MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR ...

MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING


MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING REGIONAL INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL HEALTH OIRSA FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE ORGANIZATION OF CENTRAL AMERICAN ISTHMUS (OSPESCA) AS PART OF THE SYSTEM OF CENTRAL AMERICAN INTEGRATION (SICA) Authors: Jorge Cuéllar-Anjel Cornelio Lara Vielka Morales Abelardo De Gracia Oscar García Suárez

Panama, July, 2010


PRESENTATION Aquaculture is undoubtedly one of the great Central America isthmus potentials to produce high quality food, the same as to generate human wealth through employment and revenues. This has been evidenced by the Regional Inventory of Continental Water Bodies lifted by the Fisheries and Aquaculture Organization of Central American Isthmus (OSPESCA) and the Regional International Organization for Agricultural Health (OIRSA). In particular, marine shrimp farming is an aquaculture activity that generates significant social and economic benefits for the region, for extra-regional exports and for intraregional market during last years. However, marine shrimp farming is also exposed to health risks due to the presence of harmful pathogens that have forced the region to take steps to protect production and investments. As a response to this need, OIRSA and OSPESCA under a partnership with the health authorities of the member countries, OIE, FAO and private sector, have established a group of experts known as the "Ad-hoc Group for Aquatic Animal Health". This group has been gradually giving valuable inputs for a healthy and sustainable production, one of which is the present "Best Management Practices Manual for white shrimp Penaeus vannamei farming". This Manual will be a support tool for shrimp producers and technical staff for aquaculture crops that ensure quality production and profitability with sustainability and attachment principles. The preparation and publication of this Manual has also been supported by the Republic of China (Taiwan) through the Support Project for Central America Fisheries and Aquaculture Integration Process (PRIPESCA) that OSPESCA runs with the administrative participation of OIRSA. The goal of this Manual is to become a continuous query tool for the aquaculture producers and technical staffs obtain a high quality shrimp production, based on a farming competitive model which meets sanitary requirements demanded by regional and international markets.

Guillermo E. Alvarado Downing

Mario González Recinos

Executive Director - OIRSA

Regional Director - SICA / OSPESCA

3


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful for their special collaboration with the technical structure and review of this Manual to the following people from Panama: Itzela Davis, Roberto Chamorro, Mariola Lemieszek de Camargo, Rigoberto Camargo, Hugo Pérez, Orlando Vernaza, María del Pilar Moyano, Eva Correa, Ricardo Villarreal, Susset Dager and Eva Bravo; from Nicaragua: Agnes Saborio; from Honduras: Carlos Girón; from Guatemala: Alexander De Beausset, and from Mexico: María Cristina Chávez Sánchez. Author also thank the support from the following companies and organizations that allowed the participation of their technicians and the use of their facilities in the development and review of this Manual: Camaronera de Coclé, S.A. [Shrimp Company from the Panamanian Cocle province] (CAMACO) and Industrias de Natá S.A. [Feed Plant from the Panamanian Cocle province] (INASA), both companies from CALESA Panamanian Agroindustrial Group; Aquatic Animal Health Program from the Animal Health Directorate of the Ministry of Agricultural Development of Panama (MIDA); the Research and Development Directorate from the Aquatic Resources Authority of Panama (ARAP); the Fisheries and Aquaculture Organization of Central American Isthmus (OSPESCA) and the Regional International Organization for Agricultural Health (OIRSA).

4


CONTENTS 1.

Introduction

13

2.

Existing Regulation Compliance

15

2.1

Social aspects

15

2.1.1

Relationship with neighboring communities

15

2.1.2

Labor and occupational health relationships

15

2.1.3

Existing labor regulations compliance

17

2.1.4

Social responsibility

18

2.2

Environmental aspects

19

2.2.1

Site selection for farm location

21

2.2.1.1

Topography

21

2.2.1.2

Hydrology and hydrography

22

2.2.1.3

Soil characteristics

22

2.2.2 3.

Farm design and building

25

Farm operation

32

3.1

Pond preparation

32

3.1.1

Complete pond drainage

32

3.1.2

Pond drying

33

3.1.3

Trash removing from pond bottom

34

3.1.4

Evaluation of the pond bottom conditions

35

3.1.5

Sediment management

36

3.1.6

Liming (lime application on pond bottom)

38

3.1.7

Pond bottom ploughing

39

3.1.8

Pond filling

39

3.2

Pond stocking

40

3.2.1

Postlarvae sources

41

3.2.2

Postlarvae quality verification

42

3.2.2.1

Postlarvae acclimation

43

3.2.2.2

Postlarvae stocking

43

3.3

Feed management

44

3.4

Water quality management

49

3.4.1

Water quality monitoring

50

3.4.2

Aeration

52

3.4.3

Pond water exchange

53

3.4.4

Fertilization and natural productivity management

54

3.4.5

Predators and competitors management / exclusion

57

3.4.6

Shrimp escape prevention

58

3.4.7

Effluent management

59

5


3.5

6

Shrimp disease management

61

3.5.1

Response / action plan for shrimp disease outbreaks

63

3.5.2

Shrimp disease diagnostic research and confirmation

64

3.5.3

Shrimp mobilizations restriction

65

3.6

Use of veterinary drugs and chemical/biological products

66

3.7

Handling of household waste

68

3.8

Management procedures during harvest

70

3.9

Biosecurity

74

3.9.1

Control of people and vehicle farm incoming

75

3.9.2

Cleaning and disinfection of farming facilities

76

3.9.2.1

Coordination of the facilities total disinfection plan

76

3.9.2.2

Harvest schedule optimizing

77

3.9.2.3

Appropriate management of discarded shrimp

77

3.9.2.4

Facilities and equipment disinfection

77

3.9.2.4.1

Earthen ponds disinfection

78

3.9.2.4.2

Tank disinfection

79

3.9.2.4.3

Equipment disinfection

80

3.9.2.4.4

Office disinfection

80

3.9.2.4.5

Other buildings disinfecting

80

3.9.3

Control systems for pests eradication

81

3.9.4

Data recording and verification

82

4.

Waste disposal based on classification and recyclability

83

5.

Energy use

86

6.

Contingency plans

87

7.

Data recording in a shrimp farm

88

8.

Traceability

89

Bibliography

91

Annexes

93

Abbreviations

121

Glossary

122


LIST OF ANNEXES Annex 1.

Postlarvae quality evaluation and stress tests

93

Annex 2.

Postlarvae acclimation: technical details to proceed

95

Annex 3..

Feeding management based on molting cycle

97

Annex 4.

Population sampling in a shrimp farm

99

Annex 5.

Parameters monitoring in shrimp ponds

100

Annex 6.

Samples fixation for laboratory analysis

102

Annex 7.

OIE model for preparing an Emergency Plan

104

Annex 8.

International regulations for veterinary drugs

106

Annex 9.

Regulation EU No 37/2010 - Toxic substances limits

112

Annex 10.

Traceability

117

Annex 11.

International metrology

119

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.

Kindergarten "Froylán Turcios" rebuilt by the shrimp company LARVIPAC, Seajoy Group, Honduras.

15

Figure 2.

School supplies donation by Seajoy Shrimp Group, Honduras.

15

Figure 3.

Free access to other users (fishermen) to the water source near the shrimp farm. Coquira (left) and Aguadulce (right), Panama.

16

Figure 4.

Training for a shrimp farm staff on topics related to public health and disease prevention.

16

Figure 5a.

Health care for the staff as part of occupational health farm plan.

16

Figure 5b.

Personal security measures signaling placed in work areas of a shrimp farm, in order to prevent staff accidents at work and whose compliance must be mandatory.

17

Figure 5c.

Evacuation route signaling in a work area of a shrimp farm, and fire extinguishing equipment for fire emergencies.

17

Figure 6a.

Technical and administrative offices of a shrimp farm, equipped with air conditioning and tinted windows for a more comfortable and healthy work environment.

17

Figura 6b.

Bathroom facilities in a shrimp farm including showers (left) and urinals (right) for the farm workers. The showers help for washing salt water and irritating substances such as lime or some fertilizers.

18

Figure 6c.

Complete bathroom elements including sink and toilet for employees of a shrimp farm, equipped also with cleaning and disinfection supplies (left). Portable latrine located near the resting areas for the field staff in a shrimp farm (right).

18

Figure 6d.

Source of drinking water for a shrimp farm workers (left); conventional telephone system and radio (right) used for communications in a shrimp farm.

18

Figure 6e.

Boarding a bus by staff of a shrimp farm at the end of a working day, as part of the free service offered by the company. Note the guard near the door checking bags and backpacks of workers before boarding.

18

Figure 7.

Integration activity of a shrimp farm with the near communities during a religious celebration held in a reservoir channel (“Virgen del Carmen”), Anton, Panama.

19

Figure 8.

Protected wildlife area adjacent to a shrimp farm (nesting area for local and migratory birds), Honduras.

20

Figure 9.

Palo Blanco" sea arm (Aguadulce, Panama) with well-preserved mangrove forest, used as a water source for several shrimp farms.

20

Figure 10.

Map showing the location of shrimp farms built in albino (salt land) areas and areas of possible ponds expansion (right of the ponds).

21

Figure 11a.

Virgin albino (salt land) area, characterized by humid zones due to tidal influence, flat terrain, little vegetation and surrounded by mangrove forest.

21

Figura 11b.

Assessment of a virgin albino area for the location of a shrimp farm.

21

7


8

Figure 12.

Shrimp farm flooding caused by a river overflow as consequence of a strong storm and simulta neous high tides.

22

Figure 13a.

Pond building in a shrimp farm located in an albino area with high in clay and silt (adequate texture) allowing good dikes compaction.

23

Figure 13b.

Ponds covered with liners in an intensive system for shrimp production, to avoid leakage due to sandy soil composition.

23

Figura 14.

Design plan of a shrimp farm.

25

Figura 15a.

Design plan of a shrimp farm (left) and cross sections of the dikes (right).

26

Figure 15b.

Strategic section in a dike of a pond during building of a shrimp farm, which is being built a water income structure.

26

Figure 16.

Pumping station of a shrimp farm with axial pumps.

26

Figure 17.

Fuel tank properly labeled with a security pit to contain spills.

27

Figure 18a.

Natural regeneration of mangrove trees in a drainage channels of a shrimp farm.

27

Figure 18b.

Buffer zone adjacent to a shrimp farm, with natural proliferation of different types of mangroves that serve as shelter for wildlife.

27

Figure 19.

Service road bridge on a canal in a shrimp farm, to allow the natural drainage water flow as tidal dynamics.

27

Figure 20.

Administrative, technical and logistical-support facilities for production activities of a shrimp farm, with adequate service roads for vehicles and heavy equipment traffic.

28

Figure 21.

Main feed warehouse of a shrimp farm receiving shrimp feed transported in a covered truck (see right on the picture).

28

Figure 22.

Concrete stalls used as small warehouse for feed storage; they are strategically located in the pond production area of a shrimp farm and facilitate the distribution of daily rations. They should be designed to preserve feed quality and to avoid either rodents and other pests contamination or theft.

28

Figure 23a.

Raised drinking water system supply (left) and comfortable housing for a shrimp farm workers who live in it (right).

29

Figure 23b.

Dining for a shrimp farm staff.

29

Figure 24.

Security shelter and electric gate to control personnel and vehicles entry and exit in a shrimp farm.

30

Figure 25.

Recently harvested pond under total draining process for a posterior sunshine and wind exposure to soil dry.

33

Figure 26.

Pond bottom drying and disinfecting through the sunlight and wind effect; note the deep soil cracks.

33

Figure 27.

Physical pond soil examination (left) and soil sampling for laboratory analysis (right) in a shrimp farm.

34

Figure 28.

Two adult organisms of “ghost shrimp” - "Callianassa" (Lepidophthalmus bocourti) (left) whose size is comparable to a coin equivalent to U.S. $0.10. On the right the picture shows the bottom of a shrimp pond with holes built by these organisms

35

Figure 29.

Two adult organisms of Tanaidacea (left) whose size is comparable to a coin equivalent to U.S. $0.25. To the right is presented a lump removed from the bottom of a shrimp pond with holes built by these organisms.

36

Figure 30a.

Sediment removal and harvest channel restoration on a shrimp pond bottom (left) and dikes restructuring (right).

37

Figure 30b.

Manual sediment removal from the bottom of a shrimp pond after a harvest, when it coincides with the rainy season and it becomes difficult tractors entering to the ponds.

37

Figure 31a.

Manual liming of a shrimp pond as part of its stocking preparation. Note the consistency with which lime is being spread on the bottom.

38

Figure 31b.

Reservoir channel manually limed as a best management practice in a small shrimp farm.

38

Figure 31c.

Mechanical liming of a shrimp pond during preparation for stocking. Using specialized equipment allows evenly lime application on the soil, in less time and safer for workers.

38

Figure 32.

Reservoir channel manually limed as a best management practice in a small shrimp farm.

39


Figure 33.

Early shrimp pond filling process using wooden fine mesh filter bags in order to retain undesirable biological material.

39

Figure 34.

Late shrimp pond filling process in a shrimp farm still remaining wooden filters and fine mesh filter bags to prevent entry of debris and undesirable biological material.

40

Figure 35.

Shrimp postlarvae production tanks in larval production center.

41

Figure 36.

Plastic trays distribution in a shrimp enclosure system in a pond, which will be used for shrimp feeding with 100% of the daily ration.

42

Figure 37a.

Macroscopic postlarvae checkup performed by shrimp farm staff to determine its quality and health conditions before purchasing the batch.

42

Figure 37b.

Postlarvae transport in oxygenated bins and acclimation after arrival at the shrimp farm (left), and physicochemical parameters monitoring during acclimation (right).

43

Figure 38a.

Shrimp feed unloading and stowage for temporary storage in a shrimp farm warehouse.

45

Figure 38b.

Shrimp feed temporarily stored on pallets in a warehouse of a shrimp farm. Note the warehouse ventilation, lighting and cleaning conditions, the same as the use of wooden pallets and order and space in the stowage system.

45

Figure 39.

Hydrostability test performed with a feed sample lot on arrival at the shrimp farm, in order to assess its physical quality. Pellets were immersed in sea water in a volumetric flask (beaker), without agitation. Note the pellets consistency and hydration after 2 hours of testing.

45

Figure 40.

Plastic trays distribution in a shrimp enclosure system in a pond, which will be used for shrimp feeding with 100% of the daily ration.

47

Figure 41.

Feed tray review by shrimp farm workers at a pond (left); circular mesh-made feed tray showing feed and shrimp eating during a routine checkup on a shrimp farm.

47

Figure 42.

Shrimp feed distributed from a rowboat; this is a good feeding practice management to the environmental in a shrimp farm, as long as staff effort be considered.

48

Figure 43.

Routine analysis of pond water in a shrimp farm, where pH (left) and salinity (right) is monitored.

50

Figure 44.

Routine operation of a laboratory in a shrimp farm, which includes algae counting (left), water chemical analysis (right) and data recording (center).

51

Figure 45a.

Secchi disk design (left) and how to use it for turbidity measurement in a shrimp pond (right).

51

Figure 45b.

Basic equipment for field and laboratory analysis which must be in a shrimp farm. From left to right: regular gram scale, oxymeter (behind), pH meter, salinity meter and stirrer with hot plate.

51

Figure 46.

Paddlewheel aerators in a shrimp farm ponds with an intensive shrimp farming system. Location must be strategic looking to form a continuous water flow to prevent stratification.

52

Figure 47.

Shrimp farm pumping station that supplies water to the ponds through the reservoir channel; it can be observed behind pumps a well-preserved mangrove with abundant vegetation, which follows the path of the estuary.

54

Figure 48.

Microalgae belonging to diatoms: Navicula (left) and Chaetoceros (right). This group is the main feed source of zooplankton consumed by shrimp in farming ponds.

55

Figure 49.

Metabolites-producing microorganisms which affect shrimp health or quality: on the left dinoflagellates (Peridinium) and on the right cyanophytes (Oscillatoria).

55

Figure 50.

Agricultural inputs application (fertilizers) in a shrimp pond. Worker is protected with gloves and masks to avoid contact with the product.

57

Figure 51.

Structure for sedimentation control and filtration in a reservoir channel of a shrimp farm, which are using bag filters.

58

Figure 52a.

Water input gate (left) and water output gate (right) in a shrimp pond of a shrimp farm which have mesh filters, bag and wooden seal to prevent the either foreign organisms entry or shrimp escape during farming cycle.

59

Figure 52b.

Wooden frames with black mesh filter installed in a water output gate of a pond in a shrimp farm. The purpose is to prevent shrimp escape during pond water exchange.

59

Figure 53.

Meeting between shrimp farms managers and technical staff with representatives of the Competent Authority to discuss a shrimp health crisis and to establish an emergency plan.

61

Figure 54a.

Diseased shrimp (left) and healthy shrimp (right) captured during a routinely health monitoring in a shrimp pond.

62

9


10

Figure 54b.

Linical examination carried out during a routine health shrimp sampling in a shrimp farm.

62

Figure 55.

TCBS petri agar dishes (left) and TSA agar (right) showing colonies growth from sick shrimp hemolymph.

63

Figure 56a.

Temperature-controlled incubator (left) and laminar flow chamber Class II used for studies of bacteriology in the laboratory of a shrimp farm.

64

Figure 56b.

Tissue processing equipment used in the preparation of histological slides to study shrimp organs and tissues suspected to have a disease.

64

Figure 56c.

PCR machine (thermocycler), used for the genomic amplification (DNA or RNA) of shrimp pathogens from tissue samples.

64

Figure 57a.

Competent Authority personnel from the Aquaculture Health Authority of a country, performing shrimp sampling for PCR analysis as part of the routine health surveillance in a shrimp farm.

65

Figure 57b.

Shrimp farms personnel in aquatic health making microscopy observations and recording findings, from sick shrimp samples.

65

Figure 58a.

Identified containers with colors and signs, which can be used in shrimp farms for garbage collection according to their recycling classification, or for a proper disposal of certain kind of materials that require special handling such as used batteries.

69

Figure 58b.

Domestic waste collection by a specialized vehicle contracted for this particular service in a shrimp farm.

69

Figure 59.

Shrimp sampling to determine its quality before deciding pond harvesting.

71

Figure 60.

Using of a harvest machine in a pond of a shrimp farm which provides a better product quality.

71

Figure 61.

Quick icing process during a harvest in a shrimp farm, causing shrimp death by heat shock and thus initiating the cold chain.

72

Figure 62.

Technical training courses for the shrimp farm staff about diagnostic methods for recognizing shrimp diseases.

74

Figure 63a.

Sign on the wall of a shrimp farm explaining biosecurity levels as well as recommendations and restrictions to be applied in each one.

75

Figure 63b.

Workspaces which indicate the biosecurity level to be applied when entering. Note the presence of devices for hands and feet disinfection.

75

Figure 64a.

Tire disinfection of a vehicle with a backpack system at a checkpoint, when entering a shrimp farm.

76

Figure 64b.

Footbath with a quaternary ammonium solution used in the analytical laboratory entrance of a shrimp farm as a biosecurity measure.

76

Figure 65a.

Disposed shrimp burial in a cave made out of any area that be susceptible to contaminated in a shrimp farm.

77

Figure 65b.

Lime application and soil covering of disposed shrimp in a shrimp farm.

77

Figure 66.

Cleaning and disinfection in acclimation facilities of a shrimp farm; note that the worker is wearing boots, gloves, gas mask and cap for protection.

78

Figure 67.

Device for pests control in a shrimp farm, installed and supervised by a certified company that has been hired by the shrimp company.

81

Figure 68.

Portable latrine located in an area of shrimp ponds (left). Sink and a paper towel dispenser (right).

84

Figure 69.

Solar panels used in a shrimp farm as an alternative to reduce electricity consumption costs.

86

Figure 70a.

Manual recording forms for different tasks in a shrimp farm (left) and vertical filing system to organize and preserve the historical evolution of the data (right).

87

Figure 70b.

Manual recording in the laboratory of a shrimp farm (left) and in the field (right), as part of the production data collection.

87

Figure 70c.

Computerized data recording in the warehouse of a shrimp farm which allows to have control on entry and exit of operating materials and supplies.

88

Figure 71a.

Computer screen showing an electronic form of an official software designed for data recording in a shrimp farm as a plan for traceability.

89

Figure 71b.

Data typing in an electronic form of an official software, performed by personnel of a shrimp farm for traceability purposes.

89


FOREWORD

The "Manual of Best management practices for white shrimp Penaeus vannamei farming", aims to make available voluntary tools to prevent, mitigate or compensate environmental negative impacts of the activities of shrimp farms, so that farming operations be responsibly developed with the environment and with the society. Similarly, this Manual is intended as a guide for voluntary programs designed to prevent, reduce and/or manage risks related to food safety, life, animal health and human health. It involves environmental, social and food security elements and proposes principles for the responsible and sustainable shrimp farming in Central America. This Manual pretends also to support the formulation of national and regional rules in shrimp industry, addressed to seek sustainability of this activity and pretending to supply base ideas for standards and certification systems development . The principles and associated guidelines on the implementation of the suggested rules of this Manual can be used by public and private sectors for: a) management protocols development for each shrimp farm in member countries of OIRSA/OSPESCA, b) improving management practices and c) suggest additional administrative proposals for shrimp farming.

11


12


1. Introduction

help the achievement of these goals, members of FAO in 1995 adopted the Conduct Code for Responsible Fishing,

Worldwide, aquaculture has grown dramatically over the

providing a framework for the responsible development for

last 60 years, from less than one million tonnes in the

aquaculture and fisheries.

1950s, to 51.7 million tons in 2006 with a value of 78.800 million USD. Despite that fisheries catch production

Globally, however, the production of the major species

stopped growing in the 1980s, the global aquaculture

groups continues to be dominated by a small group of

sector has maintained an annual average growth rate of

countries. China produces 77% of all carp (Cyprinidae) and

8.7% (excluding China, with 6.5%) since 1970 (FAO,

82% of world supply oysters (Ostreids). Asia-Pacific region

2009).

produces 98% of the carp (Cyprinus carpius) and 95% of total oysters; 88% of shrimps and prawns (Penaeid) also

According to FAO (2009), aquaculture represents 76% of

come from this region and the five largest producers

world freshwater finfish production and 65% of the

(China, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia and India) supply

production

Its

81%. Norway and Chile are the two world's largest

contribution to the world's crustaceans supply has grown

producers of farmed salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch and

rapidly in the last decade and has reached 42% of world

Salmo salar - salmonids) and share 33% and 31%,

production in 2006 and, in that year, provided 70% of the

respectively, of the world production. Other European

shrimp and prawns (penaeid) produced worldwide.

producers supply additional 19% (FAO, 2009).

Regarding Latin America and the Caribbean, FAO reported

Shrimp farming is one of the fastest growing aquaculture

that it has the highest average annual growth rate (22%),

sectors in Asia and Latin America and recently in Africa.

followed by the Near East (20%) and the African region

The sustainability of shrimp aquaculture should be reached

(12.7%). Production growth in Europe and North America,

with the short and long term recognition and mitigation of

has slowed substantially 1% per year since 2000. France

the effects on the environment and on the community. In

and Japan that used to be leaders in aquaculture

order to get it, it`s necessary to maintain an economic and

development have reduced production in the past decade.

biological viability along the time, and protect the coastal

Although aquaculture production will continue increasing,

resources of which it depends.

of

molluscs

and

diadromous

fish.

the growth rate could be moderate in the near future. In the Central America region, marine shrimp aquaculture Due to demand increase, production and marketing

corresponds to 12.8% and Tilapia to 5.7%, being the

increasing, there is a requirement increase for improving

higher development of the aquaculture sector. Other

sustainability, social acceptance and security for human

resources represent 22.6% of the production. In spite that

health. This not only affects international trade and pushes

mariculture and Cobia farming (Rachycentron canadum)

producers to focus on production methods that lead them

are not recorded in the statistics of the region until 2007,

to do that, but also challenges to producing countries to

they have taken an interesting boom since 2008 in Belize

develop and implement appropriate policies and develop

and Panama, with high prospects industrial development

standards that allow responsible production and trade. To

(PAPCA-OSPESCA/AECID).

13


Instead shrimp catch that until early 2000s was strategic for

Health Program of OIRSA`s Regional Coordination of

Central America, decreases every year due to fishing

Animal Health. Objectives and activities of the Ad hoc

overexploitation and despite implemented regulations.

Group, are involved in policy strategies of Fisheries and

Thus, production fell from 15.017 TM in 2000 (3.8% of

Aquaculture Integration of the Central American Isthmus.

regional production) to 8.775 tonnes in 2007 (2% of the

Regarding participation, countries that integrate OIRSA are:

regional total), while this same resource increased from

Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,

25.435 TM (6.5% of production) to 71.134 MT (16.4% of

Nicaragua, Panama, Mexico and Republic Dominican.

the

OSPESCA member countries are the same but excepting

cumulative

regional)

during

the

same

period

(OSPESCA, 2009).

Mexico.

Many of the problems associated with aquaculture, result

Both

from poor project planning and construction. In this regard,

international efforts tending to improve and optimize of

FAO indicates that shrimp farms should be located

shrimp sector activities in countries of the region. In order

according to the planning and the legal framework in

to get it, they have developed a significant technical and

environmentally suitable locations, making efficient use of

logistical deployment for the development of this "Best

water and soil resources; all of it additional to conservation

management practices manual for white shrimp Penaeus

of

and

vannamei farming", document that has been addressed to

ecosystem functions. This, recognizing other land uses,

producers, technicians, students, academics, professionals

and other people and species that depend of these

from related areas, private and official entities from member

ecosystems.

countries of these organizations.

As an answer to the current demands of the Central

There are different versions designed and implemented to

America region in aquatic health, it was created the Ad hoc

improve

group

of

worldwide, but basically they all share the same principles

OIRSA/OSPESCA-PRIPESCA, which main objective is to

and approaches, with differences due to the particular

have permanent availability of a specialized technical team

characteristics of the countries or regions where they have

in the area of Aquatic Animal Health, led by Aquaculture

been published.

biodiversity,

of

ecologically

Aquatic

sensitive

Health

habitats

Program

organizations

(OIRSA/OSPESCA)

management

practices

in

have

shrimp

joined

farming

Table 1. Production of farmed shrimp (TM) in Central American Countries - 2000-2007. Year

Belize

Costa Rica

El Salvador

Guatemala

Honduras

Nicaragua

Panama

Totals

2000

3,637.3

1,300

196

1,492

12,041

5,422

1,347

24,148.3

2001

4,460.1

1,800

363

2,500

16,718

5,697.9

3,039

30,321

2002

4,354.1

4,097

372

5,400

18,149

6,102.2

4,778

37,906.3

2003

11,157.2

5,051

473

3,768

25,427

7,019.4

6,105

59,000.6

2004

11,064.9

5,076

435

3,900

27,748

7,849.5

6,535

58,747.4

2005

10,254.1

5,714

240

7,000

28,385

9,633.3

7,122

61,355.4

2006

7,234.7

5,726

336

13,428

35,811

10,860.5

8,314

81,710.2

2007

2,472.4

5,274

160.4

13,500

30,367

11,097.5

8,263

57,769.3

Fuente:OSPESCA 2009.

14


All shrimp farms must comply with national, regional and international regulations, that are all applicable to the shrimp industry, as it relates to the environmental, health, food

safety,

social,

labor

and

land

tenure.

Best

Management Practices (BMP) are not quantitative or static procedures, they can`t be encoded as a permanent control. They are intended to guide the shrimp industry to efficiency maximizing, sustainability insurance and environmental and social impact minimization, always considering product safety.

2. Existing regulation compliance 2.1

Social aspects

The social approach of shrimp companies should be directed to developing and operating shrimp farms in a

Figure 2. School supplies donation by Seajoy Shrimp Group, Honduras. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón

2.1.1

Relationship with neighboring communities

responsible way, that benefits the same company, local communities and the country, effectively contributing with

Shrimp farms are located near coastal communities that

rural development (Figure 1) and particularly, to the

traditionally have had access to coastal resources, like

poverty alleviation in coastal areas, without compromising

fishing, mollusks gathering and wood extraction. Due to

environment.

that, shrimp farms should not deny access rural communities to these resources, that have used them routinely for many years. Shrimp farms should not prohibit coastal communities to access public places as mangrove forests, fishing areas and public resources, as long as these communities do not endanger those resources. Farms should cooperate with Competent Authorities, which are responsible for regulating the use of coastal and aquatic resources of these areas (Figure 3). 2.1.2 Labor and occupational health

Figure 1. Kindergarten "Froylán Turcios" rebuilt by the shrimp company LARVIPAC, Seajoy Group, Honduras. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón.

relationships

It is very important to avoid or minimize conflicts with local

All worker performing honest work, should be rewarded at

communities that may result from the development or

least with the minimum legal salary. Furthermore, he/she

operation of a shrimp farm. By the way, it must be ensured

should be covered by social security and medical insur-

and promoted that aquaculture development be of mutual

ance mandated by health legislation.

benefit to the parties (Figure 2).

15


Figure 3. Free access to other users (fishermen) to the water source near the shrimp farm. Coquira (left) and Aguadulce (right), Panama. Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara and Mr. M. De León.

Personnel farm training should be a standing item, in order

adequate signaling on the implements and rules to be

to improve their technical level looking for a better efficiency

followed by workers in places where a risk is considered

in their daily performance and for a responsible behavior

(Figure 5b). Likewise, there must be signaling for rapid

within their community (Figure 4).

evacuation routes finding if emergencies occur, and must have available fire extinguishers located in susceptible

The company must ensure the physical and mental health

areas (Figure 5c).

of all their employees, by implementing an occupational health care program, including visits from doctors, dentists

This practice that will allow good health for employees, will

and social workers, giving all the staff the opportunity to be

provide also labor benefits for a better performance on

treated at least once a year (Figure 5a).

production. When applying, employees must obtain and carry health cards issued by the Competent Authority.

As a measure to prevent accidents, the farm must have

Figure 4. Training for a shrimp farm staff on topics related to public health and disease prevention. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

16

Figure 5a. Health care for the staff as part of occupational health farm plan. Photo courtesy of Mr. D. López.


meet the requirements of personnel retirement programs according to the laws of each country. All shrimp farms either offering or not accommodation to workers, must have basic and dignified infrastructure, well ventilated and having good showers and toilets. (Figures 6b and 6c). Personnel meals must be balanced and nutritious. There must be drinking water sources for all the personnel. The farm must also have communication systems to the Figure 5b. Personal security measures signaling placed in work areas of a shrimp farm, in order to prevent staff accidents at work and whose compliance must be mandatory. Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

outside,

either

radiotelephones;

through in

this

conventional way,

not

telephone only

or

internal

communication between the farm technicians is optimized, but also will have a communication line to neighboring communities in case of an emergency (Figure 6d). Both, storage and meals cooking must be adequate and food waste must be handled the right way and environmentally friendly. Regarding mobilization, the company should provide all the workers a free and safe transport system, from their homes to the farm facilities and back at the end of the labor day. This farm support reduces the possibility of accidents risks for workers and they would be covered by an insurance policy to be mobilized in a bus, according to the basic rules

Figure 5c. Evacuation route signaling in a work area of a shrimp farm, and fire extinguishing equipment for fire emergencies. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

of road and social safety (Figure 6e).

2.1.3 Existing labor regulations compliance It is the responsibility of each company, the compliance of national and international legislation. It should not existing discriminatory, policies or exclusion practices for personnel recruitment, and minors should not be hired. Occupational safety must be implemented in order to prevent accidents at work and have a healthy working environment. Aquaculture workers must be trained about their rights and duties, as well as aspects regarding occupational safety and first aid. Shrimp companies must

Figure 6a. Technical and administrative offices of a shrimp farm, equipped with air conditioning and tinted windows for a more comfortable and healthy work environment. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

17


Figure 6b. Bathroom facilities in a shrimp farm including showers (left) and urinals (right) for the farm workers. The showers help for washing salt water and irritating substances such as lime or some fertilizers. Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara and Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

Figure 6e. Boarding a bus by staff of a shrimp farm at the end of a working day, as part of the free service offered by the company. Note the guard near the door checking bags and backpacks of workers before boarding. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

2.1.4 Social responsibility A farm BMP is the projection or reflection of their activities directed towards the community, involving workers in identifying such social, environmental, health, education and communication problems among others, and make them authors for solutions searching. Likewise, the company should be involved in social activities that develop communities and that contribute to the sociological welfare of its employees, promoting an integration between the two parties, regarding sociocultural aspects associated with day by day of the workers (Figure 7). Figure 6c. Complete bathroom elements including sink and toilet for employees of a shrimp farm, equipped also with cleaning and disinfection supplies (left). Portable latrine located near the resting areas for the field staff in a shrimp farm (right). Photos courtesy of Mr. M. De León and Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

Social responsibility includes company commitments with the employees, which are not usually regulated or don´t obey laws compliance. Shrimp farming industry must be developed and operated under a socially responsible manner that benefits both companies and workers, local communities and the country. Best Management Practices (BMP) for social aspects

Figure 6d. Source of drinking water for a shrimp farm workers (left); conventional telephone system and radio (right) used for communications in a shrimp farm. Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

18

Avoid conflicts with local communities that may result from the development of the shrimp farm and operation and ensure that the development of the shrimp aquaculture be beneficial for the producer and the community. In order to get it, it´s recommended ensure jobs, perform social activities that benefit the community (schools, aqueducts, roads, playgrounds, recreation, health centers, improvements in public services, etc.).


personnel retirement programs Provide good field conditions to the workers, such as adequate transportation, dining areas and rest areas, the same as access to sanitation facilities (fixed or portable toilets) 2.2 Environmental aspects Sustainable shrimp farming should be focused on development of farming systems in an integrated, orderly and inclusive, articulating the economic, social and Figure 7. Integration activity of a shrimp farm with the near communities during a religious celebration held in a reservoir channel (“Virgen del Carmen”), Anton, Panama. Photo courtesy of Engs. M. Lemieszek.

environmental capabilities with technology, knowledge, institutional efforts and the legal framework policy. Under this guidance, shrimp farms have a responsibility in environmental management implementation defined in the

Shrimp farms should not deny access the community to natural resources, which for many years have been used

Environmental Impact Study, from the construction stage and during its establishment and operation.

routinely Regarding coastal and aquatic resources, farms should

Each one of the infrastructure that make up the farm

be cooperating agencies with Competent Authorities that

(ponds, offices, warehouses, pump stations, bridges,

are responsible for their use regulation

sewers, drains, reservoir channels, roads, etc.), must

Ensure the welfare and improving working conditions of those who work on shrimp farms

include in its design aspects to minimize or prevent impacts on the environment during construction and operation.

Training of farm workers must be standing item, in order to improve their professional level, in order to improve

Similarly, it should be prevised its permanent maintenance for avoiding damage and accidents.

performance efficiency of their daily work and for a responsible conduct within their community. This includes

2.2.1 Site selection for farm location

topics as duties and rights, within the labor relationship and in the community, responsible practices for shrimp farming

One of the most critical points in any shrimp aquaculture

and job security (e.g. first aid)

operation is site selection, because doing it correctly, large

Minimize the risk of human error during shrimp farming process,

through

training.

Appropriate

extension

amount of possible effects on the environment and neighboring communities can be minimized. By the way, it

techniques and through excellence programs, bonuses and

can

be

identified

awards

sustainability.

limitations

that

affect

operation

Shrimp companies must provide their workers with clothing and safety items appropriate for each of the tasks they perform Companies must also comply the requirements of

19


The site selected for the location of the farm, should be in

original, such as topography, hydrography, hydrology and

an area where the operation thereof don´t induce

other soil characteristics.

environmental or social conflicts, according to planning and legal framework and making efficient use of water and soil

Regarding food safety, the most important features are

resources. It should conserved biodiversity, ecologically

again water and soil quality. This is the first prevention step

sensitive habitats and ecosystem functions, and recognizes

for reducing danger of human food consumption risks. In

other possible uses of ground and that other people and

fact, constructed farm on contaminated soil or using

species depend on these same ecosystems (Figure 8).

polluted water, will not obtain a safe product. It must be known the history of use of the selected land and by

Factors that must be considered when selecting a suitable

laboratory analysis, must be confirmed the absence of

land for shrimp farming, include:

hazardous products for shrimp and/or damaging the quality of the final product (harvested shrimp), due to their potential risk to human health. Water quality is essential to meet physico-chemical and biological requirements for farmed species. Likewise, the use of high quality water for shrimp production, will have a “plus” for producing a quality and safety shrimp for the final consumer. Therefore, it must be ensured that the water is not contaminated or that there is not possibility for water contamination with industrial, mining, agricultural or domestic waste (Figure 9).

Figure 8. Protected wildlife area adjacent to a shrimp farm (nesting area for local and migratory birds), Honduras. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón.

•

Cost-effective and environmental health

•

Value of the site where it will be operated a shrimp farm, related to the intrinsic value (cost-opportunity)

•

Impact on the local and regional economy

•

Changes in the value of other sites within the same ecosystem as a result of the farm operation

Each site has its own characteristics that determine the biological,

social,

land

tenure

and

local

context,

environmental, operational and financial feasibility, the same as the consequences of being used for shrimp production. It is important to ponder the factors involved in transforming an area that will have a different role from the

20

Figure 9. "Palo Blanco" sea arm (Aguadulce, Panama) with well-preserved mangrove forest, used as a water source for several shrimp farms. Photo courtesy of Mr. M. De León.


Site selection should include area development plans

Many ponds are built in flood-prone lowlands, so

regarding agricultural, industrial and tourism growth, and

knowledge about flood patterns becomes critical. Flooding,

others. This will ensure a project long life and will anticipate

embankments erosion and sediment deposits (erosion from

adverse conditions that could affect investment in short to

around areas of the shrimp farm), can damage pond walls

medium term.

and edges, destroying roads and channels damage and sedimentation.

Prevention

is

the

best

way

to

avoid

microbial

contaminations. Contaminated water with Wastewater and

Shrimp farm design should incorporate elements that

human waste, is the most common and important source of

protect farm structures from strong floods, and that also

human pathogenic microorganisms. The farther away be

avoid natural watercourses obstruction that maintain

the farms from human communities, the easier will be

surrounding habitats. It´s recommended the building of

pathogen contamination control that may affect final

ponds in areas with very low vegetation such as the albino

product safety.

areas, because construction costs will be reduced and the risk that the farm location be a sensitive zone, will be lower

2.2.1.1 Topography

(Figures 11a and 11b).

Shrimp industry, thanks to the advancement of technology, has extended possibilities of using not only albino areas, but also sandy and inland areas for the location of shrimp farms. These options for lands using, should consider environmental impact as a result of farms construction and operation (Figure 10).

Figure 11a. Virgin albino (salt land) area, characterized by humid zones due to tidal influence, flat terrain, little vegetation and surrounded by mangrove forest. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.

Figure 10. Map showing the location of shrimp farms built in albino (salt land) areas and areas of possible ponds expansion (right of the ponds). Photo courtesy of Mr. M. De León.

Figure 11b. Assessment of a virgin albino area for the location of a shrimp farm. Photo courtesy of Mr. M. De León.

21


influence must be isolated and controlled in drainage

2.2.1.2 Hydrology and hydrography

channels. The hydrographic and hydrological study on the site should reveal annual flows and tides variations during rainy and

2.2.1.3 Soil characteristics

dry seasons. Considering production and safety environmental aspects Structures and water channels design regardless climate

when shrimp farm site selection, soil characteristics are

seasonal variations and area hydrology, can result in costly

relevant to the production sustainable success. Potentially

mistakes and severe environmental impacts. It´s critical to

acid and sulfated soils must be excluded when site

determine the hydrology characteristics of the area, to

selection for the location of a shrimp farm. However,

ensure operation needs and interferes as little as possible

moderately acidic soils can be treated to improve its pH,

with natural water flows.

through the process of liming with calcium carbonate.

Seasonal variations should be carefully studied and

Another important feature for site selection is the soil

according to the results of this study,

organic matter contents. When this is organic, should not

internal and external farm hydraulic structures must be

be used for shrimp pond construction, due to problems

carefully

with earthmoving, soil compaction and consequent

dimensioned.

Annual

shrimp

farm

water

requirement, must be determined in the planning process

problems during production process due to acid pH.

and must include both, production process requirements, and the losses that may occur in the system.

Soil texture must be of suitable composition and must be found at a depth of at least 50 cm below the bottom of the

When farms are built in flood areas affected by temporary

pond. Soil must have a high silt and clay content, to reduce

high tides, special engineering precautions must be

water loss by infiltration and facilitate wall compaction for

considered, to avoid the effects of high tides and storms

erosion reduction (Figure 13a).

(Figure 12). It is also advisable that when possible, tide

Figure 12. Shrimp farm flooding caused by a river overflow as consequence of a strong storm and simultaneous high tides. Photos courtesy of Mr. C. Garrido.

22


Sandy soils can be selected if technology is used to prevent

influence of agricultural drainage. Otherwise, such soils

water infiltration ("Liners") (Figure 13b). If design and

could have chemicals and environmental pollutants

construction don´t consider appropriate technical aspects,

accumulation, such as heavy metals and other harmful

it might be a mistake to place a shrimp farm on sandy soils

materials.

or infiltrating soil areas, the same as on seawater discharge areas (tide effect).

Shrimp farms should not be built within mangrove forests, wetlands or any other fragile ecosystem.

Within soil characteristics, it must be considered that it does not contain contaminants that may affect production

BMP for site selection for farm location

and final product safety. Shrimp farms must be built in areas that have not ever been exposed to agribusiness

The following are some general considerations for

activities or urban developments, or being affected by

implementing

best

practices

in

a

shrimp

farm

establishment: For site determination and project development, it must be considered the technical and environmental viability obtained in the economic, technical and environment impact study. These are key requirements in the process for project legalization Obey national regulations for land using, planning laws and coastal management plans Determining water or soil contamination level at different seasons of the year, based in national regulations Select a site at which water and soil have not previously Figure 13a. Pond building in a shrimp farm located in an albino area with high in clay and silt (adequate texture) allowing good dikes compaction. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel

been contaminated by previous use Ensure that selected site be free of potential water and soil contamination risks. Soil should not contain contaminants,

areas

exposed

to

other

previous

agribusiness activities, urban development or subject to agricultural drainage influence, because these soils may have Agrochemicals accumulation and environmental pollutants such as heavy metals or other harmful materials Water physicochemical properties assessment, avoiding the use of water sources with risk of contamination due to anthropogenic activities Don´t locate shrimp farms in areas that have already have Figure 13b. Ponds covered with liners in an intensive system for shrimp production, to avoid leakage due to sandy soil composition. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.

reached its carrying capacity for aquaculture

23


Inland areas should be used for shrimp farm locations if

Promotion

they have limited potential for agricultural use and having

development, by obtaining environmental licenses

also a little vegetation, avoid soil and freshwater

Watch population access to aquatic area resources

surrounding sources salinization

Promote aquaculture infrastructure modernization by

All sites for aquaculture, should be designed for a

supporting activities for environmental impact mitigation

consistent environment manner functioning

and rehabilitating estuarine systems (reforestation)

Shrimp farm location must involve not affecting water

Conduct hydrographic surveys of the site, to know annual

sources

variations during rainy, dry and transition seasons

of

other

users

by

overloading,

effluent

sustainable

aquaculture

enterprises

contamination, etc.

To consider climate seasonal variations and hydrology for

Buffer zones maintenance and corridors between farms

the design of structures and water channels, to avoid

and other users and habitats

costly mistakes and affect the environment

Regarding coastal areas, mangrove destruction must be

The annual water requirements for the farm, must be

avoided and it must be buffer areas

determined in the planning process

Well water intake and drainage planning, looking for least

Potentially acidic and sulfated soils are be avoided for

environment impact way and avoiding the re-use of

shrimp farm constructions. However, moderately acidic

already drained wastewater (effluents)

soils can be mitigated with lime

Flooding risks must be considered when shrimp farm site

Soil texture must have clay and silt suitable composition

selection

for a better soil compaction, being present at least 50 cm

Farm design should incorporate elements for structure

below the pond bottom

protection from hard flooding and also avoiding natural

Organic soils must not be considered for pond construction

water flow obstructing that maintain surrounding habitats

Farm construction must not impact site flora and fauna

Pond construction must be done in little vegetal layer

Wetlands must not be affected due to they are areas rich

areas for cost reduction and reducing the risk for the site

in wildlife

to be a sensitive area

If necessary, fresh water can be used if mixed with

Farms built in temporary flood areas due to high tides,

seawater to adjust salinity when it be too high, but it must

must consider special engineering precautions to avoid

be considered protection regulations for the used fresh

high tide effects

water source

Knowing

flooding

embankment

erosion

patterns,

the

and

sediment

waterlogging,

Aquaculture management plans must be respected in

deposition

order to balance the use of the environmental capacity in

(Erosion from around of the shrimp farm), because they

accordance with other surrounding industries

may cause losses on pond walls and edges, roads

Promoting of low trophic level species farming and/or

destruction and channel damage and sedimentation

biotechnologies that use feed from vegetal origin as

Assessment of the soil physicochemical properties,

replacement of animal origin feed

considering compactness, material texture (silty, sandy or clay) and composition (there are mineral materials that in high concentrations affect production negatively as iron and copper)

24

of


Shrimp farms should not be within mangrove forest,

construction characteristics may reduce costs and improve

wetland or other fragile ecosystem

efficiency at all operation stages.

Shrimp farms must not be located on sandy soils or unloading

or

infiltration

seawater

areas,

unless

During the planning, design and construction phase of the

appropriate technology be used

farm, measurements must be considered to mitigate

Do not build shrimp farms in traditional areas of birds

environmental problems; that is why environmental

migration, as there will be problems related to their

evaluation is important (Figures 14, 15a and 15b).

invasion

and

disadvantages

with

environmental

protection authorities 2.2.2 Farm design and building According to shrimp farming growth during recent years, appropriate techniques for design and construction are being used when new shrimp farms are going to be placed. Improving shrimp farming techniques has advantages as not only considering shrimp farm management, but also farm is integrated in the local environment, causing the least possible disruption to the surrounded ecosystem. A good knowledge of the design principles, construction

Figure 14.Design plan of a shrimp farm. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

and farming technologies, can help with three objectives: natural resource protection, operation efficiency and

Shrimp farm pumping structures must be compact, have a

construction costs reduction. Code of Practices of the

safe design to support and operate pumping equipment,

Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA), states that "the facilities

and

used in aquaculture should be designed and operated to

maintenance conditions; they should also be designed

maintain water and protect underground fresh water

under an environmentally friendly focus, avoiding oil and

sources, to minimize the effluent effects on surface and

other contaminant materials leaking to estuarine waters.

groundwater sources quality and maintaining ecological

Farm design must minimize risks of accident or injury to

diversity”. BMP play a key role in the reduction or

operators (Figure 16). Fuel tanks storage should be

mitigation of potential impacts during and after shrimp

designed and located according to established security

farm construction. In addition, attending thoroughly the

standards in each country (Figure 17).

they

must

provide

operational

and

logistics

25


Figure 15a. Design plan of a shrimp farm (left) and cross sections of the dikes (right). Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.

Pumping equipment selection must consider aspects related to efficiency, cost, durability (lifetime) and environmental risks associated with its use. Oil lubricated pumps are a potential risk for estuarine water contamination, so it is preferable to use water lubricated pumps. Pump motor selection should considered aspects as efficiency and type of required energy. At present there are many options for economic and environmentally friendly motor energy sources, which must be considered for shrimp farming.

Figure 15b. Strategic section in a dike of a pond during building of a shrimp farm, which is being built a water income structure. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

26

Every coastal aquaculture operation performed near mangrove forests, wetlands and mudflats, must watch their conservation to maintain industry sustainability itself (Figures 18a and 18b). For a proper shrimp farm design, standards and proceedings must be considered that involve soil properties, slope, water flow and the best hydraulic section, among others.

Figure 16. Pumping station of a shrimp farm with axial pumps. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.


In the shrimp farm planning, water canals should not create barriers to natural water flows, because altering natural water courses can impact sensitive areas. Flooding or erosion resulting from this process, will damage the canals, farm infrastructure, nearby activities and the company production system itself. That is why area topographic studies

and

studying

its

hydrological

before

the

construction, will let detect where natural water courses in risk are located. In order to prevent natural water flows disturbance, it´s Figure 17. Pumping station of a shrimp farm with axial pumps. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

recommended to adjust the farm layout, providing adequately big culverts under roads or limiting deviation of

Figure 18a. Natural regeneration of mangrove trees in a drainage channels of a shrimp farm. Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.

Figure 18b. Buffer zone adjacent to a shrimp farm, with natural proliferation of different types of mangroves that serve as shelter for wildlife. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón.

Figure 19. Buffer zone adjacent to a shrimp farm, with natural proliferation of different types of mangroves that serve as shelter for wildlife. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón.

27


waterways around structures, loading then on the original waterway (Figure 19). Roadways must have installed adequate sized structures to prevent fresh water stagnation and brackish water flow alteration. Sometimes it´s necessary to have roads built on high areas where shrimp ponds are built. One path can act as a dam and cause flooding unless that its drainage be ensured by using adequate sized structures. During extreme conditions, roads may be swept away by water flows. Design and construction of supplier water canals, play an

Figure 20. Administrative, technical and logistical-support facilities for production activities of a shrimp farm, with adequate service roads for vehicles and heavy equipment traffic. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

important role in the flexibility of pond management, and will have also an effect on some operation potential environmental impact reduction. These should be designed according with the results of the estimation of the farm maximum daily water demand, including losses by evaporation, water infiltration and leakage. Incoming water sediment load estimations, and required dimensions for a sedimentation area or sediment trap, must be calculated and incorporated into the design by an experienced engineer. Testing may be required to determine necessary time for water residence in these

Figure 21. Main feed warehouse of a shrimp farm receiving shrimp feed transported in a covered truck (see right on the picture). Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

sedimentation areas, to remove a significant amount of sediment. It should also be considered the use of two different sedimentation areas within one canal, because one area can be cleaned while the other continues operating. Regarding drainage canals, they must include in its design and construction, a hydraulic section allowing the efficient management of farm effluents and natural water inflows. Considering the possibility of control water gates for drainage and isolation of tide influence, is a biosafety option that may also reduce operating costs (Figure 19).

28

Figure 22. Concrete stalls used as small warehouse for feed storage; they are strategically located in the pond production area of a shrimp farm and facilitate the distribution of daily rations. They should be designed to preserve feed quality and to avoid either rodents and other pests contamination or theft.


The shrimp farm must have an adequate infrastructure that

When there is a logistic need for personnel hosted at

promotes an adequate production activities development

production areas, shrimp farm must build adequate

(Figure 20). Warehouses must be built and located accord

infrastructures that provide personnel comfort and healthy

to the stored products. That is why feed require an

conditions. There must be drinking water supply (Figure

adequate management during storage and distribution in

23a), dining areas (Figure 23b) and sanitation systems or

the field, where must be protected from moisture, direct

latrines. The latter must be located strategically in the field

sunlight and pest attack (Figures 21 and 22).

and for its design and construction it must be considered

23a. Raised drinking water system supply (left) and comfortable housing for a shrimp farm workers who live in it (right). Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel and Mr. M. De León.

23b. Dining for a shrimp farm staff. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

29


environmental impacts, remaining important the use of

regulations to minimize environmental impacts; it should

ecological latrines (Figures 6b and 6c).

avoid locating them near estuarine sources, lagoons, Mangroves, office areas or workplaces.

It is important that all the actors in the shrimp farms capitalize and implement environmental management and,

In order to reduce the risk of introducing diseases and for

as part of it, there must be a focus on the reduction of waste

traceability ease, there must be an efficient control of

in the construction process and during the shrimp

personnel and equipment entry and exit (Figure 24), the

production phase. The practice of reducing, reusing and

same as considering a disinfection system for them,

recycling, must be a rule in the farm depending on the

designed so that may not be avoided under any

environment and costs.

circumstance.

Waste disposal based on classification and recycling

It should be considered in the shrimp farm design and

options, must be considered during farm construction and

construction, to have the adequate infrastructure and

after during production phase, so in each waste production

signaling required for permanent implementation of

area there were properly located containers. Although there

security, hygiene and biosecurity measures.

is not and international classification color for waste containers according to their characteristics, we propose

BMP for farm design and building

the following: green for glass, yellow for recyclable oils, white for other recyclable material, red for dangerous

During construction phase, fuels, lubricants and all waste

chemical and biological waste, blue for paper and board

must be responsibly managed to prevent environmental

materials, and gray for organic matter (biodegradable).

contamination, building containment dikes around places were fuel be stored, for protecting adjacent areas

Waste disposal sites, must be strategically located within

in the event of a spill

the farm, if the waste cannot be disposed of in municipal

Conserving biodiversity and promote natural habitats

landfills. Its design must include all national established

restoration; maintaining riverside vegetation and a buffer zone. If it´s kept intact as much vegetation as possible between ponds and adjacent water bodies, it´s maintained the ecological water values and there are protected the embankments from erosion caused by wind and tides effect Avoid discharges to stagnant or sensitive environments where damage can occur, will minimize effluent impacts. When many farms discharge within a same water body, coordination between operators can help preventing problems Minimize degraded areas (unused) and implement for them reforestation plans or ecological use

Figure 24. Security shelter and electric gate to control personnel and vehicles entry and exit in a shrimp farm. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.

30

Have vegetation buffer zones among the mangroves, rivers and estuaries, and enable natural corridors among them


Shrimp farm design should include supply canals with

Pump station area must have all security structures to

adequate dimensions for farm water needs

avoid accidents such as mesh cover on belts and pulleys,

Farm design (or a new extension of the operation), must

metal mesh fence around of the pumps area, adequate

include an area for a sedimentation pond with an

illumination and others, complying environmental and

adequate size, or another structure as sediment traps,

job security regulations

which minimizes the discharge of suspended solids in

Pump engines must be in good mechanical conditions

effluent water

and also have a tray for lubricants leaking retention

The farm size should be proportional to the water

Fuel and lubricants provision and storage must be

availability and based on the estimated capacity of the

consistent with national regulations (fire department and

receiving water body to dilute, transport and assimilate

environmental authority)

effluent water

Complete waste must be removed from the site and

Shrimp farms built on low coastal areas are susceptible to

responsibly discarded once construction

natural disasters such as floods and hurricanes. Thus,

has completed

they should be designed and efficiently constructed to

Ponds must drain completely by using culverts or other

avoid water excessive requirements, low water quality

drainage systems

and increased suspended solids in effluent

Whenever possible, water input and output from ponds

Farm design and construction must consider control

and canals should be separated so incoming and effluent

water gates that allow drainage and isolating from tide

water never get mixed. Its design should include erosion

effect as a biosafety measure

controls

Farm pumps lubrication must be better by water than by

Dike and internal roads construction should neither alter

oil because the latter have leaking risk that may cause

natural flow of water bodies nor causing salinization of

water and soil contamination

surrounding lands

Pumping stations should be located where water quality

Supply canals and drainage canals must be designed to

is acceptable and avoiding areas where environmental

avoid water high speed and their erosion, as to allow

damage may occur

water flow to the ponds by using gravity

Proper design, location and operation of pump stations,

Prevailing wind direction should be considered to reduce

may reduce operating cost and potential environmental

the presence of waves that may erosion ponds and

damage caused by its operation

canals dikes

Large pumps should be used more than small pumps,

Effluent water discharge points must be located in places

because they are more efficient than smaller ones; but

where transport and effluent dispersion be maximized,

more than one pump must be installed on large farms to

and where tide hydraulic impact on environment and

provide flexibility and water reserve capacity. Small farms

vegetation be minimized

may need a backup pump in the event of mechanical failure of the main pump Pumping structure must have a surface that facilitates cleaning and should not allow fuel drops leaking that contaminate soil or estuarine water

31


Depending

on

the

effluent

water

quality,

it´s

preparation after harvest (time after harvest in which pond

recommended to design the shrimp farm so as to allow

bottom is sanitized by sunlight effect), pond bottom

water effluent treatment to reduce the physic-chemical

preparation, proper disposal of predators and competitors,

disturbance of estuaries or rivers

reduction

Drainage canals should have control water gates, which

management.

of

stressors

and

natural

productivity

allow pond isolation from tide influence; it will make easier drying process, will help for cost reduction by not

3.1 Pond preparation

using wood and meshes and will reduce harvest time When a supply canal is common for several farms, water

Pond depopulation after harvest implemented in part or the

use must be coordinated in mutual accordance between

whole shrimp farm, will allows to have enough time for good

user companies, and it should not affect area ecology

bottom drying and pond preparation. This contributes to

Access to land or water routes, docks and parking areas,

healthy shrimp growth as it encourages a good chemical,

must be located where it´s possible to mitigate

physical and biological balance in the pond. Drainage,

environmental impacts

drying,

In order to reduce the impact on marine wildlife, it is

condition assessment and liming, are activities that

convenient that water sources don´t be located on

contribute to reduce the risks of diseases in shrimp ponds.

sediment

management,

cleanness,

bottom

estuaries margins; supply canals must be built and also when possible, infrastructure

Pond disinfection includes cleanness, pond structure and

that allow placing meshes or nets in order to reduce

bottom treatment after each harvest, for which it must be

organisms suction by pumps operation

combined solar radiation during drying and lime or other

There must be adequate signaling for potential accident

chemicals application (e.g. chlorine). Chlorine and other

risks and clear indications of procedures if they become

chemicals must be used responsibly, because if they are

necessary

thrown to the environment, they could cause mortality of

During construction, it must consider the strategic

flora and wildlife.

location of fixed or portable sanitary facilities with storage 3.1.1 Complete pond drainage

tanks for later transfer

3. Farm operation

Once harvest is finished, pond must be completely drained (Figure 25). Areas that can´t be completely drained, must

Planning,

adjusted

farm

conditions

protocol

implementation and proper farm management will allow to

be disinfected with sodium or calcium hypochlorite or calcium oxide (burnt lime).

reach expected economic results at the end of production

32

process. It´s important for the farm management, to

Once drainage is finished, pond intake and outtake water

establish and maintain from the beginning

optimal

gates must be sealed to prevent entry of seawater during

environmental conditions in the ponds, so postlarvae and

high tides, allowing the sun and wind to perform complete

juveniles have a normal development. This includes pond

drying process.


has as one of its objectives to break reinfection cycle by eliminating disease sources from ponds and supply canals (reservoirs). Depopulation performed during dry season, allow also to make improvements and important repairs in farm infrastructure, the same as to restore pond bottoms in order to get a healthy environment for shrimp stocked during next production cycle. In order to promote a health status improvement of marine shrimp production systems, Competent Authority responsible for aquatic animal health in each country, must encourage producers to run depopulations as a routine strategy for disease control, Figure 25. Recently harvested pond under total draining process for a posterior sunshine and wind exposure to soil dry. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

pondering to producers its beneficial effects relative to the cost. Within the depopulation whose use is suggested as a BMP

Drainage canals that have control structures (gates), must

measurement, production units (ponds) and water supply

be hermetically sealed after ponds harvest to prevent entry

sources/structures, must be submitted to an adequate

of seawater during high tides and to allow a better pond

drying period by sun and wind effect during dry season,

drying.

until pond bottom develops “cracks”. This will allow reduction of oxidized substances (inorganic sulfides

BMP for complete pond drainage

present

in

pond

soil),

accelerates

organic

matter

decomposition and disinfection of pond bottom (Figure 26). Incorporate in the farm protocol, properly defined tasks for complete pond drainage activity Hermetically sealing of pond intake and outtake water gates just after harvest be completed When drainage canals have control structures (gates), they must be hermetically sealed after ponds harvest to avoid seawater entry and to facilitate pond drying 3.1.2 Pond drying It´s necessary let environment to rest and restore in shrimp farms, by temporary production stopping; during dry season (summer) it´s possible to obtain a complete pond drying and during wet season a partial drying, due to proper weather conditions. This strategy called “depopulation”,

Figure 26. Pond bottom drying and disinfecting through the sunlight and wind effect; note the deep soil cracks. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.

33


BMP for pond drying

etc.), can affect the proper development of production activities, the same as physical integrity of workers. As an

Incorporate depopulation within the farm protocol as

example, during biometric samplings, it can be affected net

priority activity

casts effectiveness, it can also

Routine sun and wind drying of pond bottoms and water

cause accidents to workers, or can be used by other pond

supply canal structures during adequate time, in order to

organisms as shelters which may affect shrimp production

develop deep cracks of 5 to 10 cm deep

results. Then it must be cleaned and disinfected water

In order to make easer soil preparation (plowing or

intake and outtake gates, pipes, clapboards and racks.

flipping), it must be defined how dry we want to have the bottom; very dry soils become too compacted and don´t

Garbage and all remaining plastic, wood, metal or glass that

allow a good plowing

were used during production cycle, must be collected and

Pond bottom drying can be done after each harvest or at

adequately disposed on previously established sites, or

longer intervals if desired, but long and frequent dryings

classified for recycling, as appropriate.

are not always necessary. Bottom drying increases soil aeration, which stimulates organic matter decomposition

It must be considered during waste management, that there are materials which due to its nature or physicochem-

3.1.3 Trash removing from pond bottom

ical composition, are easily degraded by the environment and therefore they only need a proper disposal place. Incin-

Pond cleaning must become a routine practice before

eration should be avoided due to pollutant release that

starting a new production cycle and during it. Foreign

affect the environment.

matter (trash) into the ponds (wires, logs, rocks, sticks,

Figure 27. Physical pond soil examination (left) and soil sampling for laboratory analysis (right) in a shrimp farm. Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara and Dr. D. Díaz.

34


BMP for trash removing from pond bottom

sulfates, iron, potassium.

calcium

carbonate,

magnesium

and

Establishment of actions to proceed for a good pond or farm cleaning and including it in the Sanitation Operational Procedures Manual (SOPM) Perform cleaning of water intake and outtake gates, pipes, clapboards and racks, and remove any foreign material from the pond bottom Avoid as much as possible, the use of chemical substances for pond disinfection To implement and appropriate management for waste and garbage collected from ponds and around them To implement security measurements when chemicals be used for pond preparation 3.1.4 Evaluation of the pond bottom conditions Routine programs must be performed for soil sampling and laboratory analysis and based on results, it must be applied corrective products amount as needed (lime or fertilizers) for each pond (Figure 27). Soil analysis should include basic information about organic material composition (%), pH, nitrogen, phosphorus,

Main parameters that determine pond bottom conditions, are organic matter (%) and bottom pH. If pond soil has acidic conditions (pH 5 ha), initial sampling is done in

in ponds, suggest that management should be as

all of them to determine shrimp molt stages. If most of the

follows:

ponds have shrimp with similar percentages for the

•

Conduct shrimp surveys twice a week. When

different molt stages, then there will be selected just 5

feeding be carried out by using feeding trays, shrimp

ponds to adjust feeding rate.

should never be collected from these trays because

•

•

•

•

their physiological status does not necessarily

It has been said that feed has an important role in shrimp

correspond to the pond population

farming, especially ration, frequency and feeding schedule.

Determine the molting stage in not less than 100

There have been evaluated several frequencies and feeding

shrimp per pond, based on identifying inter-molt,

schedules on shrimp growing. The results of these studies

pre-molt and post-molt patterns in uropods of

indicate a considerable variation in this regard and suggest

sampled shrimp

the importance of considering biotic factors (enzymatic

Calculate the percentage of animals that are not

activity) and abiotic (photoperiod) as effectors in shrimp

eating (physiological fasting)

feeding behavior.

Adjust feed ration based on the percentage of biomass that it is conditions to be fed

Recent studies show that feeding schedules can be

Feeding under shrimp feeding schedule based on

adjusted considering the shrimp circadian activity. It was

circadian peaks of digestive enzymatic activity (10

already mentioned the cyclical effect of photoperiod on

a.m. - 12 p.m. and 6 p.m. - 8 p.m.)

feed intake. In particular, the variation of digestive enzymes has been recognized as important part of shrimp physiology

In order to implement these ration adjustment strategies,

and feeding behavior. For this reason, the determination of

it´s required trained personnel. Variations in pond

circadian variation of digestive enzymes and induction time

dimensions and total area of the farm require particular

of enzymatic activity is important in setting frequencies and

sampling strategies.

feeding times. The application of the technology of setting feeding times in white shrimp farming, has demonstrated a

It must also be considered human resources spending

positive effect on increasing growth rate up to 35%. This

estimating the cost-benefit of this strategy particularly on

section allows knowing techniques to establish the

farms with large farming areas. Given the shrimp

circadian variation of the digestive proteases and

physiological synchronization in farming ponds, sampling

determining

can be reduced by grouping ponds depending on stocking

semi-intensive farming systems.

date, sampling one pond per group rotating each pond per

98

schedules

for

shrimp

nutrition

in


ANNEX 4 POPULATION SAMPLING IN A SHRIMP FARM: USE OF FEEDING CHARTS AND TRAYS (Adapted from Nicovita Bulletin - Camarón de Mar [Marine shrimp], Vol 3-issue 04, April, 1998) Feed trays are one of the main tools for feeding management in shrimp farms, among other reasons due to its usefulness for the evaluation of shrimp biomass present into the ponds. To determine shrimp population into the pond requires knowing the average weight, amount of feed supplied with feed trays during highest shrimp activity (not under molting and after rotation) and percentage of bodyweight represented by feed. For this it´s required to have a guide chart. Weekly shrimp growth can be known from caught animals from feed trays and/or taking samples through cast nets once a week. In order to estimate shrimp population in the pond, it may be used the following example: in a 4 Ha shrimp pond, the weekly shrimp weight average is 12 g, percentage of biomass in feed corresponding to that weight is approximately 1.8% based on the Table below; maximum total feed supply and consumption per day by controlling feed trays is 120 kg. These data is enough to obtain shrimp biomass from the result of dividing feed consumed by percent of biomass and then the result multiplied by 100%, so: (120 kg ÷ 1.8%) x 100% = 6,666.66 Kg of shrimp biomass Then, to obtain the number of individuals in the pond population, obtained biomass is converted from kg to grams and then is divided by the average weekly weight, as follows: 6,666.66 Kg x 1000 gr.Kg.-1 ÷ 12 gr.shrimp-1 = 555,555 shrimp Shrimp density per hectare is obtained dividing number of shrimp in the pond by the pond area as follows: 555,555 shrimp ÷ 4 has = 138,888 shrimp per hectare

Data must be confirmed with the pond crop results, determining an adjustment factor in %. Using this method, population sampling data must should be analyzed frequently as feed consumption can vary seasonally (higher in summer than in winter), and the contribution of natural productivity of the pond, the feed quality and consumption control in feed trays by responsible personnel. Feeding chart for Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei in percent of biomass, fed daily under semi-intensive conditions. Shrimp weight (g)

% of body weight

1

10.0

2

6.0

3

4.5

4

3.5

5

3.0

6

2.5

7

2.3

8

2.0

9

2.0

10

2.0

11

1.8

12

1.8

13

1.8

14

1.8

15

1.7

16

1.7

17

1.7

18

1.5

19

1.5

20

1.5

21

1.3

22

1.3

99


ANNEX 5 Parameters monitoring in shrimp ponds •

Dissolved oxygen

•

pH measurement in ponds

It´s recommended to measure oxygen levels in the pond

Since pH measurements change rapidly, this parameter

water in the morning at sunrise (6 a.m.) and afternoon

must be measured directly in the field. To avoid damage to

between 2 and 4 p.m. It´s important to measure DO in the

the pH meter probe, once measurements be completed

evening, in case

probe must be flushed with distilled water. Inside the probe

that afternoon concentrations are below 6 mg/L; in this way,

protective cover it´s recommended to put a piece of cotton

it can be implemented corrective actions to avoid episodes

or sponge impregnated with calibration solution pH 4. This

of hypoxia, such as deep water exchange and application of

solution prevents the growth of bacteria on the surface of

oxygenating inputs (ammonium or calcium nitrate and

the probe and will keep it wet while not in use.

potassium

permanganate).

In

order

to

maintain

consistency in oxygen monitoring, it´s recommended to

•

Temperature

measure in each pond always in the same order and at the same time and deep (1 foot from the bottom) every day.

Water temperature is measured directly in the pond water using a common thermometer or through probes

Each time the OD is determined in a water body,

incorporated in oxygen meters, pH and other similar

measurement equipment must be calibrated according to

equipment.

manufacturer's instructions. The oxymeter must be calibrated before and after performing a series of

The thermometer is placed in the pond such the end be

measurements.

submerged few inches into the water or, it must be take a water sample in a container and measure the temperature

OD Concentration

Efect

therein. It must wait for a moment the thermometer to

Mortal if exposure occurs within hours

stabilize before recording the measurement.

2 - 4 mg/L

Slow growth if low dissolved oxygen continues

In addition to the obtained value, it must be recorded also

4 - 12 mg/L

Best condition for optimal growth

in order to get consistent measurements.

Supersaturation: risk of " gas-bubble disease", may suggest high microalgae concentration

•

Less than 1 - 2 mg/L

> 12 mg/L

measurement time. Be sure to use the same thermometer

Secchi disk

Secchi disk measurement consists in the depth in centimeters at which the disc is no longer visible when submerged in the pond water.

100


Usually there is an inverse relationship between disk

disk and the sunshine don´t affect the observer visibility.

visibility and phytoplankton abundance. As the plankton

Additional weight must be added to the disk in order to a

increases, visibility decreases. Management decisions

quickly immersion during measurement.

based on Secchi disk data, require to be sure that turbidity

Secchi disk readings are subjective as they vary based on

is actually produced by phytoplankton rather than

the observer visual acuity and weather conditions. For this

suspended materials in the water column such as clay,

reason, these measurements must be performed by the

sludge or organic debris.

same person every day.

Strong waves, strong winds or sunlight can affect Secchi disk measurements. It´s advisable to take measurements

Depth (cm)

on calmed days, and on sunny to partially-cloudy days. If Secchi disk measurements are going to be taken from a boat, it must be anchored to a solid structure to prevent the

< 25 cm (Pond too shady)

wind moves the boat when making the measurement. Farm personnel must evaluate if the site has the right conditions

Phytoplankton concentration If turbidity is by phytoplankton, there will be low dissolved oxygen concentration problems in the evening or before sunrise. When turbidity is by suspended particles, productivity will be low

25-30 cm

Turbidity is high and it´s advisable to low Phytoplankton concentration

30-45 cm

If turbidity is by phytoplankton, the pond is in good condition

between 9 and 11 a.m.

45-60 cm

Phytoplankton is scarce

Secchi disk must be immersed in the shadowed side of the

> 60 cm

> 60 cm The water is too clear. Productivity is inadequate and can grow aquatic plants on the pond bottom

for this measurement. Usually the most suitable time for this measurement is

boat, so the person who will perform the measurement be partially back to the sun, the boat shadow doesn´t cover the

101


ANNEX 6 Samples ﬁxation for laboratory analysis Adequate shrimp samples fixation for histopathology,

obtained by mixing the following reagents to make 1 liter of

allows technicians from pathology laboratories to identify

solution: absolute ethanol (99%): 330 mL, formaldehyde

the kind of injury in shrimp tissues and the causative

(37%): 220 mL, glacial acetic acid: 115 mL and distilled

pathogens, and early diagnosis as well. Early disease

water (or clean tap water): 335 mL.

causes confirmation will help to take immediate corrective actions to avoid diseases to disperse to other ponds and to

After injecting the fixative solution, shrimp must be

other farms. Some of these procedures are summarized as

immersed in fixative solution in plastic clean containers

follows:

with anti-leak cap and properly labeled.

Selection and collection of samples for tissue analysis

After 24 to 72 hours depending on the shrimp size (12 - 24

(histopathology)

h for larvae, postlarvae and juveniles, 48 h for pre-adults and 72 h for adults/broodstock), shrimp must be changed

Shrimp caught must be careful in order not to expose them

to a 70% ethanol solution which can stay for 15 days before

to excessive handling. Ideal sample preparation should be

histological processing. At this time and if they have not

done on caught site to avoid transport stress. If this is not

been processed yet, 70% ethanol solution must be

possible, shrimp must be shipped alive in a portable

changed with a new so shrimp could remain for a

container provided with aeration until the site where they

prolonged time until histological processing.

will be prepared. These should not be transported dry to the fixation site.

Container labeling must be done with a regular graphite pencil and a piece of paper, mentioning date of samples

Dead specimens must not be collected or fixed for

collection, a brief

histopathology. It must be selected only moribund shrimp,

condition or abnormal sign indicative of disease, species,

with discoloration and abnormal behavior, or displaying any

age, weight, source (hatchery or wild), pond or tank

external sign different than a normal condition.

number or identification and any other useful information

description of the external shrimp

for laboratory. Shrimp fixation for histopathology If samples are going to be sent to a laboratory in other

102

Specimens should be fixed alive and immediately they have

country, it must be obtained a sanitary permission

been taken out of the water; if possible, at the same site of

authorizing shrimp samples output. This permission is

capture. Adequate fixation is achieved by using 10 times

usually issued by a government agency in charge of

the volume of fixative solution for 1 animal fixed volume

regulating animal and biological samples mobilization. At

(ratio 10:1) during 24 to 72 hours. For shrimp fixation it´s

the same time, laboratory must be contacted for

preferred Davidson-AFA solution (classic) which is

instructions on how to send samples safely, so they don´t be


the same time, laboratory must be contacted for

Samples preparation for microbiological (bacterial)

instructions on how to send samples safely, so they don´t be

analysis

confiscated and disposed of by the customs authorities of the destiny country

Collect a sample of 10 to 15 live animals displaying a sick condition and then place them in a aerated container or in

Samples fixation for Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

plastic bags with oxygen. Samples must be taken to the

test

laboratory immediately after shrimp have been collected, trying to keep them alive until the time of their analysis.

Several kinds of shrimp samples have been successfully used for PCR tests. These include hemolymph, fresh

If samples are transported in bags, it´s undesirable to place

homogenized tissue, frozen or fixed in 95% ethanol. When

ice around bags. If this is done, place only a little ice. No

ethanol is used, the ratio postlarvae:ethanol must be 1:9,

dead animals must be collected for microbiological

volume to volume. Hemolymph samples must be fixed in

analysis. Samples must have attached a label with the

95% ethanol in a ratio of 1:1 hemolymph:ethanol.

following

information:

identification/number,

species,

particular

pond/tank

observations

(e.g.

It´s important to be careful wearing rubber gloves and

bioluminescence), duration of pathological event and use

disinfecting hands with alcohol each time

of antibiotics or other products as treatment (yes or no,

that a new

sample is going to be fixed, especially with large animals, to

which of them, way and how long).

avoid accidental cross-contamination between samples.

103


ANNEX 7 OIE model for preparing an Emergency Plan (Aquatic Code)

A number of diseases are regarded as posing a potential

given disease situation under control by contacting the

threat to aquaculture as well as to wild stocks of aquatic

personnel, organizations, aquaculture establishments, etc.,

animals world-wide. The introduction of such diseases into

that are involved directly or indirectly in managing an

countries recognized to be free from these diseases or into

outbreak of a disease.

countries with an established control system and eradication programme for such diseases, may result in significant

•

Personnel

losses. In order to diminish such losses, the Competent Authority responsible for aquatic animal health may need to

The contingency plan(s) should provide information on the

act quickly and should develop contingency plan(s) before

staff required to undertake the control measures, their

such events occur.

responsibilities, and instructions on the chain of command.

•

•

Legal powers

Instructions

Countries must establish the necessary legal provisions that

Countries establishing contingency plan(s) should provide a

are needed for the implementation of contingency plan(s).

detailed set of instructions on actions to be taken when a

Such legal powers must include provisions for establishing

specified aquatic animal disease is suspected or confirmed.

a list of diseases for which action is needed, definitions of

These could include:

how such diseases should be managed if detected, provi-

1. diagnostic

sions for access to infected/suspected sites, and other legal provisions, as needed.

procedures

in

national

reference

laboratories; 2. confirmation of diagnosis, if necessary, at an OIE Reference Laboratory;

•

Crises centre(s)

3. standing

instructions

to

aquatic

animal

health

personnel in the field; Countries must establish specified crises centre(s) (disease control centre[s]) that shall have the responsibility for the

animals at an aquaculture establishment;

co-ordination of all control measures to be carried out. Such

5. instructions for sanitary slaughtering;

centres could either be located centrally or locally, depend-

6. instructions for disease control at the local level;

ing on the infrastructure in a given country. A list of the

7. instructions for the establishment of quarantine areas

crises centre(s) that has(have) the necessary facilities to carry out disease control measures should be made widely available. The contingency plan(s) should also state that the crises centre(s) has(have) the authority to act rapidly to bring a

104

4. instructions for handling/disposal of dead aquatic

and observation (surveillance) zones; 8. provisions for controlling movements of aquatic animals in established zones; 9. disinfection procedures;


10. fallowing procedures;

can be carried out rapidly. The national laboratory(ies) must

11. surveillance methods for establishing successful

also have established a set of instructions as regards rapid

eradication; 12. re-stocking procedures;

transportation of samples, and established protocols for quality assurance and diagnostic procedures to be used.

13. compensation issues; 14. reporting procedures;

•

Training programmes

15. provisions for raising public awareness of aquatic animal disease.

Countries establishing contingency plan(s) must establish necessary training programmes to ensure that skills in field,

•

Diagnostic Laboratories

administrative and diagnostic procedures are maintained. Announced

and

unannounced

field

exercises

for

Countries establishing contingency plan(s) should establish

administrators and aquatic animal personnel should be

national reference laboratories having the necessary

carried out to maintain the state of readiness.

facilities for diagnostic work on aquatic animal diseases that

105


ANNEX 8 International regulations for veterinary drugs FDA (Food and Drug Administration) and EMEA (European

Table 1 shows that the amount of approved drugs for use in

Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products) list of

aquaculture is limited, this is because the financial

approved drugs for use in aquaculture within U.S. and

investment and the time required to complete the

Europe, provide a guide to producing countries that depend

requirements and get NADA is very high for the drug

on these markets to sell their products.

trading companies. It has tried to be overcome by the FDA calling to drugs used in aquatic species, as "minor use

While the legal prohibition that may exist for some antibiotic

drugs". Under these regulations, the information (and not

in U.S. or Europe doesn´t extend to the industry of another

application) of an approved drug in "main use" industries as

country

cattle or poultry, can extend to aquaculture, thus reducing

legislation,

this

significantly

influences

the

management that the drug must have by producers and

the need to develop new data for corresponding approval.

exporters. As an example, those antibiotics prohibited by FDA and EMEA for use in any manufacturing industry of

FDA also recognizes that there are conditions for which there

food animals such as chloramphenicol, nitrofurans and

are no approved treatments. For these cases, legislation was

quinolones, should not be used by aquaculture companies

stipulated (Compliance Policy Guide, 7125.06), which allows

aware of the dire consequences that it could be the finding

the application of an authorized drug under a different way

of residues of these drugs in shrimp, fish or shellfish for our

than indicated in their respective NADA. This exception may

aquaculture industry.

be used only by a registered veterinarian and when animals have a high probability of dying.

FDA regulations Until January 2000, FDA had approved 46 different FDA sets illegal to use an unauthorized drug, unless it be

compounds whose active ingredient was oxytetracycline

defined as "investigational new animal drug" (INAD). This

(FDA, 2001), of which only one, Terramycin® - for fish

exception applies only during the time spent to generate the

(NADA # 038-439, Pfizer, Inc.), was incorporated for use in

necessary information and get the drug approval under the

the several aquatic species farming (Table 1). At present

supervision of the FDA. Once requirements are completed,

there is not any antibiotic approved for use in hatcheries or

the drug gets the level of "new animal drug application"

shrimp farms in the U.S.

(NADA). However, cases are found wherein the oxytetracycline has

106

Currently six drugs are approved NADA for use in

received federal approval, surely protected by one of the

aquaculture and five of them are commercially available.

exceptions to empower the application of a drug in

Four of the approved products are antibiotics: florfenicol,

aquaculture (Compliance Policy Guide, 7125.06). As an

oxytetracycline-HCL, sulfamerazine (not available) and a

example, Frelier et al. (1992 and 1994) point out that the

combination sulfadimethoxine and ormetoprim. Not all are

only effective antibiotic treatment against intracellular

approved for all purposes and/or species. Table 1 shows

bacteria causing necrotizing hepatopancreatitis (NHP), is

the approval specifications for mentioned drugs.

the application of oxytetracycline (OTC).


According to the author, supply for 10 days of a medicated

Community as permissible in food), as is under Regulation

feed with 1.5 g OTC/kg and withdrawal at least 15 days

EEC 2377/90 of June 26, 1990.

before harvest, is the FDA approved protocol to prevent high mortality originated by rickettsia in P. vannamei.

This Regulation determines the inclusion of Veterinary

Subsequently, the same author points that therapeutic

Drugs in four annexes:

doses of 3 g OTC/kg of shrimp feed for 14 days, seems to be effective against NHP in shrimp pools stocked with 12-50 animals/m2, although the FDA suggested a longer treatment withdrawal, 3 weeks. EMEA Regulations Criteria, on which veterinary drugs are evaluated in the European Economic Community (EEC), are quality, efficacy and safety. This author qualifies European and U.S. regulation as very similar, noting that probably the only difference is in rigidity in establishing the maximum residue levels (MRLs) by the EEC, contrasting approach to tolerable

Annex I:

List of pharmacologically active substances for which maximum residue levels have been fixed

Annex II:

List of substances not subject to maximum residue levels

Annex III:

List of pharmacologically active substances used in veterinary medicinal products for which maximum residue levels have been fixed

Annex IV:

Lists of pharmacologically active substances for which no maximum levels can be fixed (provisional MRL)

With effect from 1 January 1997, the administration to food-producing animals of veterinary medicinal products containing pharmacologically active substances which are

levels that are given in U.S.

not mentioned in Annexes I, II or III, shall be prohibited for

The EMEA states that it may not be authorized to place in

apply to aquaculture products.

use in food-producing species. These same regulations

market a veterinary drug, except the immune ones, to be administered to animals whose meat or products are intended for human consumption if not has the corresponding MRL (MRL: maximum residue contents resulting from the use of a veterinary drug authorized in the

Thus, the situation of the active principles for which has established an MRL in salmonids and other fish remains as shown in the following tables (Source: EMEA web site, www.emea.eu.int/ December 2002; last web review: April 2003).

Annex I. Pharmacological substances for which there is an established MRL Pharmacologically active Substance

Animal Species

Maximum residue limits (MRL)

Amoxicillin

All food producing species

50 µg/kg: muscle, liver, kidney, fat 4 mg/kg fat

Amoxicillin


50 µg/kg: muscle, liver, kidney, fat 4 mg/kg fat

Clortetraciclina


600 g/kg kidney 300 µg/kg liver 100 µg/kg muscle, milk 200 mg/kg eggs

107


Pharmacologically active Substance

108

Animal Species


100 µg/kg muscle 50 g/kg fat 200 mg/kg liver, kidney

Danofloxacin


Difloxacin


Enrofloxacin


100 µg/kg muscle, fat 200 mg/kg liver, kidney

Erythromycin


200 µg/kg muscle, fat, liver, kidney 40 µg/kg milk 150 mg/kg eggs

Florfenicol


100 µg/kg muscle 200 g/kg fat 2000 mcg/kg liver

300 µg/kg muscle 100 mg/kg fat 800 µg/kg liver 600 g/kg kidney

Fish

300 µg/kg kidney 1000 mcg/kg muscle + skin

Flumequine

Salmonids

150 mg/kg muscle + skin

Oxytetracycline


600 g/kg kidney 300 µg/kg liver 100 µg/kg muscle, milk 200 mg/kg eggs

Sarafloxacin

Salmonids

30 µg/kg muscle + skin

Sulfonamides


Thiamphenicol

Fish

50 µg/kg muscle + skin

Trimethoprim


50 µg/kg muscle, fat, liver, kidney, milk

100 µg/kg muscle, liver, kidney, fat The combined total residues of all substances within the sulfonamide group should not exceed 110 mg/kg


Annex II. Substances for which there is no need to establish an MRL. Some of the substances listed in this Annex are of interest in aquaculture: Pharmacologically active Substance

Animal Species

Maximum residue limits (MRL) No MRL required

Formaldehyde


Glutaraldehyde


“

Hydrogen peroxide


“

Iodine and iodine compounds


“

Magnesium sulphate


“

Sodium chloride


“

Benzalkonium chloride


For use as an excipient, to a concentration of 0.05%

Annex III. Pharmacological active substances with provisional MRL Pharmacologically active Substance

Animal Species


Levamisole


Provisional: 10 ug/kg muscle, liver, kidney, fat, milk

Tetracyclines


Provisional: 600 ug/kg kidney, 300 liver, 200 eggs, 100 muscle, 100 milk (whole original drug and its epimer 4).

Oxolinic acid

Under study

Annex IV. Prohibited substances Pharmacologically active Substance


Aristolochia spp. and preparations thereof

MRL cannot be established

Chloramphenicol


Chloroform


Chlorpromazine


Colchicine


Dapsone


Dimetridazole


Metronidazole


Nitrofurans (including furazolidone)


Ronidazole


109


Table 1. USFDA approved drugs for use in aquaculture (Source: FDA web site, www.fda.gov/cvm, January, 2001; last web review on April, 2003). Species

Indication

Dosing (& withdrawal time)

Salmonids

Control of Ulcer disease (Hemophilus piscium), furunculosis (Aeromonas salmonicida), bacterial hemorrhagic septicemia (A. liquefaciens) and pseudomonas disease (Pseudomonas spp.)

2.5 – 3.7 g per 100 lbs fish per day for 10 days (21 days)

Catfish

Control of bacterial hemorrhagic septicemia (A. liquefaciens) and pseudomonas disease (Pseudomonas spp.)

2.5 – 3.7 g per 100 lbs fish per day for 10 days (21 days)

Lobster

Control of gaffkemia (Aerococcus viridans)

1 g per lb medicated feed for 5 days (30 days)

Trout

Control of furunculosis due to Aeromonas salmonicida

10 g per 100 lb fish per day for 10 days (21 days)

Salmonids

Control of furunculosis due to Aeromonas salmonicida

50 mg per kg fish per day for 5 days (42 days)

Catfish

Control of enteric septicemia due to Edwardsiella ictaluri

50 mg per kg fish per day for 5 days (42 days)

Salmon and trout eggs

Control external protozoa

1-2 mL/L

Catfish, largemouth bass and bluegill


0.015-0.250 mL/L (based on temperature, species y pond/tank type

Salmonids


0.015-0.250 mL/L (based on temperature, species y pond/tank type)


Control fungi of the family Saprolegniaceae

1-2 mL/L

Catfish, largemouth bass and bluegill



Salmonids





1-2 mL/L

Other fish species



Shrimp

Control protozoan parasites (Bodo, Epistylis and Zoothamnium)

0.025-0.100 mL/L

Finquel

Fish, aquatic amphibians and other aquatic poikilotherms

Temporary immobilization

0.015-0.330 g/L (21 days)

Tricaine-S

Fish, aquatic amphibians and other aquatic poikilotherms

Temporary immobilization

0.015-0.330 g/L (21 days)

Product name

Terramycin® 10

Sulfamerazine in Fish Grade

Romet® -30

Formalin-F

Paraside-F

Parasite-S®

110


Table 2. FDA Prohibited Drugs from Extra-label Use in Any Food-Producing Species o Chloramphenicol o Clenbuterol o Crystal (gentian) violet o Diethylstilbesterol or DES o Dipyrone o Nitroimidazoles – all agents, including Dimetridazole, Ipronidazole, Metronidazole and others

•

FDA Regulations

The FDA makes it illegal to use an unauthorized drug in veterinary

medicine,

unless

it

be

qualified

as

a

"investigational new animal drug" (INAD). This exception applies only during the time taken to generate the needed information and getting the drug approval under FDA supervision. Upon completion of the requirements, it´s

o Nitrofurans – all agents, including Furazolidine, Nitrofurazone and others

obtained the "new animal drug application” (NADA).

o Sulfonamides (except sulfadimethoxine)

and that are commercially available, have been certified

o Fluoroquinolones (Enrofloxacin, Sarafloxacin)

NADA. Four of the approved products are antibiotics:

o Glycopeptides - all agents, including Vancomycin

Oxytetracycline-HCL,

Currently only nine veterinary drugs for use in aquaculture

Florfenicol,

Sulfamerazine

(not

available) and a combination of Sulfadimethoxine and •

Artificial feed

Ormetoprim. It should be noted that these drugs are not approved for all purposes and/or for all aquatic species.

This regulation is effective from January 12, 2010 and

Currently there are not approved antibiotics for use in

introduces information about the substances therapeutic

hatcheries and shrimp farms at the U.S. Table 16 shows

classification and possible conditions or restrictions on its

the approval specifications for mentioned drugs.

use. Pharmacologically active substances are alphabetical ordered based on allowed and prohibited for use in food-producing animals (Veterinary drugs). This same legislation applies to drugs for use in aquaculture. Table 3. List of pharmacologically active ingredients with no maximum levels established to be safe for the consumer, so their use in food-producing animals is prohibited. o Aristolochia spp. and preparations thereof o Chloramphenicol o Chloroform o Chlorpromazine o Colchicine o Dapsone o Dimetridazole o Metronidazole o Nitrofurans (including Furazolidone) o Ronidazole

111

112

Cloxacillin

Colistin

Chlortetracycline

Cloxacillin

Colistin

Benzylpenicillin

Ampicillin

Amoxicillin

Marker residue

Sum of parent drug and its 4epimer

Benzylpenicillin

Ampicillin

Amoxicillin








Animal Species Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk

Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Muscle Liver Kidney Milk Eggs Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Eggs

50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 4 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 4 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 600 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 200 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 30 µg/kg

150 µg/kg 150 µg/kg 150 µg/kg 200 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 300 µg/kg

Target Tissues

50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 4 µg/kg

LMR

Cuadro 1. Allowed substances

For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish For porcine and poultry species the fat MRL relates to‘skin and fat in natural proportions’.

For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.

For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.

For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.



Other provisions (according to Article 14(7) of Regulation (EC) No 470/2009)

Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics






Therapeutic Classification

Sustancias farmacológicamente activas y su clasificación por lo que se refiere a los límites máximos de residuos (LMR)

foodstuffs of animal origin

Some pharmacologically active substances and their classification regarding maximum residue limits in

COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 37/2010 of 22 December 2009

ANNEX 9


Cypermethrin


Dicloxacillin

Difloxacin

Diflubenzuron

Emamectin B1a

Dicloxacillin

Difloxacin

Diflubenzuron

Emamectin Fin fish

Salmonidae

All food producing species other than bovine, ovine, caprine, porcine and poultry

Fin fish

Deltamethrin

Deltamethrin

Danofloxacin

Salmonidae

Cypermethrin (sum of isomers)

Danofloxacin

Animal Species

Marker residue


Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk

10 µg/kg


100 µg/kg

1000 µg/kg

Muscle and skin in natural proportions


Muscle Fat Liver Kidney

Muscle and skin in natural proportions.

100 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 200 µg/kg 200 µg/kg



50 µg/kg

Target Tissues

Muscle and skin in natural proportions.

LMR

NO ENTRY

NO ENTRY

For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish. Not for use in animals from which milk is produced for human consumption. Not for use in animals from which eggs are produced for human con sumption.

For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish For porcine and poultry species the fat MRL relates to‘skin and fat in natural proportions’.

NO ENTRY

For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish. For porcine species the fat MRL relates to ‘skin and fat in natural proportions’.


Antiparasitic agents /Agents against ectoparasites Antiparasitic agents/ Agents acting against endo-and ectoparasites

Anti-infectious agents / Antibiotics


Antiparasitic agents/Agents against ectoparasites


Antiparasitic agents/ Agents against ectoparasites



113

114

Lincomycin

Neomycin B

Neomycin (including framycetin)

Flumequine

Sum of flor fenicol and its metabolites measured as florfenicol-amine

Erythromycin A

Sum of enro floxacin and ciprofloxacin

Marker residue

Lincomycin

Flumequine

Florfenicol

Erythromycin

Enrofloxacin



All foodproducing species

Fin Fish

Fin fish


All food producing Species other than bovine, ovine, caprine, porcine, rabbit and poultry

Animal Species

Muscle and skin in natural proportion. Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Egg Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Eggs

100 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 500 µg/kg 1 500 µg/kg 150 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 500 µg/kg 500 µg/kg 500 µg/kg 5 000 µg/kg 1 500 µg/kg 500 µg/kg


Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Eggs


Target Tissues

600 µg/kg

1000 µg/kg



LMR


For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural propor¬tions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.




Anti-infectious agents /Antibiotics








Spectinomycin

Spectinomycin


Sarafloxacin 300 µg/kg 500 µg/kg 1000 µg/kg 5000 µg/kg 200 µg/kg

Sarafloxacin

Paromomycin

All food producing species other than ovine

Paromomycin

Oxytetracycline



500 µg/kg Muscle 1500 µg/kg Liver 1500 µg/kg Kidney


Sum of parent drug and its 4 epimer

30 µg/kg



Muscle Liver Kidney Milk Eggs



Oxolinic acid

Oxolinic acid

Salmonidae


For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skinin natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.









Oxacillin

Oxacillin







Target Tissues

LMR

Animal Species

Marker residue



115

116 Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Eggs


All food producing Species other than equidae

Tilmicosin

Tilmicosin

Tylosin



All food producing species other than poultry

Thiamphenicol

Thiamphenicol

Tylosin




Tetracycline

Trimethoprim




Sum of parent drug and its 4 epimer

Trimethoprim

Muscle Liver Kidney Milk Eggs


Salmonidae



Muscle and skin 500 µg/kg in natural proportions


Teflubenzuron

All food producing species Bovine, ovine, caprine

Teflubenzuron

Target Tissues

Parent drug

LMR

Sulfonamides (all substances belonging to the sulfonamide group)

Animal Species

Marker residue





For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural propor¬tions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.

For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural propor tions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.

NO ENTRY

The combined total residues of all substances within the sulfonamide group should not exceed 100 µg/kg. For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.



Anti-infectious agents / Chemotheurapeutics




Antiparasitic agents / Agents against ectoparasites

Anti infectious agents / Chemo therapeutics




ANNEX 10 Traceability

Back traceability or "tracing": ability to know, from a product,

Traceability in the culture: on farming centers they should be

the various ingredients and other elements that have

able to identify from the “seed” origin where appropriate, to

influenced its development and suppliers thereof. Also, this

organisms transportation (fish, crustaceans or mollusks) to

type of traceability let identify the origin of a particular product

process plant and they must provide at least the following

unit located in the supply chain by reference to the updated

information:

records. Products are traced usually for investigation purposes, customer complaints and for withdrawal from the

•

market.

Farmed species, places and farming units within them with correspondent dates and logs (time the group of fish/shrimp/mollusks remains in each farming unit:

Internal traceability or process: information that allows to

entry and outcome date)

relate products that have been received in the enterprise (raw materials, additives, packaging, etc.), operations or processes

•

Medications for farming organisms (group): accurate

that products have had in the company, the leaving finished

information of the responsible specialist that prescribed

products including the results of the internal own-checks.

and from staff that performed the treatments each time (registered name and date)

Forward traceability or "tracking": means to know the

•

Feedings per group including personnel responsible for

destination of a product (what and to whom is given) and all

feed supply. Register for each supplied feed (feed mill,

information relating to its marketing. It´s also defined as the

deliver date, feed changes according to the nutritional

ability to follow the path of a product through the supply chain. Products are generally tracked for reasons of obsolescence,

requirements, etc.) •

inventory management and logistical purposes.

When farming center need to apply breakdown, mixtures, selection, etc., this should be stated in the traceability system

As attributes of traceability systems for aquaculture, it can be included improvement in quality control, improvement in

•

Biomass at each production center or farming phase

•

Transport recording between production centers or

product quality, minimizing loss of product, transparency,

from them to hatcheries or process plants, identifying

storage information and business efficiency.

transportation used, dates, groups, breakdown, etc.

Traceability implementation in aquaculture: the following parameters must be set in aquaculture: aquaculture production source with different factors that are part of its

•

Short stay in floating hatcheries when appropriate

Traceability in the processing plant: traceability applies both in

production

process plants and in process storage sites, which must

procedures, and distribution and product placement. Within

develop a traceability system which consider at least the

the chain of production, traceability occurs in the farming area

following items:

development,

the

history

of

aquaculture

(farm), in the processing and during marketing.

117


•

Procedure: each farm shall define a coding system for

•

produced lots (involving information from raw material

as batch or code number, expiration date and

to the final product), which must be clear and properly

minimum product identification (commercial name,

recorded and incorporated in the label of the final product, in order to make a correct identification after •

scientific name, presentation, etc.). •

For the storage of the final product, it must be recorded

processing

the

Responsible personnel for traceability (full name,

product amount and product movement (inputs and

email, phone) •

About production, factory date must be clear the same

Scope: complexity and coding system for establishment

warehouse

or

storage

room

identification,

outputs) •

On the output product recording form, it must be noted

of an adequate traceability, depends on species

customer

information

(name,

address,

associated hazards and type of process which were

departure date and transportation

country),

submitted, and must consider the following basic •

•

information:

Distribution traceability: it considers from the output of the

Raw materials reception: name, phone and address of

final product from storage place either for marketing,

the supplier

further processing or storage, and must contain at least the

About raw materials: business name, scientific name, catch or extraction zone, obtaining method, delivered quantity, delivery date, transportation used and transport time and tax documentation

•

When storing raw materials, there must be clearly recorded their movements (income and outputs)

118

following

information:

producer

information

(name,

address, contact person and telephone, street, email, etc.) and product information (labeled with complete data according to applying regulations).


ANNEX 11 International Metrology

Basic units Magnitude

Name

Length

Symbol

meter

m

Mass

kilogram

kg

Time

Second

s

Electric current

ampere

A

kelvin

K

mole

mol

candela

cd

Thermodynamic temperature Amount of substance Luminous intensity candela

Unit of length:

The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.

Unit of mass

The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram.

Unit of time

Unit of electric current

Unit of thermodynamic

The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom. The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per meter of length.

Unit of amount of substance

The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12; its symbol is "mol." When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles.

Unit of luminous intensity

The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.

Special names and symbols of decimal multiples and submultiples units of the authorized International Metrology System (SI) Derived quantity

Name

Symbol

Relationship

Volume

liter

loL

1 dm3=10-3 m3

Mass

ton

t

103 kg

SI defined units but not being decimal multiples or submultiples of them Derived quantity Time

Name

Symbol

Relationship

minute

min

60 s

hour

h

3,600 s

day

d

86,400 s

The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.

119


Decimal multiples and submultiples

The product of symbols two or more units is indicated

Factor

Name

Symbol

Factor

Name

Symbol

preferably by a period as a multiplication symbol. For

1024

yotta

Y

10-1

deci

d

example, newton-meters can be written as N · m or Nm,

1021

zeta

Z

10-2

centi

c

never mN, which means millinewton.

1018

exa

E

10-3

mili

m

10

15

peta

P

-6

10

micro

µ

When a derived unit be the quotient of other two, it can be

1012

tera

T

10-9

nano

n

used the slash (/), the horizontal or negative powers to avoid

109

giga

G

10-12

pico

p

the denominator.

106

mega

M

10-15

femto

f

10

kilo

k

10

atto

a

102

hecto

h

10-21

zepto

z

10

deca

da

10

yocto

y

3

1

-18

-24

m/s

m s

m·s-1

Do not enter on a line more than one slash unless parentheses be added in order to avoid ambiguity. In complex cases it can be used parentheses or negative

Writing symbols

powers.

The SI unit symbols, with rare exceptions as the case of the ohm (Ω), are expressed in Roman, generally with lower

m/s2 or m · s-2 but neither m/s/s. (Pa · s)/(kg/m3) nor Pa

case, but if such symbols correspond to names derived

· s/kg/m2

units, their initial letter is capitalized. Unit names due to names of eminent scientists should be Example, A ampere, J joule.

written with the same spelling of their names, but with initial lowercase. However, their names will be equally acceptable

The symbols are not followed by point, or to take the s when

hispanicized commonly used, if are recognized by the

plural. For example, 5 kg, no 5 kgs.

Spanish Language Royal Academy. Example: ampere, volt, farad, coulomb, july, ohm, watt, weberio.

When the symbol of a unit multiple or submultiple has an exponent, it affects not only the part of the symbol that

Unit names take an s in plural (Example: 10 newtons)

designates the unit, but also to all symbol. For example,

except those that end in s, x or z.

2

2

km means (km) , area of a square that has one km per side, or 106 square meters and never k (m2), corresponding

When writing numbers, the comma is used to separate only

to 1000 square meters.

the integer part of the decimal. For ease of reading, the numbers can be divided into groups of three digits (from

The symbol of the unit follows the prefix symbol without

the coma, if any); these groups are not separated by

space. For example, cm, mm, etc.

periods or commas. The separation into groups is not used for four-digit numbers that designate a year.

120


ABBREVIATIONS

DNA:

Deoxyribonucleic acid

N:

Nitrogen

HACCP:

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points

NADA:

New Animal Drug Application

RNA:

Ribonucleic Acid

NHP:

Necrotizing hepatopancreatitis

BP:

Baculovirus penaei

DO:

Dissolved oxygen

BPM:

Manual of Best Management Practices

OIE:

World Organisation for Animal Health

cc:

Cubic centimeter

CE:

European Community

OIRSA:

International Regional Organization for Agricultural Health

CPLs:

Larval production centers (hatcheries)

OSPESCA:

EMEA:

European Medicines Agency

Organization of the Fisheries and Aquaculture Isthmus

FAO:

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

P:

Phosphorus

PCBs:

Polychlorinated biphenyls

PCR:

Polymerase Chain Reaction

PL:

Postlarvae

ppm:

parts per million (uL/L, mg/kg or g/Ton)

FCR:

Feed conversion ratio

FDA:

U.S. Food and Drug Administration

GAA:

Global Aquaculture Alliance

IHHNV:

Infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis virus

PvNV:

Penaeus vannamei nodavirus

IMNV:

Infectious myonecrosis virus

SANCO (DG SANCO):

Directorate General for Health & Consumers European Commission

INAD:

Investigational New Animal Drug

POES:

Sanitary standardized operating procedures

ISO:

International Organization for Standardization

TSV:

Taura Syndrome Virus

LC50:

Median lethal dose or lethal concentration 50

FCU:

Forming colony units

MRL:

Maximum Residue Limits

WSSV:

White Spot Syndrome Virus

OM:

Organic matter

YHV:

Yellow Head Virus

mL:

Milliliter

121


GLOSSARY

Active ingredient: is the ingredient from which a product

Breeding also involves ownership of fish stocks that are

with therapeutic, pharmacolXor chemical action is made;

being farming.

it´s also known as "generic" of any product and can be extracted from living organisms or artificially synthesized.

Benthic: oganisms’ communities living on the bottom of aquatic ecosystems, and differ from plankton and nekton

Albina: naturally devoid area or little trees and vegetation,

which are communities formed by organisms living in the

near brackish water sources which

water column.

Algae

Best

crash: also known as algae breakdown of

aquaculture

practices: routine procedures of

phytoplankton breakdown and consists in massive and

voluntary implementation, applied on shrimp farms and

sudden microalgae death in a waterbody (e.g. pond). As a

whose objective is to reach acceptable production in terms

consequence, the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

of safety, price and quality, without compromising

increases by the action of dead-algae bacteria degrading, and

negatively environment.

decreases oxygen production in this waterbody by lack of microalgae (photosynthetic). This could produce a dangerous

Biodegradable: product or substance that can be

breakdown of a farming population, due to the rapid fall in the

decomposed into natural chemicals by the action of

dissolved oxygen concentration and sudden pH changes.

biological agents such as sun, water, bacteria, plants or animals. Accordingly, all the substances are biodegradable

Anthropogenic: effects, processes or materials as result of

and its difference is in the time that biological agents take in

human activities unlike of those natural causes without

decomposing in chemical elements.

human influence. Usually used to describe environmental pollution by chemical or biological waste as a result of

Biofilter: also called biological filters, are devices that

economic activities, such as the carbon dioxide production

eliminate a wide range of contaminant compounds from a

due to the use of fossil fuels.

fluid stream (air or water) through a biological process.

Antimicrobial: chemical or natural compounds (antibiotics)

Biofloc: involves 70-80% of organic matter including

obtained from microorganisms, plants or via synthetic, used

heterotrophic bacteria, algae (dinoflagellates and diatoms),

to kill (bactericidal) or inhibit growth (bacteriostatic) of

fungi, ciliates, flagellates, rotifers, nematodes, metazoans

microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Its

and organic detritus. Its composition changes rapidly and

use in aquaculture should be subject to the treated agent's

very often during production cycle. "Floc" particles are

susceptibility and to approval for use in curative therapies.

agglutinated by bacterial material rich in enzymes and polysaccharides; their average diameter is 0.2 mm and

122

Aquaculture: farming of aquatic organisms including fish,

increases to 2 mm towards the end of the shrimp farming

mollusks, crustaceans and plants. The breeding involves

cycle. Flocs are usually made of 25% to 56% protein, 25%

human intervention to increase production; e.g. to stock

to 29% organic carbon and they have also high levels of

fish populations, feeding or protecting them from predators.

amino acids.


Biomass: total material of living organisms in a determined

Cannibalism: conduct based on the practice of feeding

place, expressed in weight per unit area or volume.

members of their own species.

Biosecurity plan: means a plan that identifies the most

Carrying capacity: is the population level that a given

likely ways of introduction and spread of diseases in a zone

environment can support without suffering a negative

or compartment and also describes the measures currently

significant impact (maximum number of individuals that

applied or that will be applied to reduce the risks of their

can keep a land surface). It´s established when farming

introducing and propagation.

organisms growth stops due to an increase in the density of individuals per area, and feed is available only to maintain

Biosecurity: according to FAO and OIE, it’s the optimum

a limited population.

state in which there are established measures to prevent the introduction and the spread of disease, or the approach

Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries: set of

or the principles used to achieve this circumstance.

principles and international standards for fisheries and

Biosecurity measures must be implemented to minimize

aquaculture. The purpose of this voluntary code is to

the risk of disease entry to individual production units (bioexclusion), and to prevent transmission risks out (biocontainment) and forwards through the chain market. Biota: all species of plants, animals and other organisms that occupy a given area; it can be designated the repertoire of species in an ecosystem compartment, as soil, rhizosphere or background in an aquatic ecosystem. Bleach (lye): sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, great disinfectant and bleaching power. It consists of an aqueous solution of alkali metals hypochlorite (lithium, sodium, potassium, etc.); early twentieth century was used commonly with the name of Dakin liquor or Labarraque water; its use in diluted solutions is recommended for drinking water and to prevent infections. Brownian motion: rapid, random and oscillating motion of very small particles suspended in a liquid, without changing their respective position. Molecular motion. It was named in honor of Robert Brown who described it in 1827. Calcium carbonate: product obtained by fine grinding or micronization of calcareous rocks extremely pure, typically with more than 98.5% of CaCO3 contents.

ensure the effective conservation, management and living aquatic resource development. The Code was developed by FAO in collaboration with over 170 of the governments of their member countries, intergovernmental organizations, fisheries

representatives

and

non-government

organizations. The Code implementation involves the country governments, in cooperation with their fisheries industry and fishing communities; the role of FAO is to provide support for these activities. Cold chain: the continuity of the resources used successively to maintain the low storage temperature of shrimp from harvest to the consumer. Competent authority: regarding shrimp farming, it´s the government entity (official) of any country responsible for the regulation, management and control of all activities related to the whole aspects that involve the shrimp industry. For example, health in aquaculture, activity legalization, quarantine, food safety, imports, exports and related environmental aspects. According to OIE, the Competent Authority designates Veterinary Services or other Authority of a Country Member, that have the responsibility of applying or supervising the implementation of zoosanitary measures and other standards recommended in the OIE Aquatic Code and the competence to do so.

123


Compost or "composting": is the aerobic biological process

Potamodromous are freshwater migratory fish (e.g. Trout)

(high oxygen) for the organic matter decomposition by

and oceanodromous are sea migratory fishes (e.g. Tuna).

microorganisms which act quickly degrading crop residues,

Dike slope: corresponds to the slope of the dike cross

dung of animals and rural or urban waste, allowing to get

section. It´s generally recommended a ratio from 2.5:1 to

"Compost" is an excellent fertilizer for agriculture.

3.5:1, to prevent the dike be eroded by waves or rainfall runoff.

Contingency plan: advanced planning process during an uncertain situation, in which scenarios and objectives are

Dike top: top surface of the cross section the dike of a

decided, managerial and technical actions are defined and

shrimp farm that enables passing vehicles and, on

potential response systems are structured, in order to

occasion, is coated with selected material (coarse, rough

prevent or better respond to an emergency.

ground) to facilitate permanent transit of light and heavy equipment.

Control structure: structure generally made of concrete (gate or culvert), which allows the control of water entry

Disinfection: reduction by chemical agents and/or physical

through mesh filters, the same as water output through

methods the number of microorganisms in the environment

regulatory planks during pond water exchange or harvest.

at a level that does not compromise the food safety. The goal of the disinfection is to reduce the amount of living

Corn (“choclo”): name that indicates corn (“choclo”) smell

microorganisms. To be effective, disinfection must be

and taste acquired by farmed shrimp when a significant

preceded for a thorough cleaning.

increase of cyanophytes algae, bacteria and fungi populations in farming pond water. This bad taste is

Dry season: summer; period of the year in which occurs

produced by metabolic waste of cyanophytes Anabaena sp.

little or no rainfall, the sky is commonly clear (no clouds),

And Oscillatoria sp. that release organic toxins as geosmin

relative humidity is often low and the weather is under the

(“earth” taste) and methylisoborneol (MIB) (“musty” taste).

influence of trade (“Alisios”) winds (North winds).

It can be used copper sulfate and diuron (derived from urea) to decrease the concentration of these algae.

Emergency plan: means a documented work plan aimed to ensure the implementation of actions, compliance of the

Depopulation (sanitation): shrimp production interruption

requirements and resources availability needed for the

after each farming cycle to let stand the pond environment

eradication or control of certain diseases outbreaks in

and to get a pond soil drying (total or partial), to break

aquatic animals.

disease cycle and have enough time to make improvements or repairs on production shrimp farm infrastructure.

Emerging disease: designates a serious newly identified

Diadromous: migratory fish that move between sea and

disease with specific known or even unknown cause, which can

freshwater waterbodies. They can be of three types:

be spread to and between populations, through trade of aquatic

anadromous (mostly stay at the sea but entering fresh water

animals and/or their products. OIE Aquatic Code, 2009.

for reproduction, e.g. Salmon), catadromous (mostly stay in

124

freshwater but go to sea for reproduction; e.g.: Eel) and

Endemic: epidemiologically, endemic (from Greek Evounía

amphidromous (move between the sea and freshwater and

”in a population”) is a pathological process that remains

vice versa, but not for reproductive causes; e.g.: Mullet).

over time in a population or geographical region. It´s


related to infectious pathologies. The disease remains over time at a stable level including seasonal variations. Therefore, it´s a disease localized in a particular place and with a high number of affected individuals. Epibiont: non-parasite living organism that lives at least one phase of its life cycle over another bigger organism, to which usually doesn´t cause any problem. Eradicate: zoosanitary measures implementing to eliminate a plague of a production area within a shrimp farm. Estuarine waters: waters from an estuarine system as a product of the mixture of freshwater from the earth with seawater. In estuarine waters are very special conditions: when tide is high, it penetrates salt water and when the tide is low, freshwater goes to the sea. When mixed waters ecological conditions change dramatically. Estuary: this word comes from Latin aestuarium which means an area under tidal influences. It´s defined as a coastal area where freshwater from the land mixes with seawater causing wide salinity variations according to tide changes. The mangrove is the predominant vegetation species, and a variety of marine and terrestrial species perfectly adapted to these changes. Eutrophication: nutrient enrichment of an ecosystem. The most widespread use is specific to more or less massive contribution of inorganic nutrients an aquatic ecosystem. Increased nutrients in freshwater from lakes and reservoirs, which causes an excessive phytoplankton bloom. Extensive shrimp farming system: low density aquaculture practiced in pools or ponds for aquaculture farmers’ subsistence; it´s an artisanal production system characterized by large waterbodies with very limited control by the producer. Infrastructure is deficient to an adequate water supply, water exchange and harvest, and for implementing biosecurity measures or best management practices. It depends largely on nature and in most cases wild organisms are used. Production results are relatively

poor and primary productivity and/or the food chain of the pond are the feed source. Feed trays: accessory where shrimp feed is placed into the pond, to prevent feed contact with bottom sediment and to better estimate feed intake. Fertilizer: chemical that supply nutrients to the plants; may be organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic and is applied to soil, to plants´ foliage or in the water of aquatic animals farming. It´s also called compost. Filtering: using of cloth or mesh bags to retain organisms and particles during the filling phase of a reservoir channel or a shrimp pond. It´s also the use of mesh in output water gates to prevent shrimp escape and entry of foreign organisms during high tides. Fine (feed): pelleted feed micro-particles produced by feed rubbing during packaging, storage and transportation of the feed bags filled with pellets. High quality feed and submitted to good handling must reach the shrimp farm with nothing or very little fines (maximum 5%). Fishing: FAO designates this term to the action of obtaining three types of aquatic species including fishes, crustaceans and mollusks. This can be achieved by catching through traditional or industrial methods. Flocs: in aquaculture systems flocs can be defined as suspended agglomerations of organic particles highly rich in heterotrophic bacteria and incorporated as an important source of natural feed for shrimp. Its shape and floatage is highly related to the permanent-functioning aeration system installed in ponds. Flood-tide: high tide, time when the sea water level reaches its highest point in the tidal cycle. The approximate time between high and low tide is 6 hours and 12 minutes, completing a cycle of 24 hours and 50 minutes.

125


Food chain: (Greek throphe: feeding), it´s feeding energy transfer process through several organisms in which each feed from preceding and is eaten by the next one. Food chain is also the flow of energy and nutrients established between the different species of an ecosystem based on its nutrition. Food safety: considerations and production processes seeking to ensure that food consumption don´t harm consumers’ health. Food security: FAO defines food security as the physical and economic access for all members of the public at all times, to sufficient safe and nutritious food to meet their food needs and to have a healthy and active life. Footbath: devise used for feet bath with disinfection purposes. It consists of a tray, bowl or pit filled with a disinfectant solution placed at the entry gate of the shrimp farm, for visitors to disinfect their shoes before entering. Frame: wood or metal structure that supports other elements. Gage: add solvent (e.g. water) to a container with a mark that indicates a known and precisely measured volume to fit in the container until that mark. Hazard: biological, chemical or physical agent that can compromise food safety and/or shrimp health. Hydraulic section: dimensions that should have any reservoir channel, drainage or other structure used for water conveyance in a shrimp farm, based on a calculation of water volume required. Hydraulics is the branch of physics and engineering that study of the mechanical fluid properties. The optimal hydraulic section is that which for a section, roughness coefficient and slope, conveyances a maximum water flow; the optimal section is less wetted perimeter, although hydraulically "optimal" does not mean that it is necessarily the best in economic terms (excavation, drafts, etc.).

126

Hydrography: study of all waterbodies on Earth and, strictly speaking, to the extent, collection and representation of the data relating to the ocean bottom, the coast, tides and currents, so that can capture on a hydrographic chart. Hydrology: geographic science dedicated to the study of spatial and temporal distribution and water properties in the atmosphere and on the Earth. This including rainfall, runoff, soil moisture, evapotranspiration and glacier mass balance. Hydrostability: is the physical property that the pellets have to remain intact in the water without losing its shape or structure. It is usually measured in hours and evaluated in vitro using a beaker with seawater and without agitation. It should be at least 2 hours. Hygiene: knowledge and skills set that Individuals must applied to control factors that can have adverse health effects. Personal hygiene is the basic concept of cleaning, grooming and body care. Hypoxia: condition of a living organism or part of this, in which there is not adequate oxygen supply. Infiltration: in hydrology refers to water penetration into the soil, and in shrimp farms it corresponds to the index of dikes compaction and soil porosity. Innocuous: something that does not cause damage or negative activity to human, animal or plant. Intensive shrimp farming system: shrimp farming systems using high shrimp stocking densities (more than 25 shrimp per m2). It requires a special infrastructure design (pond size and permanent aeration, among others), and complete biosecurity measures and highly technical management (bottom management, feeding, microbial flora, water quality and disease control). Shrimp feeding depends largely on artificial diet supplied by producer and supplemented by natural feed (flocs).


Inundate: to flood with water or with any other liquid one object or place; immerse or cover with water.

Metabolism: all physical and chemical reactions of nutrients/substrates absorbed by organisms, which occur in the cells with the goal of obtaining necessary

Iron pyrite: is the iron sulfide (FeS2) that appear relatively frequently in nature alone or mixed with other minerals.

components for life maintenance. Metabolite: substance produced by a living organism as a

Labeling: any recording, legend or direction printed, attached or recorded to a product or its packaging, wrapping or shipping-box and that identifies the product according to national and international standards.

result of their metabolism. May be harmful to other

Lime: calcareous product for use in aquaculture, such as Calcium hydroxide, Calcium Carbonate and Calcium Oxide. Liming: process by which lime is applied on a pond bottom, but eventually is applied on pond water (previously diluting lime in water). Lime application includes products based on Calcium and according to the purpose, such as carbonate (pH increasing), hydroxide (drop bacteria populations) and oxide (drop bacteria populations and organic matter concentrations). Their common names are agricultural lime, slaked lime and quicklime, respectively).

Microalgae: unicellular aquatic algae as phytoplankton.

Limnology: is the branch of ecology that studies inland aquatic ecosystems (lakes, ponds, rivers, wells, marshes and estuaries), the interactions between aquatic organisms and their environment, which determine their distribution and abundance in these ecosystems. Liner: refers to a plastic membrane of variable thickness, used in aquaculture for matching aquaculture ponds soils and internal dikes sides. The aim of the liners is to prevent water infiltration and/or isolation of farmed organisms from the pond bottom sediment. Low tide: opposite to high tide, time in which the sea reaches its lowest height. Mechanical vector: any movable element as people, animals, vehicles or equipment, where a pathogen can join and be transported from one place to another, contaminating facilities that were free of that infection.

organisms and in shrimp may affect its health or product quality

when

harvest

as

occurs

with

certain

microalgae-produced metabolites (e.g. Anabaena).

Molasses: product derived from sugarcane processing, dark colored, thick and rich in various sugars. It is used in aquaculture as a Carbon source for bacteria and algae from the water column, promoting growth of microorganisms that use sugar as an energy source. Necton: all marine and freshwater organisms that actively swim in aquatic areas under direct sunlight influence. The concept contrasts with other alternatives such as plankton (living organisms in suspension and are passively moved); benthos (organisms that live on the bottom, whether mobile or stationary), or pneuston (organisms that live at the interface water-air). Operational level: proper depth of a pond to ensure proper farming operation. In ponds with plateau, the level of less deep zones should be 1.0 m to 1.2 m. Organic

debris:

dead

plants

and

animals

under

decomposition. Layer which is composed of Organic soils: are those that contain more than 10% of organic matter. Dikes are not stable when made of organic material because the organic materials decompose when exposed to air. Due to bacterial decomposition of organic matter, organic lands also lead to low dissolved oxygen concentrations in the soil-water interface.

127


Palatability: feed organoleptic feature set, regardless of its nutritional value, that makes a given organism to be more or less pleasant to eat. Pathogen: microorganism capable of producing disease in humans, animals or plants. Includes mainly viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Pathogenic agent: see "Pathogen" Pellet: is a generic name used to refer to small portions of pelleted or tableted material. The term is used in aquaculture to mean processed feed ready to fed farming aquatic organisms (finished product). Pelletizing: process by which raw materials are finely-divided - sometimes becoming powder, impalpable and unwieldy-, transforming them into larger and more stable particles by the application of heat, moisture and mechanical pressure, resulting in the formation of pellets. Pest: any species, breed, animal biotype or pathogens, which are harmful to humans, farm inputs, drinking or production water and farmed shrimp (e.g. rodents, birds, insects and aquatic species [fishes and crustaceans]). Phytoplankton: in marine biology and limnology, this is the name of autotrophs aquatic organisms from plankton, which are photosynthetic and living dispersed in water. The name comes from the Greek terms φύτον (phyton, "plant") and πλαγκτος ("Planktos" "Vagrant" or "stumbling"). Plowing: action of tilling the soil surface with a depth not exceeding 30 centimeters. This task accomplishes soil oxygenation and allows incorporation of added elements to the soil by human or natural ways. Pond: is one of the units that comprise an aquaculture farm, designed and built under technical specifications which enable the efficient aquatic organisms farming. In shrimp

128

farming, ponds are comprised of a dike, a plateau, harvest channels, and input, output and harvesting gates. Prebiotics: unlike probiotics (living organisms), are generally non-digestible carbohydrates, which stimulate the growth and activity of beneficial bacteria. Predator: organism that maintains a consistent interspecific relationship in hunting and death suffered by some species (prey) by generally larger species (predators). In the case of shrimp farms, predators would be the birds, some crustaceans, fish and alligators, among others; shrimp would be its prey. Probiotics: living microorganisms added to animal/human food, which remain active in the gut and produce important physiological host effects. Prophylactic: process or product that helps preventing and protecting an individual or a population from the onslaught of a disease. Quarantine: means maintaining a group of aquatic animals in isolation with no direct or indirect contact with other aquatic animals, in order to undergo observation for a specified length of time and, if appropriate, testing and treatment, including proper treatment of the effluent waters. Aquatic Code, OIE 2009. Rainy season: winter, period of the year in which rainfall is frequent, days are commonly cloudy, humidity is high and there is little wind. Records: documents that present achieved results or evidence of performed activities. Recycle: activity performed by many companies and individuals, based on taking back trash from the garbage and reprocessing it to be used again.


Reuse: action of using trash one more time before throwing it away; for example, lining boxes, bottles or cans and use them to hold items. Risk: likelihood of an adverse health effect and of its severity, as a result of a potential danger that can reveal itself. Rotavator: agricultural implement for tilling the soil, which consists of a shaft with a rotary plow blade with variable shapes that when turning up they remove and shred earth lumps. Sea loch: verge of a river mouth forming a submerged coastal valley or estuary that has been flooded by the sea and by its elevated level. Consequently, it will become a sea canal that penetrates on the coast, coinciding with a river mouth, which flow is also affected by high and low tides. This word in Spanish (“ría”) is used in Europe. Secchi disk: is a standard aquaculture instrument used to measure the relative visibility or depth of sunlight penetration into the pond water in centimeters. In a reservoir channel or in a shrimp pond, it allows knowing the water turbidity given by suspended solids concentration, mainly phytoplankton (microalgae). Secchi: see "Secchi disk" Semi-intensive shrimp farming: shrimp aquaculture considered between extensive and intensive systems. It´s characterized by an integrated infrastructure which allows the implementation of specific technological processes that facilitate production operation. This system requires moderate loads of farming organisms into waterbodies that are partially controlled. Feed is partially natural obtained by water fertilization and partly artificially supplemented which is provided by the farmer.

Stratification: separation of the water contained into a pond or reservoir channel, in strata or layers. There are two types of gradients that cause stratification: physical which are caused by temperature, and chemicals produced by different chemical composition of the surface and deep waters. Stress test: physical examination for obtaining a measure of one postlarvae batch quality (tank, shipping) and consists in submitting the animals to drastic changes of temperature and/or salinity, then measuring their survival and physical conditions (swimming, activity, reflexes). Super- intensive shrimp farming: aquatic organisms farming system with extremely high densities and many control measures with entirely artificial feed and often with aerators to maintain better control of the dissolved oxygen concentration; they must be designed to support the system oxygen demand. Unlike intensive systems, production units bottoms are covered by a plastic liner. Sustainability: refers to the use of technologies and adequate services to the environmental conditions and to prevention of negative impacts being social, economic or environmental, looking for efficiency in food production and also natural resources conservation. It may be feasible to obtain high levels of productivity, becoming necessary to develop and incorporate more technology. Sustainable development: according to FAO, it is the management and conservation of the natural resource base and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a way as to ensure the continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations. Such sustainable development (in agriculture, forestry and fishery sectors), conserves land, water and plant and animal genetic resources, does not degrade the environment and is technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable.

Semolina (bran): name that comes from bran that is thick flour (slightly milled), that is made from wheat and other cereals.

129


TCBS: selective agar primarily (but not exclusively) for

wastewater converge to a sewage collection system, which

bacterial species of the genus Vibrio, constituted by

should finish in a treatment plant.

thiosulfate, citrate, bile (bile salts) and sucrose. Water maturation: period of time used to leave a waterbody Terrine: small container (tub) with lid used to keep food

(reservoir channel or pond) before shrimp stocking

cold.

(postlarvae or juveniles), during which it´s promote growth of phytoplankton and zooplankton by chemical fertilization

Texture: refers to the granulometric soil composition,

environmentally acceptable.

depending on the proportion (%) of sand, silt and clay that soil contains.

Water quality: is the sum of the physical, chemical and biological characteristics, the same as biotic and abiotic

Traceability: is a food safety tool used to trace the origin of

factors influencing the use of a waterbody, based on the

products and their inputs in the food supply chain, helping

performance of the site living species.

to identify and record each product from its origin to the end of the marketing chain.

Waterbody (water body): is a water mass or water extension as a lake, sea or ocean that covers part of the Earth or other

Transboundary diseases: are those of trade and economic

planet. Some waterbodies are artificial such as ponds, but

importance for food security in many countries; they can

most are natural. They may contain salt water, fresh or

easily spread to other countries and reach epidemic

brackish.

proportions and require cooperation among nations for its management and control, including exclusion. They were

Wheel bath: vehicle tires bath used to disinfect exposed

previously called "exotic diseases".

rolling surfaces. It consists of a pit (ford, groove, hits) usually located in incoming gates of a shrimp farm and

Transition period: months of the year in which weather

containing a disinfectant solution for cleaning and

changes from dry to rainy season or vice versa, without

disinfecting the wheels of incoming vehicles.

having defined and stable weather patterns. Withdrawal time: holding days between a medicated Trophic level: in ecology refers to each of the sets of

therapy finishing used in animals for human consumption,

species or organisms in an ecosystem, which coincide in

and their slaughter (harvest). Respect the withdrawal time

position in the energy and nutrient circulation, it means

will allow that slaughtered (harvested) animals don´t carry

those holding an equivalent place in the food chain.

drug residues and that they maintain the standards for food safety.

Wastewater: wastewater or sewage wastes are liquids from

130

domestic, commercial and industrial use. They have

Zoosanitary measures: any legislation, regulation or official

dissolved or in suspension several organic and inorganic

procedure having the purpose to prevent the introduction

matters. They come from discharges of drains, sinks,

and/or pests dispersion in a shrimp farm or in a particular

toilets, kitchens, laundry (detergents), industrial waste (oils,

area thereof, or to limit the economic impact of the pests in

greases, tanneries, etc.). Where sewers are available, all of

the production process.


131


AGREEMENT BETWEEN FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE ORGANIZATION OF CENTRAL AMERICAN ISTHMUS (OSPESCA) AND REGIONAL INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL HEALTH (OIRSA)

132

SICA Office

Oficina en OIRSA

Blvd. Orden de Malta No. 470, Urb. Santa Elena

Calle Ramón Belloso, final pasaje Isolde, Col.

Antiguo Cuscatlán, El Salvador, C.A.

Escalón, San Salvador, El Salvador, C.A.

Phone: (503) 2248-8800

Phone: (503) 2209-9200

Fax: (503) 2248-8899

Fax: (503) 2263-1128

E-mail: [email protected]

E-mail: [email protected]

Web site: www.sica.int/ospesca

Web site: www.oirsa.org