MALDIVES NATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

ISSN 2308-5959

MALDIVES NATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH Volume 5 Number 1

Research Centre The Maldives National University

MALDIVES NATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH A double-blind refereed journal of The Maldives National University

EDITOR Dr Ali Fawaz Shareef, Vice-Chancellor, The Maldives National University ASSISTANT EDITOR Dr Raheema Abdul Raheem, Dean of Research, Research Centre, The Maldives National University

EDITORIAL CONSULTANTS Dr. Mohamed Latheef, Chancellor, The Maldives National University Dr Muaviath Mohamed, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, The Maldives National University Dr Fazeela Waheed, Senior Lecturer, Research Centre, The Maldives National University Dr Mohamed Kinaanath, Director, Office of the Rector, Villa College Dr Dheeba Moosa, Dean of Research and Publication, Centre for Research and Publication, The Islamic University of Maldives Dr Asma Ibrahim, Director General, Maldives Blood Services Dr Mizna Mohamed, Former Senior Lecturer, Research Centre, The Maldives National University Dr Khadeeja Ibrahim Didi, Consultant, The Maldives National University Dr Ahmed Ibrahim, Post-doctoral research fellow, Edith Cowan University Mr. Ibrahim Ismail, Lecturer, Faculty of Arts, The Maldives National University Ms. Asiya Abdul Raheem, Dietitian, Indira Gandi Memorial Hospital Ms. Mariyam Shabeena Ahmed, Lecturer, Research Centre, The Maldives National University Ms. Suneena Rasheed, PhD Candidate, The Maldives National University

(c) The Maldives National Journal of Research (Print version: ISSN 2308-5959) Composed using InDesign 5.5 ME in Funa Radheef and Plantin 10.5 points.

Research Centre The Maldives National University Radhdhebai Hin’gun, Machchangolhi, Male’, Maldives. Fax: +(960) 3344091 Phone: +(960) 3345420

MALDIVES NATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH Volume 5 Number 1 June 2017

Editorial

6

RESEARCH REPORTS

Graduates perspectives on blended learning in the Maldives Roza Ibrahim and Mohamed Shihab Relationships between bullies, victims and mental health issues among adolescents

7

23

Aishath Nasheeda, Norlizah C. Hassan, and Siti Aishah Hassan Characterization of Okra (Abelmoschus [Medik.]) Accessions Using Dehydrogenase Isozymes and Protein Matthew Chidozie Ogwu, Moses Edwin Osawaru and Uruemu Onosigbere-Ohwo

45

Using qualitative data analysis tools ‘fit for purpose’ for making sense of teacher educators’ use of digital technologies in their pedagogical practices

63

Aminath Shafiya Adam and Garry Falloon

Challenges in clinical learning: experiences of Maldivian nursing students Salma Hassan

79

Editorial Policy and Notes for Contributors

The Maldives National Journal of Research The Maldives National Journal of Research (MNJR) is a research journal of The Maldives National University published by the Postgraduate Research Centre. MNJR is a multidisciplinary journal of research in all disciplines relevant to the Maldives. Although in the coming years, it is expected that this journal will evolve into specialist journals in various disciplines, the first one is generalist in nature. The journal publishes research articles, literature reviews, book reviews, comments, opinion and perspectives. Objectives. The justification for publishing a journal arises from the need to create and disseminate knowledge — an objective enshrined in the MNU Act. It is unlikely that our staff and students are able to access international journals of repute for publishing their research and studies. The journal will be available both on paper and in digital form. Paper-based journals still have a permanence rarely achieved by digital editions. The objectives of the journal are:

1. to promote research and scholarly enquiry, 2. to provide a vehicle for publication of student and staff research, 3. to report opinion and commentary on social, economic and political developments of the country, 4. to publish position papers, criticisms on papers published in the journal or issues of general interest to the university or the nation, 5. to review books, magazines, articles, movies and other artistic, or scholarly creations, and 6. to contribute to the progress in education and learning.

Frequency. Initially annually, and thereafter biennially (in July and December) in both digital and printed versions. Size. Approximately 175 x 250 mm (print version). Pages. 100 (print version). Criteria for publication. MNJR primarily publishes papers describing original research. Papers must contain new results to be published. Further, submission of an article to MNJR implies that it has not been published or submitted elsewhere. However, conference papers may be included in an article provided that significantly more details on the subject are incorporated. MNJR accepts papers written only in Dhivehi and English. It is the responsibility of the author(s) to ensure that the articles are free from grammar and other errors. Important criteria in the selection process for publication are quality of argument and execution, clarity in presentation and educational significance. Articles must not be more than 20 pages as they appear in A4 paper one and

a half spaced. All submissions must include an abstract of not more than 200 words except submissions to Opinions and Perspectives. All graphics must be in 300 dpi resolution. Manuscripts should be submitted by a single corresponding author. Papers that, in the opinion of the reviewer or editor, fall short of the above standards will be rejected. Submissions. The emailed version must be written in Microsoft Word or in Rich Text Format, one and a half spaced. As articles will be reviewed, all information identifying the author(s) should be highlighted so that review copies can have this information removed as necessary and sent to referees. All submissions should be emailed to [email protected]. Referencing style. MNJR uses the referencing and style conventions of the American Psychological Association. Peer Review. MNJR intends to have all manuscripts reviewed by two referees, whenever possible by peers with the exception of submissions to sections dealing with Opinions, Perspectives and Comments. The Editor selects two reviewers from the Editorial Committee. The process is double-blind. The reviewers are identified to the author and vice-versa only after the review process is over. If the article falls outside the expertise of the Editorial Committee, guest reviewers with specific expertise may be consulted. Content. Research Reports contain original research that advances our understanding in the given field. Review Articles are critical evaluations of material that has been already published. The writer may define and clarify the problem, and take a position on an issue. Opinions, Perspectives and Comments provides a forum for discussion and debate about previously published material or important current issues, innovations and policy perspectives in clearly written commentaries. No abstract is required nor the submission is peer reviewed. Copyright permission policy. Authors need not contact the journal to obtain rights to reuse their articles in other publications, presentations and theses. Please include a reference to the journal. Those using material that appeared in MNJR for noncommercial use are welcome to copy, distribute, transmit and adapt the work — at no cost and without permission —as long as they attribute the work to the original source. Those who wish to use material appearing in MNJR for commercial use must obtain written permission from MNJR.

6

Editorial Welcome to the Maldives National Journal of Research (MNJR). This issue seeks to connect and integrate a diversity of philosophical arguments and theoretical statements in areas of new educational qualitative research tools, teaching pedagogical techniques, social problems faced by adolescents in schools, food technology and clinical teaching of nurses. Blended delivery in higher education is a fast-growing area of research as new technologies are being introduced at a rapid pace. The first paper highlights the use of blended delivery at the Maldives National University and why students chose to study using a blended delivery mode in the Maldives. The second paper looks at the relationships between bullies, victims and mental health issues among adolescents. The paper highlights the most common types of bullying in the Maldives and provides and insight into the understanding of the complexity of the life stressors that make bullies or victims of bullying. The next paper primarily focused on food technology. The following one is an ethnographic study on how the culture of the teacher educators influenced their technological and pedagogical practices. The final paper of this issues looks at the challenges faced by the trainee nurses during their clinical learning experience. I thank the authors who contribute to the journal by making the commitment to do research and share their priceless knowledge in our journal. My sincere gratitude goes to the panel of reviewers who find time from their busy schedules to give constructive feedback to our authors which brings strength to the quality of the papers being published.

Dr. Ali Fawaz Shareef

7

The Maldives National Journal of Research Vol. 5, No. 1, June 2017, pp. 7-22

Graduates perspectives on blended learning in the Maldives ROZA IBRAHIM AND MOHAMED SHIHAB

Blended learning is the combination of both the advantages of online learning as well as face-to-face learning. This mode of education is increasing around the world today due to the advantages it offers. Prominent features including flexibility, collaboration, interaction and accessibility which make it possible for educators to create positive learning environments in order to meet the demands of students. As the Maldives strives to modernise and develop its higher education sector to meet the rising demand, blended learning is a very appropriate strategy. Centre for Open Learning of the Maldives National University, uses blended learning to create a flexible and interactive learning environment. This qualitative research investigated 10 graduates’ perspectives on blended learning conducted at COL, aiming at three areas; content, tutorials and Learning Management System named as Gateway to E-Learning at MNU (GEM). It also explored the reasons for students joining blended mode of learning. From the data, it concludes that students are satisfied with the content, tutorials and GEM, yet there are few aspects which need improvements. Also, it is found that students prefer blended courses due to its flexibility and convenience since it allows being with their families and working, while completing their studies. The study also suggests that self- directed learning in this mode of studies also motivates students to blended learning. ABSTRACT

Introduction The Maldives is a small country of about 1192 islands grouped into 26 natural atolls. The population of 341,256 excludes the foreign population of 58,683 residing in the Maldives are scattered around approximately 190 inhabited islands (National Bureau of Statistics, 2015). According to the National Bureau of Statistics (2015), about 38% of the population live in the Male’ Region. As the other 62% of the population is dispersed to the islands, providing education especially higher education is very costly. With the aid from international organisations such as United Nations International Children’s Educational Fund, United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation and other organisations, the government has been able to establish few government schools in the atolls to provide primary and secondary education. Yet, there has been no mechanism to provide higher education opportunities to the potential students living in remote islands because of the geographic disbursement of the island nation. ISSN 2308-5959/21030101 (c) 2017 The Maldives National University

8

R. Ibrahim & M. Shihab

Later, some regional development centres in the north and south and some private organisations tried to cater the need for higher education. Activities such as fishing—which has affected the sustainable progress of the broader Good quality education, including higher educational opportunities is still mainly available in the capital Male’. Therefore, a disproportionate division of educational opportunities has been generated in the capital Male’ compared to the islands (Windham, 1991). A study done by The World Bank (2011) has found that higher education enrolment in the Maldives is extremely low for a middle-income country and the reasons include limited access to higher education opportunities and poor access to and completion of higher secondary education in the country. In order to address these issues, higher education opportunities in outer islands have to be increased. For that to happen it had become important to look beyond the traditional classroom based face-to-face teaching that has been the primary method of teaching in almost all higher education institutions in the Maldives. Other modes of education such as distance education and e-learning had to be explored. In 1999, Centre for Open Learning (COL) was established under the then Maldives College of Higher Education (MCHE) and conducted distance courses from international universities and courses developed by them. COL has improved its courses and with the implementation of a learning management system, COL currently offers 13 blended mode courses from Certificate level to Master’s Degree level. Since its establishment more than 1000 students have graduated from COL (Centre for Open Learning, 2000; The Maldives National University, 2014,). This research is aimed at increasing our understanding of the effectiveness of programmes conducted by COL and thus, improving the quality of blended mode teaching programmes. This study explores the question ‘how do graduates perceive blended mode of learning conducted by the Centre for Open Learning?’ This study examined graduates’ perspectives on blended learning, focussing on the course content, the face-to-face tutorials and Gateway to E-Learning at MNU (GEM). Ginns and Ellis (2007) affirm that a better understanding of the perspectives of the students can help COL and other e-learning institutes to further progress this novel learning environment. The next sections provide a brief institutional background before commencing on to the methods utilised and the findings. Institutional Background Centre for Open Learning (COL) was established in 1999 under the umbrella of the Maldives College of Higher Education which was later transformed into The Maldives National University (MNU) in 2011. COL’s mandate was providing higher educational opportunities for the disadvantaged, those having difficulty in attending face-to-face classes and especially to those residing in the remote islands. The first courses offered at COL were from affiliated international universities including Indira Gandhi National Open University and The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand. General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) courses were also conducted for some time.

Blended Learning

9

The demand for higher education escalated as employers in both the public and private sectors searched for graduates with good skills and competencies (The World Bank, 2011). Likewise, the Ministry of Education required to train the temporary ‘contract’ teachers working in the schools, especially in the outer islands, and requested COL to formulate a distance education teacher training programme. COL developed this teacher training programme called Advanced Certificate in Primary Teaching. This is the first in-house course conducted at COL which commenced in 2003, using printed materials and face-to-face tutorial study blocks. In this course students studied in their own time at home and attended the study blocks held in Male’ and in the study centres in the atolls. By the end of 2008, more than 500 students graduated and due to the increase in demand for distance education courses, COL also conducted a foundation level English language course called English for Further Studies in 2005. This course which is still running has a high demand in every semester. COL introduced courses from other disciplines as well. This comprises human resource, management, language, nursing, social policy and business. The transformation of the delivery of higher education programs and courses by global technological changes (The World Bank, 2011) and the growing demand for higher education required COL and MNU to seek other options and technological solutions. Also, The World Bank (2011) has specified that MNU need to develop along multiple paths to expand the programs and courses. This needs to include e-learning programs and courses to the various provinces and atolls. The World Bank (2011) report further identifies that such programs “will also require further development of the special types of student support required for e-learning within the MNU system”, (p.E5). This e-learning environment was created by COL in 2008 using a free Learning Management System MOODLE. The availability of affordable internet access across the country has provided COL this opportunity to establish this Learning Management System LMS and expand its distance education and provide better access to prospective students in the islands. Using the learning management system named GEM, COL has created a better, more flexible, interactive and effective learning environment. Now, GEM provides students with access to study materials from ‘anytime’ ‘anywhere’, and connects students, lecturers and fellow course-mates to discuss their studies online and offline. The demand for the courses offered at COL can be seen by the rising student numbers (Figure 1). Since 2009 the enrolments of COL has been increasing and COL has maintained a student population of over 12,00 in the last two years. This places COL in the top position, with the highest student population among the faculties and centres of MNU. Literature Review The inventions of new technologies and improvements in communication have paved the way for innovative techniques and methodologies in the field of education. E-learning or electronic learning is one of the modern technologies for teaching and learning though the definition of e-learning varies significantly. Some authors specifically define e-learning while others imply definitions which are more diverse. Becker (1991) explained that e-learning is web based

10 R. Ibrahim & M. Shihab

learning and Nichols (2003) argues that it is web distribution. Some definitions of e-learning takes account of all electronic media including internet or intranet, audio and video tape satellite broadcast and interactive TV. However, in some cases the emphasis is not only given to the delivery of the content but the instructional methods provided through a particular technology. This technology based online delivery mode of learning is blended with traditional face-to-face learning (Nel & Wilkinson, 2006) to create blended learning environment. According to Singh and Reed (2001), blended learning is a learning program where more than one delivery mode is used to optimize the learning outcome and cost of program delivery. It is also defined as the convenience and benefits of e-learning mixed with the advantages of face-toface learning and also known as “hybrid learning” (Akkoyunlu & Soylu, 2008). Literature also describe blended learning as a combination of instructional modalities and methods, and combination of online and face-to-face instructions (Graham, Allen and Ure, 2003; Oliver & Trigwell, 2005; Rooney, 2003; Sharma, 2010). This combination and redesign of instructional modalities allows a shift from lecture-centred to student-centred instructions, increasing active student participation and interactivity (Poon, 2013). Clark and Meyer (2003) also support this definition of diverse education model and further stress that it takes advantage from every sort of technology. In recent years, rather than delivering course material through a single medium, the conjunction of both methods, blended learning, has become increasingly predominant (Graham, 2005; Kim & Bonk, 2006; Watson, 2008). As seen from the study done by Kistow (2011) at the Graduate School of Business, Trinidad and Tobago, students are on the move of learning from face-to-face classes to blended mode. Students do not want to continue their education with only traditional face-to-face learning environments or with a purely online learning environment 2009 (Akkoyunlu & Soylu, 2008; Banci & Soran, 2008; Orhan, 2008). They want to have the best of both. Therefore, it is important to have a balance between online and face-to-face learning. Why Blended Learning Studies have identified numerous benefits of blended learning including flexible access to course content, lecturers and classmates. According to Akkoyunlu and Soylu (2008), the most significant feature of e-learning is its flexibility. The technology used for e-learning enables a learning environment to be independent of time and place (Dziuban, Hartman and Moskal, 2004). Brown (2003) refers to this flexibility as time efficiency and location convenience. This feature of blended learning provides educational opportunities for potential students who are unable to attend traditional face-to-face classes due to the geography, time constrains, job and family responsibilities. Yang (2006) approves that information technology based learning is designed for individual and collaborative learning for geographically dispersed learners to provide knowledge and accomplish their learning goals. According to Spender (2001), e-learning is an ideal delivery for education due to a number of reasons, which includes providing teachers and students with ‘anytime anywhere’ access to the content and expanding education to a greater number of campus based

Blended Learning

11

students. The main reason for COL to adopt blended learning is to provide higher education opportunities for the geographically dispersed population in the Maldives. Blended learning also allows the designing of learning according to the need of the learners. Boyle and Nicol (2003) agreed that blended learning is an empirically-based approach that inspires learner-centred teaching and increases interaction and active learning among peers and instructors. Teachers can create collaborative instructional activities and assignments that give students the opportunity to work in groups, or participate in project-based and experiential learning. Fisher (2003) emphasises that effective collaboration is a distinctive requirements of an effective online course to create a meaningful and engaging learning environment. This environment is created using audio visual and interactive synchronous or asynchronous activities providing a platform for students to discuss their studies with the lecturers and other course mates online and offline. Another significant aspect of embracing this methodology is the technology which has the potential to transfer content and instructions electronically. As Rovai and Jordan (2004) state, a blended learning design allows flexible content delivery to a large audience while still fostering face-to-face contact essential for a robust learning experience. This “anytime anywhere access” to the learning materials is an essential component for the students who are residing in the islands. Brown (2003) specifies that blended learning supports all the benefits of e-learning including cost reductions. The costs for institutions are saved as developed materials can be placed online and re-used for an extended period of time (Poon, 2013). Increasing the size of the cohort and decreasing the number of classes also help reduce the budget. Similarly, the use of blended learning can reduce the staff and student classroom contact time and consequently save on staffing costs. Furthermore, Owston, York, and Murtha, (2013) pointed out that the advantages of blended learning include efficient use of classroom space. This observation is supported by Spender (2001) and Vaughan (2007). Moreover, Blackboards Inc. (2009) have found that independence and experience with online tools have been associated with improved critical thinking. The same idea is proposed by Jamlan (2004) that e-learning creates avenues for new ways of thinking. This, in turn, will support developing lifelong learners. Despite the advantages, it is important to remember that there are some challenges as well. Hienze and Proctor (2004) argue that lack of social interaction is the major disadvantage in an online learning environment. In order to overcome this drawback, there are teaching strategies and online features incorporated within the blended learning environment. This consists of online discussions such as synchronous chat sessions and asynchronous discussion forums. Also, the face-to-face tutorials sessions would provide the students with the opportunity to develop the lacking social interaction. There are further challenges encountered by some researchers. Studies at the University of Central Florida (Dziuban et al., 2004) and the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee (Garnham & Kaleta, 2002) indicated that students encountered four key challenges including the expectation that fewer classes meant less work, inadequate time management skills, problems with accepting responsibility for personal learning, and difficulty with more sophisticated technologies.


Community of Practice Many higher education institutions around the world have been adopting blended learning and enjoying the benefit and convenience of this mode of education. A program piloted at the University of Wisconsin of USA where all faculty were involved found that the participants were happy with their first blended teaching experience (Aycock, Garnham, & Kaleta, 2002). Also, 80% perceived the experience worthwhile and recommended the approach to others. Similar results were found in a survey conducted at higher education institutions across Britain where 85% agrees that technology improves access to education (Marquis, 2004). Likewise, the participants (94%) thought online and classroom based teaching is more effective than classroom teaching alone. A research conducted at University of Yildiz Technic in Turkey found that students like to come to campus and discuss the course content with instructors and friends but they also would like to use information technology as a learning tool (Orhan, 2008). This means they are satisfied with blended learning. A research at Notingham Trent University in the United Kingdom to examine students and tutor perspectives resulted similar views on blended learning and commented that its main advantage is flexibility (Poon, 2013). However, the students who participated in this research were concerned that the online materials can make the lectures redundant. This can be tackled with careful planning. Numerous researches have been conducted to comprehend students’ perception of blended learning environment. A study of third and fourth year students in Veterinary Science in Australia found that there is a need to understand the students’ perceptions and the extent of support students receive in this learning context (Ginns & Ellis, 2007). In the same manner Abou Naaj, Nachouki, and Ankit (2012) insist that this type of research is indispensable as meeting students’ expectations leads them to act as advocates and promotes the university. Thus the purpose of this research is to see whether students are satisfied with the learning environment at COL. Research Method This study followed a qualitative research approach to understand graduate students’ perspectives on blended learning at COL. Ten graduates were recruited for the study using purposive sampling. In order to accommodate a maximum variation of the sample participants were chosen to include graduates from different blended programmes, both genders and from different geographical locations. Participants were selected from the blended programmes Postgraduate Certificate in Education, Diploma in Teaching Islam and Diploma in Divehi Language Teaching. Also, consideration was given to the availability and willingness of graduates to participate in the research. Data was collected using an open-ended questionnaires followed by a semistructured interview based on four guiding questions. Both instruments were designed to collect students’ perspectives on blended learning. The questionnaire and interviews were based on the four guiding questions, given below. 1. What are your reasons for choosing a blended mode course from the Centre for Open Learning?

Blended Learning

13

2. Are you satisfied with the content (Study Guides) delivered to you in different modules of the course? Please explain with reason. 3. Explain your ideas about the face-to-face tutorial sessions. 4. How do you feel about COL’s Learning Management System (GEM) with regard to its benefits? The open-ended interviews were used to probe further into the participants responses to the questionnaire and also clarify any uncertainties. The interviews also allowed the participants to talk about related issues that are not covered in the questionnaire. The data collection was carried out with full ethical considerations where participants were fully informed about the study. Written consents were obtained from all participants. Participants initially filled the questionnaires and on return of these, a time for conducting the interview was scheduled to clarify and probe questions and get more information. The face-to-face and, in some cases, phone interviews which took thirty minutes to one hour were conducted in Dhivehi. To enhance the trustworthiness and increase the credibility and reliability of this study, techniques utilised include sampling. In order to minimize bias, sample was selected from different courses, both genders and different geographical locations included. The other procedure includes formulation of the questions for the interview and for the questionnaire. The questions are based on a quantitative survey questionnaire from Open University Sri Lanka, after modifying to open ended questions required for a qualitative study. In addition there was triangulation of data collection which includes interviews, open-ended questions and researcher’s reflexive journal. Member check was utilised during and after the interviews to add to the credibility of the research. Data Analysis According to Braun and Clarke (2006), thematic framework is the first qualitative method of analysis which provides core skills and is used in different forms of qualitative research. In order to develop a thematic framework, it is important to familiarise the data through reading and listening. So, the first step was listening to the interviews and reading the questionnaires and researcher’s notes. All the data were translated and transcribed. While doing the transcriptions, it was carefully observed for non-verbal cues and signs as they might convey certain meanings which could be vital to reflect during the analysis. The available data were cautiously read a number of times to match with the transcriptions. Then, for ease of retrieval and identification, the data were organised according to the interview questions. In the process, careful attention was given to keep the data anonymous. The next step was reading the data again looking for patterns and themes to organise them into meaningful segments. Then key ideas and chunks and phrases from the transcript were underlined and coded (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2007). After that the codes were categorised into themes and mapped into charts to visually represent the relationship of the data. This lead to the meaning making process. Findings and Discussions The findings of this research is grouped under six areas which include (1) the


reasons for choosing blended mode courses, (2) satisfaction of content/study guide, (3) opinion on face-to-face tutorials, (4) the learning management system GEM, (5) improvement needed for blended courses and (6) future studies with COL. Reasons for Choosing Blended Courses All ten participants have stated that flexibility and convenience are the main reasons they chose blended learning. The same idea is identified by Kistow (2011), McGee andReis, (n.d) and Shen, Reynolds, Bonk, and Brush, (2013). Researchers such as Garnham and Kaleta, (2002) define flexibility as the ability to control the pace of ones learning while others believe that blended learning primarily focus on addressing the issue of access. Singh and Reed (2001) also believe that a single delivery mode inevitably limits the reach of a learning program whereas a virtual classroom event is inclusive of a remote audience. Hence both controlling the pace of learning and access are aspects which applies to COL students as most of COLs students live in the islands and they need access to the study materials. Flexibility in this context, refers to (1) access to the learning materials from ‘anywhere’ ‘anytime’ which Vaughan (2007) refers to flexibility to work from home (2) the ability to control the pace of one’s learning (Garnham & Kaleta, 2002). COL students are given particular timeframes to complete assessment tasks so that students can control their learning and complete the tasks in their preferable time within the assigned timeframe. (3) The third aspect of flexibility refers to the convenience of scheduling coursework (Garnham & Kaleta, 2002). While explaining flexibility, some participants clarified that “the intended time bands for block classes are a convenient means to learning with a full time job and a family”. Another student also expressed that “I would always prefer this method over conventional face-to-face. I am an independent learner. So, I need minimal contact hours”. Supporting this idea, Vaughan (2007) emphasized that blended learning offers students with more course scheduling options because of the reduction in face-to-face class time and Garnham and Kalet (2002) confirms that this decrease in face-to-face class time decreases time spent in travelling. In addition Owston et al. (2013) highlighted that increased flexibility in teaching schedule is an advantage in this mode of learning. Many participants have stressed that the best advantage of blended learning is being with the family while studying. Most students studying at COL are adults who have families and wanted to continue their family responsibilities. Vaughan (2007) believes that convenience of scheduling is important due to the fact that there is a growing number of students with multiple responsibilities including family commitments. Ginns and Ellis (2007) have also argued that integration of (ICT) increased flexibility for students who need to balance studies and family commitments. As one student explains that “the time I save by doing this blended course can be used to do more useful stuff like job or family”. Another advantage of blended learning is that students can do a full time job while studying. A student stated that ‘there is no barrier for the job due to block classes’. Another participant further explained that “we get release from the job for block classes.” In addition, a student expressed that “this course provided

Blended Learning

15

the opportunity to study while on the job. Another participant described “this was the only course I can do while doing my job”. Moreover, the encouragement of self-directed learning is also a factor that some participants prefer this mode of learning. Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (1998) proposed the adult learning theory ‘Andragogy’ which assumes that adult learner is usually self-directed and Brookfield (1996) claims that the adult learner is self-motivated and an experiential learner. A participant stated that: Another motive for this modality was the form of self-directed learning that is encouraged. This makes you a better person than you would be from faceto-face learning. Without this discipline we are likely to fail. You are required to read widely and plan ahead more than you would if you had to attend faceto-face mode. Self-directed learning will in turn lead to lifelong learning and critical thinking. Poon (2013) reports that both staff and students described that the online components of blended learning encourage the development of critical thinking skills. In addition to that, participants have stated blended mode courses are affordable. One participant commented that “the course fee is cheaper” and another student added that “although it is a block mode course the course fee is cheaper”. Brown (2003) supports the idea of blended course being affordable than face-to-face courses. Another participant further explained that “I would assume that in the long run, blended or even e-learning would become a cheaper option due to lower overheads”. This notion of cost reduction is further reinforced by Singh and Reed (2001) explaining that combining delivery modes will balance out the learning program development and deployment of cost and time. Satisfaction with the Content (Study Guide) In blended learning courses learning resources or learning materials play a crucial role as students interact with the learning materials online and offline. Nel and Wilkinson, (2006) argue that learning resources can be regarded as a key ingredient for the successful completion of any project or any course and this can include people, materials and financial and physical resources. The learning materials which are referred to in this study include Microsoft PowerPoint presentations, hand-outs, worksheets and study guides which are used as the main source of student learning. These materials are printed and provided to the students and also made available online. According to Kistow (2011), the learning materials must be presented to the students in a well-structured manner. Most participants acknowledged that the study guides provide the required information covering major areas. They agree that the content is appropriate and PowerPoint’s are well structured. A student commented that “generally, it is appropriate and the required information was provided.” Another student stated that “I believe the study guides are very beneficial and much needed because information in those study guides are used in our teaching.” A third student’s idea is “in total, the study guides are designed to provide the necessary information and content in the areas of study”.


However, they expressed concern that sometimes the study guides were not available at the beginning of the semester and one of the participants is discontented due to the readings being too broad and randomly selected. This caused unnecessary overlapping of the content as the student mentioned. View on Face-to-face Tutorial Sessions The face-to-face tutorial sessions or block sessions are conducted two to four times (depending on the course) during a semester and each block session includes ten hours of lecture and tutorials from every module. If students are having three subjects, then they have 30 hours of lecture and tutorial time in a block. For the tutorial blocks students attend the campus or an outreach centre. This means many students and lecturers travel for these block classes. Some participants expressed that they enjoyed tutorial sessions which provided them with the opportunity of sharing rich experiences from students coming from different disciplines. Nel and Wilkinson, (2006) support that students will be given the opportunity to participate in small group discussions or group tasks during the face-to-face sessions. Also one student mentioned that “tutorial sessions were effective and encouraging”. The word encouraging could refer to motivation and reinforcement. Many researchers, including Kistow, (2011), assert the importance of positive reinforcement from the instructors in adult learning. Also, Bolliger and Martindale (2004), believe that the instructor is not only a facilitator but a motivator for the students. In addition, it is reported that students pointed out that getting feedback and encouraging response from instructor in face-to-face environment encouraged them to study regularly (Orhan, 2008). Moreover, student satisfaction has a strong positive correlation with the performance of the instructor particularly with the availability and response time (Debourgh, 1999). Furthermore, Baker (2010) found instructor presence, in this case face-to-face tutorials, to be a statistically significant predictor of student motivation. However, there are some issues students would like to bring to the attention of the course coordinators. Some students mentioned that “block sessions were too intensive for a weekend. Absorption time was very limited and students were very tired (including lecturers) for it to be effective as intended”. It is also revealed that tiredness can be seen both from the lecturers and from students due to the length of time spent for each subject and due to the travelling. Also, according to one graduate sometimes the sessions did not start on time. Another issue a participant raised was some sessions were boring as lecturers were not fully prepared. The graduates recommended that COL should pay more attention when selecting lecturers. Benefits of COL’s Learning Management System (GEM) COL’s Learning Management System GEM provides access to the learning materials such as the PowerPoint presentations, hand-outs, worksheets and study guides and assessment from ‘anytime anywhere’. Students found this as an advantage because most of them live in the islands. In the same manner, important announcements are made through GEM and students can see them within seconds. Some students also highlighted that being able to do online quizzes and getting instant feedback as well as uploading assessments is a huge convenience.

Blended Learning

17

In addition, graduates are contented due to the fact that they receive lecturers’ feedback and marked assignment through GEM. All participants acknowledged that GEM acts as a platform for receiving assistance from lecturers and peers. They agree that they discuss the course content with their lecturers and peers and this helps their studies. Orhan (2008) states that this is using information technology as a learning tool. These online discussions include asynchronous discussions such as forums and synchronous discussions such as chat sessions which are conducted in real time. These online discussions enhance cooperative learning which are structured. The online discussions not only help students to maximise their own learning but other learning as well. There are several studies revealing the beneﬁts of cooperative or collaborative learning in blended teaching. Nel and Wilkinson (2006) emphasise that a successful online course greatly relies on effective collaboration to create a meaningful and engaging learning environment. In the same manner Baker (2010) states that communication tools such as discussion, email, chat, and messaging increase the level of interaction. These tools allows group work and immediate feedback in a virtual environment. In this case, students are able to share viewpoints and discuss with other students understanding their perspective as well (Abou Naaj et al. (2012). The interactions which include constructive feedback from both peers and lecturers help them to judge their progress and improve their work as well by collaboration within the group (Nel & Wilkinson, 2006). As effective collaboration can enhance students learning experience, it can be regarded as one of the determining factors in measuring the success of an online course. Given the fact that online technology is a fairly recent phenomenon in education, adult students are not as familiar with the technology. Even though students are given a brief introduction of GEM at the beginning of the first semester, it is not enough for them to understand the important aspects of GEM. That is why some participants indicated that they have experienced some level of anxiety about using the online mode. Due to this inexperience, especially in the first semester students were not as active as they would like to be in the online discussions as stated by Nel and Wilkinson (2006). Hara and Kling (2003) found that a more significant source of stress was caused by confusion, anxiety, and frustration due to ambiguous instructions on the course website. With the same accord Brown (2003) found that students with limited experience of group work and the LMS, and no experience with online interaction/collaboration, were unlikely to possess the group/collaborative skills. Group collaborative skills is quite crucial in any online teaching (Brown, 2003). Other issues that were identified include some lecturers not being online for some discussion sessions and their feedback being very slow. A participant commented that “So when lecturers do not respond in a timely manner, students are pressured a lot. Especially when due dates are set and when they need an answer”. Shen et al. (2013) refer to such lecturers as unresponsive instructors. In addition, some students have concerns regarding technical issues of GEM. As one participant stresses, there were initial hiccups with GEM in which login issues were frequent and some uploads were not being seen or downloadable.


Also, it is argued that instead of using only chat sessions, video conferencing could be an easy and additional mode which could be an improvement to the present version of GEM. Kistow (2011) advises to include multimedia presentations such as podcasts, narrated slides and video presentations. However, while implementing these strategies bandwidth performance needs to be considered. Limitations and Further Research As blended learning environment is a relatively new field in the Maldives and as there are not many studies done, a discussion of the limitations of this study is justified. This study is limited as the sample size is limited to ten participants from three blended courses. Due to this, the findings cannot be generalised to the whole population. The findings of this study were limited to a questionnaire, interview and researchers notes. This study could be extended through a quantitative research with a bigger sample size to include graduates from all courses conducted at COL. Also, further research of the present students would enrich the information gathered and would assist the improvement of the blended courses. Conclusion With the aim of exploring and understanding students perspectives about blended learning environment at COL, this research focussed on three areas; content, face-to-face tutorials and GEM. The study also examined the reasons for students joining blended mode courses for their studies. From this research, it can be concluded that students prefer blended courses because: (1) it is flexible and convenient; (2) it allows students to be with the family while studying; (3) students can do a full time job; (4) it encourages self-directed learning; and (5) it is affordable. It is found that students were generally satisfied with blended courses offered at COL. Students were satisfied with the content of the courses, the combination of face-to-face sessions and the advantages offered through online learning platform, GEM. Suggested areas of improvement include issues of availability of the content at the beginning of a course, the face-toface sessions being too intensive, leading to tiredness from both students and lecturers and technical issues students faced in accessing GEM. These finding have implications for the advancement of the blended programs conducted at COL. The weaknesses and strengths being identified, the programs can be further strengthened by resolving with the issues recognised. References Abou Naaj, M., Nachouki, M. & Ankit, A. (2012). Evaluating Student Satisfaction with Blended Learning in a Gender-Segregated Environment. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research. (11), 185-200. Akkoyunlu, B., & Soylu, M. Y. (2008). A study of student’s perceptions in a blended learning environment based on different learning styles. Educational Technology & Society, 11 (1), 183-193. Aycock, A., Garnham, C., & Kaleta, R. (2002). Lessons learned from the

Blended Learning

19

hybrid course project. Teaching with Technology Today, 8(6), 9–21. Baker, C., (2010). The impact of instructor Immediacy and Presence for Online Student Affective Learning, Cognition and Motivation. The journal of Educators Online, 7(1)1-30. Banci, M. & Soren, H. (2008). Students’ opinion on blended learning. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 10(1), 21–35. Becker, P. (1991). When powerful tools meet conventional beliefs and institutional constraints. Computing Teacher, 18(8), 6–9. Blackboards Inc. (2009). Blended learning: Where online and face-to-face instruction intersect for 21st century teaching and learning. Eduviews A K-12 Leaders Series, Washington DC: Author. Retrieved from on 25 July 2014 from: https://www.blackboard.com/resources/k12/Bb_K12_WP_ BlendedLearning.pdf Boyle, J. T., & Nicol, D. J. (2003). Using classroom communication systems to support interaction and discussion in large class settings. Association for Learning Technology Journal, 11(3), 43–57. Retrieved July 27, 2014 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0968776030110305. Bolliger, D. U., & Martindale, T., (2004). Key Factors for Determining Student Satisfaction in Onine Courses. International Journal of E-Learning. P 61-67. Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology, Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77 — 101. Brookfield, S. D. (1996). Adult Learning: An Overview. In, E. DeCorte & F.E. Weinert (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of Developmental and Instructional Psychology. Oxford: Elsevier Science. Brown, R. (2003). Blending learning: Rich experiences from a rich picture. Training and Development in Australia, 30 (3), 14-17. Centre for Open Learning , (2000). Annual report 1999. Male, Maldives: Author. Clark, R. T. & Meyer, R. E. (2003). E-Learning and the science of instruction. San Francisco, CA: Preiffer Publishing. DeBourgh, G. (1999). Technology Is the Tool, Teaching Is the Task: Student Satisfaction in Distance Learning. retrieved on 20 July 2015 from http://files. eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED432226.pdf Dziuban, C. D., Hartman, J. L., & Moskal, P. D. (2004). Blended learning. Educause Research Bulletin, Centre for Applied Research. (7) 1-12. Retrieved May 25, 2015, from https://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/erb0407.pdf Fisher, M. (2003). Online collaborative learning: relating theory to practice. Journal of Educational Technology Systems. 31(3), 227-249. Garnham, C., & Kaleta, R. (2002). Introduction to hybrid courses. Teaching with Technology Today, 8(6). Retrieved July 26, 2014, from http://www.uwsa. edu/ttt/articles/garnham.htm Ginns, P., & Ellis R. (2007). Quality in blended learning: exploring the relationships between on-line and face-to-face teaching and learning. Internet


and Higher Education, 10, 53–64. Graham, C. R. (2005). Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions. In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 3-21). San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Graham, C.R., Allen, S. & Ure, D. (2003). Blended learning environments: A review of the research literature. Unpublished manuscript, Provo, UT. Hara, N., & Kling, R. (2003). Students’ distress with a Web-based distance education course: An ethnographic study of participants’ experiences. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE, 4(1), 1-30. Heinze, A., & Proctor C. (2004) Reflections on the use of blended learning. Salford: University of Salford. Retrieved July 28, 2014, from http://usir. salford.ac.uk/1658/1/4247745025H__CP_-_paper9_5.pdf Jamlan, M. (2004). Faculty opinion toward introducing e-Learning at the University of Bahrain. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(2)1-14 Retrieved July 10, 2015, from http://www.irrodl. org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/185/267 Kim, K., & Bonk, C. (2006). The future of online teaching and learning in higher education: The survey says.... Educause Quarterly, 29(4), 22-30. Kistow, B. (2011). Blended learning in higher education: A study of a graduate school of Business, Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean Teaching Scholar. 1(2), 115–128 Retrieved on 29 June 2014 from: https://www.google.mv/?gws_rd=ssl#q=Gr aduates%E2%80%99+Perception+on+Blended+Learning Knowles, M., Holton, E.& Swanson, R. (1998) The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species, fifth edn, Houston: Gulf Publishers. Leech, N.L., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2007). An Array of qualitative analysis tools: A call for data analysis triangulation. School Psychology Quarterly, 22, 557-5584 Marquis, C. (2004). WebCT Survey Discovers A Blend of Online Learning and Classroom-Based Teaching Is The Most Effective Form Of Learning Today. WebCT.com. Retrieved July 21, 2004, from http://www.webct.com/service/ ViewContent?contentID=19295938 McGee, P., & Reis, A., (n d). Blended Course Desing: A Synthesis of Best Practices. Blended Course Design: A Synthesis of Best Practices Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, Volume 16: Issue 16(4)7-23. Retrieved 5July 2015 from http://www.uwgb.edu/catl/files/Workshops/english/Blended%20 Course%20Design%20-%20A%20Synthesis%20of%20Best%20Practices. pdf National Bureau of Statistics. (2015). Population and housing census 2014: Preliminary results – revised. Male’, Maldives: Ministry of Finance and Treasury. Nel, L., & Wilkinson, A., (2006). Enhancing Collaborative Learning in a Blended Learning Environment: Applying a Process Planning Model. Springer Science+ Business Media, LLC200. Syst Prac Act Re (19), 553-576.

Blended Learning

21

Nichols, M. (2003). A theory of e-learning. Educational Terminology & Society, 6 (2) 1-10 Oliver, M., & Trigwell, K. (2005). Can “blended learning” be redeemed? E-Learning, 2(1), 17- 26. Retrieved on July 21, 2014, from http://dx.doi. org/10.2304/elea.2005.2.1.2 Orhan, F. (2008). Redesigning a course for blended learning environment. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 9(1). 54-66 Owston, R, York, D. & Murtha, S. (2013). Student perceptions and achievement in a university blended learning strategic initiative, The Internet and Higher Education, 18, 38-46. Retrieved July 24 2014 from http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2012.12.003 Poon, J. (2013). Blended learning: an institutional approach for enhancing students’ learning experiences, Journal of online learning and teaching, 9(2), 271-288. Rooney, J. E. (2003). Blending learning opportunities to enhance educational programming and meetings. Association Management, 55(5), 26–32. Rovai, A.P. & Jordan, H.M. (2004). Blended learning and sense of community: A comparative analysis of traditional and fully on-line graduate courses. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(2), 1-17. Retrieved July 22, 2014, from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/ view/192/274 Sharma, P. (2010). Blended learning. ElT journal, 64(4), 456-458. Shen, Y. W., Reynolds, T. H., Bonk, C. J., & Brush, T. A. (2013). A case study of applying blended learning in an accelerated post-baccalaureate teacher education program. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange, 6(1), 59-78. Singh, H. & Reed, C. (2001). A White Paper: Achieving Success With Blended Learning. Lexington, MA: Centra Software. Retrieved July 11, 2015, from http://www.centra.com/download/whitepaper/blendedlearning.pdf Spender, D. (2001). E-Learning: Are universities prepared? In Online learning in a borderless market: Proceedings of a conference held at Griffiths University Gold Coast Campus (pp. 59-63). Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. The Maldives National University. (2012). Annual Report 2011. Male’, Maldives: Author. Retrieved on 25th June 2015 from: http://mnu.edu.mv/ index.php/the-university?catid=281&id=701 The Maldives National University. (2013). Annual Report 2012. Male’, Maldives: Author. Retrieved on 25th June 2015 from: http://mnu.edu.mv/ index.php/the-university?catid=281&id=701 The Maldives National University. (2014). Annual Report 2013. Male’, Maldives: Author. The World Bank. (2011). Human capital for a knowledge society higher education in the Maldives: An evolving seascape. Washington DC, USA: Author. Retrieved July 20, 2014, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOUTHASIA/ Resources/Human_capital_for_a_knowledge_society_higher_education_in_


the_Maldives.pdf Vaughan, N. (2007). Perspectives on blended learning in higher education. International journal on E-Learning, 6(1), 81-94 Watson, J. (2008). Blending learning: The convergence of online and face-to-face education. Promising practices in online learning. Vienna: North American Council for Online Learning. Windham, D. M. (1991). Education Sector Review: Republic of Maldives. Male’, Maldives. Retrieved on 24th June 2015 from: http://www.unesco.org/ education/wef/countryreports/maldives/rapport_1.html Yang, S. J. H. (2006). Context aware ubiquitous learning environments for peer-to-peer collaborative learning. Educational Technology & Society, 9(1), 188-201.

23


Relationships between bullies, victims and mental health issues among adolescents AISHATH NASHEEDA, NORLIZAH C.HASSAN AND SITI AISHAH HASSAN, University Putra Malaysia

The main purpose of this research is to examine the relationships between bullies, victims and mental health among adolescents in Maldives. The study investigates the types of bullying and victimization common among adolescent boys and girls.The study also investigate the types of mental health among adolescents in Maldives. Furthermore, this study investigates the moderating effects of gender and age on the relationship between bullies, victims and mental health among adolescents in Maldives. The research adopts a cross sectional quantitative survey method. Adolescents Peer Relation Inventory (APRI) for bullying and Mental Health Index (MHI38) were used as research instruments. A total of 460 survey questionnaires were analyzed in this study. The target group of this study were adolescents between 11 to 16 years. Descriptive data were analyzed using IBM SPSS version 22 and Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS were used to analysis the hypotheses. Findings suggest that verbal bullying is the most common type of bullying among males and females. Findings on victimization suggests that 85% of adolescents have been targets to all forms of bullying. The relationship between bullying others and mental health revealed a non-recursive relationship whereby, bullying others and mental health have significant negative relationship (-.96) and mental health and bullying others have a significant positive relationship (.96). Findings on moderating factors on the relationship revealed that age and gender does not moderate on this relationship. The study opens new doors for practitioners as well as policies makers on formulating positive interventions strategies such as engaging students in positive behaviours, peer counseling and nurturing empathy so that peers help each other in promoting healthy behaviour in school environment. The study looks through the lens of biopsychosocial model in order to provide insight into bullying.The study provides insight on understanding of the complexity of the life stressors that influence adolescents to engage as bullies and victims. ABSTRACT

Keywords: bullying, victimization, mental health, adolescents, Maldives

Introduction Fighting and bullying are rapidly increasing in the schools of Maldives. Since 2008, there has been a steady increase in the number of domestic violence, rape, bullying and sexual harassment cases in Maldives (Madhok, 2012). Schools are becoming the focal point for bullying incidents. In 2009, Ministry of Education reported 37% of Maldivian students have been bullied on one or more occasions. A general survey conducted in Maldives (n=542) revealed that 61% of adolescents between 11 to 13 years reported being bullied while 80% witnessed bullying incidents (Advocating the Rights of Children, 2012). A World Bank (2014), report states that one out of five students in Maldives agree that they have been victims of bullying. In Maldives, not many muster the courage to report bullying incidents due to the stigma and labelling. ISSN 2308-5959/21030101 (c) 2017 The Maldives National University

24 A.Nasheeda

Often those who report bullying incidents are labelled as “difficult”, “doesn’t know how to get along with peers”, and “have an attitude”. Due to these labels many do not want to report bullying incidents and they suffer in silence. However, over the past few years, bullying has become a major concern for parents and school administrations as the number of students affected by bullying are becoming the front page headlines in the Maldives media. But, many are left with little clue about the impact of bullying on an individual’s mental health. Mental health issues are prevalent in the Maldives such that a nationwide survey conducted in 2003 reported 29.1% with mental health issues, with 5% reporting anxiety and depression (World Health Organization, 2014). This study fills the gap in the literature on bullying and effects on mental health of adolescents in Maldives. Since, bullying and mental health are not wellresearched topics in Maldives, young people are not aware of bullying or the effects of bullying on one’s mental health even when it happens. Even if they are aware, most of them do not have a clue on how to seek help on this matter. Aim of the study This research seeks to examine the relationships between bullies, victims and mental health among adolescents in Maldives. Significance of the study This study is important for Maldives due to a number of reasons. Firstly, few studies have been carried out on bullying in Maldives. These studies only stated that bullying does take place. This is a known fact as few school children had taken their lives due to prevalent issue. Secondly, it is important to strengthen the counselling services of schools in order to provide adequate support and guidance that is required for victims. In doing so, students learn to stand up for themselves and avoid bullying behaviours. Thirdly, it is important to increase awareness and eliminate stigma and discrimination about mental health wellbeing and mental health disorders in Maldives, so that young people are encouraged to seek professional help before it is too late and take charge of their lives. Moreover, examining the role of bullying and its effects on health among adolescents in Maldives will lead to understanding the need for sensitization, developing intervention strategies and better school policies on school bullying as well as addressing mental health problems in Maldives. It will also enable the community, parents, school staff and students to disseminate basic information about what bullying is and the negative effects it has on the individual mental health. Sensitization may lead to understanding of why some children do not report or stand up to being bullied, why some children bully others and why some bystanders do not report bullying incidences. This reluctance attitude may change with the support of parents, school administration and positive attitude of peers in Maldives. In addition, scarce research have been conducted on bullying and its effects on overall health among adolescence with regard to biopsychosocial perspective. Biopsychosocial model explains human behaviour from a medical stand point with an addition of psychological and social factors (Kuyendall, 2012; Nemade, Reiss, & Dombeck, 2007; Sarafino & Smith, 2014). Correspondingly, stress and other emotional reactions are multifaceted interactions of biological, behavioral and environmental factors which

Mental Health Issues Among Adolescents

25

influences an individual’s ability to remain healthy or resist illnesses (Baum & Posluszny, 1999; Swearer & Hymel, 2015). Hence, a more prominent illustration of biopsychosocial model is diathesis-stress model. The diathesisstress model theorizes that some individuals have predisposed vulnerabilities that makes them prone to aggression and bullying (Nevid, 2015). Thus, stress is considered as a strain to the individual in all aspects; biological, psychological and social. Bullying is a traumatized stressful event that results in severe mental health problems (Kaltiala-Heino et al., 2010; Marsh et al., 2011; Rigby, 2000) influences emotional, intellectual, social and physical health of an individual (Kuyendall, 2012) and decreases coping resources and slower recovery from repeated exposure to the stressor (Rex-Lear, Knack, & Jensen-Campbell, 2012). Literature review Bullying perspectives In the 90s, bullying was defined as a deliberate and conscious act to harm another physically and mentally (Tattum & Tattum, 1992). Olweus (1994), states that when an individual is repeatedly exposed to negative acts of violence or aggression, it is bullying. As a result, bullying can be conceptualized as any act of deliberate repeated aggressive behavior lacking empathy and social behavior to assert power over a weaker individual (Baumer & Goldstein, 2011; Kaltiala-Heino et al., 2010; Peeters, Cillessen, & Scholte, 2010; Salmivalli, 2010). However, it is important to point out that not all aggressive behaviour are bullying and not all bullying behaviour are aggressive. But what remains constant is the repetitive, intentional aggressive behaviour that is directed to hurt the other individual (Mishna, 2012; Rodkin, Espelage, & Hanish, 2015). Targets to bullying

Studies on bullying revealed that individuals who are most likely to get bullied are children and adolescents who have difficulty in defending themselves. They are usually due to smaller in size than their peers, have fewer friends (Zou, Andersen, & Blosnich, 2013), physical appearance, obese or being overweight (Sidorowicz, Hair, & Milot, 2009). Types of bullying and victimization behaviour

Bullying and victimization has two distinctive behaviours; direct and indirect. Direct or overt form of bullying is more face-to-face open attacks(Hemphill, Heerde, & Gomo, 2014) whereas the acts is concealed and subtle in indirect or covert bullying (Cross et al., 2009). The types of bullying and victimization include: verbal, e.g., name calling, verbal abuses, threats of violence, making jokes, offensive remarks and teasing (racist, sexist or homophobic)(Carbone-Lopez, Esbensen, & Brick, 2010); physical, bullying such as beating, kicking, punching, spitting (Luxenberg, Limber, & Olweus, 2015)other types of physical violence and damaging others property or taking someone’s belongings; Relational/Social such as starting false stories about someone, excluding someone from social groups (Scheithauer, Hayer, Petermann, & Jugert, 2006) and use of electronic devices to text messaging, call, take pictures and videos and posting them on social networks. Bully vs victims

Literature implies that individuals bully others for various reasons such as to

26 A.Nasheeda

gain more social acceptance, and power (Guerra, Williams, & Sadek, 2011; Rodkin et al., 2015). Thus, there are two target groups of bullying victims; passive and proactive. The passive type or the victims are usually quiet, submissive, cautious, have low self-esteem, unhappy and sensitive. They do not bully others nor provoke the bullying. But they are easy targets because they are unpopular and are rejected by peers and hence their peer will support the harassing (Rodkin et al., 2015). Also, those who are victims to bullying incidents are associated with poor physical health and psychosomatic problem (Gini & Pozzoli, 2013). They are at risk of developing mental health problems such as anxiety, depress, low self-esteem (Swearer & Hymel, 2015). The proactive type comprises of 10% to 20% of bullied students. These individuals have already been targets of bullying because they have been labelled to have poor self-esteem and emotionally unstable with physical and mental health problems (Rodkin et al., 2015; Yen et al., 2013). These students have difficulty in concentrating, lacks focus, is irritable, often hyperactive and disliked by peers. These students are bullied and in return they bully others. Although they are called proactive bullies there is no evidence that they actively provoke others or want to be bullied. But they may bully others if their behaviour is encouraged by their peers, which will gain them social status in the peer group (Rodkin et al., 2015). Unlike passive and proactive victims, the real bullies are more strong and dominating. They have a strong desire to show their self-esteem, to assert their power in the social standings (Rodkin et al., 2015). They are easily angered and shows deviant behaviour towards adults, teachers and parents. The real bullies are considered maladjusted with mental health problems and they lack empathy (Caravita, Blasio, & Salmivalli, 2010; Yen, 2010). These bullies in general are aggressive towards other individuals, have a strong need to dominate and control. They are generally stronger than their victims. Students who bully others are more likely to engage in delinquent behaviour and substance abuse (Cook, Williams, Guerra, Kim, & Sadek, 2010; Guerra et al., 2011; Lazarus & Pfohl, 2010) they also have control over peer groups and encourage them to scapegoat their targets ( Caravita et al., 2010; Rodkin et al., 2015). Bullying, victimization and gender According to Nansel et al. (2001) and Wang, Iannotti and Nansel (2009), the most common type of bullying among adolescents boys as verbal and physical bullying and verbal and social bullying among girls. But, Fanti and Kimonis (2012), found that gender does not play a significant role in patterns of bullying and conduct problems. However, study conducted among adolescents revealed that gender had a moderating effect on the associations between some forms of bullying and anxiety (Yen et al., 2013). Similarly gender moderation were significant and positive for relationship between victimization and internalization of anxiety problems and depression (Iyer-Eimerbrink, Scieizee, & Jensen-Campbell, 2015; Yen et al., 2013). Thus, it is noted that both boys and girls engage in bullying equally but the type of bullying that they are involved differs (Guerra et al., 2011; Hymel & Swearer, 2015). Bullying, victimization and adolescents Aadolescence is a crucial age for bullying as individuals move away from


27

families and spent more time with their peer. Peer affiliation are central to adolescents at this age. Adolescents who have aggressive friends are at risk of becoming bullies due to conformity biases (Iyer-Eimerbrink et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2009). Likewise, adolescents who are unpopular and who do not have friends are at risk of becoming victims to bullying and aggression (Hong, Espelage, Grogan-Kaylor, & Allen-Meares, 2012; Swearer & Hymel, 2015; Wang et al., 2009). Pre-adolescents and adolescents often considered teasing, making jokes and pushing as part of having fun as long as it is not hurtful (Guerra et al., 2011). Instead, they link bullying to dominating and controlling behaviour and gaining social status (Caravita et al., 2010; Hong et al., 2012). Additionally, Sigurdson et al. (2015), suggests that preteens who are bullies maybe more vulnerable to mental health problems such as externalizing problems and those who are victims of bullying may have introvert and passive behaviour. Moreover, Cook et al (2010) found that age moderated significantly with bullying on three dimension (external behaviour, internal behaviour and peer status) for children between 3 to 11 years, it is only when children reach adolescence that they internalize problems related to bullying. Apart from being at risk for bullying and aggressive behaviour adolescence is a period whereby, individuals go through number of physiological, emotional and physical changes. These changes makes the adolescent vulnerable to number of mental health problems such as stress, anxiety, depression, and loss of behaviour which can affect how they think, act and feel (Iyer-Eimerbrink et al., 2015). Bullying and biopsychosocial model Biopsychosocial model explains human behaviour from a medical stand point with an addition of psychological and social factors (Kuyendall, 2012; Nemade et al., 2007; Sarafino & Smith, 2014). Correspondingly, stress and other emotional reactions are multifaceted interactions of biological, behavioral and environmental factors which influences an individual’s ability to remain healthy or resist illnesses (Baum & Posluszny, 1999; Swearer & Hymel, 2015). A more prominent illustration of biopsychosocial model is diathesisstress model.The diathesis-stress model theorizes that some individuals have predisposed vulnerabilities that makes them prone to aggression and bullying (Nevid, 2015). Thus, stress is considered as a strain to the individual in all aspects; biological, psychological and social. Research on stress is linked to impair individual cognitive functioning, decreases one’s helping behavior and increases aggressive and violent behavior within an individual (Dogar, 2007; Sarafino & Smith, 2014). Bullying is a traumatized stressful event that results in severe mental health problems (Kaltiala-Heino et al., 2010; Marsh et al., 2011; Rigby, 2000) influences emotional, intellectual, social and physical health of an individual (Kuyendall, 2012) and decreases coping resources and slower recovery from repeated exposure to the stressor (Rex-Lear et al., 2012). Biological factors The model suggests that vulnerability to neurological and physiological arousal to stressful situations facilitates aggressive behaviours (Howard, Schiraldi, Pineda, & Campanella, 2006; Swearer & Hymel, 2015). Moreover,

28 A.Nasheeda

research findings suggest that prolonged stress from bullying negatively affects the functioning of immune system (Rex-Lear, Knack, & Jensen-Campbell, 2012). Likewise, stressful social events serve as triggers in brain functioning, and hence social stressor can trigger health problems (Kuyendall, 2012). It is reported that when victims experience bullying their bodies respond with biochemical reactions by providing more glucose to compensate for the oxygen and energy to fight or flight the situation (Kuyendall, 2012). Swearer and Hymel (2015), states that being bullied and bullying others are stressful events intensified by biological vulnerabilities and can lead to impaired social information processing which can lead to significant negative outcomes. Psychological factors In terms of psychological factors contributing to bullying and mental wellbeing of individuals. It has been noted that bullies and victims display cognitive vulnerability in the face of aggressive behaviours (Swearer & Hymel, 2015). In other words, the bodily challenges (puberty) and the psychology examines how individuals perceive stressful events in their life (Sarafino & Smith, 2014).When power and control is established through aggression and psychological abuse, victims feel distress. Thornberg and Knutsen (2011), argues that adolescents’ cognition plays a vital part in situational settings particularly why some act as bullies or take a bystander role. Therefore, individuals who bully others lack understanding of others mental state, poor self-control and judgment which facilitate in impulsive aggressive behaviour (Swearer et al., 2009). Further, victims of bullying reports several psychological problems such as low self-esteem, feeling of sadness, loss of emotional control, anxiety and depression. For example, physical bullying causes injuries for the bullies as well as for the victims (Kuyendall, 2012). Verbal bullying such as name calling, spreading rumours places adolescence at risk of developing emotional problems, leading to eating disorders and thoughts of suicide (Farrow & Fox, 2011; Kuyendall, 2012). Early exposure to bullying is associated with increased emotional damage (Dombeck, 2012) and psychosomatic disorders (Allison, Roeger, & Reinfeld-Kirkman, 2009). Similarly, Wolke, Copeland, Angold and Costello (2013) suggested that victims of childhood bullying is at risk of negative health, wealth and social relationships in adulthood. Likewise, exposure to prior abuse as well as humiliation and rejection by peers provoke some individuals to bully others (Aricak, 2016) Social factors Bullies and victims have their respective social status and peer groups. In general, victims are less popular, rejected among peers, whereas bullies are popular and have a high dominance in their social hierarchy (Caravita et al., 2010; Postigo et al., 2013; Rodkin et al., 2015; Swearer & Hymel, 2015). Classroom and schools are the most common place where bullying take place. Most of the time children form cliques and friends who share same traits resulting in social structures consisting of group norms where some children take the role of bullies, assistants, supporters, while others take the victim and by stander roles (Caravita et al., 2010; Iyer-Eimerbrink et al., 2015; Salmivalli, 2010). Hence, peer group norms and expectation aggregate bullying behaviour as it places lots of stress on the individual for fear of peer rejection and being the target of victimization (Salmivalli, 2010).


29

The role of family is a vital part of an individual’s well-being. The sense of belongingness and being loved gives a secure feeling and may protect children from adverse life experiences such as being bullied (Baldry, 2004; Gini & Pozzoli, 2013; Hong et al., 2012). On the contrary, individuals with low family ties, poor parental supervision maybe at risk of developing mental health problems such as depression and anxiety disorders (Gini & Pozzoli, 2013; Hong et al., 2012; Swearer & Hymel, 2015). Negative life events (such as few friends, parental neglect, divorce, domestic violence, low emotional support from care givers) and how the individual perceive these events (internalizing or externalizing) creates stressors and contributes to bullying and victimization (Hong et al., 2012; Kuyendall, 2012; Postigo et al., 2013; Swearer & Hymel, 2015). Bullying implications on mental health WHO (2014), defines mental health as being physically, mentally and socially fit, and the absence of disease. It is interconnected to the promotion of well-being, prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of people affected by mental disorders. Abundant literature on bullying and victimization have established links between low self-esteem, anxiety, depression and adjustment problems. Research on bullying and health revealed that students who were victims had inferior self-concept, more psychosomatic disorders and high level of posttraumatic stress (Houbre et al., 2006). Cross-sectional study reveals both victimization and being a bully, leads to depression in later years (Kaltiala-Heino et al., 2010; Zou et al., 2013). Furthermore, longitudinal studies supported the notion repeated exposure to being targets to bully can undermine the health and the wellbeing of vulnerable individuals and are at risk of developing somatic illnesses, such as headaches, nausea, insomnia and lack of appetite (Kumpulainen et al., 1998; Kuyendall, 2012; Rigby, 2003). Most notable issue regarding bullying is that it negatively affects psychological and social wellbeing of bullies and victims (Cook et al., 2010; Dake, Price, & Telljohann, 2003). Japanese adolescents study on psychosocial factors such as deviant peer influence, loss of focus in school or academic work, poor selfcontrol of aggressive behaviour and efficacy were related with physical, verbal and indirect bullying (Ando, Asakura, & Simons-Morton, 2005). Rigby (2002), identified four aspects of health that may be affected by bullying as (a) Psychological well-being such as self-worth and happiness, (b) social adjustment such as involvement with others, (c) psychological comfort such as feeling of distress, anxiety and depression and (d) physical wellness by absence of physical health complaints. Benedict, Vivier and Gjelsvik (2014), suggest the diagnosis of mental health disorder, such as depression, anxiety and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is strongly associated with identified as a bully. Similarly, Rodkin et al (2015), states that adolescents who bully others have low self-esteem, have emotional problems and maybe have been prior victims of abuse. Further, some argue that the deficiency in the environmental factors such as exposure to prior abuse, humiliation, rejection by peers (Aricak, 2016) and learned behaviour provokes some individuals to bully others (Hong et al., 2012; Postigo et al., 2013; Sanders, 2004). Overall, it can be concluded that personal characteristics of adolescents

30 A.Nasheeda

involved in any form of bullying (i.e., bully, victim or bystander) demonstrate poor psychological functioning (Dombeck, 2014; Kaltiala-Heino et al., 2010; McWhirter, McWhirter, McWhirter, & McWhirter, 2013). Conceptual framework Based on review of literature, a conceptual framework was developed (Figure 1). This conceptual framework was used to investigate the relationship between bullies, victims and mental health among adolescents in Maldives. The two domains of bullying construct (bully and victimization) serve as the independent variables. Moreover, bullying others also serve as a dependent variable as literature suggests that individuals with negative mental health such as depression and anxiety end up being bullies. Additionally, mental health is included as independent as well as dependent variable. Based on this conceptual framework, the hypotheses formulated for the study were; H1: There is a non-recursive relationship between bullies and mental health among adolescents in Maldives. H2: There is a significant relationship between victims and mental health among adolescents in Maldives. H3: Gender does not moderate the non-recursive relationship between bullies and mental health among adolescents in Maldives H4: Gender does not moderate the relationship between victims and mental health among adolescents in Maldives H5: Age does not moderate the non-recursive relationship between bullies and mental health among adolescents in Maldives. H6: Age does not moderate on the relationship between victims and mental health among adolescents in Maldives.

Figure 1 Research Methodology Research design This research was based on quantitative research design. The variables were quantitatively measured and the findings were analysed to determine the relationship between bullies, victims and mental health. Target population and sampling frame The population of this research were adolescents between of 11 to 16 years currently enrolled in schools of Maldives. Since Maldives, is dispersed into 7 provinces, cluster sampling was used to select the three provinces. The 1190 islands in the Maldives is divided into seven provinces, upper northern, north province, north central province, central province, upper south province,


31

south central province and south province. Out of the seven provinces, three provinces were selected using systematic sampling. Systematic sampling is selection of samples at regular intervals from a sampling frame (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). From the selected provinces convenience sampling was used to select the island for data collection. Thus, data were collected from the capital province of upper north (Kuludhuffushi), south province (Addu city) and the main capital of the Maldives (Male’ city) from north central. Sample size and research respondents Sample is the subgroup of population selected from the sampling frame (Shaughnessy et al., 2010). Therefore, sample size is important in research as it has the power to describe the entire population. According to Krejcie and Morgan (1970), a population with 20,000 the required sample size is 377. Additionally, in reference to table provided by Bartlett, Kotrlik, and Higgins (2001), the required sample size for a population of 10,000 (p=0.05) in continuous data is 119 and the same population in categorical data is 370. Since the response rate for survey is low, some researchers recommend that it will be advisable to collect data from more than the required sample size (Bartlett et al., 2001). Therefore, a total of 565 survey questionnaires were distributed to the schools. Table1 illustrates the sample distribution. Table 1 Sample Distribution Province

Grades

Sample Size

Upper North Province

Grades 6, 7, 8, & 9

175

South Province

Grades 6, 7, 8, & 9

190

Male’

Grades 6, 7, 8, & 9

200

Total

565

Research instruments

To assess bully and victimization Adolescent Peer Relation Instrument: Bully/ Target (APRI-BT) (Parada, 2000)(Appendix B).Mental Health Inventory38,developed by Veit and Ware in1983 for RAND Insurance Experiment (as cited in Department of Health and Aging, 2003) was given to students to assess overall mental health. Pilot testing -The main purpose of conducting pilot study is to fine-tune the questionnaire before the actual study is conducted, so that respondents will not have any problem in answering the questions (Saunders et al., 2009). It is also important to select a sample for a pilot that is representative to the study (Johanson & Brooks, 2010; Thabane et al., 2010). Hence, Baker 1994 (as cited in Hazzi & Maldaon, 2015) stated that 10 to 20 percent from the main sample can be considered reasonable number for a pilot study. A pilot study was conducted to 52 students in Male’ capital city as the sample population for the study was 565 adolescents. Reliability and validity of the instruments - APRI - Internal consistency of the instrument reported by the developer using Cronbach Alpha yielded a scale

32

A.Nasheeda

of .92 (Eweniyi, Adeoye, Ayodele, & Raheem, 2013). Moreover, the reliability was confirmed from the pilot study conducted on 52 adolescents of Maldives yielded a Cronbach Alpha coefficient between .80 to .87 for bully subscales and .84 to .87 for victimization subscales. Results in table 3.1 shows the reliability of bully subscales of the APRI. Similar reliability results were obtained from studies conducted on APRI for preadolescents .81 to .89 on subscales of bullying and .85 to .9 on subscales for victimization (Finger, Yeung, Craven, & Parada, 2008). MHI-38 - The internal consistency of the instrument measured by Cronbach Alpha ranged from .63 to.93 for the subscales, .90-.97 for global scales and .93-.97 for mental health index. The test-retest reliability correlation reported for subscales and total score for MHI ranging .56 to .97 (Dare et al., 2008). Further research on reliability of MHI 38 for Australian adolescents suggests internal consistency by Cronbach Alpha for subscales .92 -.94. The test-retest correlation reported for subscale psychological distress was .71, for psychological well-being was .69 and total score was .73 (Heubeck & Neill, 2000). Similarly, the pilot testing conducted on 52 adolescents indicated that MHI-38, the Mental Health Index yielded a Cronbach Alpha of .94 and for subscales .72 to .88 respectively. Thus, based on pilot study reliability test, it can be concluded that both APRI and MHI-38 are reliable instruments. Data screening and cleaning - Data screening and cleaning is an important procedure in carrying out research as it ensures that the data is accurate and valid for testing the proposed hypothesis. A quick visual inspection at the data indicated that there were four respondents who were older (17 years) than the target age group (11 to 16 years), these four respondents were removed from the data set as they were not from the intended population. Outliers can influence the outcome of the statistical analysis. There are two types of outliers, namely univariate and multivariate outliers. Univariate outliers are extreme data point on a single variable, whereas multivariate outlier a combination of extreme data point on two or more variables. Only multivariate outliers using mahalanobis d-squared were deleted from the data set. 96 multivariate outliers were deleted from the data set. Thus, the sample size was reduced to 460. Data analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM)- BM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22 and Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) version 20 were used to analyse the data. Descriptive statistics were analyzed using percentages to find out the types of bullying and victimization that adolescents are involved in, to find out if a particular gender group is more prone to a certain type of bullying or victimization and to determine the type of mental health problems concern to these adolescents. Furthermore, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with multi group moderations based on maximum likelihood estimation was used to: a) examine the bidirectional association between bullies and mental health, b) investigate the association between victims and mental health, and c) to investigate if age and gender moderates the relationships between the variables. SEM is a popular statistical analysis that can be applied to test the relationship between set of variables (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). There are two types of models in SEM: a) structural, and b) measurement model. The structural model or the path model which helps to determine the extent of the relationships between


33

the paths (Hair et al., 2010; Schumacker & Lomax, 2010). Measurement models elaborates on the construct and assesses the validity of it (Hair et al., 2010). Moreover, SEM is a highly flexible, comprehensive method for investigating health issues, family, peer dynamics and depression to name a few. SEM models consists of latent and manifested variables. Latent variables are those which cannot be measured directly. Manifested variables have well defined ways of measuring them. Likewise, in this research model, the latent variables are depicted in circles and the manifested variables are depicted in squares.

Figure 2 depicts research model with the proposed hypotheses. The relationship between bully and mental health issues is represented by path ‘A’. Path ‘B’ indicates the relationship between mental health issues and bully. When there is a two way path, one influencing the other, it is known as a non-recursive model. Relationship between victimization and mental health are indicated by path ‘C’. As shown in figure 2, there are three latent variables with six observed variables between bully and victimization. Mental health has 5 observed variables, making a total of 11 parameters. Additionally, variance are shown with error term ‘e1- e12’ associated with 11 observed variables. Since there are two endogenous variables (bully & mental health) error terms for these variables are ‘e12 and e13’ respectively. In this model there is one exogenous variable (victimization). Findings and Discussion Descriptive statistics - Types of bullying behaviour among adolescents. Findings on the types of bully behaviour indicated verbal bullying (74%) is the most common types of bullying among adolescent in Maldives. 43% of students used to physically harm others and 42% of students said they have socially abused them, such as ignoring or leaving them from groups. This finding differs from Carbone-Lopez et al (2010), which revealed that verbal and physical bullying are common among adolescents. But it is consistent with findings with Benton (2011); Luxenberg et al (2015); Scheithauer et al (2006); Swearer et al (2009) all supporting that the verbal bullying is the most common type of bullying among adolescents. Types of victimization behaviour among adolescents. Current findings revealed that victimization is prevalent among adolescents in Maldives. The high percentages of victims reported in this study indicate that there are more victims than bullies. This finding is consistent with finding around the world for example, Craig et al., (2009); Denny et al., 2014; Malhi et al., (2015) indicating that victimization is a prevalent issue among adolescents.

34

A.Nasheeda

Figure 3 Bullying and victimization behaviour among adolescents in Maldives

Common types of bullying behaviour among males and females. Findings on types of bullying and gender indicates that more than 75% males and females reported having bullied others on one or more occasion.

Figure 4 bullying behaviour among males and females

This finding is in line with Hymel &Swearer (2015), indicating that both males and females engaged in bullying equally but the type of bullying they were involved differed. Additional findings on the types of bullying behaviour indicated that males and females reported that they bully others verbally. Sixty two percent of males and 31% females reported that they physically bullied others. Forty nine percent of males and 38% of females engaged in social or relational bullying. This is a slightly different finding than Nansel et al. (2001) and Wang, Iannotti and Nansel (2009), who stated that the most common type of bullying among adolescents boys as verbal and physical bullying and verbal and social bullying among girls. More contrasting finding from Dake et al (2003);Marsh et al (2011), implied that physical bullying was more common among boys and girls tend to engage in more social bullying. In contrast to previous findings, this study revealed a slightly different finding suggesting that verbal bullying is the most common type of bullying among males and females in Maldives. Common types of victimization behaviour among males and females Findings (figure 5) based on common types of victimization among adolescents in Maldives revealed that boys and girls reported being victims of bullying. Eighty percent of males and 73% of females have been victims of verbal bullying. Seventy nine males and 67% females were targets of physical bullying.


35

More than 70% of males and females reported they have been targets of social bullying. This finding is consistent with (Annerbäck, Sahlqvist, & Winger, 2014; Klijakovic, Hunt, & Jose, 2015; Nansel et al., 2001) such that boys are more prone to being victims of bullying regardless of the type of bullying.

Figure 5. Victimization by gender

Types of mental health issues among adolescents. Findings on the types of mental health issues among adolescents in Maldives revealed that 23% reported being anxious frequently, where as 24% reported being depressed, 77.6% reported low behaviour control, 37% were low on general positive affect, 55% had weaker emotional ties with significant others in their lives. These percentages on mental health indicate that negative mental health such as anxiety, depression and loss of behaviour could just be at the brink of much more complicated issues. Besides, it was also noted that a little more than half of the respondents had weak relationships with parents and significant others. These findings do raise some serious concerns as literature suggest that social factors such as being unpopular among friends, having fewer friends, unstable relationships places stress on the individuals (Salmivalli, 2010). Stress is considered as a contributing element to poor functioning of immune system and causes mental problems, such as anxiety, depression and other psychological illnesses (Kuyendall, 2012; Rex-Lear et al., 2012).

Figure 6. Adolescents Mental Health Status

Hypotheses testing - structural equation modeling (SEM) There is a non-recursive relationship between bullies and mental health among adolescents in Maldives This study hypothesized that there is a non-recursive relationship between bullies and mental health among adolescents in Maldives. The findings of the research indicated that there was a significant non recursive relationship

36

A.Nasheeda

between bully and mental health and mental health and bully among adolescents in Maldives. In other words, the relationship works in both directions. Those individuals who bully others have poor mental health and those individuals with mental health problems end up bullying others. Adolescents who are already feeling the pressure of puberty may be going through lot of emotional and psychological insecurities may end up as bullies. This emotional and psychological interplay may be due to the multifaceted interactions of biological, behavioral and environmental factors which influences an individual’s ability to remain healthy or resist illnesses (Baum & Posluszny, 1999; Swearer & Hymel, 2015). According to Kaltiala-Heino et al. (2010), middle school boys who bully others had signs of depression and it can be concluded that personal characteristics of adolescents involved in any form of bullying (i.e., bully, victim or bystander) demonstrate poor psychological functioning (Benton, 2011; Dombeck, 2014; Kaltiala-Heino et al., 2010; McWhirter et al., 2013). Especially, verbal and physical bullying having a negative impact on individual physical health (Zou, et al., 2013). In addition, Swearer and Hymel (2015), states that being bullied and bullying others are stressful events intensified by biological vulnerabilities and can lead to impaired social information processing which can lead to significant negative outcomes. Thornberg and Knutsen (2011), argues that adolescents’ cognition plays a vital part in situational settings particularly why some act as bullies or take a bystander role. Therefore, individuals who bully others lack understanding of others mental state, poor self-control and judgment which facilitate in impulsive aggressive behaviour (Swearer et al., 2009) and end up becoming bullies. Moreover, individuals who seek to lash out or engage in aggressive behaviour fail to understand the cues and intentions of the others due to the cognitive vulnerabilities and they feel stressed (Hong et al., 2012; Swearer, Buhs, Siebecker, Love, & Miller, 2008). Further, some argue that the deficiency in the environmental factors such as exposure to prior abuse, humiliation, rejection by peers (Aricak, 2016) and learned behaviour provokes some individuals to bully others (Hong et al., 2012; Postigo et al., 2013; Sanders, 2004). Thus, negative life events (such as few friends, parental neglect, divorce, domestic violence, low emotional support from care givers) and how the individual perceive these events (internalizing or externalizing) creates stressors and contributes to bullying and victimization (Hong et al., 2012; Kuyendall, 2012; Postigo et al., 2013; Swearer & Hymel, 2015). There is significant relationship between victims and mental health among adolescents in Maldives The study also hypothesized that there is a relationship between victimization and mental health issues among adolescents in Maldives. The findings on the relationship between victimization and mental health revealed that being bullied has a significant positive relationship on mental health. It is reported that when victims experience bullying their bodies respond with biochemical reactions by providing more glucose to compensate for the oxygen and energy to fight or flight the situation (Kuyendall, 2012). Swearer and Hymel (2015), states that being bullied and bullying others are stressful events intensified by biological vulnerabilities and can lead to impaired social information processing which can lead to significant negative outcomes. In other words, the bodily


37

challenges (puberty) and the psychology examines how individuals perceive stressful events in their life (Sarafino & Smith, 2014). It has been noted that bullies and victims display cognitive vulnerability in the face of aggressive behaviours (Swearer & Hymel, 2015). For example, physical bullying causes injuries for the bullies as well as for the victims (Kuyendall, 2012). Verbal bullying such as name calling, spreading rumours places adolescence at risk of developing emotional problems, leading to eating disorders and thoughts of suicide (Farrow & Fox, 2011; Kuyendall, 2012). Similarly, Wolke, Copeland, Angold and Costello (2013) suggested that victims of childhood bullying is at risk of negative health, wealth and social relationships in adulthood. According to biopsychosocial diathesis-stress model, when the biological and cognitive vulnerabilities interact with environmental stressors, such as being unpopular among friends, poor and unstable relationships with parents places individuals at risk of being bullied (Swearer & Hymel, 2015). The study findings are in accordance with results from bullying and consequences on health stating that adolescents who are victims or target of bullying behavior displayed inferior self-concept, more psychosomatic disorders, high level of post-traumatic stress followed by emotional, behavioural and psychosocial problems such as depression and suicidal thoughts (Houbre et al., 2006; Kaltiala-Heino et al., 2010; Rosen et al., 2009). Moderating effects of gender and age on the relationships A chi-square difference test for constraint and unconstraint model was tested to determine if gender and age influence the relationship. The results (χ2 =516.593- 671.524 =154.931; df=164-197=33) indicated that the two groups were not statistically significant suggesting that at the substantial level the study cannot conclude that age and gender moderated the relationships. According to Hair et al. (2009), moderation effect can be established, if there is an increase in the chi-square difference between the unconstraint and constraint model, and a significant better model fit is obtained with path by path analysis. In other words, gender nor age does influence the relationship between bullying behaviour and mental health among adolescents in Maldives. This finding is different from Cook et al (2010) who suggested that age moderated significantly with bullying on three dimension (external behaviour, internal behaviour and peer status) for children between 3 to 11 years, it is only when children reach adolescence that they internalize problems related to bullying. This study finding suggests a different tone compared to (Iyer-Eimerbrink et al., 2015) study which suggested that gender moderation was significant for victims and other issues such as internalization of anxiety problems and depression. Conclusion and recommendations With regard to bullying and victimization former studies has validated links between mental health such as poor psychological well-being (Cook et al., 2010; Frieden, Sosin, Spivak, Delisle, & Esquith, 2012; Houbre et al., 2006), anxiety (eg: Boyle, 2005; Dake et al., 2003; Frieden et al., 2012; Houbre et al., 2006; McWhirter et al., 2013; Swearer et al., 2009) and depression (KaltialaHeino et al., 2010; Seltzer & Long, 2012; Zou et al., 2013). More recent studies suggest that vulnerabilities such as neurological and physiological

38

A.Nasheeda

(Swearer & Hymel, 2015), cognitive processing (Sarafino & Smith, 2014) and fear of peer rejection (Rodkin et al., 2015) may play vital role in being a bully or a victim. This study demonstrated a significant non-recursive relationship between bullies and mental health. The study also established a significant positive relationship between victims and mental health among adolescents in Maldives Value of the research

The study provided a snapshot on the current status of bullies and victims and mental health in Maldives. This research has confirmed that both bullying, victimization and mental health are crucial subjects that needs to be tackled with caution and care. One of the underlying aim of this study was to attract more research in this field in investigating and identifying the vital issues relevant to adolescents’ development and mental health in Maldives. There is scope and potential for further research in this field to better understand the complex issue of bullying and victimization. Moreover, this research serves as a platform for victims to disclose their fears and bullies to seek help within the school community. The biopsychosocial model of stress provides a framework, which addresses the complex and the dynamic nature of stressful events that effects bullies and victims. Biological factors helps understand the role immune system, brain functioning and biochemical reaction involved in stress. The psychological factors helps in understanding cognitive vulnerabilities, information processing mechanism works in the presence of stress. The social factors takes into account relationship with parents, peers and social status. Moreover, this research allows to talk about bullies, victims and mental health concerns within the school communities, among school authorities and policy makers, for establishing intervention strategies, strengthening counselling and rehabilitation services in schools. Research Implications

The main purpose of the research was to examine the relationships between bullies, victims and mental health among adolescents in Maldives. During the course of this research, several issues were observed. Perhaps, the most excruciating observation was the percentage of bullying victims. Even though bullying has been a heavily researched area, this kind of research was new to the Maldivian context and implied on the little knowledge that the students had on this topic. School authorities, teachers, counsellors need to be aware of the negative outcomes for bullies, victims and health and wellbeing of students. The study revealed that loss of emotional control is part of mental health. Hence, loss of emotional control raises serious concerns for mental health if young people do not know how to respond to life stressors in a positive and tolerable manner. Therefore, this opens new doors for practitioners as well as policies makers on formulating positive interventions strategies such as engaging students in positive behaviours, peer counseling and nurturing empathy so that peers help each other in promoting healthy behaviour in school environment. Research limitation

Despite the usefulness of the findings of this research, several limitations are


39

to be considered. Firstly, the most challenging aspect of this research was reaching out to adolescents in different parts of Maldives. Since the islands in the Maldives are separated by sea. Travelling to south province was not possible due to cost and time constraints. Hence, data was collect with help from school teachers, this might have influenced on how students answered the questionnaire. Secondly, the topic mental health is considered a taboo, rarely people talk about such issues in Maldives. Therefore, students may have been biased while filling in the questionnaire. Thirdly, although, bullying has become a hot topic in schools recently, few students will muster courage to admit that they are bullies which explains why more students reported as victims than bullies. Finally, the data gathered were not equal on age group to conclude a basis if bullying was more prevalent between genders and across preteen or teens. Recommendations for future research This research is just the foundation in the field of bullying, victimization and mental health in Maldives as no research has been documented on such nature till date. An interesting aspect for future research, could be to analyze if the bullying cases were intentional or unintentional, how much students are aware that they are engaged in bullying behavior. This could help in understanding bullying behavior from the bullies’ perspectives. Also future researchers can add qualitative aspects in studying bullying and victimization behaviour, such as selecting number of students who are known to have bullied others, who have been bullied to find out the reason why they bully, in order to understand this phenomena. It may also be interesting to do an experimental research on effectiveness of intervention programme such as Adolescents Sexual Reproductive Health life skills programme,(which is a widely known set of skills for life enhancement implemented in schools in Maldives) in preventing bullying behaviour to test if the programme is effective in prevention of bullying in schools. According to Swearer and Hymel, (2015), the best intervention for adolescent bullying is teaching them social and interpersonal skills to maintain relationships. References Advocating the Rights of Children. (2012). Survey on bullying. Retrieved May 15, 2014, from http://www.arc.org.mv/arc-launches-new-awareness-campaign-with-a-focuson-anti-bullying/ Allison, S., Roeger, L., & Reinfeld-Kirkman, N. (2009). Does school bullying affect adult health? Population survey of health-related quality of life and past victimization. The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists, 46, 1163–1170. Ando, M., Asakura, T., & Simons-Morton, B. (2005). Psychosocial influences on physical, verbal, and indirect bullying among Japanese early adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(3), 268–297. Annerbäck, E.-M., Sahlqvist, L., & Winger, G. (2014). A cross-sectional study of victimisation of bullying among school children in Sweden: Background factors and self-reported health complaints. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 42(1), 270–277. Aricak, T. O. (2016). The relationship between mental health and bullying. In H. Cowie & C.-A.

40

A.Nasheeda

Myres (Eds.), Bullying among university students: Cross national perspective (p. 76-). London: Routledge Taylors & Francis Group. Baldry, A. C. (2004). The impact of direct and indirect bullying on the mental and physical health of Italian youngsters. Aggressive Behavior, 30(1), 343–355. Bartlett, J. I., Kotrlik, J. W., & Higgins, C. C. (2001). Organizational research: Determining appropirate sample size in survey research. Information Technology , Learning and Performance Journal, 19(1), 43–50. Baum, A., & Posluszny, D. M. (1999). Mapping biobehavioural contributions to health and illness. Health Psychology, 50(1), 137–163. Baumer, F., & Goldstein, M. A. (2011). Bullying. In M. A. Goldstein (Ed.), The massgeneral hospital for children adolescent medicine handbook (pp. 205–207).Boston: Springer. Benedict, T. F., Vivier, P. M., & Gjelsvik, A. (2015). Mental health and bullying in the United States among children aged 6 to 17 Years. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5(30), 782–95. Benton, T. (2011). Sticks and stones may break my bones, but being left on my own is worse: An analysis of reported bullying at school within NFER attitude survey. Berkshire: Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research. Boyle, D. J. (2005). Youth bullying: Incidence, impact, and interventions. Journal of the New Jersey Psychological Association, 55(3), 22–24. Caravita, S. C. S., Blasio, P. D., & Salmivalli, C. (2010). Early Adolescents’ Participation in Bullying: Is ToM Involved? The Journal of Early Adolescence, 30(1), 138–170. Carbone-Lopez, K., Esbensen, F.-A., & Brick, B. T. (2010). Correlates and consequences of peer victimization: Gender differences in direct and indirect forms of bullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 8(4), 332–350. Cook, C. R., Williams, K. R., Guerra, N. G., Kim, T. E., & Sadek, S. (2010). Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 65–83. Craig, W., Harel-Fisch, Y., Fogel-Grinvald, H., Dostaler, S., Hetland, J., Simons-Morton, B., … Group, the H. B. W. (2009). A cross-national profile of bullying and victimization among adolescents in 40 countries. International Journal of Public Health, 54(S2), 216– 224. Cross, D., Shaw, T., Hearn, L., Epstein, M., Monks, H., Lester, L., … Data Analysis Australia. (2009). Australian covert bullying prevalence study (ACBPS). Canberra. Dake, J. A., Price, J. H., & Telljohann, S. K. (2003). The nature and extent of bullying at school. Journal of School Health, 73(5), 173–180. Dare, A., Hardy, J., Burgess, P., Coombs, T., Williamson, M., Pirkis, J., & A joint Australian, S. and T. G. I. (2008). Carer outcome measurement in mental health services: Scoping the field (Report). Australian Mental Health Outcomes and Classification Network “Sharing Information to Improve Outcomes” (Vol. September). Denny, S., Peterson, E. R., Stuart, J., Utter, J., Bullen, P., Fleming, T., … Milfont, T. (2014). Bystander Intervention, Bullying, and Victimization: A Multilevel Analysis of New Zealand High Schools. Journal of School Violence, 14(3), 245–277. Department of Health and Aging. (2003). Mental health national outcomes and casemix collection: Overview of clinician-rates and consumer self-report measures. Department of Health and Ageing. Canberra.


41

Dogar, A. I. (2007). Biopsychosocial model review. A.P.M.C, 1(1), 11–13. Dombeck, M. (2014). The long term effects of bullying. Retrieved February 2, 2015, from www.aaets.org/article204.htm Eweniyi, G., Adeoye, A., Ayodele, K. O., & Raheem, A. (2013). The effectiveness of two psycho-social behavioural interventions on adolescents’ bullying behaviour among nigerian adolescents kolawole introduction : Over the last 20 years , great attention has been directed towards bullying and the negative impact of. Journal of Studies in Social Sciences, 4(2), 246–261. Fanti, K. A., & Kimonis, E. R. (2012). Bullying and victimization : The role of conduct problems and psychopathic traits. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(4), 617–631. Farrow, C. V., & Fox, C. L. (2011). Gender differences in the relationship between bullying and school and unhealthy eating and shape-related attitudes and behaviours. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(3), 409–420. Finger, L. R., Yeung, A. S., Craven, R. G., & Parada, R. H. (2008). Adolescent peer relations instrument : Assessment of its reliability and construct validity when used with upper primary students. In Australian Association for Research Education Annual Conference (pp. 1–9). Brisbane. Frieden, T. R., Sosin, D. M., Spivak, H. R., Delisle, D. S., & Esquith, D. G. (2012). Bullying survellance among youths: Uniform definition for public health and recommended data elements. Washington D.C. Gini, G., & Pozzoli, T. (2013). Bullied children and psychosomatic problems: A metaanalysis. Pediatrics, 132(4), 720–729. Guerra, N. G.,Williams, K. R., & Sadek, S. (2011). Understanding bullying and victimization during childhood and adolescence : A mixed methods study. Child Development, 82(1), 295–310. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. Hazzi, O., & Maldaon, I. (2015). A Pilot Study: Vital Methodological Issues. Verslas: Teorija Ir Praktika, 16(1), 53–62. Hemphill, S. A., Heerde, J. A., & Gomo, R. (2014). A conceptual definition of school-based bullying for the Australian research and academic community. Heubeck, B. G., & Neill, J. T. (2000). Confirmatory factory analysis and relialilty of the mental health inventory for Australian adolescents. Psychological Reports, 87, 431–440. Hong, J. S., Espelage, D. L., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Allen-Meares, P. (2012). Identifying Potential Mediators and Moderators of the Association Between Child Maltreatment and Bullying Perpetration and Victimization in School. Educational Psychology Review, 24(2), 167–186. Houbre, B., Tarquinio, C., Thuillier, I., & Hergott, E. (2006). Bullying among students and its consequences on health. European Journal of Pscyhology of Education, XXI(2), 183–208. Howard, D. E., Schiraldi, G., Pineda, A., & Campanella, R. (2006). Stress and mental health among college students: Overview and promising prevention intervention. In M. W. Landow (Ed.), Stress and Mental Health of College students (pp. 91–124). Nova Science Publisher. Hymel, S., & Swearer, S. M. (2015). Four decades of research on school bullying. American

42

A.Nasheeda

Psychological Association, 70(4), 293–299. Iyer-Eimerbrink, P. A., Scieizee, S. A., & Jensen-Campbell, L. A. (2015). The impact of social and relational victimization on depression, anxiety and loneliness: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Bullying and Social Aggression, 1(1). Johanson, G. A., & Brooks, G. P. (2010). Initial Scale Development: Sample Size for Pilot Studies. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 70(3), 394–400. Kaltiala-Heino, R., Fröjd, S., & Marttunen, M. (2010). Involvement in bullying and depression in a 2-year follow-up in middle adolescence. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 19(1), 45–55. Klijakovic, M., Hunt, C., & Jose, P. E. (2015). Incidence of bullying and victimization among adolesents in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 44(2), 57–67. Krejcie, R. V, & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurment, 38, 607–610. Kumpulainen, K., Räsänen, E., Henttonen, I., Almqvist, F., Kresanov, K., Linna, S.-L., … Tamminen, T. (1998). Bullying and psychiatric symptoms among elementary school-age children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22(7), 705–717. Kuyendall, S. (2012). Health and medical issues today: Bullying. Book, Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. Lazarus, P. J., & Pfohl, W. (2010). Bullying prevention and intervention: Information for educators (Journal Article). National Association of School Psychologists (Vol. III). Luxenberg, H., Limber, S. P., & Olweus, D. (2015). Bullying in U.S. schools: 2014 status report. Madhok, R. (2012). In Maldives, UNICEF is working closely with the government to address rising violence against girls and women. Retrieved February 2, 2015, from http://www. unicef.org/infobycountry/maldives_66240.html Malhi, P., Bharti, B., & Sidhu, M. (2015). Peer victimization among adolescents: Relational and physical aggression in Indian schools. Psyhology Study, 60(1), 77–83. Marsh, H. W., Nagengast, B., Morin, A. J. S., Parada, R. H., Craven, R. G., & Hamilton, L. R. (2011). Construct validity of the multidimensional structure of bullying and victimization: An application of exploratory structural equation modeling. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(3), 701–732. McWhirter, J. J., McWhirter, B. T., McWhirter, E. H., & McWhirter, R. J. (2013). At Risk Youth: A comprehensive response for counselors, teachers, psychologists, and human service professionals (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. Mishna, F. (2012). Bullying: A guide to research, intervention and prevention. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ministry of Education. (2009). Global school-based student health survey. Ministry of Education. Nansel,T. R., Overpack, M., Pilla, R. S., Ruan,W. J., Simon-Morton, B., & Scheidt, P. (2001). Bullying behaviours among US youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. The Journal of American Medical Association, 285(16), 2094–2100. Nemade, R., Reiss, N. S., & Dombeck, M. (2007). Current understandings of major depressionbiopsychosocial model. Retrieved February 2, 2015, from http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/ view_doc.php?type=doc&id=12997


43

Nevid, J. S. (2015). Essentials of psychology: Concepts and applications. Stamford: Cengage Learning. Olweus, D. (1994). Bullying at school: Basic facts and an effective intervention programme. Promotion and Education, 1(4), 27–31. Journal Article. Parada, R. H. (2000). Adolescent Peer Relations Instrument: A theoretical and empirical basis for the measurement of participant roles in bullying and victimisation of adolescence: An interim test manual and a research monograph (A test Manual). Publication Unit, Self -concept Enhancement and Learning Faciliataion(SELF) Research Centre. Peeters, M., Cillessen, A. H. N., & Scholte, R. H. J. (2010). Clueless or powerful? identifying subtypes of bullies in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(9), 1041–1052. Postigo, S., Gonzalez, R., Montoya, I., & Ordonez, A. (2013). Theoretical proposals in bullying resreach: A review. Anales de Psicologia, 29(2), 413–425. Rex-Lear, M., Knack, J. M., & Jensen-Campbell, L. A. (2012). Beyond the playground: Bullying in the workplace and its relation to mental and physical health outcomes. In R. J. Gatchel & I. Z. Schultz (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health and wellness (pp. 219–240). New York: Springer. Rigby, K. (2000). Effects of peer victimization in schools and perceived social support on adolescent well-being. Journal of Adolescence, 23(1), 57–68. Rigby, K. (2002). New perspectives on bullying. Book, London: Jessica Kingsley Publisher. Rigby, K. (2003). Addressing bullying in schools: theory and practice. Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice. Canberra. Rodkin, P. C., Espelage, D. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2015). A relational framework for understanding bullying: Developmental antecedents and outcomes. American Psychologist, 70(4), 311–321. Rosen, P. J., Milich, R., & Harris, M. J. (2009). Why’s everybody always picking on me? Social cognition, Emotion Regulation, and chronic peer victimzation in children. In M. J. Harris (Ed.), Bullying, rejection & peer victimization: A socila cognitive neuroscience perspective (pp. 79–100). New York: Springer Publishing Company. Salmivalli, C. (2010). Bullying and the peer group: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15(2), 112–120. Sanders, C. E. (2004). What is bullying? In C. E. Sanders & G. D. Phye (Eds.), Bullying implications for the classrom. Sarafino, E. P., & Smith, T. W. (2014). Health psychology: Biopsychosocial interactions (8th ed.). Danver: John Wiley &Sons. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2009). Research methods for business students (5th ed.). Pearson Education Inc. Scheithauer, H., Hayer, T., Petermann, F., & Jugert, G. (2006). Physical , verbal , and relational forms of bullying among German students : Age trends , gender differences , and correlates. Aggressive Behaviour, 32(3), 261–275. Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2010). A beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge Taylors & Francis Group. Seltzer, M. B., & Long, R. A. (2012). Bullying in an adolescent and young adult gynecology population. Clinical Pediatrics, 52(2), 156–161. Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2010). Research methods in

44

A.Nasheeda

psychology (8th ed.). Book, New York: McGraw-Hill. Sidorowicz, K., Hair, E. C., & Milot, A. (2009). Assessing bullying: A guide for out-of-school time program practitioners. Sigurdson, J. F., Undheim, A. M., Wallander, J. L., Lydersen, S., Sund, A. M., Copeland, W., … Zemaitiene, N. (2015). The long-term effects of being bullied or a bully in adolescence on externalizing and internalizing mental health problems in adulthood. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 9(1), 42. Swearer, S. M., Buhs, E. S., Siebecker, A. B., Love, K. B., & Miller, C. K. (2008). Bullying and peer victimization. In H. L. K. Coleman & C. Yeh (Eds.), Handbook of school counselling (pp. 673–692). New York: Routledge Taylors & Francis Group. Swearer, S. M., Espelage, D. L., & Napolitano, S. (2009). Bullying prevention and intervention: Realistic strategies for school. Book, New York: Guilford. Swearer, S. M., & Hymel, S. (2015). Understanding the Psychology of Bullying: Moving towards a social-ecological diathesis-stress model. American Psychologist, 70(4), 344–353. Tattum, D. P., & Tattum, E. (1992). Social education and personal development (Illustrate). Book, London: David Fulton. Thabane, L., Ma, J., Chu, R., Cheng, J., Ismaila, A., Rios, L. P., … Berlin, J. (2010). A tutorial on pilot studies: the what, why and how. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 10(1), 1. Thornberg, R., & Knutsen, S. (2011). Teenager ’s explanations of bullying. Child Youth Care Forum, 40, 177–192. Wang, J., Iannotti, R. J., & Nasel, T. R. (2009). School bullying among us adolescents: Physical, verbal, relational and cyber. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(4), 368–375. Wolke, D., Copeland, W. E., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2013). Impact of bullying in childhood on adult health, wealth, crime, and social outcomes. Association for Psychological Science, 24(10), 1958–70. World Bank. (2014). Youth in the Maldives: Shaping a new future for young women and men through engagement and empowerment- Draft for discussion (Report). South Asia Region. World Health Organization. (2014). National mental health policy - Draft 2014-V3. Retrieved from http://www.searo.who.int/maldives/mediacentre/ental-health-policy-2015-2025. pdf Yen, C. (2010). School Bullying and Mental Health in Children and Adolescents. Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry (Taipei), 24(1), 3–13. Yen, C., Huang, M.-F., Kim, Y. shin, Wang, P.-W., Tang, T.-C., Yeh, Y.-C., … Yang, P. (2013). Association between types of involvement in school bullying and different dimensions of anxiety symptoms and the moderating effects of age and gender in taiwanese adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(4), 263–272. Zou, C., Andersen, J. P., & Blosnich, J. R. (2013). The association between bullying and physical health among gay, lesbian, and bisexual indivduals. Journal of American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 19(6), 356–365.


45

Characterisation of Okra (Abelmoschus [medik.]) Accessions Using Dehydrogenase Isozymes and Protein

1MATTHEW CHIDOZIE OGWU, 2MOSES EDWIN OSAWARU AND 2URUEMU ONOSIGBERE-OHWO, 1Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria, 2Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, South Korea

ABSTRACT Okra (Abelmoschus [Medik.]) is cultivated in distant farms and home gardens

on a commercial or subsistence scale in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Several diverse cultivars exist but they all possess a characteristic mucilaginous substance. Isozymes are enzymes composed of different structural amino acid sequence but may catalyse similar chemical reaction. In chemosystematics isozymes and other phytochemicals may be used to characterize plant germplasm. This study employed dehydrogenase isozymes and total protein to characterize Abelmoschus accessions. Five Abelmoschus accessions including 2 A. esculentus (NG/OA/03/12/157 and NG/OA/05/12/159) and 3 A. caillei (NG/OA/03/12/158, NG/SA/DEC/07/0475 and NG/SA/DEC/07/0482) species were collected from the National Center for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Ibadan and cultivated at the Experimental fields of University of Benin, Nigeria. At maturity, fruits were harvested for analysis at the Biochemistry Division, Nigeria Institute of Medical Research, Lagos. Results showed that variation exist in the quantity of total protein in the five accessions with accessions, NG/SA/DEC/07/0475, NG/SA/DEC/07/0482 and NG/ OA/03/12/158 having higher values (33.076 g, 31.210 g and 28.992 g respectively) compared to NG/OA/03/12/157 and NG/OA/05/12/159, which had low values of total protein content (21.227 g and 9.429 g respectively). Isozyme activities of alcohol, malate and isocitrate dehydrogenases showed distinctive results. Significance results (at P < 0.05) were obtained with accessions NG/OA/03/12/157 and NG/OA/05/12/159 having higher values when compared with accessions NG/SA/DEC/07/0482, NG/OA/03/12/158 and NG/SA/DEC/07/0475. When homogeneity was compared accessions NG/SA/ DEC/07/0482, NG/OA/03/12/158 and NG/SA/DEC/07/0475 were found to be in the same category, while accessions NG/OA/03/12/157 and NG/OA/05/12/159 in separate categories. The degree of intra specific variation differ for the five accessions. Grouping of the A. caillei accessions in one cluster suggest a within species similarity. Nevertheless, the separation of a single cluster for A. esculentus accessions may suggest a considerable degree of total protein content and isozymatic variation within the species. The isozyme characterization has proven effective in the identification and characterization of these Okra accessions but activities of these isozymes only cannot be used as an indication of evolutionary advancement and classification at the generic and species level. Keywords: Okra (Abelmoschus), Chemosystematics, Isozyme, Protein, Dehydrogenase, Plant characterization

ISSN 2308-5959/21030101 (c) 2017 The Maldives National University

46

M.C. Ogwu et al

Introduction Okra (Abelmoschus [Medik.]) is cultivated in distant farms and home gardens on a commercial or subsistence scale in tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Osawaru and Ogwu, 2013). India is the largest producer (67.1 %), followed by Nigeria (15.4 %) and Sudan (9.3 %) with total world area under cultivation of 0.43 million hectares and production of 4.54 million tons (Varmudy, 2011). Cultivated and wild species of okra clearly show overlapping in Southeast Asia, which is considered as the centre of diversity (Aladele et al., 2008). Diverse hypothesis exist regarding the geographical origin of A. esculentus. Some scientists argue that one putative ancestor (A. tuberculatus) is native of Northern India, suggesting that the species originated from this geographic area. On the basis of ancient cultivation in East Africa and the presence of the other putative ancestor (A. ficulneus), others suggest that the area of domestication is Ethiopia or North Egypt, but no definitive proof is available today (Benchasri, 2012). Abelmoschus caillei is found only in West and Central Africa, hence, it is difficult to suggest an origin outside. It originated as an allopolyploid hybrid between Abelmoschus manihot and Abelmoschus esculentus (Benchasri, 2012). Growth habit of Abelmoschus spp is vast. Some grow annually (herbs) while others perennially (shrubs or trees). There are several cultivars ranging from those where the skin is completely smooth to those which bear prickly spines. They all possess mucilaginous characteristics substance (Edwin et al., 2006). Okra provide important source of mineral nutrients, which are often lacking in the diet in developing countries. Okra also contains iron and iodine which are important vegetable source of viscous fibre but it is reportedly low in sodium, saturated fat and cholesterol (Kendall and Jenkins, 2004). The composition of okra leaves per 100g edible portion is reported in Gopalan and Balasubramanian (2007). Carbohydrates are mainly present in the form of mucilage (Kumar et al., 2009). Siemonsma and Hamon (2002) reported that Okra mucilage has been used as plasma replacement or blood volume expander. Also, midwifery in Southern Edo state of Nigeria have used it during child labour to rub the female external reproductive organ to expel fetus faster (Obire, 2002). The leaf buds and Flowers are also edible (Doijode, 2001). Okra seeds contain about 20% proteins and 20% oil (Tindall, 1983). Okra seed oil has potential hypocholesterolemic effect (Rao et al., 1991). Okra seed flour could also be used to fortify cereal flour (Adelakun, et al., 2008). Its ripe seeds are roasted, ground and used as a substitute for coffee in some countries (Moekchantuk and Kumar, 2004). Mature fruits and stems containing crude fibre which may be useful in the paper industry (Osawaru et al., 2016). Edible okra oil can be obtained from okra seeds, which has pleasant taste and odour, and is high in unsaturated fats and has biofuel potential and properties (Franklin and Martin, 1982; Farooq et al., 2010). Its medicinal value has also been reported in Adams (1975); Felter et al. (2011); Adetuyi et al. (2008); Moaward et al. (1984); Kumar et al. (2009). The methods used in identifying different Okra cultivar are based on conventional or phenotypic expressions of the plant parts, seeds or period of sowing and harvesting. These expressions are strongly influenced by the environment in which they grow. Such conventional means have gradually

Characterization of Okra

47

being replaced by biochemical and molecular means such as DNA profiling, cytology, proteins/enzyme-electrophoresis (Osawaru et al., 2015). The characterization of diverse organisms into group by the application of biochemical method is known as chemosystematics. Several research characterizing Okra species have applied this means which greatly enhance their identification and characterization including Osawaru et al. (2011) Nwangburuka et al. (2011); Osawaru et al. (2013a); Osawaru et al., (2014). Isozymes are enzymes composed of different structural amino acid sequence but catalyse similar chemical reaction.They are produced by different genes and are not redundant despite their similar functions. One of the most extensively studied isozyme systems are dehydrogenases including malate dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase and isocitrate dehydrogenase. These isozymes have been used for various research purposes for characterization and delimitation of phylogenetic relationships, to estimate genetic variability and taxonomy, to characterization in plant genetic resources management and plant breeding, studying population structure and divergence as well as for fingerprinting purposes (Osawaru et al., 2014; Freville et al., 2001; Efisue, 2013). Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) is an enzyme whose activity is much expressed during episodes of oxygen shortage or insufficiency (anoxia). Under these conditions, ADH acts in the terminal step of anaerobic glycolysis, or fermentation, converting acetaldehyde to ethanol (Saches and Freeling, 1978). Although the activity of alcohol dehydrogenase does not seem essential to growth, under anoxia it seems absolutely necessary (Lemke-Keyes and Sachs, 1989). Malate dehydrogenase (MDH) is occur in animals, plants and micro- organisms. MDH catalyses the oxidation (dehydration) of L-malate to oxaloacetate in the presence of NAD+ as a cofactor. Mitochondrial MDH functions as part of the Krebs cycle, while soluble (cytoplasmic) MDH can be involved in acid metabolism in plant tissues, in autotrophic carbon dioxide fixation in higher plants and in more other metabolic pathways (Lehninger, 2000; Ting et.al. 1975; Scandalios, 1974). In plant tissues, MDH has additionally been found in glyoxysomes, peroxisomes and microsomes (Longo and Scandalios, 1969;Yang and Scandalios, 1974; Sadunishvili and Nutsubidse, 1980; Yunina and Levites, 2007 and 2008). Isocitrate dehydrogenase is an enzyme which catalyses the reversible oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate via the formation of an enzyme bound intermediate (oxalosuccinate) in presence of a coenzyme NAD+ or NADP+ (as oxidant) and a divalent metal ion (Pramod et al.,2010). This present study aims to use isozymes activities to characterize Okra species and contribute to the identification of different Okra species, for better understanding of the different species and enhance conservation and breeding strategies. Isozyme activity may proffer a reliable approach to Okra cultivar classification, phylogeny and overall systematics. The study will also contribute to understand the similarities and differences among and within Okra species by using isozymes from seeds.

48 M.C. Ogwu et al

Materials and Methods Collection of Materials Okra (Abelmoschus) accessions were obtained from active collection at National Center for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Ibadan. The passport data of these accessions are presented in Table 1. The collections include 2 A. esculentus (NG/OA/03/12/157 and NG/OA/05/12/159) and 3 A. caillei (NG/OA/03/12/158, NG/SA/DEC/07/0475 and NG/SA/DEC/07/0482) species. Table1 Identity of Okra accessions used S/N

Accessions Number

Status

Location

Source

1

NG/OA/157/12/03

Landrace

0 7.4N and 0 3.84E

NACGRAB Ibadan

2

NG/OA/158/12/03

Landrace

0 7.4N and 0 3.84E

NACGRAB Ibadan

3

NG/SA/DEC/0475/07

Landrace

0 7.4N and 0 3.84E

NACGRAB Ibadan

4

NG/SA/DEC/0482/07

Landrace

0 7.4N and 0 3.84E

NACGRAB Ibadan

5

NG/OA/159/12/05

Landrace

0 7.4N and 0 3.84E

NACGRAB Ibadan

Study Area The five accessions were grown simultaneously at the Experimental field of Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria (6.20 0N; 5.73 0E). The climate includes high rainfall up to 2000 mm – 3000 mm of bimodal pattern with peaks at July and September respectively, high temperature ranging between 20 – 400C and high atmospheric humidity (Omuta, 1980). Radiation is fairly high and varies according to different period of the year; above 1,600 hours per year have been reported (Onwueme and Singh, 1991). Detailed description of the study area including soil characteristics can be found in Osawaru et al. (2013b; 2013c); Osawaru and Ogwu (2014); Ogwu and Osawaru (2015). Crop Husbandry A simple seed test was carried out to on the seeds to determine purity and viability. Three seeds per accession were planted at random into holes of 3 cm depth on five different ridges. Among these numerous stands, 10 stands were tagged from 1 - 10. On the five ridges, each ridges had 10 tagged stands totally 50. These stands were counted for study during the field trials and under the same climatic conditions. Watering of the plants was rain fed. Agronomic practices such as mulching and fertilizer were not applied. The accessions were sown in July 2013 and harvested in February 2014 before shatter stage. Weeding was done normally as at when due. Roguing was carried out on all suspected off-types on each row. Preparation of Isozymatic Assay and Isozyme Analysis After the seeds of each accession have been extracted from the fruit pod, they were sun-dried and kept in tightly sealed containers for enzymatic analysis. This analysis was done at Biochemistry division, Nigeria Institute of Medical Research, Yaba, Lagos. Seeds were blended using a pulverized seed mill machine. 10 g of each accession was measured out using an electronic weighing


49

machine and then kept in different conical flask labelled with their accession numbers on masking tape. 50 ml of Tris buffer was added to each flask and shaken, this was filtered using Whitman filter paper. The supernatant was decanted into beaker and pallet discarded. Ammonium sulphate was added to the supernatants and left to stand for hour, this was done to precipitate out the protein. The resulting suspension was centrifugation at 2500 rmp for 10 mins. Decant the supernatant from the pallet and add 1 ml of phosphate buffer then shaken properly and centrifuge again. Thereafter supernatant were decanted leaving the pallet. To the pallet 1 ml of phosphate buffer was added and used as the assay. Before assaying for each isozymatic activity, a total protein analysis was carried out as it will be required for obtaining further results on isozymatic analysis. Determination of total protein was done using biuret method (Table 2) thus; R1 = sodium hydroxide with copper II sulphate (ml) R2 = potassium sodium tartrate (ml)

Table 2 Showing test procedure for the determination of total protein analysis

R1 (ml) R2 (ml) Standard (µl) Sample (µl)

Blank 1.02 1.00 -

Standard 1.00 1.00 20.00 -

Sample 1.00 1.00 20.00

Test was allowed to stand for 10 mins at room temperature and readings were taken at 550nm. Total protein (grams) = absorbance (assay) × standard concentration (0.122g) Absorbance of standard (6) Alcohol dehydrogenase 0.1M of sodium pyrophosphate buffer (pH 9.2) 2M of ethanol. Dilute 12.1ml of 95% to 100ml of distilled water 0.025M of NAD 0.1M phosphate buffer, (pH 7.5) Malate dehydrogenase 0.1M of potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) 0.006M of oxaloacetic acid, freshly prepared in 0.1M of phosphate buffer. 0.00375M NADH Isocitrate dehydrogenase The NADH is formed as a result of oxidation of isocitrate. The appropriately diluted enzyme solution (0.01ml) was added to 0.79 ml of reaction mixture containing isocitrate (2.25mM), NAD+ (0.62mM) and MgCl2 (3.75mM) in 2.5 ml assay buffer (50mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.5). Absorbance reading of enzymes The Isozymes activities were spectrophotometrically determined in triplicate

50

M.C. Ogwu et al

of each accession at 340nm at 300C at a minute interval, by monitoring the rate of formation of NADH or NAD+. The enzymes activity was calculated using: Activity = 340/min× cuvette volume × enzyme dilution 6.22 × sample volume Sample volume =1cm, cuvette volume =1cm, enzyme dilution =30 Specific Activity = Enzyme activity Total protein Table 3 Absorbance readings on activity of Malate dehydrogenase TEST 1 2 3

0482 0.041 0.023 0.027

158 0.047 0.037 0.020

0475 0.041 0.020 0.046

157 0.044 0.022 0.010

159 0.146 0.038 0.038

Table 4 Absorbance readings on activity of Isocitrate dehydrogenase TEST 1 2 3

0482 0.027 0.011 0.012

158 0.035 0.006 0.006

0475 0.027 0.019 0.019

157 0.038 0.021 0.022

159 0.039 0.046 0.046

Table 5 Absorbance readings on activity of Alcohol dehydrogenase TEST 1 2 3

0482 0.067 0.058 0.108

158 0.107 0.087 0.101

0475 0.080 0.073 0.073

157 0.144 0.134 0.126

159 0.207 0.197 0.199

Statistical Analysis Multivariate statistical analyses were applied in this study to assess possible relationship in isozymatic characters malate dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase and isocitrate dehydrogenase in the Abelmoschus accessions.


51

Data collected were analysed using SPSS (version 16.0) and Squared Euclidean distance, which was used as a measure of distance for cluster formation after standardization of quantitative and qualitative data. Analysis of variance was done for quantitative attributes and all isozymatic characters to locate significant difference among the accession. Pair-wise distance matrixes between accessions were derived using Statistic XL Excel.

Results and Discussion Total protein content: The results of total protein content of each accession is presented in Table 6 Variation exist in the quantity of total protein present in the five accessions. Amongst the accessions, NG/SA/DEC/07/0475, NG/ SA/DEC/07/0482 and NG/OA/03/12/158 showed higher values for total protein (33.076 g, 31.210 g and 28.992 g respectively), compared to NG/ OA/03/12/157 and NG/OA/05/12/159 which had low values for total protein content (21.227 g and 9.429 g respectively). Table 6 Total protein (g) content of each accession S/N protein (g) 1

Accession No NG/OA/03/12/157

2

NG/OA/03/12/158

3

NG/SA/DEC/07/0475

4

NG/SA/DEC/07/0482

5

NG/OA/05/12/159

Total

21.227 28.990 33.076 31.210 9.429

Proteins are important for breakage of seed dormancy. Most of the activities that occur in seeds before germination are products of protein (Hilman, 1962).The more protein content in a seed, the faster seedlings emerge. The total protein of the five accessions revealed to a large extent, the quality of the protein content in the seeds. Although proteins are necessary for the germination of seed both under favourable and unfavourable condition, but the condition under which the species seed grows well/favourable is essential. Total protein of accessions NG/SA/DEC/07/0482, NG/OA/03/12/158 and NG/SA/DEC/07/0475 (A. caillei) were observed to be high but did not emerge fast compared to accessions NG/OA/03/12/157 and NG/OA/05/12/159 (A. esculentus) that had low total protein content. This may be due to conditions favourable to their growth. However accession NG/SA/DEC/07/0482 possessed high total protein content like it other A. caillei, it emerged even faster than A. esculentus. Absence of growth in accessions NG/OA/03/12/158 and NG/SA/DEC/07/0475 along with others proves them to be true A. caillei as they hardly throve in anoxia condition. The delay may represent the time necessary for those enzymes, which are involved in aerobic metabolism express themselves (Pramod et al., 2010) in the seeds. The emergence of accession NG/SA/DEC/07/0482 with other A. esculentus maybe a diversion as both morphological and total protein

52

M.C. Ogwu et al

content prove it is a true A. caillei having high protein content with others. Isozymatic Characterization: Characterization of these species using their isozyme activities is easily affected by environment. These isozymes are part of metabolic pathway for all living things which is necessary for growth of the genus, Abelmoschus. The results of isozyme activities are presented in Table 7. Isozyme activities of alcohol, malate and isocitrate dehydrogenases showed distinctive results as shown in Table 7. A level of significance was obtained at P < 0.05 with accessions NG/OA/03/12/157 and NG/OA/05/12/159 having higher values for mean ± STD error of 0.135 ± 0.005 and 0.201 ± 0.003 respectively when compared with accessions NG/SA/DEC/07/0482, NG/OA/03/12/158 and NG/SA/DEC/07/0475. However, when homogeneity was compared within the accessions to check the cause of variation, accessions NG/SA/DEC/07/0482, NG/OA/03/12/158 and NG/SA/DEC/07/0475 were found to be in the same category, while accessions NG/OA/03/12/157 and NG/OA/05/12/159 in separate categories. Table 7 Enzymatic activities for the different enzymes Accession Number

Isocitrate Dehydrogenase

Malate Dehydrogenase

Alcohol Dehydrogenase

NG/OA/03/12/157

0.017 ± 0.005

0.030 ± 0.005

0.077 ± 0.015

NG/OA/03/12/158

0.016 ± 0.010

0.035 ± 0.008

0.098 ± 0.059

NG/SA/DEC/07/0475

0.022 ± 0.003

0.036 ± 0.008

0.098 ± 0.059

NG/SA/DEC/07/0482

0.027 ± 0.006

0.025 ± 0.010

0.135 ± 0.005

NG/OA/05/12/159

0.044 ± 0.002

0.074 ± 0.036

0.201 ± 0.003

*

NS

*

Results represent mean ± standard error * Significant at P