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HUMAN HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSFORMATION Proceedings 3rd. International Conference on Human Habitat and Environment in the Malay World Puri Pujangga, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bangi, 19 - 20 June, 2012

Editors: Jamaluddin Md. Jahi Muhammad Rizal Razman Kadir Arifin Kadaruddin Aiyub Azahan Awang

Institute of the Malay World and Civilisation (ATMA) Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia AND Environmental Management Society (EMS) Malaysia

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HUMAN HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSFORMATION

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HUMAN HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSFORMATION Proceedings 3rd. International Conference on Human Habitat and Environment in the Malay World Puri Pujangga, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bangi, 19 - 20 June, 2012

Editors: Jamaluddin Md. Jahi Muhammad Rizal Razman Kadir Arifin Kadaruddin Aiyub Azahan Awang

Institute of the Malay World and Civilisation (ATMA) Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia AND Environmental Management Society (EMS) Malaysia Bangi 2012

iv

Institute of the Malay World and Civilisation (ATMA) Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan

© Institute of the Malay World and Civilisation (ATMA), UKM 2012

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or recording, without prior written permission from Institute of the Malay World and Civilisation (ATMA), UKM.

First Published 2012

Printed in Malaysia by: Pusat Fotokopi Kajang, No. 13, Jalan Hentian 3, Pusat Hentian Kajang, Jalan Reko, 43300 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, MALAYSIA

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia

Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

International Conference on Human Habitat and Environment in the Malay World/ (3rd.: 2012: Bangi, Selangor) Human Habitat and Environmental Transformation : proceedings of 3rd. International Conference on Human Habitat and Environment in the Malay World, Puri Pujangga, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, 19th. – 20th. June 2012 / editors Jamaluddin Md. Jahi --[et al.]; [organised by] Institute of the Malay World and Civilisation (ATMA), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and Environmental Management Society (EMS) Malaysia. ISBN 978-983-2457-48-0 1. 2. 3. 4. I. II. III. IV.

Human ecology -- Congresses Human beings – Effect of environment on -- Congresses Human settlements - Environment aspects – Congresses Environmental management – Congresses. Jamaluddin Md. Jahi, 1949-. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Institut Alam dan Tamadun Melayu. Persatuan Pengurusan Persekitaran Malaysia Title

307.14

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Contents Contents Preface

v ix KEYNOTE PAPERS

1.

Elfindri -- Geographical Disadvantage, Livelihood and Human Development

2.

Norizan Md. Nor -- Sustainable Urban Futures: Challenges, Opportunities and the Role of the Universities

3 13

Part I URBAN HUMAN HABITAT 3.

Md. Shahin Mia, Rawshan Ara Begum,, Er Ah Choy, Raja Zaharaton Raja Zainal Abidin & Joy Jacqueline Pereira -- Cost of Dengue Prevention In The Public Health System: The Case of Seremban District In Malaysia

25

4.

Zailiza S., Rajendran K., Mohan Dass K. & Mohd Helmi M. -- Awareness Regarding Dengue Fever and Related Preventive Practices Among Respondents Who Received Services from Government Departments in Seremban, Negeri Sembilan

35

5.

Christie Oluseyi Adebayo & Seow Ta Wee -- Comfort in Low Cost Houses: Theoretical Framework Development

41

6.

Ana Salwa Abdul Razak & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- Dengue Fever: A Comparison between Developed Country and Developing Country

53

7.

Rusli Zainal, Muhammad Rizal Razman & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- A Study on Urban Sustainability and the Principle of Transboundary Liability: The Power Approach Concept

61

8.

Chalid Sahuri & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- Public Service Bureaucracy in Pekanbaru, Riau Province, Indonesia

69

9.

Zaili Rusli & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- Poor Society Empowerment Programme in Kota Pekanbaru, Riau Province

77

10.

Samruhaizad Samian @ Samion & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- Evaluation of Quality of Life of Urban Population

93

11.

Mohamad Shaharudin Bin Samsurijan, Azahan Awang, Kadarudin Aiyub & Kadir Arifin -- The Concept of Urban Village: A Definition of Operations in the Context of a Study in Malaysia

107

vi

Part II RURAL HUMAN HABITAT 12.

Wedy Nasrul & Zulmardi -- Traditional Leadership Role Development in the Village of ‘Minangkabau’

121

13.

Noviarti, Jamaluddin Md. Jahi & Abd Rahim Md Nor -- Environmental Impact on Quality of Life: A Study on Fishing Community in West Sumatera, Indonesia

127

14.

Zuliskandar Ramli & Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman -- The Use of Local Materials in Construction of Candis in Pengkalan Bujang, Kedah

135

15.

Achmad Hidir -- Capital Penetration and its Impact on Customary Community in Indragiri Hulu Regency, Riau Province

161

16.

Ali Yusri & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- History and Development of Kepulauan Riau, Indonesia

171

17.

Swis Tantoro & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- Alleviation of Poverty in the Village of Limbungan, Rumbai Pesisir, Riau Province, Indonesia

185

18.

Yoserizal & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- Mantra Functions in the Petalangan Tribal Tradition

191

19.

Zurina Mahadi, Rabiatul Jannah Mohamad & Nor Azila Salim -- Traditional Village Significance in Sustainable Development

201

PART III URBAN ENVIRONMENT TRANSFORMATION 20.

Norrimi Rosaida Awang & Nor Azam Ramli -- Review of Fluctuation Ground Level Ozone Concentration and its Precursors in Peninsular Malaysia

211

21.

Mohd Hairy Ibrahim, Jamaluddin Md. Jahi & Abdul Samad Hadi -- Human Perception of the Effects of Urban Atmosphere Changes in Ipoh, Perak

219

22.

Ahmad Zia Ul-Saufie, Ahmad Shukri Yahya, Nor Azam Ramli & Hazrul Abdul Hamid -- The Application of Principal Component Analysis to Determine the Factors that Contribute to PM10 Concentrations at an Industrial Area

227

23.

Zul Azmi Mohtar, Noor Faizah Fitri Md Yusof, Nor Azam Ramli & Ahmad Shukri Yahya -- Ambient PM10 Concentration at Primary and Secondary Schools in Prai, Pulau Pinang

233

24.

Hazrul Abdul Hamid, Ahmad Shukri Yahaya, Nor Azam Ramli, Ahmad Zia Ul-Saufie - Moments or Probability Weighted Moments: The Suitable Method in PM10 Concentration Modelling by Using Three-Parameter Weibull Distribution

243

25.

Abdullah Sulaiman, Muhammad Rizal Razman, Jamaluddin Md. Jahi & Abdul Basir Mohamad -- Study on the Concept of Power Approach Towards Sustainability: Focusing on Islamic Banking and Role of Precautionary Principle

249

vii

26.

Emrizal, Muhammad Rizal Razman & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- Study on Human Habitat and Environmental Protection: Focusing on the Criminal Law and the Power Approach Paradigm Towards Sustainability

257

PART IV RURAL ENVIRONMENT TRANSFORMATION 27.

Nasir Nayan, Jamaluddin Md. Jahi & Abdul Latif Mohamed -- Human Habitat and Forest Changes in Coastal Zone: A Case Study in Perak State from 1974 to 2004

267

28.

Mohmadisa Hashim, Mohamad Suhaily Yusri Che Ngah, Nasir Nayan, Luqmanulhakim Abdul Rahim & Zahid Mat Said -- The Analysis of River and Lake Water Quality in the New Campus of Sultan Idris Education University

281

29.

Nurul Izma Mohammed, Nor Azam Ramli & Ahmad Shukri Yahya -- Ozone Impact to Paddy Rice Production: Comparison between Two Industrial Areas in Malaysia

295

30.

Nor Fairuz Abu Bakar, Muhammad Rizal Razman, Jamaluddin Md. Jahi & Abdul Samad Hadi -- Effects of Ozone Depletion on Human Health and the Environment

301

31.

Hesti Asriwandari & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- Conflict Potentials in Communities Around National Park Forests

309

32.

Muhammad Rizal Razman, Sakina Shaik Ahmad Yusoff, Jamaluddin Md. Jahi, Shamsuddin Suhor, Rahmah Ismail, Azimon Abdul Aziz & Kartini Aboo Talib @ Khalid -- Consumer and Water Pollution Control: A View on the Principle of Transboundary Liability Towards Sustainability

317

33.

Mohd Hairy Bin Ibrahim, Khairi Bin Ariffin, Azmi Bin Ahmad Baharom, Baharuddin Jabar, Kamal Bin Kamaludin, Sharif Shofirun Sharif Ali & Mohammad Saiful Rizal B. Rozlan – Investigation of human habitat and Environmental Changes on Historical and Heritage of Old Railway at Taiping – Port Weld

325

PART V MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION 34.

Mohmadisa Hashim, Rosmini Ismail, Khalizul Khalid, Hartini Jaafar, Hazianti Abd. Halim, Suriani Abd Hamid, Azita Yunos, Modi Lakulu, Noorlela Ahmad, Fairisa Othman, Norasibah Abd. Jalil, Saberi Othman & Nek Kamal Yeop Yunus -- Issues and Management of Solid Waste in Isolated Human Habitat: A Case Study of Pulau Pangkor, Perak

341

35.

Tri Martial & Mhd. Asaad -- Restrictions on Tree Tenure Rights for Sustainable Management of Traditional Agroforestry (PARAK) in West Sumatera

353

36.

Masitah Mohammad Yusof, Ahmad Makmom Abdullah, Bahaman Abu Samah, Ramli Basri, Azizi Muda & Noriati A. Rashid -- The Relationship between Awareness and Self Efficacy towrds the Environmental Education among Malaysian Secondary School Teachers

367

viii

37.

Md. Sujahangir Kabir Sarkar, Rawshan Ara Begum, Joy Jacqueline Pereira & Abdul Hamid Jaafar -- Linking Disaster Risk Management and Climate Change Adaptation: Benefits and Challenges

379

38.

Astuti Masdar, Noviarti, Zufrimar & Desiputri -- Development of the Jointing Method Using Bamboo as a Construction Material

389

39.

Hong Chern Wern & Chan Ngai Weng -- The Need for Decentralization through Stakeholders’ Participation for Sustainable Penang National Park Management

397

40.

Tri Sukirno Putro, Abdul Latif Samian & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- Implementation of Regional Autonomy in Riau Province

409

41.

Kiswanto & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- Organizational Climate in Improving Performance of Civil Servants in Indonesia

421

42.

Seow Ta Wee -- New Perspective of Integrated Solid Waste Management in Malaysia

431

43.

Tri Joko Waluyo & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- United Development Party (PPP): From Islamic Party to Open Party

439

44.

Mhd. Saeri & Jamaluddin Md. Jahi -- Challenge in Security Arrangement of Melaka Straits

451

45.

Mashitoh Yaacob, Zurina Mahadi, Hassan Basri & Zubaidah Mohd Nasir -- Integrating Informal Recycling Activities Into Waste Management System: A Preliminary Study in Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

459

ix

Preface

Ever since the existence of human beings slightly more than two million years ago, the natural environment has offered numerous settings for human beings to set-up their homes starting with physical natural shelters in caves to the modern settlements in mega-cities. Presently, there are still millions of people living in caves, but enjoying a number of modern urban facilities. Urbanisation process since the middle of last century has brought about unplanned destruction of our precious ecosystems. Projections indicate that within the next half century, two-thirds of humanity will be living in towns and cities; and most of these will live in towns and cities of developing regions of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Such rapid growth in both human population and their habitats will certainly pose added challenges in managing changes brought about to the environment. Development of human habitat has more often than not leads to environmental changes that requires further thoughts and actions as to how to manage them. The World Urban Forum 4 held in Nanjing, China a few years ago, called for harmonious development and harmonious urbanisation. As a holistic approach it entails the synchronization and integration of physical, economical, environmental, cultural, political, historical and social aspects. Presently, environmental issues have continuously gained interests from the public, academia and the relevant authorities in line with the agenda to increase the quality of life and to achieve sustainable development. Improvement of quality of life is deeply rooted in human habitat development and the utilisation of the physical environment. This conference on human habitat and environment in the Malay World gives the participants the opportunity to meet and discuss a broad range of issues related to the conference theme: human habitat and environmental transformation. The editors would like to thank the authors of the papers, Institute of the Malay World and Civilisation (ATMA), the National University of Malaysia, Environmental Management Society (EMS) Malaysia, the organising Committee and those who have contributed to make the Conference and the publication of the proceedings possible.

Editors June 2012

Proceedings 3rd International Conference on Human Habitat & Environment

25 THE USES OF LOCAL MATERIALS IN CONSTRUCTION OF CANDI’S IN PENGKALAN BUJANG, KEDAH

ZULISKANDAR RAMLI & NIK HASSAN SHUHAIMI NIK ABDUL RAHMAN Institute of the Malay World and Civilisation (ATMA) Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, MALAYSIA.

ABSTRACT The uses of local materials in the construction of candi (temple) in Pengkalan Bujang, Kedah can be seen from the uses of local clay and natural stones obtained by the local people who involved in brick making and candi construction. The sources were obtained not far from their settlements and places where the candi was going to built. In Pengkalan Bujang, there a four candi or temples which have been studied under archaeological research; three of the monuments was reconstructed, namely Site 19, Site 21 and Site 22 while Site 23 was left insitu. Compositional analysis on the bricks taken from all four site indicated that the raw material which is clay was taken from river basin not far from Pengkalan Bujang, specifically at Bujang River, Terus River and Muda River. The stone pillar material is usually made from granite, laterite and slate stone which also obtained from local material especially at Jerai Mountain Range and hills around Sungai Petani, Tikam Batu and Pulau Sayak area. The laterite block were also taken from river bed or bottom of Bujang River. The use of local raw materials such as clay and natural stone and the involvement of the local community in the construction of their monuments or houses of worship involve what we would term 'knowledge transformation' of the Malay community at that time in the process of brick making and architectural knowledge that entailed candi or temple construction since the 5th century AD. Key Words: Candi, Pengkalan Bujang, Bujang River, Terus River, Muda River, brick

INTRODUCTION The Pengkalan Bujang temple complex is a significant component in archaeological research at Bujang Valley due to the fact that there are four sites that represent Buddhist and Hindu religion and that is fully made of bricks. The four sites are Site 19, Site 21, Site 22 and Site 23, of which Site 19, Site 21 and Site 22 represent the Buddhist temple while Site 23 represent the Hindu temple. The sites are classified based on the discoveries of archaeological findings such as statue of Buddha or Bodhisattva at Site 21 and Site 22, while the statue of Ganesa or Ganapati was discovered at Site 19 (Nik Hassan Shuhaimi & Othman 1990). The basic material used for the construction of the temples of Pengkalan Bujang temple complex has shown that all the sites used the same material which is brick specifically at the

2 Zuliskandar Ramli & Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman

base of the temple. Blocks of laterite stone and slate stone were seldom used at the base of the temple. The top of the temple was built using wood pillars and the rooftops were made of nipah palm leaves or clay. The Malay society of Kedah Tua used pillar base to support the pillars that were made of granite, shale or slates stone. To determine whether raw materials were used in the methods of making bricks and for the construction of the temples in Pengkalan Bujang, research on the brick composition therefore has to be done to determine if the raw materials were acquired from the site of the local surroundings. Research that has been done on the bricks samples of Candi Sungai Mas (Site 32/34) has shown that the raw materials had been acquired from Sungai Muda and Sungai Bujang river basin (Ramli et al. 2012). The usage of raw materials which were obtained from Sungai Mas and Sungai Bujang shows that there was communication between the settlements in Pengkalan Bujang with the settlement in Sungai Mas which is known to be connected via Sungai Terus. It is also believed that a canal had been constructed to connect Sungai Terus to Sungai Mas and it was the first canal ever built other than the Wan Mat Saman canal. Composition analysis which involved determination of mineral elements and also the major and minor elements of the bricks, was done on the samples from the site at Pengkalan Bujang. The results of the analysis indicates that the bricks was made of local raw materials acquired from the basin of Sungai Muda, Sungai Bujang and Sungai Terus and the nearby areas such as clay from Mukim Merbok and Mukim Kota (Zuliskandar 2012; Zuliskandar et al. 2011a). Local raw material usage and characterisation of local construction such as the pillar base, pillar made of wood and rooftop made of nipah palm leaves indicate the direct involvement of the local society in the construction of the temples in Bujang Valley and that the temples were not constructed by the Indian colony (Quaritch-Wales 1940) or traders from India (Jacg-Hergoualc'h 1992; Sullivan 1958; Wheatley 1964). Acculturation of the Indian culture and the transformation of knowledge in the Malay Kedah Tua society have brought about the development of socio-culture and expertise in the area of science and technology that has been mastered since the early century (Zuliskandar 2012). PENGKALAN BUJANG, KEDAH AS ENTREPORT Before the discovery of the site at Sungai Mas, Kota Kuala Muda, most scholars assumed that Pengkalan Bujang is the only entreport that existed in Bujang Valley, Kedah (Quaritch-Wales 1940; Lamb 1980; Leong Sau Heng 1973). After the site was discovered at Sungai Mas, Kedah, their opinion changed based on the discoveries of artefacts in enormous amount at Sungai Mas. Additionally, there were inscriptions found which acknowledged Sungai Mas as the earliest enterport which had existed since the 5th Century (Nik Hassan Shuhaimi & Othman 1990). Sungai Mas was also the location where a monk from China, I-Ching stopped by for a month before he continued his journey to Nalanda, India by using a Malay ship. Basically the settlements in Pengkalan Bujang were built on the sand ridge with Sungai Bujang as the main route to Sungai Merbok. Along the route of Sungai Bujang they have built monuments of temples made of laterite stone, shale stone and slate stone or bricks. Based on relative dating analysis, the settlements in Bujang Valley were dated to as early as 6th century (Quaritch-Waleas 1940; Nik Hassan Shuhaimi & Othman 1990). The exact location of Site 19 is N5 33' 59.2" E100 23' 05.5", while Site 21 and Site 22 are located at N5 42' 4" E100 23' 41.2" and Site 23 at N5 40' 56.8" E100 25' 09.8". Even though the settlements in Sungai Bujang were believed to have begun since 6th Century the entreport in Pengkalan Bujang were fully utilised later than the one in Sungai Mas which was around 9th A.D or 10th A.D. Verification of Pengkalan Bujang as an entreport can be seen from various ceramic shreds that have been discovered in the area. The ceramics originated from the Middle East, China and Europe highlight the importance of Pengkalan Bujang as a famous port between 9th A.D until 18th A.D Century. Apart from the ceramic shreds, there are other artefacts that have been

Zuliskandar Ramli & Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman 3

discovered such as various beads made of half precious stone or glass, glass shreds from lamps and bottles which originated from the Middle East. Trading activities with China had begun since the Tang Dynasty and this has been verified by the discovery of a mirror at Site 2 which is located near Sungai Bujang (Quaritch-Wales 1940; Jacq-Hergoualc'h 1992). The location of Pengkalan Bujang is considered significant due to the fact that Kedah Tua at that time had commodities such as iron, tin, gold and forest products. The discovery of site at Sungai Batu revealed a furnace for melting ancient iron which indicates that early settlement in Bujang Valley had acquired knowledge of producing equipment made of iron. The main raw material can be obtained from the nearby area which later named as Bukit Besi. Iron products from the Sungai Besi were taken to Pengkalan Bujang to be traded or transported to Sungai Mas via Sungai Bujang - Sungai Terus route. The importance of Pengkalan Bujang was due to the iron products, whereas the importance of Sungai Mas was due to commodities such as pottery and Indo-Pacific beads (Zuliskandar 2012).

Figure 1. Location of temples in Bujang Valley, Kedah.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL FOR THE TEMPLES IN PENGKALAN BUJANG The temples in Bujang Valley consist of two main structures which are the base structure and top structure. The base structure is the primary structure of the temple which is usually made from natural stone such as laterite stone, shale stone, pebble stone or slate and bricks. The base structure has always been referred to by researchers in determining whether the temple was a Buddhist or Hindu temple. Buddhist temple ruins consist of structures with an isolated space or stupa such as at Site 16A, Site 17, Site 21, Site 22, Site 32/34, Site-1 at Bukit Choras, Bukit Kechil Site and Sungai Batu (SB1) Site. Hindu temple ruins consist of 'vimana' and 'mandapa' and can be categorised into three types such as vaulted, vimana attached to mandapa and vimana separated from mandapa. Vaulted types of temple are at Site 19, vimana attached to mandapa are the ones found at Site 5, Site 11/3, Site 31, Site 23, Site 8 and Site 49, whereas


vimana separated from mandapa are found at Site 6, Site 13, Site 16 and Site 50. Based on relative dating performed on statue findings and ceramics which are associated with the temple, Site 21 and Site 22 which were attached together was the earliest temple that was built at Pengkalan Bujang between 9th A.D to 10th A.D. Site 23 believed was built between 11th A.D till 12th A.D based on ceramic findings which are associated with the temple, whereas Site 19 was built between 12th A.D till 13th A.D; absolute dating that was done on the site indicates the date as 771±40 BP (Beta 235465) or 1220 A.D. Based on type of brick and construction technique, Site 19 was the most complex and was built with a stack of bricks neatly piled on each other with moulding. The brick size was smaller than the one at Pengkalan Bujang. All four temples at Pengkalan Bujang used brick as major construction material at the foundation of the temples. The difference occurs in the size of the bricks used where at Site 21/22 and Site 19 standard brick size was used in comparison to bricks at Site 23 which used bricks of various different sizes. The top of the temple was built using wood pillars with the base pillar and the rooftop made of clay. Base pillars were usually made of granite stone, shale stone or slate stone. There was no evidence of base pillar found at Site 19 and this rised some questions as to whether the top of the temple exist to cover the foundation. The fact that raw resources can be easily obtained in Bujang Valley is common knowledge. Granite stones can easily be found at the base of Gunung Jerai especially at Sungai Merbok Kechil. Traces of handmade (or bases or stones) by the local Malay society can be seen around the area of Bukit Batu Pahat near Archaeology Museum of Bujang Valley, Kedah (Refer to Photo 1). Even though most of the bases of the temple were made of bricks, there were other types of block stones that were placed at the bottom which are laterite stone; slate stone or shale stone (Refer to Photo 1 & Photo 2). BRICK COMPOSITION OF THE TEMPLE AT PENGKALAN BUJANG Brick composition analysis is important because the results of the studies can determine whether the raw material was made locally. Usage of local raw material indirectly indicates the involvement of the local society which is the Malay people in the activity of producing bricks which started from 4th A.D till 5th A.D (Zuliskandar 2012). Artefacts analysis of clay has been done previously by archaeologist with the help of scientists such as analysis of pottery (Asyaari 1998; Chia 1997; Zuliskandar et al. 2001, 2006, 2007, 2009) bricks (Asmah et al. 2005; Mohd Zobir et al. 2004; Zuliskandar et al. 2008, 2009, 2011a) and glass beads (Zuliskandar & Nik Hassan Shuhaimi 2009; Zuliskandar et al. 2011b). The analysis includes the composition of the mineral and the major and minor elements in the sample of ancient bricks from Site 19 (Pengkalan Bujang village). The results of the analysis can be used to determine the raw material which is the clay that was used to make the bricks. Mineral content in the brick samples at Pengkalan Bujang temple (Site 19) consists of major elements such as quartz, muscovite and microcline, whereas minor elements consist of leucite, mullite and geothite (Refer to Table 1). Non-existence of kaolinite indicates that the sample had been heated at temperature above 550oC. The existence of mullite in the sample PB19(xii) and PB19(xiii) also indicates that the brick sample had been exposed to high temperatures when kaolinite changes to mullite due to pressure of high temperature. Sample PB19(xv) only consists of quartz mineral and this indicates that the sample was heated with high temperatures between 850oC to 1000oC. Based on the inspection of the physical appearance of the sample and the mineral content, it is believed the method of firing of the sample open firing technique. The size of the bricks at the site was smaller and similar in its size. This clearly indicates evolution in the technology of producing bricks and temple architecture in Bujang Valley. X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the brick samples of temples


in Pengkalan Bujang (Site 19) can be referred to in Figure 2 and Figure 3. Major elements in the brick samples of Site 19 (Pengkalan Bujang village) can be referred to Table 2. The analysis indicates a high content of silica in the sample of the site where the percentage of dry weight is between 65.49 to 78.95%. The content of aluminium that represents clay mineral also indicates a high volume of between 11.88 to 28.01%. The content of calcium is low between 0.09 to 0.14%. This indicates that the raw material usage was taken far from the limestone area. It also indicates that the raw material contains high percentage of iron that is between 2.00 to 6.41%. The existences of geothite in the sample also confirm the finding. Figure 4 and Figure 5 shows the scatter plot of silica, aluminium, magnesium and titanium dry weight concentration of brick samples and clay samples of Bujang Valley, Kedah. The data of the major and minor element in the clay samples was obtained from previous studies (Zuliskandar et al. 2002). The analysis from both graph indicates that the raw material for making the bricks for construction of the temple for Site 19 came from the local resources. The materials were acquired from one or two similar resources which taken from Muda River dan Bujang River basin.

Photo 1. Sources of granite stone used for making pillar base

Minor element content (Refer to Table 3 & 4) indicates higher volume of elements such as barium, cerium, rubidium and zircon. Other elements have volume which is less than 100 ppm. The content of barium element is between 562 ppm to 804 ppm, whereas cerium is between 485 ppm to 593 ppm. The content of rubidium and zircon are each between 97 ppm to 203 ppm and 79 ppm to 261 ppm. Figure 6 shows the scatter plot of lead and cooper concentration in the brick samples from Site 19 and the result show that only primary sources of raw materials were used. Scientific analysis was conducted to prove whether the bricks used to build the temple were of local material or otherwise. Two analysis techniques were used to accomplish this, namely the technique to determine mineral content and the technique to determine the major and minor elements. Mineral content in the brick samples at the temple in Pengkalan Bujang (Site 21/22) indicates the existence of minerals such as minerals quartz, muscovite, and microcline, whereas other minerals exist in smaller amount such as gibbsite, mullite and kaolinite (Refer Table 5). The existence of kaolinite in the sample of PB21/22(xx), PB21/22(xxi) and PB21/22(xxii) indicates that the sample were fired under the temperature below 55oC. Sample PB21/22iii), PB21/22(iv) and PB 21/22(viii) consist of mineral quartz and it shows that the sample were fired at high temperatures between 850oC to 1000oC. Mullite mineral comes about as a result of pressure of high temperatures applied to the mineral kaolinite. It is clear here that the open firing technique was applied to produce bricks at the Pengkalan Bujang site (Site 21/22) due to


uneven temperature applied to the bricks during the combustion process. Some of the bricks did not receive any adequate temperature during the combustion process. This is due to the arrangement of the bricks that were to be gathered in one place before the firing process was performed. The bricks used to build this temple is small and has a standard size, especially compared to the previous temple at site 23 which is also located near this temple. The manufacturing aspects of the bricks and architecture of the temples at this time are considered to have changed or evolved. The temple architecture is also more complex than previously and this can be seen in the architecture of Site 21 (Pengkalan Bujang village). X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the brick sample of site 21/22 are presented in Figure 7, 8 , 9.

Photo 2. Block of granite stone in Bujang Valley, Kedah

The major element content in the brick sample of Site 21/22 is listed in Table 6. The analysis shows that this brick sample contains high silica and aluminium. Dry weight percentage of silica is between 61.82 to 79.07%, whereas the dry weight percentage for aluminium is between 15.22% to 30.82%. Dry weight percentage for potassium is between 0.18% to 2.22% whereas calcium it is between 0.06% to 1.18%. Although there is calcite (CACO3) mineral element in the sample PB21/22(xiv), the calcium content remained at low levels. The content of titanium and magnesium element is between 0.46% to 2.61% and 0.15% to 1.12% respectively. Graphs of the dry weight percentage of silica and aluminium in the brick and clay samples (see Figure 10) and graphs of dry weight percentage of titanium and magnesium samples in the brick and clay samples (see Figure 11) were plotted to see the distribution of the samples using the analysis of clay samples obtained from earlier data (Zuliskandar et al. 2002). Figure 10 and Figure 11 indicate that the brick sample of Site 21/22 had been made using local raw materials which taken from Muda River and Bujang River basin. Trace elements contained in the brick sample of Site 21/22 can be referred to in Table 7, Table 8 and Table 9. Concentrations of trace elements in excess of 100 ppm were recorded on elements such as barium, cerium, rubidium, vanadium and zircon. Element concentration of barium was recorded at 628 to 1146 ppm. Cerium element was recorded between 457 to 632 ppm while the element rubidium was recorded to be between 33 to 242 ppm. Zircon element concentration was recorded between 174 to 289 ppm. Other elements that recorded readings of less than 100 ppm in their element concentration are copper which recorded a reading of between 12 to 80 ppm and lead element that recorded a reading between 37 to 81 ppm. Graphs of the concentration of copper and lead elements for the brick sample from Site 21/11 and samples of clay in Bujang Valley (Zuliskandar et al. 2002) were plotted to see the distribution of elements to identify whether there are similarities between the samples (see Figure 12).


Readings showed that the concentrations of these elements are similar between the brick sample from Site 21/22 and samples of clay from Bujang Valley. This result is consistent with the result recorded for the main elements. The mineral content in the ancient brick samples at Site 23 (Pengkalan Bujang village) is shown in detail in Table 10. Analysis shows that there are minerals such as quartz, muscovite, microcline and kaolinite in the brick samples. The mineral quartz was rarely found in isolation from other minerals. Quartz mineral was found in all the samples and the test result of the study also showed that samples PB23(v), PB23(X) and PB23(xvi) only observed readings of quartz mineral. This does not mean that these samples do not have other minerals, but minerals such as mica and feldspar have been knocked down as a result of the high combustion temperature. Both samples had been fired at a temperature higher than the samples of other bricks. Estimated temperature that was achieved for both samples was as high as 800oC. The mineral kaolinite is present in the samples PB23(i), PB23(ii), PB23(vii), PB23(xv) and PB23(xviii) indicating that the samples were fired at temperatures of less than 550oC and this shows that open firing used. X-ray diffraction pattern (XRD) of the brick samples at Site 23 is listed in Figure 13, Figure 14 and Figure 16. The content of major elements in the samples of ancient bricks for Site 23 (Pengkalan Bujang Village) can be found in detail in Table 11. This analysis shows the bricks contain the percentage of dry weight between 63.86% to 79.86%. Percentage of dry weight of the element titanium is between 0.48% to 1.18%. Iron element contains dry weight percentage of between 3.01% to 5.78%. The dry weight percentage of the aluminium is between 15.09% to 25.20%. The manganese element contains dry weight percentage of between 0.01% to 0.13%, while copper element, the dry weight percentage is between 0.12% o 0.69%. Percentage of dry weight for the element magnesium is between 0.30% to 1.62%. Potassium and phosphorus element each has dry weight percentage of between 0.41% to 2.53% and 0.05% to 0.87% respectively. For samples of Site 23 (Kampung Pengkalan Bujang), element such as silica, aluminium and ferum were found to be the elements that contained a high percentage of dry weight. Graphs for the percentage of dry weight of elements SiO2 and Al2O3 (see Figure 16) and graphs for the percentage of dry weight of the elements MgO and Tio2 (see Figure 17) for the brick sample at the temple in Pengkalan Bujang (Site 23) and clay at Bujang Valley were plotted to see the result of the comparison between the brick and clay sample on their main elements. The result indicates that the samples bricks at this site share similarities with the clay in Bujang Valley, Kedah in terms of the composition of their main elements. The analysis also showed that the raw material was obtained at the basin of Sungai Muda. Trace element content in the brick sample of Site 23 can be referred to in Table 12, Table 13 and Table 14. Concentrations of trace elements in excess of 100 ppm were recorded in the element barium, cerium, chromium, rubidium, vanadium and zircon. Concentration of barium was recorded between 568 to 887 ppm. The element of cerium was recorded between 343 to540 ppm while chromium was recorded to be between 65 to 139 ppm. The element of rubidium and zircon and their respective concentrations were recorded between 65 to 139 ppm and 163 to 425 ppm respectively. Other elements that recorded readings less than 100 ppm in their element concentration are copper which recorded a reading of between 11 to 25 ppm and lead element which recorded between 45 to 91 ppm. Graphs of the concentration of copper and lead elements in the brick sample from Site 23 and samples of clay in Bujang Valley (Zuliskandar et al. 2002) were plotted to see the distribution of the trace elements and to identify if there are similarities between the samples (see Figure 18). Readings showed that the concentrations of these elements in the bricks samples of clay in Bujang Valley are similar. CONCLUSION Archaeological and scientific studies have shown that the raw materials used to construct the temple of Pengkalan Bujang were from local raw materials. Composition analysis of brick


materials indicate that clay was used to build the bricks for Site 19 of which the clay was obtained from the river basin of Sungai Muda, bricks from Site 21/22 used clay obtained from river basin of Sungai Bujang and Sungai Muda and the clay used to build bricks for Site 23 was obtained from river basin of Sungai Muda and Sungai Terus. The top of the temple also used local elements of wood, stone slab of granite, slate and shale believed to be produced by the local community. The finding of this study, indicates that there are strong links between the two areas, namely Pengkalan Bujang area and the administrative centre of Bujang Valley which was Sungai Mas. It is clear here that acculturation and cultural knowledge transformation of the Old Kedah Malay Community has led to the development of socio-cultural and economic progress of the society and a concern to traders around the world. Table 1 Mineral content of bricks samples from Site 19 Lokasi Candi Pengkalan Bujang (Tapak 19)

Sampel PB19(i)

PB19(ii) PB19(iii)

PB19(iv) PB19(v) PB19(vi) PB19(vii) PB19(viii) PB19(ix)

PB19(x) PB19(xi) PB19(xii) PB19(xiii) PB19(xiv) PB19(xv) PB19(xvi)

Kandungan Mineral SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 Na.15K.85AlSi2O6 Leucite SiO2 Kuarza K2O.3Al2O3.6SiO2.1H2O Muscovite SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 SiO2 Kuarza Fe2O3 Geotit SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M SiO2 Kuarza KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M SiO2 Kuarza Al2(Al2.8Si1.2)O9.6 Mullite SiO2 Kuarza 3Al2O3.2SiO2 Mullite SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M SiO2 Kuarza SiO2 Kuarza KAlSi3O8 Microcline

Zuliskandar Ramli & Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman 9 q

q

mc PB19(viii) q

q

q PB19(vii)

q

q

q

q

PB19(v)q

q

q

PB19(iv) q

q

q

PB19(iii) q

q

q

qq

q,m q m

Intensity (Arbitrary Units)

q PB19(vi) q g

q

q,m q q,m q q,m q l q,m

q PB19(ii) q

q m

q

q,m q,mc

2

PB19(i) mc

m

q

20

q

q

40

60

2θ

Label: q= kuarza, m= muscovite, l= leucite, mc= microcline, geothite

Figure 2. XRD pattern of brick samples from Site 19

q,m

q m

q

q

q

q

q

q

PB19(xvi)

q,m

PB19(xv)

q m


q,m m

q

q

PB19(xiv)

q PB19(xiii)

m

q

m q q

m

m

q

q

q

PB19(xii)

q,m mq

q

q

q

q

PB19(xi)

q,m q m

PB19(x)

q,m q,mc 2

mc

20

q 40

2θ

Label: q= kuarza, m= muscovite, mc= microcline

Figure 3. XRD pattern of brick samples from Site 19

q

PB19(ix)

60


Table 2. Major elements content of brick samples from Site 19 Sampel PB19(i) PB19(ii) PB19(iii) PB19(iv) PB19(v) PB19(vi) PB19(vii) PB19(viii) PB19(ix) PB19(x) PB19(xi) PB19(xii) PB19(xiii) PB19(xiv) PB19(xv) PB19(xvi)

Si

Ti

Fe

Al

77.01 65.49 78.95 76.99 71.80 68.01 78.29 72.49 69.82 65.90 71.11 73.81 72.53 69.82 70.68 68.86

0.48 0.97 0.35 0.50 0.63 0.82 0.42 0.75 0.77 0.95 0.77 0.41 0.55 0.77 0.79 0.79

2.74 3.30 2.00 3.13 3.64 6.41 2.56 4.59 5.11 3.74 4.48 2.34 2.92 5.11 3.80 4.16

15.48 28.01 11.88 15.03 21.69 21.42 13.94 18.61 21.80 26.62 20.75 13.33 21.46 21.80 20.99 22.91

Berat Kering (%) Mn Ca 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.01

0.09 0.11 0.19 0.13 0.11 0.04 0.14 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.11

Mg

Na

K

0.61 0.35 0.56 0.77 0.33 0.86 0.41 0.60 0.53 1.03 0.72 0.44 0.54 0.53 0.76 0.65

0.13 0.10 0.20 0.17 0.11 0.08 0.17 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.09 0.18 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.11

1.07 1.52 1.03 1.60 1.51 1.03 1.88 1.02 1.41 0.85 1.33 1.78 1.68 1.41 1.12 1.42

Figure 4. Scatter plot of SiO2 dan Al2O3 dry weight percentage in brick samples (Site 19) and clay samples of Bujang Valley.

P2O3 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01


Figure 5. Scatter plot of MgO dan TiO2 dry weight percentage in brick samples (Site 19) and clay samples of Bujang Valley.

Table 3. Content of minor elements in brick samples at Site 19 Element (ppm) As Ba Ce Co Cr Cu Ga Hf La Nb Ni Pb Rb Sr U Th V Y Zn Zr

PB19i 19 804 593 12 72 69 17 7 29 28 29 48 203 42 9 25 88 27 63 252

PB19ii 16 721 565 12 87 85 26 7 29 29 26 47 152 13 9 24 96 20 56 219

PB19iii 14 784 530 9 56 30 15 7 29 29 26 45 198 47 9 17 71 26 63 179

Sample PB19iv PB19v 15 14 782 717 571 554 12 13 79 83 19 25 17 25 7 7 29 29 33 31 28 27 45 44 165 141 33 12 9 9 20 20 92 98 17 20 58 62 261 220

PB19vi 15 562 485 20 121 11 27 7 27 23 19 31 97 23 9 31 121 10 55 223

PB19vii 18 676 545 16 101 24 22 7 28 27 21 42 118 12 9 27 116 12 82 210

PB19viii 16 598 529 16 101 19 27 7 28 25 22 38 114 24 9 32 114 19 61 236


Table 4 Content of minor elements in brick samples at Site 19 Element (ppm) As Ba Ce Co Cr Cu Ga Hf La Nb Ni Pb Rb Sr U Th V Y Zn Zr

PB19ix 13 750 583 12 67 81 20 7 29 31 27 45 159 11 9 12 84 16 82 203

PB19x 15 606 521 17 100 18 23 7 28 28 21 37 113 23 9 29 104 13 52 209

PB19xi 17 773 607 13 111 57 28 7 29 31 28 46 153 26 9 32 120 23 73 220

Sample PB19xii PB19xiii 12 9 730 693 585 578 13 13 72 72 19 23 22 23 7 7 29 29 35 32 26 26 41 37 144 117 15 15 9 9 14 17 86 85 16 13 51 54 213 207

PB19xiv 18 689 495 15 106 59 29 7 28 29 27 44 160 15 9 26 117 25 84 243

PB19xv 17 656 552 13 109 27 31 7 29 28 27 43 124 25 9 33 117 24 93 252

Figure 6 Concentration of lead and copper in brick samples (Site 19) and clay samples of Bujang Valley.

PB19xvi 15 716 580 14 104 19 29 7 29 35 26 43 141 21 9 28 114 23 58 246


Table 5. Mineral content of brick samples of Site 21/22 Location Candi Pengkalan Bujang (Tapak 21/22)

Sample PB21/22(i) PB21/22(ii)

PB21/22(iii) PB21/22(iv) PB21/22(v) PB21/22(vi)

PB21/22(vii)

PB21/22(viii) PB21/22(ix) PB22/21(x)

PB21/22(xi) PB21/22 (xii) PB21/22 (xiii) PB21/22 (xiv)

PB21/22 (xv)

PB21/22 (xvi)

PB21/22 (xvii)

PB21/22 (xviii) PB21/22 (xix) PB21/22 (xx)

PB21/22 (xxi)

PB21/22 (xxii)

PB21/22 (xxiii)

Mineral Content SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 Al2O3.3H2O Gibbsite SiO2 Kuarza SiO2 Kuarza SiO2 Kuarza H2KAl3Si3O12 Muscovite SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza SiO2 Kuarza Al6Si2O13/3Al2O3.2SiO2 Mullite SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M SiO2 Kuarza KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M CaCO3 Calcite SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M SiO2 Kuarza Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Kaolinite KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Kaolinite SiO2 Kuarza Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Kaolinite KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1 KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza K2O.3Al2O3.6SiO2.2H2O Muscovite

14 Zuliskandar Ramli & Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman q,m

q,mc

PB21/22(vii)

q

q

mc q,m

q m

q

mc

q

PB21/22(vi)

q

PB21/22(v)

q

PB21/22(iv)

q,m

q


q m

q

q q q

q

q

q

PB21/22(iii) q q

q

q

q,gq,g

q

q,m mq

PB21/22(ii)

q,m

q

2

PB21/22(i)

q q

q

m 20

40

60

2θ

Label: q= kuarza, m= muscovite, g=geotite, mc= microcline,

Figure 7. XRD pattern of bricks samples of Site 21/22

PB21/22(xv)

q,m q m

q

mc q

q m

PB21/22(xiv) c

q

q

q

q

q

q

q PB21/22(xiii) q m

q


q PB21/22(xii) q,mc

mc

q

q

q

q,m PB21/22(xi) mq

q

q q,m

PB21/22(x) q,mc m

q

mc

q

q

q PB21/22(ix) q

q ml

q

q

q PB21/22(viii) q 2

q

20

q 40

2θ

Label: q= kuarza, m= muscovite, mc= microcline,


q 60


q,m mq

PB21/22(xxiii) q

q

PB21/22(xxii) q

q

PB21/22(xxi) q

q

PB21/22(xx) q

q

q,m k

m q,mc

mc q,m

q k

m


q,m q

m

q

q,m

PB21/22(xix)

mq

q

q,m PB21/22(xviii) q

mq

q

q,m mq,mc

PB21/22(xvii) q q

mc

q

q,m

PB21/22(xvi) m 2

q,mc

q

mc

20

q

q

q

60

40 2θ

Label: q= kuarza, m= muscovite, mc= microcline, Figure 9. XRD pattern of bricks samples of Site 21/22 Table 6. Major element content of brick samples of Site 21/22 Sampel PB21/22(i) PB21/22(ii) PB21/22(iii) PB21/22(iv) PB21/22(v) PB21/22(vi) PB21/22(vii) PB21/22(viii) PB21/22(ix) PB22/21(x) PB21/22(xi) PB21/22 (xii) PB21/22 (xiii) PB21/22 (xiv) PB21/22 (xv) PB21/22 (xvi) PB21/22 (xvii) PB21/22 (xviii) PB21/22 (xix) PB21/22 (xx) PB21/22 (xxi) PB21/22 (xxii) PB21/22 (xxiii)

Si 61.82 69.13 75.77 73.95 71.38 71.67 70.91 79.07 75.57 77.02 70.45 71.79 71.18 68.73 70.65 75.47 72.02 64.19 70.14 75.93 75.83 75.19 70.55

Ti 1.47 1.03 2.61 0.61 0.62 0.72 0.63 0.57 0.56 0.46 0.76 0.74 0.76 0.77 0.81 0.48 0.62 1.33 0.82 0.51 0.53 0.53 0.81

Al 30.82 23.09 18.21 21.27 21.51 19.89 22.34 16.10 15.57 15.22 22.39 21.12 21.05 23.49 21.41 18.25 19.10 26.19 20.66 15.21 16.26 16.83 21.56

Fe 1.10 3.47 4.23 1.63 3.58 5.61 3.66 2.92 3.61 2.91 4.17 3.96 4.39 4.34 4.82 2.75 5.10 4.98 6.19 3.34 3.02 3.23 4.60

Berat Kering (%) Mn Mg 0.03 0.55 0.04 0.50 0.01 0.15 0.01 0.30 0.02 0.66 0.01 0.33 0.02 0.37 0.01 0.16 0.03 1.12 0.02 0.56 0.01 0.49 0.01 0.39 0.01 0.50 0.02 0.59 0.01 0.54 0.04 0.37 0.01 0.65 0.01 0.26 0.01 0.34 0.02 1.01 0.02 0.61 0.03 0.77 0.01 0.60

Ca 1.18 0.82 0.06 0.06 0.12 0.07 0.14 0.08 0.22 0.12 0.01 0.08 0.07 0.13 0.08 0.12 0.09 0.08 0.11 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.07

Na 0.18 0.50 0.05 0.06 0.13 0.08 0.13 0.06 0.16 0.16 0.11 0.09 0.09 0.12 0.09 0.16 0.08 0.28 0.08 0.13 0.22 0.20 0.09

K 0.18 0.79 0.32 2.22 1.73 1.25 1.72 0.32 1.64 1.82 1.57 1.35 1.19 1.79 1.41 1.64 1.07 2.58 1.39 1.41 2.20 1.85 1.42

P2O3 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01


Figure 10. Scatter plot of SiO2 dan Al2O3 dry weight percentage in brick samples (Site 21/22) and clay samples of Bujang Valley.

Figure 11. Scatter plot of MgO dan TiO2 dry weight percentage in brick samples (Site 21/22) and clay samples of Bujang Valley.


Jadual 7. Kandungan unsur surih bata purba Tapak 21/22 Unsur (ppm) As Ba Ce Co Cr Cu Ga Hf La Nb Ni Pb Rb Sr U Th V Y Zn Zr

PB21/22 (i) 17 628 548 28 115 15 24 7 28 28 20 38 101 14 9 29 122 14 49 219

PB 21/22(ii) 19 746 548 13 67 25 25 7 29 31 25 47 65 133 9 13 134 2 100 248

PB21/22 (iii) 44 657 539 14 121 12 20 7 29 30 22 81 34 2 9 17 134 0 31 231

Sampel PB21/22 PB21/22 ( iv) (v) 15 14 679 707 606 588 9 12 80 86 17 25 27 25 8 7 29 29 32 32 30 28 52 44 33 191 2 17 9 9 21 21 91 99 0 27 53 68 287 218

PB21/22 (vi) 15 767 573 12 70 12 15 7 29 29 26 44 176 32 9 18 84 17 59 181

PB21/22 (vii) 17 806 563 10 64 15 16 7 30 30 27 50 178 31 9 17 81 16 71 174

PB21/22 (viii) 36 727 599 10 99 13 19 7 30 32 23 76 47 2 9 17 121 0 29 223

Jadual 8. Kandungan unsur surih sampel bata Tapak 21/22 Unsur (ppm) As Ba Ce Co Cr Cu Ga Hf La Nb Ni Pb Rb Sr U Th V Y Zn Zr

PB21/22 (ix) 13 712 505 14 90 13 22 7 29 28 30 37 166 48 9 27 94 31 83 206

PB21/22 (x) 17 779 571 12 81 16 18 7 29 29 32 47 165 38 9 22 89 23 84 221

PB21/22 (xi) 16 736 632 11 97 14 25 7 29 33 28 46 81 10 9 26 119 6 63 289

Sampel PB21/22 PB21/22 (xii) (xiii) 12 15 714 683 570 554 11 12 82 108 13 18 19 27 7 7 29 29 32 28 27 26 37 42 127 115 38 15 9 9 21 32 87 115 17 15 93 69 188 221

PB21/22 (xiv) 15 770 620 12 104 18 27 7 30 33 27 46 136 12 9 29 114 18 63 215

PB21/22 (xv) 17 789 613 13 112 17 28 7 30 33 26 46 134 14 9 32 122 17 62 222

PB21/22 (xvi) 15 773 546 9 62 17 15 7 29 31 28 45 183 34 9 18 79 20 25 182


Jadual 9. Kandungan unsur surih sampel bata Tapak 21/22 Unsur (ppm) As Ba Ce Co Cr Cu Ga Hf La Nb Ni Pb Rb Sr U Th V Y Zn Zr

PB21/22 (xvii) 18 695 500 16 117 33 25 7 29 28 23 41 119 11 9 30 120 13 71 236

PB21/22 (xviii) 16 1146 457 13 131 38 32 7 29 31 38 41 242 96 9 31 160 91 61 230

PB21/22 (xix) 14 749 572 13 107 17 29 8 29 32 30 46 138 15 9 33 117 22 68 229

Sampel PB21/22 (xx) 26 743 600 10 122 26 37 8 29 32 34 63 135 18 11 43 135 25 99 266

PB21/22 (xxi) 20 708 584 12 135 18 35 7 29 32 35 50 96 21 9 44 133 27 84 283

PB21/22 (xxii) 21 784 544 12 100 80 29 7 30 30 28 52 181 14 9 27 112 30 76 252

PB21/22 (xxiii) 17 747 579 13 113 22 28 7 29 31 27 46 149 14 9 34 123 22 75 231

Figure 12. Scatter plot of lead and cooper concentration in brick samples (Site 21/22) and clay samples of Bujang Valley


Jadual 10. Kandungan mineral di dalam sampel bata purba Tapak 23 Bil 1

Sampel PB23(i)

2

PB23(ii)

3

PB23(iii)

4

PB23(iv)

5 6

PB23(v) PB23(vi)

7

PB23(vii)

8

PB23(viii)

9

PB23(ix)

10 11

PB23(x) PB23(xi)

12

PB23(xii)

13

PB23(xiii)

14

PB23(xiv)

15

PB23(xv)

16 17

PB23(xvi) PB23 (xvii)

18

PB23 (xviii)

19

PB23 (xix)

Kandungan Mineral SiO2 Kuarza low Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Kaolinite KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza low Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Kaolinite SiO2 Kuarza low KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza low KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite SiO2 Kuarza low SiO2 Kuarza low KAlSi3O8 Microcline KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite SiO2 Kuarza low Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Kaolinite KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza low KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite SiO2 Kuarza low KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza low SiO2 Kuarza low KAlSi3O8 Microcline KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite SiO2 Kuarza low KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite SiO2 Kuarza low KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite SiO2 Kuarza low KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza low Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Kaolinite KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza low SiO2 Kuarza low KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza low Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Kaolinite KAlSi3O8 Microcline SiO2 Kuarza low Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Kaolinite


q k

q

PB23(vii)

mc

q

q

q

q

q,m

q,mc PB23(vi)

mc

m

q


q PB23(v)

q q

q

q

q,m

q

PB23(iv)

q

q

q

q

mc

PB23(iii)

mc

q

q

q

q

q

k

PB23(ii)

q q q,mc

k 2

mc

PB23(i) mc

q

q 40

20

60

2θ

Label: q= kuarza, m= muscovite, k= kaolinite, mc= microcline

Figure 13. XRD pattern of bricks samples of Site 21/22 q,m

PB23(xiii)

q m

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

q,m q PB23(xii)


q,m

q,mc mc

m

PB23(xi)

q

PB23(x)

q

q

q

q

q

PB23(ix) q,mc

mc

q

q,m q mq 2

q

20

40 2θ

Label: q= kuarza, m= muscovite, mc= microcline


q

PB23(viii)

60


q,m PB23(xix) q

q

q

a

q

q,m PB23(xviii) q

q

q

q

q

q


PB23(xvii) k

q,mc

mc q

PB23(xvi)

q

q

q q

q

q PB23(xv) q,mc k

mc

q

k

q

q

q q mc 2

q

mc

20

q

q

PB23(xiv)

40

60

2θ

Label:: q= kuarza, m= muscovite, k= kaolinite, mc= microcline

Figure 15. XRD pattern of bricks samples of Site 21/22 Jadual 11. Major element content of brick samples of Site 23 Sampel PB23(i) PB23(ii) PB23(iii) PB23(iv) PB23(v) PB23(vi) PB23(vii) PB23(viii) PB23(ix) PB23(x) PB23(xi) PB23(xii) PB23(xiii) PB23(xiv) PB23(xv) PB23(xvi) PB23(xvii) PB23(xviii) PB23(xix)

Si

Ti

Al

Fe

74.35 74.44 73.20 76.55 68.79 72.66 63.86 73.05 75.65 65.67 70.49 69.45 68.50 78.58 72.28 79.86 78.37 78.22 77.91

0.64 0.66 0.82 0.69 0.85 0.58 0.70 0.75 0.71 0.78 0.71 0.84 1.18 0.71 0.75 0.70 0.56 0.48 0.60

17.01 17.84 20.70 17.59 20.13 19.07 18.11 19.15 17.64 21.47 19.62 19.69 25.20 17.89 19.11 18.65 15.88 15.09 17.41

4.54 4.88 5.33 4.84 4.58 4.35 5.06 5.78 4.49 4.83 4.61 5.16 5.29 3.42 5.19 4.69 3.27 3.01 4.13

Berat Kering (%) Mn Mg 0.12 0.13 0.04 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.03 0.09

1.04 1.07 1.54 1.34 0.30 1.13 1.25 1.62 1.19 1.26 0.78 0.50 0.99 0.53 0.69 0.83 0.88 1.01 0.87

Ca

Na

K

P2O3

0.69 0.46 0.26 0.42 0.12 0.25 0.28 0.27 0.32 0.32 0.19 0.13 0.13 0.27 0.18 0.14 0.33 0.35 0.47

4.82 4.16 3.45 5.31 1.79 3.65 3.60 3.10 3.50 3.98 3.70 1.81 1.90 3.65 2.51 3.44 4.01 4.76 4.46

1.70 1.93 1.72 1.97 0.41 2.53 1.88 1.69 2.01 1.55 2.05 0.43 0.56 2.01 1.14 1.30 2.25 2.43 1.91

0.12 0.15 0.08 0.13 0.07 0.05 0.15 0.09 0.12 0.11 0.14 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.26 0.87 0.36


Figure 16. Scatter plot of SiO2 dan Al2O3 dry weight percentage in brick samples (Site 23) and clay samples of Bujang Valley.

Figure 17. Scatter plot of MgO dan TiO2 dry weight percentage in brick samples (Site 23) and clay samples of Bujang Valley.


Table 12. Trace element content of brick sample of Site 23 Unsur (ppm) As Ba Ce Co Cr Cu Ga Hf La Nb Ni Pb Rb Sr U Th V Y Zn Zr

PB23 (i) 11 839 343 8 83 17 18 6 37 21 30 51 196 84 8 21 114 43 102 231

PB23 (ii) 13 783 363 9 83 18 17 6 38 23 30 53 187 70 8 22 111 41 109 207

PB23 (iii) 10 664 456 10 100 16 23 6 37 24 27 48 156 53 8 30 132 32 94 227

Sampel PB23 (iv) 12 757 442 10 85 15 18 6 39 26 29 51 184 68 8 28 115 41 92 255

PB23 (v) 33 661 540 8 139 16 22 7 39 31 25 84 45 9 8 19 181 5 35 258

PB23 (vi) 12 764 473 11 93 21 17 7 39 28 36 67 170 48 8 19 125 33 89 175

PB23 (vii) 9 641 389 12 95 13 21 6 37 20 25 45 158 54 8 25 126 38 85 261


PB23 (viii) 9 718 495 7 70 11 16 6 38 27 25 52 196 58 8 18 107 38 62 202

PB23 (ix) 9 736 495 8 97 17 16 6 39 28 30 51 141 41 8 17 122 21 104 163

PB23 (x) 12 741 448 9 91 16 19 6 38 26 28 55 190 48 8 22 117 30 94 189

Sampel PB23 (xi) 39 631 425 10 137 13 21 7 38 28 22 91 49 10 8 21 194 6 37 267

PB23 (xii) 9 568 483 10 118 18 30 7 38 24 29 52 62 24 8 32 184 23 65 425

PB23 (xiii) 8 724 470 3 65 15 18 6 38 24 23 50 215 58 8 20 109 40 70 216

PB23 (xiv) 6 705 482 8 96 17 18 6 38 27 24 47 97 24 8 19 124 13 483 239



PB23 (xvi) 11 680 408 9 80 16 19 6 37 23 25 48 193 60 8 23 115 36 83 205

PB23 (xvii) 10 780 417 12 95 25 20 6 38 22 34 51 163 45 8 25 130 33 125 226

Sampel PB23 (xviii) 10 744 481 7 78 15 18 6 39 26 25 50 198 65 8 21 107 39 73 211

PB23 (xx) 10 699 467 6 70 13 16 6 38 27 25 51 219 63 8 17 93 42 144 200

PB23 (xxi) 13 887 395 12 92 18 19 6 39 30 34 53 179 77 8 22 127 43 111 198

Figure 18. Scatter plot of lead and cooper concentration in brick samples (Site 23) and clay samples of Bujang Valley REFERENCES Asmah Yahaya, Zobir Hussein, Zuliskandar Ramli & Kamaruddin Zakaria. 2005. Analisis kimia dan fizikal ke atas bata dan perekat yang terdapat di Kota Kuala Muda, Kedah. Jurnal Arkeologi Malaysia 18: 1-61. Asyaari Muhamad. 1998. Analisis X-Ray fluorescence tembikar tanah dari Perak. Jurnal Arkeologi Malaysia 11: 1-40.


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