Linking land to ocean: feedbacks in the management of socio ...

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Linking land to ocean: feedbacks in the management of socio-ecological systems in the Great Barrier Reef catchments. Authors ... Iain J. GordonEmail author.
Hydrobiologia (2007) 591:25–33 DOI 10.1007/s10750-007-0781-8

SOFT-BOTTOM NEAR-SHORE ECOSYSTEMS

Linking land to ocean: feedbacks in the management of socio-ecological systems in the Great Barrier Reef catchments Iain J. Gordon

 Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007 Abstract The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) off Australia’s northeast coast is one of the natural wonders of the world. As a consequence it has high value, not only for biodiversity, but also for tourists who come to see the GBR and the biodiversity associated with it, bringing in over A$3.5B per annum to the Australian economy. However, there are a number of natural and anthropogenic factors that are threatening the health of the reef ecosystems. One of the major anthropogenic factors is the impact of sediments and nutrients that run off the land, via the rivers, into the lagoon of the reef. Extensive beef production is one of the major land uses of the GBR catchment, and brings in over $1B to the national economy annually and employs nearly 9,000 people, many of them in rural communities. Over 70% of terrestrial sediments and nutrients deposited in the GBR lagoon affecting the health of vulnerable reef ecosystems originate from the extensive grazing lands of Queensland’s interior. Recent research indicates that the quantity of sediments and nutrients lost from these grazing Guest editors: Frank van Langevelde and Herbert Prins Resilience and Restoration of Soft-Bottom Near-Shore Ecosystems I. J. Gordon (&) Sustainable Ecosystems, CSIRO – Davies Laboratory, PMB PO Aitkenvale, QLD 4814, Australia e-mail: [email protected]

lands is strongly dependent upon grazing management practices; grazing leads to degradation of soil and vegetation resources, reduced infiltration and vegetation production. This has led to a growing concern amongst the Australian public about the environmental performance of the beef industry and increasing pressures on graziers to change their management practices to decrease the off-farm impacts. Given the constraints within the system improvements in water quality draining into the GBR lagoon can best be achieved by demonstrating the productivity and economic benefits of science-based improved grazing management practices for graziers, leading to ‘‘AllWin’’ outcomes for all concerned. In the longer term, only when the range of stakeholders involved approach catchments as linked biophysical, social and economic systems, will truly integrated adaptive catchment management be applied to the GBR. Keywords Sediment  Nutrient  Coral reef  Grazing  Marine  Aquatic

Introduction With a few notable exceptions the world’s catchments drain into the sea; the areas that these catchments drain range from the Amazon with a catchment of 7 million square kilometres to small

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catchments near the coast of only a few square kilometres in extent. The fresh water flowing down these rivers mixes with the salt water of the sea, and alters the salinity of the coastal waters. The extent to which this happens depends upon the quantity of water (volume and rate) flowing down the rivers; so for example, the Amazon reduces the salinity of the sea for up to 800 km from the river mouth. However, this is not the only impact that the water from rivers has on the sea: rivers also carry with them material from the land. This material can be wastes such as sewerage, insecticides or pesticides and soil (sediments) and nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorous. These wastes, sediments and nutrients are deposited by the rivers into estuaries and coastal waters, and can be spread far and wide by coastal/ocean currents. Despite the fact that the saltwater of the marine systems dilute the outflow of freshwater from the streams and rivers it can still have impacts upon marine ecosystems, particularly those near shore or coastal ecosystems, for example seagrass beds and inshore reefs (Fabricius & De’ath, 2004; Fabricius, 2005; Fabricius et al., 2005). This inter-linkage between terrestrial systems and marine systems, via networks of streams and rivers, means that what happens on the land, for example farming and forestry practices, urbanisation, fire and storm can have a profound effect on marine ecosystems. It is this inter-linkage that I will discuss below; using the catchments that feed into the lagoon of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) off the Queensland coast of Australia I will put forward a framework in which I argue that, whilst feedback and linkages occur in the biophysical system, these are only rudimentary for the socio-economic systems, and this leads to negative impacts of land use practices upstream on the goods and services provided downstream.

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ecosystems have a complex interdependent relationship with the adjacent coastal river catchments with over 30 major rivers and hundreds of small streams draining into the GBR lagoon. The linkages of the catchment to reef continuum are not simply downstream with the flow of sediments and nutrients, but also involve migrations of many species, such as fish, between coastal marine habitats and inland waterways and wetlands (Fig. 2). Tourism is the major employer with the flow-on effects of the use of the reef underpinning a significant portion of Queensland’s regional economy (Productivity Commission, 2003), particularly on the coasts, employing approximately 43,000 people and adding A$3.5B annually to the local economy (Access Economics, 2005). There are also indirect use values provided by the GBR, such as the ecosystem services (e.g., shoreline protection, maintenance of biological diversity, waste assimilation and reception, visual amenity, and lifestyle values), existence, and bequest values. The catchments that feed into the GBR lagoon extend over 1,500 km from Bundaberg in the south to the tip of Cape York in the north. This vast area extends from the tropics into the subtropics with associated changes in rainfall patterns. In the north the rainfall is typical of the wet tropics with annual rainfalls of over 2 m, however, south of about Ingham (100 km north of Townsville) the rainfall patterns change into those typical of the dry tropics, with annual rainfall of approximately 500 mm the majority of which falls in a distinct wet season (December– April), and where there is high inter-annual variation in rainfall. As such the rivers that drain the wet tropics area flow all year round, whereas those in the dry tropics are highly ephemeral, pulsed systems.

Trends in land use change The GBR and its catchments The GBR, on the north-eastern Australian continental shelf, is the largest system of coral reefs in the world; including approximately 3,000 reefs, covering an area of about 350,000 km2 (Craik, 1992; Wachenfeld et al., 1998; Fig. 1). The reef

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The GBR catchments have been extensively modified since European settlement by forestry, urbanisation and agriculture (Gilbert et al., 2003). Grazing is the largest single land use on the catchments with cropping, mainly of sugarcane, and urban/residential development considerably

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Fig. 1 The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area and its catchments

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Rangeland

Floodplain

Lagoon

Water, sediment, nutrients, pollutants Biophysical feedback Fish

Fig. 2 Catchments are linked biophysical systems showing the major ecosystems, and biophysical and ecological feedbacks within and between these ecosystems

less in aerial extent (Fig. 3). Hydrological modification of the coastal floodplain has resulted in a 70–80% loss or degradation of wetland systems in most of the GBR catchments (Finlayson &

Lukacs, 2001). Loss of riparian vegetation in both the rangelands and cropping lands and agricultural expansion into areas of acid sulphate soils that drain into the reef has also been extensive (Sammut et al., 1996). The sugarcane cultivation area has increased steadily over the last 100 years with a total of 390,000 ha reached by 1997 (Gilbert et al., 2003). Fertiliser use is concomitant with sugarcane cultivation; therefore, with continuously increasing sugarcane cultivation area there has been a rapid increase in fertiliser use. The use of pesticides is also significant in areas of crop cultivation. Both the cotton and horticultural industries (particularly bananas) have undertaken considerable expansion in the coastal catchments (Gilbert et al., 2003).

Fig. 3 Land use cover in the catchments that feed into the lagoon of the GBR

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The Queensland population is concentrated in several major cities and numerous urban centres along the coast. Five of the six major trading ports of Queensland are located adjacent to or within the reef region. The urban population on the coastal plain in the region is expanding (Gilbert et al., 2003), causing further losses of floodplain wetlands. Urban stormwater, that is primarily untreated, is discharged into the inshore GBR lagoon. Other activities, such as urban sewerage treatment plants and aquaculture facilities, contribute only a relatively small amount of nutrients to the GBR lagoon; however, this may be significant at a local scale. Aquaculture along the GBR coast is an expanding industry and, therefore, has the potential to be a significant source of nutrients to the reef in the future (Boyd, 2003). With significant population growth occurring in Queensland’s coastal zone, local governments face the challenge of balancing the demands of economic development associated with changes in land use, shifts in agricultural activity and urban and industrial expansion with maintenance of healthy coastal and marine ecosystems in the GBR.

Major challenges The water quality of the coastal zone of the GBR is adversely impacted by: increasing sediment, nutrient and other pollutants and significant alterations to the hydrodynamic regime of the floodplain (freshwater, estuarine, and marine) associated with land use practices and urbanisation on the land. A review of available information by the Independent GBR Reef Protection Interdepartmental Committee Science Panel (2003), generally referred to as the ReefPlan (Anon, 2003), found that: •

Land-use, primarily agriculture, delivers most of the pollution loads to the GBR whilst sewage discharges contribute less than 3% to the overall nutrient load to the GBR lagoon. These land use practices have led to accelerated soil erosion, and increased fertiliser and pesticide leakage to the aquatic system. The current estimates indicate that there has been

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at least a 6-fold increase in sediments, nutrients, and pesticides delivery to the reef as compared to pre-European settlement values (Brodie et al., 2003); •

Water discharged from rivers in flood flow extends, as a plume, over the inshore lagoon of the GBR, and may reach mid- and outershelf reefs depending on the weather conditions. The concentrations of pollutants, such as dissolved inorganic N, in these river plumes are typically 10–50 times the ambient concentrations and exceed the trigger levels for environmental harm on corals, seagrasses and algae (Furnas, 2003);



Inshore coral reefs and seagrass beds have evolved in the presence of natural levels of freshwater, nutrients and sediments. However, extended periods of freshwater inundation along with high sediment and nutrient loads can damage the integrity and functionality of coastal reefs and seagrass beds. The longerterm effects of eutrophication on inshore coral reefs are only just becoming evident to the scientific community after a decade of monitoring (Fabricius, 2005).

The ReefPlan highlights the fact that the majority of the sediments and nutrients that are delivered into the lagoon are derived from the extensive grazing lands in the upper parts of the catchments, particularly, the dry tropics (i.e., the Fitzroy and the Burdekin rivers) (Fig. 1). In the next section I will highlight how grazing management practices affect the water quality of the lagoon and how a scientific understanding of the processes involved can help to improve the offfarm impacts of grazing practices.

Grazing and erosion Grazing land covers over 90% of the GBR catchment (Fig. 3). Beef cattle numbers are currently approximately 4,500,000, with the highest stock numbers in the Fitzroy and Burdekin catchments. Beef production brings in over $1B

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to the national economy annually and employs approximately 9,000 people, many of them in rural communities (Productivity Commission, 2003). The majority of beef production occurs on extensive systems on large properties that have relatively low levels of infrastructure (dams and fencing) with stocking rates of generally one animal unit per 10ha. A smaller portion of the land is in either semi-extensive beef production or dairy systems, following an increasing rainfall gradient. The majority of terrestrial sediments and nutrients deposited in the GBR originate from the extensive grazing lands of the Queensland interior (Roth et al., 2003). The Burdekin River, for example, delivers over 3.77 million tonnes of fine sediments along with 8,633 tonnes of N and 1,338 tonnes of P per annum (Furnas, 2003); the estimate for the Fitzroy River is approximately 2 million tonnes of sediments per year (Christensen and Rodgers, 2004). There is growing concern amongst the Australian public about the environmental performance of the beef industry, both onand off-farm. On-farm degradation of soil and water resources (impaired soil biological function, depletion of organic matter and nutrient holding capacity, soil acidification, erosion, compaction and rising water tables and salinization) are threats to future productivity and profitability, whilst off-farm impacts include the export of sediments and nutrients to the GBR lagoon. This had lead to increasing pressures on graziers to change their management practices to decrease the off-farm impacts (Anon, 2003). The variable and unpredictable climate of the eastern coast of Queensland further exacerbates the problems faced by pastoralists attempting to make a sustainable livelihood in the face of uncertainty of forage supply during the dry season and between good and bad rainfall years. A couple of drivers lead to the overall degradation of the rangeland systems in the catchments that feed into the GBR lagoon: (1) the unpredictability of the amount of rain that will fall and the length of the rainy season and the possibility of rain falling during the dry season; (2) graziers tend to be over-optimistic as to rainfall and maintain stock levels above that which can be carried over the dry season, using supplementa-

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tion to buffer against reduced pasture resource levels which further impacts on the remaining vegetation. This strategy, exacerbated by government drought relief policies (which subsidise supplementary feeds; http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/ drought/), leads to pasture degradation reducing the long-term carrying capacity of the land, through excessive grazing, reducing perennial grass cover and increasing soil loss in the rivers. Not only does this reduce the viability of grazing enterprises but it also has a negative impact on reef ecosystems, reducing the value of the reef as a repository of biodiversity from which high tourist revenue is returned. As with the rest of agriculture, the beef industry has suffered declining terms of trade that is likely to continue in the future creating the need for increased productivity and/or structural adjustments through changed ownership or tenure arrangements. Intensification options to increase productivity are likely to lead to greater environmental impact unless there is some control over the implementation of the intensification. The degree to which statutory instruments (carrot or stick) will be able to be used to change management practices will, to a certain extent, depend upon the land tenure system in operation on a given property. Currently nearly 45% of the land within the catchments flowing into the GBR lagoon is held as freehold as compared to 42% as leasehold. The proportion of freehold to leasehold land varies across the region with a greater proportion in freehold in the Fitzroy and vice-a-versa for the Burdekin. With the current uncertainty as to the future of leasehold land and the conditions associated with lease renewal it is likely that there will be increasing pressures to change management practices to meet the requirements for land stewardship on both leasehold (Neldner, 2006). To date most of the efforts at tackling off-farm impacts have been issue rather than systems driven and have focused in a negative, compliance driven way rather than linking the adoption of best management practice and system level property planning. It is my view that improvements in water quality draining into the GBR lagoon can best be achieved by demonstrating the productivity and economic benefits of science-based improved grazing management practices. The basis of these

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Erosion Vegetation production Vegetation cover Livestock density Biodiversity

Macropod density

Livestock production

Enterprise, regional & national economics

Fig. 4 The relationship between vegetation cover, hydrological function and enterprise economics in the extensive livestock grazing systems of eastern Queensland

improved grazing management practices is an understanding of the relationship between vegetation cover and system dynamics (Fig. 4) and improving the prediction of future rainfall patterns. Vegetation, particularly perennial grasses act to retard the flow of water across the landscape (Ludwig et al., 2005). Slowing down the flow of water increases the proportion of the water that infiltrates into the ground and reduces the amount of sediment lost from the land, into streams (creeks), rivers and eventually into the GBR lagoon. Heavy livestock grazing pressure reduces perennial grass cover leading to a change in vegetation composition towards annual grasses. This leaves the ground without vegetation cover during the dry season when the annuals die back (Northup et al., 2005) making it more vulnerable to loss of water and soil when the rainy season starts. This response is likely to be non-linear (Rietkerk & Van de Koppel, 1997) with the system showing thresholds of vegetation cover below, which they collapse (McIvor & Scanlon, 1994). Re-establishing perennial grass cover on the paddock not only increases the amount of infiltration but also increases grass production leading, in turn, to higher animal production. The most effective way of achieving the improvement in vegetation cover and change from annual-dominated to perennialdominated grasslands is by resting the paddock during the wet season (wet season spelling) (Ash et al., 2001). Secondly, improving the prediction of future rainfall would give graziers a basis on which to set stocking levels and when to destack paddocks

on their enterprises. Many graziers now use the level of the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) as tool to judge the quality of the season (O’Reagain et al., 2005). However, there are limitations to the predictive capacity of SOI and new tools are being developed based on Sea Surface Temperature (SST; McIntosh et al., 2005) that promise to provide more accurate, web-based information to the graziers. Thus, knowledge of the system linkages and dynamics allows us to predict that there should be All Win scenarios, based on the management of vegetation cover, that increase the profit for the enterprise and, at the same time, reduce the amount of soil loss from the land and into the lagoon of the GBR (see http://www. mla.com.au/TopicHierarchy/InformationCentre/ Learning/Producertraining/EDGEnetwork workshops/NaturalResourceManagement/ Default.htm).

Developing an integrated catchment management system One of the fundamental problems underlying the management of the water quality within the lagoon of the GBR is that the management of the terrestrial and marine systems are not connected, the regional Natural Resource Management Catchments = source to edge of continental shelf

Rangeland

Floodplain

Lagoon

Water, sediment, nutrients, pollutants Biophysical feedback Fish Socio-economic feedback

Fig. 5 The future approach to truly integrated adaptive catchment management must view catchments as linked biophysical, social and economic systems. Here I advocate feedbacks within the socio-economic component of the system, where the downstream impacts affect the upstream land users rather than just vice-a-versa as has traditionally been the case

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bodies (e.g., Burdekin Dry Tropics Board, http:// www.burdekindrytropics.org.au/; Far North Queensland NRM, http://www.fnqnrm.com.au/) being responsible for the terrestrial components of the catchments and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/) is responsible for the lagoon and the GBR reefs. Given the existing links between land management practices in the catchment and increases in nutrient loads entering the GBR lagoon, the approach to the planning process requires a whole of system perspective, where the catchment is defined from the source of the rivers to the edge of the continental shelf (Fig. 5), and where the socioeconomic system feeds back to natural resource managers further up the catchment. This may involve internalising the externalities where land users are provided with incentives or pay the cost of any off-farm impacts that arise as a consequence of their management. For people on leaseholds this may be included in the leasehold agreement (Nelder, 2006), however, for those on free-hold, and the ability to influence management may be achieved only through legislation. Therefore, it is my view that, overcoming the fragmentation of jurisdictional and institutional responsibilities for catchment, integrated coastal and ocean management is necessary to effectively address declining water quality. While the ReefPlan (Anon, 2003) constitutes a commitment by governments, industry and the community, it is not a statutory document. The implementation of the Plan is funded through existing mechanisms by refocusing a range of government policies and programs and non-government initiatives, in particular the National Action Plan on Salinity and Water Quality (NAPSWQ; http://www.napswq.gov.au/) and the Natural Heritage Trust (NHT; http://www.nht.gov.au/) funds to achieve its objectives. A real challenge exists for governments and regions to harmonise bottom-up regional planning processes with the strategic goal of GBR catchment Reef Plan objectives within the existing institutional, legislative and policy operational arrangements. The successful implementation of the ReefPlan is reliant on community and industry uptake of improved land use practices. This process encompasses a highly variable hierarchy of economic, social and cultural drivers. For example, there

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currently exists a perception among land managers of a separation between upstream land management practices and their downstream impacts; there is also considerable concern within the agricultural sector that the protection of the reef would lead to increased regulation of their industries and affect their profitability. Only through changes in perception and policy, whereby there is feedback (positive and negative) between the downstream impacts and upstream land management practices (e.g., rewards, incentives or adding value to product) will a bottom up approach be sustainable. Otherwise, statutory instruments (e.g., fines, loss of leasehold) will have to be brought to bear to protect the GBR, which could lead to a further alienation of the agricultural sectors on the land and require huge amounts of money to implement, monitor and police. Let us hope that the people of Queensland can lead the world in developing truly, whole of catchment, adaptive community management of the GBR for the benefit of all. Acknowledgements This review is based on the work of CSIRO Water for a Healthy Country Flagship Program: GBR Node. I would like to thank the organisers (particularly Herbert Prins) of the Open Science Meeting held in Yogyakarta, Indonesia on the 27th September 2005 for their invitation to speak at the conference and for the Netherlands Royal Academy of Science for paying for my travel and accommodation. I would also like to thank two anonymous referees for their valuable comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.

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