rare species such as indigenous medicinal species whose seeds the nursery operators found difficult to access. These linkages were found to be poor.
4.4 Seed quality and handling by decentralised seed dealers Seed dealers mainly considered physiological parameters when giving their opinion for seed quality and paid little attention to genetic quality factors (Table 13). The major concerns included high germination (22%), maturity of the seeds (33%) and
43 seeds that were still alive (14%). Only 6% reported good quality mother trees as an aspect they considered in seed quality. Some influence of the level of education was observed because all the seed dealers who reported good quality mother trees as a parameter had attained either secondary school or college education. This was not however related in anyway to training in agroforestry issues or experience in seed handling as the seed dealers who reported mother tree quality were scattered in all categories of the training and experience when data was sorted using Microsoft Excell. Table 13: Factors considered by seed dealers in peri-Nairobi, Meru and Western Kenya as describing good quality tree seeds Parameter
†
Frequency
Percentage
High germination rates
11
22
Seeds maturity
17
33
Healthy seeds
3
6
Seeds still alive (not old)
7
14
Seed colour (from experience)
3
6
Good quality mother trees
3
6
Seeds cleanliness
2
4
Seeds dryness
2
4
Others†
3
6
Parameters labelled others included whole seeds that are not broken and seeds that do not float in water
Poor premium on genetic quality issues in seed collection by the seed dealers was also reflected in the low number of mother trees that seed dealers were harvesting seeds from and the separation distances between the mother trees (Table 14). The overall average number of mother trees was about half the recommended number (sixteen trees instead of a minimum of thirty) while the separation distance between mother trees was even worse (eighteen metres instead of about fifty to one hundred).
44 Lillesø et al. (2004a) also reported that in Uganda much local seed collection was done sub-optimally in terms of number of trees and collection methods.
Table 14: The influence of training in agroforestry and experience in seed handling by seed dealers on the average number of mother trees harvested and their average separation distance in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya Category Level of training in agroforestry issues Seed dealer experience in seed handling Level of education achieved †
None 1 week or less 2 - 4 weeks Over 4 weeks 1 - 5 years 6 - 10 years Over 10 years None Primary Secondary Tertiary
Average / total
No of mother trees Average distance (M) Mean N† Std. Dev Mean N† Std. Dev 7 58 8 5 35 4 22 37 17 32 38 42 25 47 18 17 13 55 9 10 3 5 10 0 19 93 15 27 51 46 17 36 21 9 22 6 5 23 4 3 23 2 5 5 5 44 5 88 6 70 6 6 52 7 27 65 27 33 32 46 24 12 27 13 7 7 16 152 16 18 96 35
N is calculated by species reported as harvested by seed dealers and since each seed dealer collected seeds for more than one species, the number goes beyond 30
With the majority of the species that were being supplied by the informal seed dealers being exotic species it is clear that some species have low genetic diversity arising from the initial seedlots that were used to establish the original trees which naturalized as has been reported for Grevillea robusta (Harwood, 1992). This means that collecting seeds from a small number of mother trees allows collecting offspring of closely related individuals.
The situation was made worse by the fact that
collections were mainly from very closely spaced trees, which could easily be related. Earlier studies by Basweti et al. (2001) and Lengkeek et al. (2003a) revealed that even the nursery operators who collected seeds for themselves collected from a very small number of mother trees in both Nairobi and Meru. Indigenous species may not be affected if there are a substantial number of remnant trees of the original
45 population which can still maintain genetic diversity and sufficient out crossing levels (Lengkeek et al., 2003a). However with increasing clearance of natural forests and woodlands for agricultural cultivation and other land uses, these remnants are decreasing by the day and it is important to ensure wider collections of the indigenous species too.
As shown in Table 14 (overleaf), training and experience in seed handling did not influence the genetic quality parameters although the seed dealers that had not received any training were collecting from the least number of trees. The trend was distorted by the fact those not trained at all followed the category that had participated in the longest period of training in the number of mother trees harvested from (average of 7 and 9 mother trees respectively), although there was a low positive correlation of 0.328 (Table 15). The separation distance of mother trees did not show any trend that would support improvement with training although there was a positive correlation but expressed by a very low coefficient (0.053). The experience trend shows an opposite relationship with the number of mother trees harvested and their separation distances from the one expected, which is shown by a negative correlation coefficient (-0.278 and -0.3 respectively; Table 15). Those who attained secondary and tertiary education were however harvesting from more mother trees although there was no relationship between education level and the distance between the mother trees. The relationship between the level of education and the number of mother trees harvested from (also shown by a positive correlation in Table 15) may have been coincidental but could also show that education had influenced their reception to development information. Vandebosch et al. (2002) said that reception of basic education is important in achieving development.
46 Table 15: Correlations of average number of mother trees harvested by seed dealers and their separation distances with the seed dealers’ level of training, education and experience in Meru, Nairobi and Western Kenya Experience in seed handling Category of training on agroforestry issues Education level attained N
Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
No of mother trees Average distance -0.278 -0.300 0.001 0.003 0.328 0.053 0.000 0.607 0.565 0.122 0.000 0.236 152 96
The content of the training courses that seed dealers had participated in, as reported before, was broad and may not have had a lot of emphasis on seed genetic quality. With little emphasis on genetic quality, training is not likely to impact much on the genetic quality of seeds supplied by the seed dealers. Seed genetic quality premiums are more likely to be imparted to seed dealers through formal recognition, more specialized training and interactions with experts at fora in which genetic quality issues are discussed clearly. Since seed dealers were collecting seeds from about a half of the recommended number of mother trees and about a third of them considered genetic issues in seed collection, more awareness is likely to push them towards improving on seed genetic quality. Farmers were reported to consider genetic issues when saving their agricultural seed because they were aware of the implications of poor quality (Cromwell et al., 1993). If farmers were also aware of the implication of genetic quality in tree germplasm they would push nursery operators and seed dealers to put premium in quality by inquiring about the seed collection details.
As shown in Figure 5, many seed dealers in the study areas ensured good seed physiological quality by collecting seeds from the crown. Seventy nine percent (79
47 %) of the seed harvests were done from the crown, 17% from the ground and 4% from both the crown and the ground. Collection from the crown was the most common method and this ensured quality as seeds had not been exposed to soil moisture, micro-organisms, pests and diseases. It is however easier for small-scale dealers to collect seeds of some species from the ground and it is good in such cases, for the dealers to ensure that collection is done regularly to avoid collection of spoilt seeds. Early fruits and/or seeds should also be avoided as they are usually of poorer quality (Mulawarman et al., 2003).
Ground (17%) Both (4%)
Crown (79%)
Figure 5: Seed collection methods used by seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya The main criteria considered in the selection of mother trees from which seed dealers collected seeds included maturity of the trees (22%), resistance to diseases and pests (14%), straight stems (20%) and fruit or seed quality (7%). Other criteria considered included growth rate (6%), size of the tree (heights and diameter; 4%), and abundance of trees (3%; Table 16). It was positively observed that some seed dealers considered aspects of the tree size, straightness, maturity of the trees, big boles and resistance to pests and diseases. However, these were the minority of the interviewed seed dealers
48 and the same case was mentioned for the nursery operators who collected seeds for themselves (Lengkeek et al., 2003a; Basweti et al., 2001).
Table 16: Criteria used by seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya to select mother trees for seed harvesting Criteria
†
Frequency
Percentage
Abundance of trees
6
3
Size of the tree (heights and diameter)
7
4
Growth rate
11
6
Fruit/seed quality
12
7
Health of the tree
14
8
Number of branches
1
1
Maturity of the trees
39
22
Resistance to pests and diseases
24
14
Availability of seeds on the tree
13
7
Straight stems
35
20
None†
9
30
While the percentage for other criteria is given as the frequency of each criterion in a pool of all mentioned, the case of none is given as percentage of the total number of seed dealers since these 9 seed dealers gave no criteria while the others could give more than one criteria
As shown in Table 17, the reasons given for the number of mother trees harvested for seeds by informal seed dealers included diversity of germplasm (33%) and as many trees as were available (32%) or enough to give the required amount of seeds (26%). Others included saving time in seed collection (2%), as many trees as had seeds on them (2%) and trees felled for other purposes (11%). Most of these reasons revealed that in many cases, seed dealers did not even consider the criteria given above especially in cases of few available mother trees and seeds required in great quantities. It is however notable that over 30% of the seed dealers had genetic quality related considerations when collecting seeds. Sorting the data (using Microsoft
49 Excell) by training categories showed that the respondents who considered diversity of germplasm (33%), had attained some level of training in agroforestry and tree seed issues. These respondents who considered diversity of germplasm were however scattered in all categories of experience showing no influence of experience. Table 17: Reasons given by seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya for the number of mother trees harvested from in seed collection Reason
Frequency
Percent
As many trees as available
56
32
Cross pollination and diversity (of germplasm)
58
33
Economics of time in collection
3
2
Seeds available in trees
4
2
Sufficient seeds for required purpose
46
26
Trees felled for other purposes
11
6
Total
178
100
4.5. Seed storage by seed dealers and nursery operators in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya The storage of seeds by both the seed dealers and nursery operators could not ensure long viability. Table 18 shows that the main containers used for storing seeds were polythene bags (56% of seed dealers and 33% of nursery operators) and plastic containers (34% of seed dealers and 6% of nursery operators). Other containers reported by a few seed dealers and nursery operators included gunny bags, paper bags, envelopes, tins, baskets and bottles (Table 18). The main storage areas were the dealers’ main houses and grain stores which ensured air ventilation while two dealers in Meru stored seeds at the forester’s office since they found it better ventilated than their houses. A significant number of nursery operators (37%) did not store seeds and preferred to stock them as seedlings, while all but a few (7%) seed dealers reported
50 storing seeds. Stocking seedlings instead of storing seeds is particularly important for recalcitrant seeds, which do not store easily under normal conditions. However even for the orthodox species, seed dealers and nursery operators would benefit from setting apart specific rooms for storing seeds (Mulawarman et al., 2003). The plastic containers and polythene bags which were found to be the common containers would ensure longer storage when kept airtight and any remaining spaces filled with stable material and kept in rooms where there would be less temperature and humidity variations. The dealers who stored their seeds in grain stores have a better chance of ensuring this.
Table 18: Containers used by nursery operators and seed dealers for seed storage in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya Type of container
†
Gunny bags Plastic containers Envelopes Nylon Open containers Paper bags Polythene bags Tins Baskets Bottles None†
Seed dealers Number % 3 2 34 28 0 0 6 5 1 1 1 1 68 56 4 3 0 0 0 0 2 7
Nursery operators Number % 2 4 4 6 3 5 0 0 0 0 6 10 21 33 2 3 1 2 2 3 22 37
While the percentage for other containers is given as the frequency of each type of container in a pool of all mentioned, the case of none is given as percentage of the total number of seed dealers/nursery operators since these 2 seed dealers and 22 nursery operators did not store seeds while the others could use more than one type of storage container
The seed storage period by seed dealers varied from around one week to half a year with the average period being twenty weeks. As shown in Table 19, the average period of seed storage increased with the period of training received by the seed dealers but contrasted at some point because the seed dealers trained for more than
51 four weeks had the shortest average storage period. Analysis of experience in seed dealings and level of education of the seed dealers did not show any trend in the longevity of the seed storage period. This could have been because the seed dealers and nursery operators did not face severe seed scarcity as a result of species’ seasonality in seed production and did not have to collect much more than their periodic demands. As the seed dealers grow and expand their businesses however, they may require long storage of some species and therefore need to ensure proper storage methods and at the same time periodic verification of the stored seed will be vital (Jones, 2004).
Table 19: Average seed storage period by seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya comparing training category and experience of the seed dealers Category Level of training on agroforestry issues Experience in seed handling Level of education Total/average
Average storage period in weeks None 19 1 week or less 23 2-4 weeks 27 Over 4 weeks 9 1-5 years 25 6-10 years 22 Over 10 years 9 None Primary Secondary Tertiary
No of cases 53 20 30 15 61 33 24
Std. Dev 20 10 18 3 21 7 11
SE of Mean 3 2 3 1 3 1 2
14 14 27 15
12 60 36 11
3 12 12.11 8
1 1 1 1
20
118
17
2
Several seed dealers (26%) and nursery operators (35%) that reported storing seeds did not carry out any verification on the quality of the seeds after the storage periods. The influence of training was observed when the data was sorted in that all the seed dealers who did not carry out verification of the stored seeds had received no training related to agroforestry and tree seeds handling. Among the ones that attempted
52 verification, 24% of seed dealers and 5% of nursery operators just did visual observation on any pest attacks or seed colour appearance and judged from their experience with the species. As shown in Table 20, the best means of seed viability verification reported was germination of a sample of seeds (53% of seed dealers and 15% of nursery operators) followed by cutting test, which was done by 43% of seed dealers and 5% of nursery operators. Three percent (3%) of the seed dealers and 3% of the nursery operators reported using floating method and only sowed the seeds that did not float. Since most of the species dealt with were orthodox and the storage periods were not long it may not have been necessary to verify viability of stored seedlots as it would not change significantly. As reported by Cromwell et al. (1993), farmers have traditional methods to ensure as little as possible storage losses and therefore since nursery operators had experience with the tree seeds they dealt with frequently, they may not have needed to verify the germination of stored lots as they were confident that the seeds were still viable. Table 20: Means of verification on the viability of stored seeds by nursery operators and seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and western Kenya
†
Means of verification None Visual observation Germination of a sample Cutting test Floating method Total
Nursery operators Frequency Percentage 21 35 3 5 9 15 3 5 2 3 28 63†
Seed dealers Frequency Percentage 8 26 7 24 16 53 13 43 1 3 45 150†
The percentages in this case add up to more than 100 because some seed dealers would report more than one verification method. The tabulation also does not include those respondents who were not storing seeds hence the percentages for nursery operators add up to less than 100
Seed dealers that bought seeds from other people (who constituted 60% of all the seed dealers) used the same verification methods although only 13% did cutting tests and 17% did germination tests. This was mainly done once they received the seeds after
53 which the seeds were bulked with other lots of the same species. All but 20% of the dealers that procured seeds of the same species from different sources bulked them into one consignment since they did not factor intra-specific differences. Seven (7%) among those who did not bulk the seeds wanted to compare the health of the different seedlots, 7% wanted to compare the germination rates while the other 7% wanted to compare the provenances. The later 7% had gone through between two and four weeks of training again showing a positive effect of training in genetic quality considerations.
Among those who dealt with seeds procured from other people none had established any contracts in order to be sure of the seeds sources but 17% had implied (not written) contracts with their suppliers and 14% among these had access to the seed sources. All these 14% had gone through at least two weeks of training showing some effect of training on genetic quality premiums. A group of seed dealers in Laikipia district were also reported to be very keen on genetic quality issues after intensive training and interactions with organisations in seed handling (Anne Mbora pers comm.). This shows the need for more effort in specialised training and follow-up on seed quality issues especially genetic quality.
4.6. Laboratory tests for the quality of seeds procured from informal seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya The results of seed tests in the laboratory did not show any marked differences between the various seed sources and even between the informal seed dealers as shown by the standard deviations of the various species’ purity and germination rates in Tables 21 and 22. Apart from two seed dealers (7%) who gave seeds of Eucalyptus
54 globulus labelled as Eucalyptus saligna, others genuinely labelled all the species. Another seed dealer gave seeds with the label Eucalyptus meadnii that is not a known species name but all the other labels were true to species. Germination energy trends were also similar on weekly basis when seeds from the different suppliers were compared.
Although germination rates for seeds of some species from all the
suppliers did not exceed 50%, they were still in the range of expected germination rates as given in literature (Albrecht, 1993; Salim et al., 2002). Table 21: Seed test results for Eucalyptus saligna supplied by seed dealers of different training categories and levels of experience in seed handling from Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya Category Level of training in agroforestry issues Years of experience in seed handling KEFRI
None 1 week or less 2 - 4 weeks Over 4 weeks 1 - 5 years 6 - 10 years Over 10 years
Purity MC % Germination Germination energy % rate % 1 week 2 weeks 3 weeks 99 6.4 88 64 79 88 99 8.5 98 72 89 98 99 7.5 91 67 84 91 100 6 94 70 87 94 97 6.9 90 65 81 90 100 7.4 93 68 84 93 99 6 89 69 82 88 96 7.2 88 65 79 88
From the analysis of Eucalyptus saligna (Table 21) the results of purity tests, moisture content analysis and germination tests did not show any significant differences that could be associated with the level of training or experience in seed handling. The same trend was observed for other species that were tested as shown by the low standard deviations in Table 22. There was no difference in quality between the seeds procured from formal sources (KEFRI) and informal seed dealers for all species whose seeds were tested. Similar results were observed between agricultural crop seeds obtained from private sources when compared with certified seeds from public seed sources in India (Tripp and Pal, 2001). These observations could diffuse
55 the fear that most informal seed dealers are likely to deceive farmers with substandard seeds if they are recognised as important seed distribution channels.
Table 22: Comparisons of purity levels and germination rates of seeds collected from different seed dealers in Meru, western Kenya and peri-urban Nairobi Species†
Purity % Min
Avg
Max
Germination rate % St D
Mi n
Av
Max
St D
Germination energy Wk 1
Wk 2
Wk 3
Wk 4
Calliandra 93 96.3 99 3.1 69 70.7 72 1.5 24 66 70 calothyrsus Casuarina 90 94.9 100 3.9 32 38.7 49 6.9 4 32 39 equisetifolia Cordia 90 96.0 100 4.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 africana Cupressus 88 95.8 100 4.2 33 44.8 50 4.5 4 34 43 45 lusitanica Dovyalis 92 96.7 99 4.0 46 53.3 60 7 12 22 30 53 caffra Eucalyptus 70 74.0 78 5.7 91 91.5 92 0.7 67 84 92 globulus Eucalyptus 96 98.9 100 1.2 73 90.6 99 6.0 67 82 91 saligna Grevillea 98 99.1 100 0.6 63 73.1 81 6 9 28 48 74 robusta † Seeds of Acacia mearnsii, Eucalyptus maculata, Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus camadulensis, Fagara macrophyla, Juniperus procera, Leucaena trichandra, Leucaena leucocephala, Markhamia lutea, Schinus molle, Sesbania sesban and Prunus africana were not compared because only one seed dealer had supplied the seeds of each of the species.
In the nursery experiment, Eucalyptus saligna seedlings from Meru and western Kenya did not show any significant differences between the five categories of seed dealers tested as well as seedlings from the KEFRI seedlot (Table 23). The ANOVA on the Cupressus lusitanica seedlings heights from seeds acquired from Nairobi dealers showed significant differences (P = 0.01 and P = 0.001; Appendix 6) between the dealers’ seeds performances but the means did not reveal any patterns that would indicate effect of training and/or experience. The mean height of seedlings of KEFRI seeds was also close to the general mean in that case (Table 23). A t-test for paired samples indicated that seedlings from only two seed dealers (the lowest and highest
56 means) were differing significantly from others (P = 0.01, 0.005 and 0.001) but the differences were not related to the level of training or experience period. Quoting CIAT (1992), Cromwell et al. (1993), reported that experiments conducted in East Africa to compare agricultural crop seeds saved by farmers with seeds obtained from a local agricultural research station found no statistical differences in vigour, emergence and even yield, which is in agreement with the results of this study. Table 23: Seedling heights of Eucalyptus saligna procured from Meru and Western Kenya seed dealers and Cupressus lusitanica procured from peri-urban Nairobi seed dealers after 60 days in the nursery
†
Source Number of Mean category† seedlings height (mm) 1 30 106.5 2 30 118.3 Meru 3 30 115.7 (Eucalyptus 4 30 112. 7 saligna) 5 30 89.0 KEFRI 30 89.9 Total 180 105.3 1 30 74.6 Western 2 30 84.6 ± Kenya 3 30 77.7 (Eucalyptus 4 30 80.7 saligna) 5 30 63.8 KEFRI 30 78. 0 Total 180 76.6 1 50 55.1 Peri-urban 2 50 70.0 Nairobi 3 50 98.3 (Cupressus 4 50 70.4 lusitanica) 5 50 73.7 KEFRI 50 79.1 Total 300 74.4
Std. Dev
Std. Error
38.8 43.3 40.3 24.5 18. 4 28.4 35.1 18.6 30.9 21.2 25.1 13.1 22.9 23.2 10.8 13.0 18.1 13.0 13.4 11.7 18.6
7.1 7.9 7.4 4.5 3. 4 5.2 2.6 3.4 5.6 3.9 4.6 2.4 4.2 1.7 1.5 1.8 2.6 1.8 1.9 1. 7 1.1
95% Confidence Interval for Mean Lower Upper 92.1 121.0 102.2 134.5 100.0 130.1 103.5 121.8 82.2 95.9 79.3 100.6 100.1 110.4 67.7 81.6 73.0 96.1 69.8 85.6 71.3 90.0 58.9 68.7 69.4 86.6 73.1 80.0 52.0 58.1 66.3 73.7 93.1 103.4 66.7 74.1 69.9 77.5 75.8 82.4 72.3 76.6
Sample seed dealers were categorised in such a way that the lowest category (1) had the least training and experience in tree seed handling and the highest (5) had attained the highest training and experience in that area ± Eucalyptus saligna seeds from Western Kenya were sowed in the nursery later than those from Meru and a cold spell that prevailed in the first few weeks slowed their growth hence their heights were on average lower than those of Meru after 60 days in the nursery
57 4.7 Perception of seed demand by the seed dealers and client relationship The demand for seeds was reported by seed dealers to peak as the rain seasons approached although this did not seem to determine when they collected their seeds apart from 33% of them who collected seeds just before the rainy season. Seed collections were mainly done when species were in season (43%) while a significant number of seed dealers (23%) did collections anytime of the year. Collecting seeds at anytime of the year may lead to seeds that are not mature or inferior if they are not collected in the right season for each species and this should be discouraged. A third (33%) of the seed dealers reported meeting their clients’ seed demand while 67% had shortfalls for a number of species (Appendix 8). Many species were also found by some dealers to be in demand from clients but their seeds were not accessible. Again some of these rare or insufficient species were in the list of species mentioned by other seed dealers and nursery operators as having surplus seed supply and proper linkages could reduce the gap. The suggestion by a majority of seed dealers on scarce species is mainly that governments and NGOs establish and/or protect seed sources of those species and link the dealers to those stands. The seed dealers saw tree seed demand as increasing for the species they were dealing with together with rare indigenous species, which they found more difficult to procure.
Grevillea robusta was the species with the highest seed demand generally and consequently was the most dealt with species by a majority of the seed dealers (24% dealings and 42% demand) followed by Eucalyptus saligna (20%). Seed dealers normally supplied more of the species that were in high demand and devoted more time to find the seeds of those species compared to those in less demand. Therefore the list of those in high demand compared closely with those supplied in high
58 quantities (Figure 6; Appendix 9). The findings agree with those of private rice seed dealers in Andhra Pradesh (India) who were also found to only deal with the varieties that had ready demand with few attempting to sell new varieties (Tripp and Pal, 2001). The extension and NGOs should widely disseminate new species (and provenances and/or cultivars) and inform farmers well so as to create demand of species still low in the domestication pathways. Lillesø et al. (2004b), pointed out the need for farmers’ awareness on varieties that can meet their requirements in order to have a well functioning seed system that also avails such varieties. It is important that any new species and/or provenances introduced have a high intra-specific variation as the initial introductions are likely to be future seed sources for the informal dealers. The success of Calliandra calothyrsus dissemination as a useful fodder species as reported by Franzel et al. (2003), is a good example but efforts also need to be geared into the dissemination of other species especially indigenous ones.
Araucaria sp (2%) Calliandra calothyrsus (4%) Callistemon citrina (2%) Cordia africana (2%) Cupresssus lusitanica (2%) Dovyalis caffra (13%) Eucalyptus sp (17%) Grevillea robusta (42%) Maesopsis eminii (2%) Milletia dura (2%) Pinus patula (4%) Prunus africana (2%) Pyracantha sp (2%) Teclea nobilis (2%) Thika palm (2%)
Figure 6: Species encountered by seed dealers as having highest seed demand
59 As shown in Table 24, the main clients for seed dealers included farmers, nursery operators, schools, NGOs, the Forest Department, Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) and others such as tea companies. Their turnovers and prices were compared for the top four most dealt with species. Farmers and nursery operators were the clients with the highest turn-over apart from the case of Grevillea robusta in Meru and Western Kenya where NGOs had the highest turn-over. This could be attributed to on-going promotional efforts of NGOs for the species and that demand segment might just have been temporal. It was observed that NGOs did not have high turnovers for the other species and even for Grevillea robusta in Nairobi. That left the small-scale farmers, schools and nursery operators as the main clients. This is a favourable aspect for developing seed and seedling enterprises as NGOs mainly buy seeds and then distribute them freely or subsidised to farmers, which effectively distorts the market for the informal seed and seedling dealers.
60 Table 24: Average clients turn-over and prices charged for seeds for four top dealt with tree species by seed dealers in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and Western Kenya Species
Area Meru
Grevillea robusta
Nairobi
Western Kenya
Meru Eucalyptus saligna Nairobi Western Kenya Meru Nairobi Dovyalis caffra Western Kenya Meru Cupressus lusitanica Nairobi †
Clients Farmers NGO Nursery operators Schools Farmers Forest department Nursery operators Schools Farmers NGO Nursery operators Schools Farmers NGO Nursery operators Schools Tea company Farmers Nursery operators Schools CBOs Farmers Nursery operators Farmers Nursery operators Schools Farmers Forest department Farmers NGO Nursery operators Schools Farmers NGO Nursery operators Schools Farmers Forest department Nursery operators
Amount per year (kg) 5.5 8.5 8.2 2.5 10.8 5 0.8 5 3 14.3 2.5 4 6.5 30 1.8 0.7 5 2.2 5.1 5 2 4 3. 3 6.5 9 6 9 10 6 5 5.5 2.5 1 1 0.3 0.5 5.2 10 0.75
% turnover† 42.1 72.5 56 52.4 79.3 33 100 50 65.8 77.7 68.5 67 60.5 100 58.4 27.3 91 83.3 100 50 100 67 77.7 66.5 59 40.5 80 40 48. 7 19 42 25.5 67 100 100 33 77.7 67 100
Cost (Ksh/kg) 2200 1200 1725 1900 1012.5 1000 1000 150 812.5 1250 1150 750 800 500 1175 2000 3000 216.7 1250 150 500 1166.7 1000 1375 1600 1250 1500 916. 7 700 750 975 1200 300 1000 600 566.7 400 1000
The percent turnover is given as the average of what the seed dealers gave and since it varied with seed dealers, the totals add up to more than 100
61 Schools are important clients since their demand implied that the message of tree planting was being imparted in the students who are the farmers of the future. They could also influence their parents and create even more demand for tree seeds. It was observed that schools had an average turnover of 50% and above, especially in the peri-urban zone where the farming community has only small plots. These trees could either have been planted in the school compounds or seedlings established in school tree nurseries, which can be used as educational plots. Either way the pupils would get the message of the value of tree planting. Experiences in Ecuador showed that it is important to incorporate tree planting concepts in the school curriculum if the message is really going to be adopted by pupils; else they may just be providing labour for the nurseries in schools but will not invest in the knowledge later in their lives (Desmond, 1989). Vandenbosch et al. (2002) also pointed out the importance of incorporating natural resource management issues even in the basic education syllabi.
Prices appeared to vary with the clients but also with the turn-over and were low for clients who bought in high amounts. However they were favourable for the farmers apart from Grevillea robusta in Meru. A high standard deviation observed when comparing Grevillea robusta prices as sold to farmers in Meru (1058), revealed a high variation of prices implying that there was a possibility of stability later at prices lower than Ksh 2200 per kilo as more dealers got involved in the business.
A big number of seed dealers (43%) did not take into consideration the environmental conditions of the sources of seeds in their stock nor the intended establishment areas. Other seed dealers (43%), considered the environmental conditions of seed sources so as to advise clients on which batch to buy, while 10% only sold to neighbours and did
62 not bother to match the seed sources with seed supply as they only collected from the neighbourhood. When the buyers of seed come from beyond the neighbourhood especially from different agro climatic zones the seed purchased may not perform well unless climatic details on the collection area and planting area are similar. Seed dealers need to record the collection area details and inquire about the planting area so as to match the seedlots, which contributes to the other aspect of genetic quality on species/provenance-site matching. The fact that about a half of the seed dealers were already considering the environmental conditions in tree seed supply is encouraging and close interactions between them can raise the number that is observing this quality aspect.
As shown in Table 25, the information that seed dealers gave to clients together with the seeds included germination method and potential (42%), seed weight (5%), method of storage (3%) and viability period (3%). Twenty three percent (23%) of the seed dealers did not supply any information with their seeds, while 20% did not follow up on the seeds they had supplied. The rest monitored the performance of the supplied seeds in order to improve their operations and to gain more confidence with their clients. Others followed up to solve any complaints that might arise with their clients. The information supplied together with seeds shows that at least the seed dealers were concerned with seed quality and some even followed up on the seeds performance to ensure their enterprises grow in reputation. Tripp and Pal (2001), also observed that even in rice seed supplies, private dealers maintained seed quality to keep their reputation with the farmers.
63 Table 25: Information supplied with seed consignments to clients by the informal seed dealers in Meru, Western Kenya and peri-urban Nairobi Information supplied
Frequency
Percentage
Germination methods
20
33
Germination potential
5
9
The seed sources
17
28
Storage methods
2
3
Viability period
2
3
Seed weight
3
5
No information
14
23
4.8 Informal seed dealers’ constraints, associations and linkages The seed dealers identified several constraints that limited their development (Figure 7). While 17% of them did not report any constraint it is important to note that the biggest constraints to their development were scarce seed sources of some species (37%) and marketing challenges (30%), which mainly include demand fluctuations. Other notable constraints were seed collection risks (17%) and poor linkages (10%). The dealers suggested a number of solutions to their constraints that included allowing seed collection in the forests, regulation of seed prices and more training on seed handling. Many of these constraints could easily be handled by better interactions between seed dealers and also with the formal seed supply sector. This was also revealed by the fact that 10% of the seed dealers felt that poor linkages were hampering their effectiveness and building on this fact, the seed dealers can be better developed by bringing them together and forming seed dealers’ associations.
64
% of respondents stating constraint
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
e ra g
Se ed
sto
ur ce s so
es se ed
lin ka g
Sc ar ce
Po or
ial ou tla y
on e N
fin an c Po or
ge s ch al le n
en ts M
ar ke t in
g
ay m
ris k
ar p
ng Irr eg ul
ar ve sti
H
Cl im at ic
fl a ctu a
tio ns
s
0
Constraints
Figure 7: Constraints identified by seed dealers in their business Although 63% of seed dealers were aware of other seed dealers operating around or near them they did not report forming any association among themselves. They however had interactions ranging from exchanging information on seed sources and seed handling (17%), exchanging or selling seeds to each other to satisfy demand (17%) and helping each other with marketing or price setting (10%; Figure 8). Others reported no interaction among themselves while 37% did not even know of other dealers operating near them. Ninety three percent (93%) reported that demand for tree seeds was increasing while 3% in each case saw demand as constant or decreasing. Twenty seven (27%) of the seed dealers did not think forming an association was a viable idea because they could not foresee any benefits and one operator thought that groups always break up so there was no need of forming one. The rest thought an association was a good idea as it could help in marketing tree seeds (33%), sharing information on seed sources especially for rare species (33%)
65 and other benefits such as facilitating training and establishment of a credit scheme (7% each). The same benefits have already been observed with the Tree Nursery Operator Associations working with ICRAF support and would work with seed dealers to ensure success of decentralised seed enterprises.
Not much (17%)
None (37%)
Seed exchange (17%) Price regulation attempts (3%) Information exchange (17%)
Marketing links (10%)
Figure 8: Suggested points of interaction between informal seed dealers in Meru, Western Kenya and peri-urban Nairobi Since a majority of the seed dealers indicated that an association could improve their enterprises, then better linkages between them should be encouraged building on other farmers and small-scale operators’ associations that have also developed. Pitfalls that lead to collapse of farmer groups at formative stages should however be looked into when bringing the dealers together. In a workshop on alternative strategies for smallholder seed supply (Rohrbahc et al., 1997), some constraints were identified as limiting seed dealings by farmer groups. These included lack of farmer training, lack of entrepreneurial skills, poor community organization and lack of sustainability. Recommendations included training in seed management, processing
66 and storage as well as marketing and small-scale business management and building on existing community organizations in order to strengthen sustainable seed supply systems. In Namibia, farmer associations were observed as able to market Pearl millet economically and sustainably (Lechner, 1997). The key factors of success observed in the Namibia study were the availability of attractive variety, confidence in business, government support and a policy of seed sales rather than free distribution. The same factors can ensure the success of tree seed supplier associations as farmers appreciate the benefits of agroforestry and demand for germplasm increases. Farmer seed associations for crop seeds were also reported to be successful in Ghana and other parts of Africa (Ocran, 1997).
Majority of the seed dealers (67%) had not interacted with the Kenya Forestry Seed Centre (KFSC) or any other closely related institution (Table 26). Seven percent (7%) had worked with KFSC and hence received training by them; some other 10% had also been trained by them while 17% had marketed their seeds through them. While 33% still did not think there was any potential benefit they stood to get by relating with the Centre in future, 17% felt they would benefit from training, 27% from market intelligence, 7% with sources for difficult seeds and 3% felt such a relationship would put confidence in the dealers by their clients.
67 Table 26: Interactions of informal seed dealers in Meru, Western Kenya and periurban Nairobi with the Seed Centre of the KEFRI Type of interaction
Number of seed dealers
Percentage
Worked with the seed centre
2
7
Trained by the seed centre
3
10
5
17
20
67
Seed marketing through the seed centre No interactions
KEFRI reported that they had embarked on a process of decentralising supply of some orthodox species in high demand such as Calliandra calothyrsus and Grevillea robusta and they had trained some dealers and then contracted them as their suppliers of the species. This kind of relationship was also reported in other areas such as India (Tripp and Pal, 2001), where rice seed companies contract farmers to produce seed for them. It however did not show any orientation to developing entrepreneuring seed dealers in their private capacity, which implies reluctance to the development of small-scale tree seed provision. Cromwell et al. (1993), encouraged the formal sector especially the research institutions to facilitate better linkages with informal seed dealers in order to create sustainable systems at local levels. Ocran (1997) also advised farmers seed dealer associations to make efforts to strengthen their links with research institutes, extension agencies and regulatory authorities to obtain new germplasm and technical advice. Lillesø et al. (2004b), recommend that institutions provide better quality germplasm for establishment of good quality farmland sources in order to upgrade the genetic quality of seeds so sourced and this could be accomplished through better linkages with these informal dealers.
68
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusion Informal tree seed supply systems already play a great role in the provision of tree germplasm to farmers and other users such as community-based organizations and NGOs. With more than eighty percent supply of tree seeds to nursery operators, the informal seed supply systems are a significant channel that can be developed to alleviate shortage of tree germplasm for farmers. Their capacity is however limited in that they only deal with seeds of common orthodox species which do not require a lot of investment in technology such as collection or storage equipment. Their poor interactions with each other and with relevant institutions have also limited their ability to analyze demand and reach the market effectively. Thus they have only dealt with a few species while the demand for many other species remains unmet and users may still have to look up to formal systems to supply the missing species especially indigenous ones. The capacity to diversify and widen the range of species the informal systems deal with, can however be built, since trade in tree seed is a new concept that is still developing.
The seeds supplied by the seed dealers were comparable to those supplied by the formal seed sector like KEFRI in terms of physiological quality. Since this is a quality factor that can easily be detected by users in the early seedling growth, reactions by clients may have led to more careful considerations in seed collection and handling by dealers to ensure that they kept their business. The high viability however, can not be maintained for long with the simple storage methods used by the seed dealers and as seed volumes increase, investing more in better seed storage
69 equipment is needed. The genetic quality of the seeds that the informal seed dealers dealt with was however low in terms of mother tree selection and site-provenance matching. The suitability of the mother trees for the end product was rarely considered in the seed collection either because of ignorance or little care since genetic quality can not be judged easily from a seedlot by buyers.
Although experience in seed handling did not seem to influence the quality of seeds supplied by seed dealers generally, there was evidence of influence of training on agroforestry issues and seed handling especially on genetic quality. It was however observed that most of the dealers who had gone through the training sessions had short duration trainings which had several topics in them implying that seed quality may not have been very much emphasized. Therefore the effect of training on the quality of seeds supplied by the informal seed dealers was low although positive.
5.2 Recommendations From the results and conclusions above, a number of recommendations can be made. The first recommendation is that there is need for recognition of the informal seed dealers by formal institutions. This recognition includes a change in the regulation procedures by the governments (as Tripp, 1997 said), to ensure that friendly policies are developed to allow trade on tree seeds by informal dealers. In Kenya so far, the Kenya Plant Health Inspectory Services (KEPHIS) only allows farmers to exchange seeds but not to trade directly in it (unless under a seed agent or merchant), which means that all the respondents to the survey were acting illegally yet they supplied far more tree seed quantities to farmers than the formal sector. The Forest Department, KEFRI and NGOs should work more closely with the informal seed dealers in order
70 to ensure that the dealers are developed and can overcome the quality bottlenecks revealed in this study. The informal seed dealers should also be allowed to access natural forests as well as participation in the establishment of seed orchards in public land from which they can later harvest good quality seeds. To ensure high genetic quality premiums, the formal sector can establish centralized seed sources with genetically diverse germplasm and allow the participation of seed dealers in their establishment and access. The ownership of such stands should ultimately go to seed dealer associations. It is important for governmental and non-governmental institutions to support such initiatives and develop markets for the seed dealers rather than distorting them (markets) with unsustainable subsidized or free seed supplies to farmers.
More intensive training of seed dealers and closer interactions with research and development agents has the potential to improve the quality of the seeds supplied by these dealers. More specialized and interactive courses on seed technology need to be offered on those people who have already been identified as seed dealers since the courses offered so far seem to have combined many aspects of agroforestry. Even when new entrants are identified in the informal tree seed business, there will be more gain when they are trained since experience apart from training, did not appear to yield much result in terms of high genetic quality. It is important to include nursery operators in the training courses since they also use a lot of self-collected seeds. The genetic quality of the seeds supplied by the seed dealers can then be improved through careful monitoring of every training event to ensure that the tools offered are put in practice.
71 Seed dealers will benefit from closer linkages among themselves. They should create associations in different areas, which will help in lobbying for recognition. Working in close collaboration with such bodies as the Kenya Forest Working Group (KFWG) and Kenya Association of Forest Users (KAFU), the seed dealers can be easily recognized and access better seed sources. They should also put premium on the production of good quality seeds in terms of both genetic and physiological aspects and as associations they can weed out the dealers who do not invest in quality so as to maintain reputation. Working as an association, they will be able to bulk their seeds, which would boost the genetic diversity in each seed-lot. In addition to linking markets and increasing the seed dealers’ bargaining power, an association can also lobby for micro-credit facilities. These loans can help the seed dealers acquire appropriate seed collection gear to reduce some of the risks they are exposed to. With such equipment, they will not collect seeds from poor mother trees because those trees are the only accessible ones but will have the choice of collecting from the best.
The fact that some dealers and nursery operators reported unsatisfied demand of species which others had in excess supply shows unequal demand segments of tree seeds. This demand can be met through proper linkages between nursery operators and seed dealers resulting in less surplus for some dealers and deficit for others for seeds of the same species. Seed dealers can as well join the nursery operators in their areas and work together in joint associations. Nursery operators who have already come together in organizations have been seen to improve their marketing of seedlings and reduce their dependency on central support. Associations of both nursery operators and seed dealers appear to be more commendable as the nursery
72 operators appear to trust their own seeds more than the ones that come from the vendors.
The Kenya Forest Seed Centre (KFSC) and other national tree seed centers in other countries should devolve more of the orthodox species they deal with to the informal seed dealers and forge partnerships with them. This relationship should be enhanced to let the centres to deal with more complex recalcitrant and intermediate species and reach bigger international markets. The dealers are closer to the farmers and can supply seeds locally as needed. By letting the dealers also sell seeds to them, the centres would be creating confidence in the dealers who did not see them as necessary for linkages. The centres can buy the seeds from dealers for the orthodox species then bulk them and sell since the prices of dealers were low and may just be close to the centres’ investment costs in seed collection. This would also allow the centres to impact on the quality of the seeds supplied by the informal dealers without being seen as regulatory as well as competitive actors. As the capacity of the seed dealers to deal with difficult species develops, the centres should devolve seed production and distribution to them and only remain to offer quality and policy guidelines.
In the present situation of low genetic quality of seeds being supplied by seed dealers, nursery operators should widen the genetic base of their seedlings by buying from many seed sources of the same species and bulking it. Several nursery operators could also achieve high genetic quality by coming together to bulk their seeds of the same species and then sharing accordingly. This is better done when they have the information on the seed sources so as to ensure different provenances are not mixed. They also need to insist on the seed collection information before purchasing any
73 seeds and not just negotiating for the cheapest offer. For all this to happen, development organizations working with both seed dealers and nursery operators must ensure that the message of genetic quality is reaching all these actors in more acceptable ways. Future studies should also be conducted to look at the geographical coverage of supply by the seed dealers to determine the matching of the areas from which seeds are being collected to where they are being supplied.
The study only considered nursery operators as the principal recipients of seeds from the informal seed dealers. However the seed dealers reported small-scale farmers as the major clients they deal with including CBOs. It implies that many farmers do not purchase seedlings from nurseries and either establish seedlings for themselves or do direct seeding of trees. Future studies need to collect the views of the small-scale farmers on their perspectives of the quality of the seeds supplied by these dealers and their interactions with them and also why they prefer not to purchase seedlings. It is also important for the government and NGOs involved in promoting agroforestry activities to invest in educating the farmers on the issues of tree seed quality. This will raise the quality premiums of the seeds the farmers require from seed dealers and the later will in turn invest in quality. The organisations should also disseminate information on diverse species and provenances especially indigenous ones to create demand for them and then the seed dealers can supply these species.
74
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76 Huxley P. and van H. Houten. 1997. Glossary for agroforestry. ICRAF, Nairobi. ICRAF, 2000. International Centre for Research in Agroforestry. Corporate report, 2000. International Seed Testing Association (ISTA). 1999. International rules for seed testing. Seed Sci. & Technol. 27, Supplement. ISTA, Zurich, Switzerland. Jaenicke, H. 2001. Innovative strategies for small-scale tree nursery development. ICRAF position paper. Jaetzold R. and Schmidt H. 1983. Farm management handbook of Kenya Vol II. Natural conditions and farm management information Vol II/C, East Kenya (Eastern and Coast provinces). Ministry of Agriculture and German Agricultural Team of GTZ. Nairobi Jiggins J. 1993. Networking with women farmers. In: Alders C, B Haverkort and L van Veldhuizen (eds). Linking with farmers: Networking for low-external-input and sustainable agriculture. Intemediate Technology Publications, London, UK Jones N. 2004. Forestry Technology No 1: Seed Collection. Agroforestry Net, Inc. www.agroforestry.net/pubs/Jonestech1.html. Page Last Updated: March 9, 2004 Kamondo B.M., M. Mwangi and J. Were. 1996. Strategy to ensure sufficient supply of tree propagative material for agroforestry development in Kenya. In: People and institutional participation in agroforestry for sustainable development. Proceedings of the first Kenya agroforestry conference. Kenya Forestry Research Institute, Muguga, Nairobi Kenya. 25 - 29 March 1996. Kenya Land Alliance (KLA). 2002. Land Use in Kenya: The case for a national landuse policy. Kenya Land Alliance, Nakuru, Kenya. Koffa S. and D.P. Garrity. 2001. Grassroots empowerment and sustainability in the management of critical natural resources: The Agroforestry Tree Seed Association of Lantapan. In Coxhead I and Buenavista G (Eds). Seeking sustainability: Challenges of agricultural development and environmental management in a philipine watershed. Los Banos, Laguna, Philipines. PCARRD, 2001 Lechner W.R. 1997. Seed multiplication and distribution through a farmers’ cooperative in Namibia. In: Rohrbach DDR, Z Bishaw and AJG van Gastel (eds). Alternative strategies for smallholder seed supply. Proceedings of an International Conference on Options Strengthening National and Regional Seed Systems in Africa and West Asia. 10-14 March 1997. Harare, Zimbambwe. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: ICRISAT Lengkeek A. and S. Carsan. 2003. Diversity makes a difference. Farmers, perception of tree species diversity in Meru district Kenya. PhD Thesis, Wageningen University. Also submitted to Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science.
77
Lengkeek A., S. Carsan and H. Jaenicke. 2003a. A wealth of knowledge. How farmers in Meru, Central Kenya, manage their tree nurseries. In Diversity makes a difference. Farmers, perception of tree species diversity in Meru district Kenya. PhD Thesis, Wageningen University. Also submitted to Agroforestry Systems. Lengkeek A., I.K. Dawson and H. Jaenicke. 2003b. Genetic bottlenecks in agroforestry systems: Results of tree nursery surveys in East Africa. In Diversity makes a difference. Farmers, perception of tree species diversity in Meru district Kenya. PhD Thesis, Wageningen University. Also submitted to Agroforestry Systems. Lillesø J.P.B., L.P. Dhakal, P.K. Jha and H.L. Aryal. 2001. Addressing smallholders’ demand for propagation material of woody species. Part I: Analysis and Strategy proposal. DFSC Case Study No.3. TISC Document No. 104. Danida Forest Seed Centre, Denmark. Lillesø J.P.B., S. Moestrup and E. Brandi-Hansen. 2004a. Species, seed sources, seed procurement and seed distribution for agroforestry in Uganda - (preliminary findings from a survey, April 2004). ICRAF. Lillesø J.P.B., S. Moestrup and E. Brandi-Hansen. 2004b. Characterising, assessing and recommending seed supply systems for agroforestry tree species (draft strategy April 2004). ICRAF. Lossau A., B. Weiskopf and W. Kasten. 2000. Support for the informal seed sector in development co-operation - Conceptual issues. GTZ, Germany and Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands Martin F. and S. Sherman. 1992. Agroforestry Principles. ECHO Technical Note, 1992 Masangano C. 1996. Diffusion of agroforestry technologies. Michigan State University. Ministry of Planning and National Development (MPND). 1989. Meru District Development Plan 1989 - 1993. Government Printer. Mogaka H., S. Gichere, R. Davis and R. Hirji. 2002. Impacts and costs of climate variability and water resources degradation in Kenya. Rationale for promoting improved water resources development and management. World Bank Report, Kenya. Mulawarman, J.M. Roshetko, S.M. Sasongko and D. Irianto. 2003. Tree seed management - Seed sources, seed collection and seed handling: A field manual for field workers and farmers. ICRAF and Winrock International. Indonesia. Muriuki J., H. Jaenicke and W. Frost. 2001. Strategies for tree seedling production and distribution. Tree Domestication Training Workshop Lecture Notes.
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Muriuki J. and H. Jaenicke. 2001 . Tree nurseries under individual and group management. A case study from Meru District, Kenya. ICRAF internal report. Muturi S.N. 1999. Agroforestry extension manuals. A survey of their use in Kenya. Sida’s Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA), Nairobi, Kenya. Nathan I. and K. Thomsen. 2001. Can smallholders be supplied with quality tree seed through commercial distribution of tree seed in small bags? Paper presented at the International Workshop on Tree Seed: Matching supply with demand from small-scale farmers in tropical countries, Nairobi, Kenya 11-26 June 2001. DFSC, Denmark. Njenga A. and W. Frost. 2001. Economic and Market condition analysis of peri-urban nurseries: Results of a PFSA workshop conducted in Kiambu district, Central Kenya.. Working Paper, ICRAF. Ngece K. 2003. Challenges in forestry conservation in East Africa. Is community based forestry the key to forest survival? East African Ecotourism Development and Conservation Consultants. Nairobi, Kenya. January 2003 Ochsner P., I. Nathan and A. Pedersen. 2001. How to reach rural people in developing countries with quality tree planting material. In: Assisting Forest Owner, Farmer and Stakeholder Decision-Making. International Union of Forestry Research Organizations. Proceedings of the Extension Working Party (S6.06-03) Symposium 2001. DFSC, Denmark. Ocran V.K. 1997. The role of seed growers’ associations in seed production and marketing in Africa. In: Rohrbach DDR, Z Bishaw and AJG van Gastel (eds). Alternative strategies for smallholder seed supply. Proceedings of an International Conference on Options Strengthening National and Regional Seed Systems in Africa and West Asia. 10-14 March 1997. Harare, Zimbambwe. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: ICRISAT Omondi W.O. 1991. Role of quality seed in forestry and agroforestry. Proceedings of the First National Tree Seed Workshop. Kenya Forest Seed Centre. 1-5 July 1991. Nairobi. Oyalo OA. 1994. On-farm tree seed production. Experiences of KWDP/KWAP, Kenya. ETC Kenya Consultants, B.V. Place F. and R. Kindt. 1997. The complexities of supply of tree germplasm: The need for policy interventions. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Policy Aspects of Tree Germplasm Demand and Supply. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya. 6 - 8 October, 1997. Poulsen K. 1993. Seed Quality. Lecture Note C-14. Danida Forest Seed Centre. Rohrbach D.D.R., Z. Bishaw and A.J.G. van Gastel (eds). 1997. Alternative strategies for smallholder seed supply. Proceedings of an International Conference on
79 Options Strengthening National and Regional Seed Systems in Africa and West Asia. 10-14 March 1997. Harare, Zimbambwe. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: ICRISAT Roper J. and R.W. Roberts. 1999. Deforestation: Tropical forests in decline. CIDA Forestry Advisers Network (CFAN), Quebec, Canada Ruigu S., M. Nyasimi and J. Aduwo (unpublished) Farmers’ seed production strategies: a case of the improved fallow technology in Western Kenya. Salim A.S., A.J. Simons, C. Orwa, J. Chege, B. Owuor and A. Mutua. 2002 Agroforestree Database: a tree species reference and selection guide. ICRAF Nairobi, Kenya Shanks E. and J. Carter. 1994. The organisation of small-scale tree nurseries; Studies from Asia, Africa and Latin America. Rural development forestry study guide 1. Overseas Development Institute. London, UK. Sombroek W.G., H.M.H. Braun and B.J.A. van der Poun. 1980. Exploratory soil map and agro-climatic zone map of Kenya. Kenya Soil Survey, Nairobi, Kenya Spiers N. and M. Stewart. (1992). Use of Grevillea robusta in Embu and Meru Districts of Kenya. in Harwood, C.E., (ed). Grevillea robusta in agroforestry and forestry: proceedings of an international workshop. ICRAF, Nairobi. Simons T. 1997. The importance of germplasm policies in tree domestication. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Policy Aspects of Tree Germplasm Demand and Supply. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya. 6 - 8 October, 1997. Stubsgaard F. 1992. Seed Storage. Lecture Note C-9. Danida Forest Seed Centre. Tengnas B. 1994. Agroforestry extension manual for Kenya. ICRAF, Nairobi Tripp R. 1997. New seed and old laws. Regulatory and the diversification of national seed systems. Intermediate Technology Publications. London, UK. Tripp R. 2000. Strategies for seed system development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A study of Kenya, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. ICRISAT Zimbabwe and Overseas Development Institute (ODI), London, UK Tripp R. and S. Pal. 2001. The private delivery of public crop varieties: Rice in Andhra Pradesh. World Development Vol. 29. No. 1. Elsevier Science Ltd.
80 Vandenbosch T., P. Taylor, J. Beniest and A. Bekele-Tesema. 2002. Farmers of the future: A strategy for action. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). Nairobi, Kenya. Wass P. 1999. Kenya’s forests are disappearing: So what? East African Wildlife Society. Swara Magazine, April - September, 1999. Nairobi, Kenya. Wightman K.E. 1999. Good tree nursery practices: Practical guidelines for community nurseries. ICRAF, Nairobi.
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APPENDIX Appendix 1: Survey checklist for nursery operators The objective of this survey is to provide information on access, quality and pathways of germplasm for agroforestry tree species through informal systems (apart from government and organizations). We are encouraging nursery operators to fill in this questionnaire and all information will be handled confidentially. Your collaboration will be highly esteemed.
1. Interview schedule no _________ 2. Name of nursery __________________________________ 3. Location of the nursery Village ___________________ District ______________ Division ____________ Location ___________ 4. Name of nursery operator ___________________________ (male/female)________
Sex
5. Age 56 _______ 6. Level of education None _____ Primary _____ Tertially/college ___________________
Secondary ______
7. For the species you have in stock currently please give the following details Species
Seed supplier
Seed sources
Amount of seeds procured*
Pretreatment method (if any)
Number of seedlings germinated*
* Used to calculate the % germination the nursery operator achieved
8. Please give the origin of the seeds for species that are not currently in stock Species
Seed origin Own Neighbours farm
Forest
Market
KFSC/ICRAF/ NGO (specify)
Seed dealer
9. When do you go sourcing out for seeds? – 1. Anytime, 2. When less busy, 3. When in season, 4. In the dry season 5. In the sowing season ______________________________ 10. Do you place orders for seeds or just procure when needed? __________________________________________________________________ 11. How do you ascertain whether seed is good before buying? __________________
82 12. Is there a seed dealer you stop dealing with? Yes/No If yes how many and what reason(s) ___________________________________________________________
13. Do you store your seeds after procurement Yes/no If yes what are the storage facilities? ____________________________________ Do you test the seed later after the storage? Yes/no ____ Which method do you use? ______________________________________________________________ 14. What do you consider as the qualities of a good seed dealer 1. Lowest price 2. Information on the seeds supplied 3. Ensured high germination rates 4. Others (specify) 15. What are the major problems with seed supplied by dealers and what solutions would you suggest? Problem Suggested solution (s)
16. If seeds have been procured from organizations other than private dealers (such as KEFRI, Forest department etc), how do you compare the seeds of organizations with that of seed dealers? [Compare from one species which you have acquired from different sources or give general view] Supplier \ Price of Germination Parameter seeds rates Seed dealers KEFRI/KFSC Forest Department Ministry of Agric Other NGO (specify) Others
Seedling quality
Delivery time when by order
Other
17. Do you access enough seeds of all species you require to satisfy the demand of seedlings by your clients (yes/no) 18. If not, what species have shortfalls __________________________ ____________________________________________________________
83 19. Are there any species with excess supply of seeds Yes/No __________ If yes, what species and what do you do with the surplus seeds ____________________________________________________ 20. Any other comments on seed supply ____________________________________ 21. Please give us the contacts of your seed suppliers Name
Area of operation
Contact address (telephone if possible)
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ASSISTANCE
84 Appendix 2: Survey questionnaire for seed dealers and nursery operators who collect seeds for themselves The objective of this survey is to provide information on access, quality and pathways of germplasm for agroforestry tree species through informal systems (apart from government and organizations). We are encouraging seed dealers to fill in this questionnaire and all information will be handled confidentially. Your collaboration will be highly esteemed.
Background details 1. Questionnaire number __________________ 2. Name of seed dealer ____________________ Sex (male/female)________ 3. Age 56 _______ 4. Level of education None _____ Tertially ___________________
Primary _____
Secondary ______
5. District ______________ Division ____________ Location ___________ 6. How did you get into the seed business 1. Worked in forestry related issues 2. Interaction with MoARD staff activities 3. Initiated through NGOs 4. Used to operate nursery 5. For the love of trees 6. Other (specify) ____________________________________ 7. For how long have you been doing this business? Number of years _________ 8. Have you ever attended any course on seed harvesting or technology or related issues. Yes/No _______ If yes please give details in the table below Course Who offered Duration Details of content
9. What in your opinion constitutes good quality seeds _______________________
Seed stock and collection details 10. For the species currently in stock please give these details Seed supplied (botanical name or local name)
Collector
Seed origin (give physical location where applicable)
Self
Native (forest)
Others
Own farm
Market
KFSC (NGO specify)
Other
Quantity kgs
85 11.
For the species whose seeds you collect yourself, please fill in the next table
Species name
No. of mother trees
Average distance (m)
Seed harvesting methods Ground Crown
Why this number of mother trees
What criteria do you use to select mother trees from which to obtain seeds?
12.
(Interviewer not to give the criteria but let them come from the seed dealers) Selection criteria Tree species Fruit Fast Straight Resistance Mature quality growing stem to pest tree
Other (specify)
NB: Tick for all criteria used
13.
Do you bulk seeds collected from various sources? Yes no. Give reasons _____ __________________________________________________________________
For seeds procured from others 14. Do you inquire on where the seeds were collected and the mother tree details? _ __________________________________________________________________ 15.
How do you know that the seeds you are buying are good enough ___________
16.
Do you carry out any test on the seeds you deal with and how frequently? _____ _________________________________________________________________
17.
Do you have any contracted people who supply seeds of particular species to you? If yes, do you have access to their seed sources or do you ascertain details on the mother trees they collect from? Give details ________________________
Seed storage details 18.
Do you store seeds? Yes / No ______ If yes, please fill the following table for the species whose seeds you store
Name of seed species
Method of storage
Period of storage
Quality verification method
Clients demand, supply and feedback information 19. What species have the greatest demand ________________________________
86 20. Who are your main clients and what is their proportionate turn-over for top three species Species
Client Farmers Schools NGOs Nursery operators Others (specify) Farmers Schools NGOs Nursery operators Others (specify)
Amount
Cost/amount
% turn-over*
* To calculate 21. Which is the peak demand season/trend for your seeds? _________________________ How do you determine when to collect/procure seeds? ____________________ 22. In your opinion, do you meet the demand by supplying enough of the species clients need? Yes/No _____ If no what species have shortfalls ____________________________________ 23. Are there species in demand that you can not get seeds of? Which species and what are possible suggestions you can give _____________________________ 24. Do you know which environmental conditions match every seedlot you have? Yes/No. How would that information help you __________________________ 25. Do you supply any information on the seeds/species when supplying - please give details _________________________________________________________ 26. Do you inquire from your clients where they will plant the seeds? What kind of information do you seek from them and how is it useful __________________ 27. Do you inquire for feedback from clients on the seed performance either in the nurseries or fields? Yes/No How would that information help you _____________ 28. Do you see the demand for tree seed increasing or decreasing ___________ How are you adjusting to the trend? _________________________________ Linkage and network details 29. Do you know of any other seed dealers operating around? Yes/No How do you interact with each other ______________________________________________ 30. Do you have an association of seed dealers Yes/no If yes how has the association helped you _____________________________ If no do you think such an association would be of help to you in this business? Please explain _________________________________________________
87
31. Do you relate with the Kenya forestry seed center or any other organization dealing with seeds Yes /No If yes how has the relationship helped you? __________________________ If no do you think such a relationship would be of help to you in this business? Please explain __________________________________________________ 32.
What are the major constraints in the seed business? Suggest ways in which they can be solved ____________________________________________
33.
Any other comments about seed supply ____________________________ __________________________________________________________________
Thank you for taking your time to answer the questions. We would like to carry some of the seeds you have in stock to help us in comparison with those we have at our stores. We are willing to pay for the quantities we will carry and to communicate the results of our study to you when it’s complete. We also wish to come and collect some more seeds later (after six months) for further comparisons. THANK YOU FOR YOUR ASSISTANCE
88 Appendix 3: List of nurseries interviewed in the study and their localities Nursery name
District
Division
Location
Wakulima Youth Group
Vihiga
Luanda
West Bunyole
Shinda women group
Vihiga
Luanda
West Bunyole
Jua Kali Nursery
Vihiga
Luanda
South Bunyole
Wilfred Nursery
Vihiga
Tiriki West
Taboa
Equator Nursery
Vihiga
Tiriki West
Taboa
Luero Agroforestry Youth Group
Siaya
Yala
Yala Township
Wangneno Mbalawandu Youth
Kisumu
Maseno
N. W. Kisumu
Impala Park
Kisumu
Impala
Milimani
Kinda Self Help Tree Nursery project
Kisumu
Winam
Kanyakwar
Mukoya tree nursery
Kisumu
Impala
Milimani
Museum Junction Garden Nursery
Kisumu
Impala
Milimani
Nairobi route nursery
Kisumu
Impala
Milimani
Mama Flower nursery
Kisumu
Winam
Milimani
Nyalenda Tree nursery
Kisumu
Winam
West Kolwa
Mary Nurseries
Kisumu
Winam
West Kolwa
St Judes Tree nursery
Kisumu
Winam
West Kolwa
St Andrew Tree nursery
Kisumu
Winam
West Kolwa
Police line Tree nursery
Kisumu
Winam
West Kolwa
Kariero tree nursery
Kisumu
Winam
West Kolwa
Obila nursery
Kisumu
Winam
West Kolwa
Nkumbuku nursery
Meru North
Muthaara
Athwana
Magaju nursery
Meru Central
Abo. Central
Ruiri
Bundi nursery
Meru Central
Abo. Central
Ruiri
Kireria Nursery
Meru Central
Buuri
Naari
Stephen M'Ikiao nursery
Meru Central
Kibirichia
Kibirichia
Athiri Gakando Group nursery
Meru Central
Kibirichia
Ntugi
Kipkona Group nursery
Meru Central
Kibirichia
Ntumburi
Zakayo Karuntimi nursery
Meru Central
Abo. West
Katheri Central
Karugwa tree nursery
Meru Central
Abo. West
Githongo East
Western Kenya
Meru
89 Nkubu Associated nurseries
Meru Central
Nkuene
Kathera
Kirindini Murithi Nursery
Meru Central
Nkuene
Mikumbuni
Kithua nursery
Meru Central
M. M. East
Nyaki
Joel Nursery
Meru Central
M. M. East
Munithu
Daniel's nursery
Meru Central
M. M. West
Ntima
Farm work nursery
Meru Central
M. M. West
Ntima
Murea seedlings
Meru Central
M. M. West
Ntima
Njuri Ncheke Museum nursery
Meru North
Uringu
Nkomo
Kirera Nursery
Meru Central
Abo. West
Kithurine West
Kamau nursery
Meru Central
Buuri
Naari
Kangau Youth group nursery
Meru Central
Timau
Kangau
Njoma tree nursery
Kiambu
Limuru
Ngarariga
Grace nurseries
Kiambu
Lari
Lari
Roromo nurseries
Kiambu
Lari
Gitithua
Tigoni Chief's nursery
Kiambu
Limuru
Tigoni
Mombasa Road Nursery
Machakos
Athi river
Mavoko
Athi River Tree Nursery
Machakos
Athi river
Mavoko
Mugesan Nurseries
Kajiado
Ngong
Rongai
Kiserian Nursery
Kajiado
Ngong
Kiserian
Saitoti nurseries
Kajiado
Ngong
Kiserian
Kimani nurseries
Kajiado
Ngong
Ngong
Juja nurseries
Thika
Ruiru
Juja
Mutuku's nursery trees and flowers
Thika
Ruiru
Ruiru
Ricinus nursery
Nairobi
Kasarani
Githurai
Survey nursery
Nairobi
Kasarani
Survey
Francista Nurseries
Nairobi
Dagoretti
Jamhuri
Children Garden nursery
Nairobi
Dagoretti
Riruta
Dakikas Nursery
Nairobi
Langata
Bomas
Daffodils Nursery
Nairobi
Langata
Karen
Green nursery Gitaru
Kiambu
Kikuyu
Muguga
Indigenous and exotic tree nursery
Kiambu
Kikuyu
Muguga
Nairobi
90 Appendix 4: List of seed dealers interviewed in the study and their localities Seed dealer name
District
Division
Location
Nkumbuku Silinga
Meru North
Muthaara
Athwana
Abraham Muthee Kailemia
Meru North
Muthaara
Kitherene
Nyaga and Kinoti
Meru Central
MM West
Ntima
Stephen M'Ikiao
Meru Central
Kibirichia
Kibirichia
Benjamin Mutembei
Meru Central
North Imenti
Nyaki
M'Makinya M'Mungania
Meru Central
North Imenti
Nyaki
Reuben Meme
Meru Central
MM West
Ntima
Paul Muthuri
Meru Central
Buuri
Naari
Murugu M'Rintaara
Meru Central
Abo West
Marathi
M'Anampiu M'Nkanatha
Meru Central
Abo West
Ntugi
Christopher Liyala
Busia
Butula
Marachi Central
Wilfred Egesa
Busia
Matayos
Bahayo South
Peter Ogola Makokha
Busia
Matayos
Nangoma
Titus Mutoka
Busia
Nambale
Nambale Township
Alfred George Etiang'o
Busia
Nambale
Nambale Township
James Murende
Kakamega
Shinyalu
Isukha Central
Agnes Nekesa
Trans Nzoia
Kwanza
Bwayi
Angela Nekesa
Trans Nzoia
Sabaoti
Waitalu
Zakayo Kwendo
Vihiga
Luanda
S. Bunyole
Luka Echenye
Vihiga
Luanda
S. Bunyole
Protus Simiyu
Nairobi
Langata
Philip Kahia
Kiambu
Limuru
Limuru
Muturi Kinuthia
Kiambu
Kiambaa
Karuri
Peter Ndungu
Kiambu
Kiambaa
Karuri
Patrick Kimwana
Kiambu
Kikuyu
Gitaru
Chrysanthus Mabeya
Kiambu
Kikuyu
Muguga
Harrison Karanja
Kiambu
Kiambaa
Kiambaa
Munyao Ndolo
Nairobi
Langata
Kibera
David Magichu
Kiambu
Limuru
Limuru
Silas Ojienda
Nairobi
Dagoretti
Riruta
Meru
Western Kenya
Nairobi
91 Appendix 5: ANOVA table of the achieved germination rates given as percentage of expected germination rates as given in literature Sum of Squares Between Groups (Combined)
33759.309
df Mean Square 7
Within Groups
1023173.958 183
Total
1056933.267 190
F
Sig.
4822.758 0.863 0.537 5591.115
Appendix 6: ANOVA on Seedling heights (mm) of Eucalyptus saligna procured from Meru and western Kenya seed dealers and Cupressus lusitanica procured from peri-urban Nairobi seed dealers after 60 days in the nursery Area / species Meru (Eucalyptus saligna) Western Kenya (Eucalyptus saligna) Peri-Nairobi (Cupressus lusitanica)
Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total
Sum of Squares 24653.2 195875.5 220528.7 7526.2 89184.1 96710.3 50091.4 53842.3 103933.7
df
Mean Square 5 4930.6 174 1125.7 179 5 1505.2 174 512.6 179 5 10018.3 294 183.1 299
F
Sig.
4.4 0.001 2.9 0.014 54.7 0.000
92 Appendix 7: Species shortfalls in nurseries compared species whose seeds are procured in excess and species with rare seed access in Meru, peri-urban Nairobi and western Kenya No No of of Species with seed nurs Species with excess nurs Species with scarcity eries of seeds eries supply of seeds shortfalls Acacia melanoxylon 1 Acacia mearnsii 1 Acacia sp
No of nurs eries 1
Acacia sp
2
Acacia sp
3
Albizia sp
1
Acrocarpus fraxinifolia Adansonia digitata
2
1
Araucaria cucii
1
1
Acrocarpus fraxinifolia Albizia sp
2
Araucaria sp
5
Albizia chinensis
1
Aleurites moluccana
1
Azandrachta indica
5
Aleurites moluccana
1
Annona sp
1
Brachleana hutchinsii
1
Aningeria adolfifriedericii Araucaria cucii
1
Araucaria spp
3
Calistemon citrina
1
1
Azandrachta indica
4
Calliandra calothyrsus
2
Araucaria sp
1
Bauhinia sp
1
Callistris robusta
1
Atrocarpus eterophyla Azandrachta indica
1
Bischofia japonica
4
Casia sp
1
1
Calistemon citrina
5
Chlorophora excelsa
1
Bischofia japonica
3
3
Cupressus lusitanica
1
Calistemon citrina
4
Calliandra calothyrsus Carica papaya
5
Cupressus pyramidalis
6
Calliandra calothyrsus Callistus robusta
30
1 5
Cupressus sempervirens Delonix regia
2
7
Casuarina equisetifolia Citrus sinensis
1
Carica papaya
6
Citrus sp
1
Clonal Eucalyptus spp
1
Casuarina equisetifolia
32
Cordia africana
4
Eucalyptus grandis
1
Citrus sinensis
7
1
2
Entandophragma angolense Fagara macrophyla
1
Cordia Africana
Croton macrostachyus Croton megalocarpus
Croton megalocarpus Cuppressus lusitanica Cyphomandra betaceae
1
Cupressus lusitanica
7
Ficus benjamina
2
16
1
Ficus sp
2
2
Filicium decipiens
1
Delonix regia
5
3
Hevea brasiliensis
1
Dovyalis caffra
29
Cupressus pyramidalis Cupressus sempervirens Cyphomandra betacea Delonix regia
1
Leucaena trichandra
1
1
1
1
93 Ehretia cymosa
1
Dovyalis caffra
10
Teclea nobilis
1
Eucalyptus globulus
1
Eriobotrya japonica
2
Newtonia buchananii
2
Eucalyptus maculata
1
Erythrina sp
1
Ocotea usambarensis
1
Eucalyptus saligna
36
2
Olea capensis
2
Ficus benjamina
6
Eucalyptus camandulensis Eucalyptus globulus
2
Olea europaea
3
Grevillea robusta
57
Eucalyptus saligna
4
Phoenix reclinata
3
Hakea saligna
2
Eucalyptus sp
2
Pinus spp
1
Jacaranda mimosifolia Juniperus procera
9
Fagara macrophyla
1
Podocarpus sp
2
2
Ficus benjamina
2
Prunus africana
3
Leucaena leucocephala Lovoa swynnertonii
5
Filicium decipiens
2
Schinus molle
1
1
Grevillea robusta
2
Terminalia mantaly
1
Macadamia tetraphyla Maesopsis eminii
1
Hagenia abbysinica
1
Terminalia sp
1
1
Hakea saligna
1
Trichilia emetica
2
Malus sylvestris
3
5
Warbugia ugandensis
1
Mangifera indica
8
Jacaranda mimosifolia Juniperus procera
1
Ashoka tree†
1
Markhamia lutea
8
Leucaena trichandra
1
Flowers
1
Melia azedarach
1
1
Indigenous species
3
Moringa oleifera
1
Macadamia tetraphyla Maesopsis eminii
1
Thuiya†
1
Newtonia buchananii 1
Mangifera indica
3
Timber species
1
Olea capensis
3
Markhamia lutea
4
Olea europaea
6
Melia azedarach
1
Passiflora edulis
4
Milettia dura
2
Persea americana
13
Ocotea usambarensis
1
Phoenix reclinata
2
Olea capensis
3
Pinus patula
6
Olea africana
2
Podocarpus sp
6
Phoenix reclinata
1
Prunus africana
8
Passiflora edulis
4
Pyrus communis
2
Persea americana
5
Schinus molle
3
Pinus patula
2
Senna siamea
4
Podocarpus falcatus
4
Senna spectabilis
3
Polyscias kikuyuensis
1
94
†
Spathodea nilotica
6
Prunus aricana
10
Tamarindus indica
1
Psidium guajava
1
Teclea nobilis
1
Pyracanthus sp
1
Terminalia brownii
2
Schinus molle
1
Terminalia catappa
6
Senna spectabilis
4
Terminalia mantaly
12
Senna spp
1
Tipuana tipu
1
Sesbania sesban
1
Trichilia emetica
1
Spathodea nilotica
3
Vitex kenienis
10
Terminalia catappa
1
Warbugia ugandensis Zizygium guajava
1
Terminalia mantaly
2
1
Tipuana tipu
1
Zizyphus cuminii
1
Trichilia emetica
2
Vangueria sp
1
Vitex keniensis
5
Warbugia ugandensis
5
Xanthoxylum usambarense
2
Ashoka tree† Pastacia †
1 1
It was difficult to identify species’ botanical name and there was no seedling sample present in the nurseries to help with the identification
95
Appendix 8: Species with seed shortfalls and rare seed access in the surveyed sites as given by seed dealers
Species shortfalls
Number of responses
Scarce species
Number of responses
Calliandra calothyrsus
3
Araucaria sp
2
Casuarina equisetifolia
1
Azandrachta indica
2
Cupressus lusitanica
1
Calliandra calothyrsus
1
Dovyalis caffra
4
Casuarina equisetifolia
1
Eucalyptus saligna
1
Cupresus pyramidalis
1
Grevillea robusta
11
Cupressus sempervirens
2
Pinus patula
3
Eucalyptus sp
1
Prunus africana
1
Gliricidia sepium
1
Pyracantha coccinea
1
Grevillea robusta
3
Trichilia roka
1
Markhamia lutea
1
Olea capensis
2
Pinus patula
5
Prunus africana
1
Phoenix reclinata
1
Terminalia sp
1
Vitex keniensis
1
Waburgia ugandensis
2
Thuya
1
Indigenous species
2
96 Appendix 9: Frequencies of species mentioned as among the top three most dealt with by seed dealers
זּ
Frequency Percentageזּ
Species
Indigenous/exotic
Araucaria sp
Exotic
1
1
Calistemon citrina
Exotic
1
1
Calliandra calothyrsus
Exotic
7
6
Casuarina equisetifolia
Exotic
2
2
Cordia africana
Indigenous
1
1
Crotalaria grahamiana
Indigenous
1
1
Cupressus lusitanica
Exotic
9
8
Dovyalis caffra
Exotic
19
16
Eucalyptus sp
Exotic
27
4
Grevillea robusta
Exotic
28
24
Leucaena sp
Exotic
3
3
Maesopsis eminii
Indigenous
2
2
Markhamia lutea
Indigenous
2
2
Mimosa sp
Exotic
1
1
Moringa oleifera
Exotic
1
1
Olea capensis
Indigenous
2
2
Pinus patula
Exotic
3
3
Pyracantha coccinea
Exotic
1
1
Sesbania sesban
Indigenous
1
1
Teclea nobilis
Indigenous
1
1
Tephrosia vogelii
Indigenous
1
1
Terminalia mantaly
Exotic
1
1
Vitex keniensis
Indigenous
2
2
Percentages are given as the proportion of the frequency of the species out of the total number of timber al species are mentioned and not as percentage of the number of seed dealers
