Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change

MAPPING AND DOCUMENTING INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN GHANA

2011

Benjamin A. Gyampoh and Winston A. Asante

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Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation in Ghana

MAPPING AND DOCUMENTING INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN GHANA

Sponsored by: Africa Adaptation Programme (AAP) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

Research Team: Benjamin Apraku Gyampoh (PhD) Winston Adams Asante Douglas Joseph La Rose Gloria Adu-Acheampong Theodore Assimeng Akwasi Opoku Gyamfi

Contributors: Augusta Nyamadi-Clottey Bram Miller Daniel Tutu-Benefo Winfred Nelson

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Executive Summary In developing adaptation strategies to climate change, one of the first steps to take is to know what the affected people are already doing to cope with the changes that they have observed. One valuable resource in this process is the local/traditional/indigenous knowledge that the people have about their climatic systems and how the knowledge is used to predict changes in their climate and plan accordingly. This study assessed the extent of community observation of changes in climate and associated impacts as well as community-based approaches used in coping with the changes. For each climatic observation, the people provide evidence to support their claim as well as early, short term and long term responses to these changes. Information on local indicators for predicting climate was also collected in all the communities that were surveyed. Also important were the extent to which the community-based indicators supported rural livelihoods and coping with changes in weather patterns as well as the potential threats to these knowledge systems. Communities’ awareness of and usage of climate information was also assessed. Indigenous knowledge used in adapting to changing climate have been identified and documented as part of the findings of this study. The knowledge systems offer readily available and significant opportunities for integration into climate change adaptation programmes, including disaster risk reduction programmes. The study reveals that communities rightly observe changes in their climate and have substantial understanding on what goes on around them and how they should make adjustments to ensure their livelihoods go on. The communities are able to provide concrete evidence of the observed changes to buttress their observation. However, some of the useful indicators that have and continue to help the people know changes in their environment and adapt their livelihoods accordingly are threatened with extinction due to the enormous changes in the environment. Habitats of plants, animals, birds and insects which have played significant roles as climatic indicators are being lost or modified, resulting in most of these indicators either migrating or dying. Despite a wider awareness of the weather forecasts given by the Ghana Meteorological agency, most farmers did not plan their activities based on the weather forecast; the major reason being that they found it to be less reliable and also too general instead of being tailored to their specific communities. This makes the application of indigenous knowledge in weather prediction using traditional indicators very relevant to the rural farmer. To fully benefit from the usefulness of the indigenous knowledge, there is the need for long term studies to validate the indigenous knowledge and incorporate them into scientific knowledge systems for effective adaptation strategies. Weather forecasts from the Ghana Meteorological Agency which the rural farmers consider too general, cold be downscaled using the validated indigenous knowledge for effective adaptation.

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Acknowledgements The research team is very grateful to the chiefs and people of all the communities visited in this survey for their warm welcome and enthusiasm to share their knowledge for the benefit of all society. The team is also expresses our profound appreciation to the District Chief Executives, Planning Officers, Assembly Members and personnel of the National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) and allied organisations who took time off their busy schedules to meet with us, share their perspectives on the subject with us and even went with us on our rounds to make sure we were well received and given the needed corporation from all; not forgetting their valuable help in doing translations for us in areas where we were not familiar with the languages. We are also grateful to the staff of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Africa Adaptation Programme (AAP) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of Ghana for their great support throughout this work.

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Table of Contents Executive Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Table of contents…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… List of Figures………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. List of Photos……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1.0 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2.0 RESEARCH APPROACH AND METHODS……………………………………………………………………………………….. 2.1 STUDY AREA……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2.2 METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3.0 RESULTS………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3.1 AOWIN-SUAMAN DISTRICT (High Forest Zone)…………………………………………………………………. 3.1.1 Observed climate changes in the community…………………………………………………………. 3.1.2 Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on local livelihoods………………………. 3.1.3 Major climate related hazards in the community…………………………………………………… 3.1.4 Community-based coping strategies in response to impacts of climate change…….. 3.1.5 Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters………………………………………… 3.1.6 Level of awareness, access and application of meteorological by communities…….. 3.2 KETA MUNICIPALITY (Coastal Savannah Zone)…………………………………………………………………… 3.2.1 Observed climate changes in the community…………………………………………………………. 3.2.2 Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on local livelihoods………………………. 3.2.3 Major climate related hazards in the community…………………………………………………… 3.2.4 Community-based coping strategies in response to impacts of climate change…….. 3.2.5 Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters………………………………………… 3.2.6 Level of awareness, access and application of meteorological by communities…….. 3.3 TALENSI-NABDAM DISTRICT (Guinea Savannah Zone)……………………………………………………….. 3.3.1 Observed climate changes in the community…………………………………………………………. 3.3.2 Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on local livelihoods………………………. 3.3.3 Major climate related hazards in the community…………………………………………………… 3.3.4 Community-based coping strategies in response to impacts of climate change…….. 3.3.5 Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters………………………………………… 3.3.6 Level of awareness, access and application of meteorological by communities…….. 3.4 WA WEST DISTRICT (Guinea Savannah Zone)…………………………………………………………………….. 3.4.1 Observed climate changes in the community…………………………………………………………. 3.4.2 Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on local livelihoods………………………. 3.4.3 Major climate related hazards in the community…………………………………………………… 3.4.4 Community-based coping strategies in response to impacts of climate change…….. 3.4.5 Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters………………………………………… 3.4.6 Level of awareness, access and application of meteorological by communities…….. 3.5 WEST MAMPRUSI DISTRICT (Guinea Savannah Zone)………………………………………………………… 3.5.1 Observed climate changes in the community…………………………………………………………. 3.5.2 Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on local livelihoods………………………. 3.5.3 Major climate related hazards in the community…………………………………………………… 3.5.4 Community-based coping strategies in response to impacts of climate change…….. 3.5.5 Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters………………………………………… 3.5.6 Level of awareness, access and application of meteorological by communities…….. 4

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3.6 ZABZUGU-TATALE DISTRICT (Guinea Savannah Zone)………………………………………………………… 3.6.1 Observed climate changes in the community…………………………………………………………. 3.6.2 Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on local livelihoods………………………. 3.6.3 Major climate related hazards in the community…………………………………………………… 3.6.4 Community-based coping strategies in response to impacts of climate change…….. 3.6.5 Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters………………………………………… 3.6.6 Level of awareness, access and application of meteorological by communities…….. 4.0 DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4.1 COMMUNITY-LEVEL INFORMATION ON OBSERVED CLIMATE CHANGES AND EXTREME VARIABILITY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4.1.1 High Forest Zone – Aowin-Swaman District…………………………………………………………… 4.1.2 Coastal Savannah – Keta Municipality…………………………………………………………………… 4.1.3 Guinea Savannah (Wa West, West Mamprusi, Talensi-Nabdam and Zabzugu-Tatale districts)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4.2 CLIMATE IMPACTS ON VARIOUS SECTORS OF RURAL LIVELIHOODS…………………………………… 4.2.1 High Forest Zone (HFZ)……………………………………………………………………………………………. 4.2.2 Coastal Savannah …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4.2.3 Guinea Savannah …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4.3 COMMUNITY-BASED COPING STRATEGIES IN RESPONSE TO IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4.3.1 High Forest Zone (HFZ)……………………………………………………………………………………………. 4.3.2 Coastal Savannah …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4.3.3 Guinea Savannah ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4.4 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE IN CLIMATE PREDICTION……………………………………………………………………. 4.4.1 High Forest Zone (HFZ)……………………………………………………………………………………………. 4.4.2 Coastal Savannah …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4.4.3 Guinea Savannah ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4.5 AWARENESS, ACCESS AND APPLICATION OF METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION BY COMMUNITIES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4.5.1 High Forest Zone (HFZ)……………………………………………………………………………………………. 4.5.2 Coastal Savannah ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4.5.3 Guinea Savannah ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION……………………………………………………………………………………… 5.1 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 5.2 RECOMMENDATION…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5.2.1 Validating indigenous knowledge and incorporating into scientific knowledge systems…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5.2.2 Weather Index-based Insurance…………………………………………………………………………….. 5.2.3 Reducing vulnerability of farmlands to flooding from Bagre Dam…………………………… 5.2.4 The need to validate and sieve out potent IK’s for wider application………………………. References……………………………………………………………………………………………................................................. Appendices…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

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List of tables Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7

Study communities, corresponding districts and regions……………………………………………….... Indigenous indicators in predicting climate parameters in Aowin-Suaman District…………… Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters in the Keta Municipality…………….. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters in the Talensi-Nabdam District….. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters in the Wa West District…………….. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters in the West Mamprusi District…… Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters in the Zabzugu-Tatale District…….

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List of figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

Political Map of Ghana showing study areas……………………………………………………………………. Map of location of study areas within Agro-Ecological Zones of Ghana…………………………... Impact of changes in climatic variables on livelihood and resilience…………………………………

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List of photos Photo 1 Photo 2 Photo 3 Photo 4 Photo 5 Photo 6 Photo 7 Photo 8 Photo 9 Photo 10 Photo 11

Cocoa pods affected by black pod disease at Jensue……………………………………………………….. Cocoa farm with trees killed as a result of flooding…………………………………………………………. Shallow well (A) and Tube well irrigation with sprinkler (B) in Keta Municipality…………….. A Focus Group Discussion in Yenduri community in the Talensi-Nabdam district……………. Architecture of buildings in Talawana …………………………………………………………………………….. Research team is shown the roof-top in Talawana where people sleep during warm nights………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Farm planted along the River……………………………………………………………………………………………. Charcoal burning as an alternative livelihood to farming………………………………………………….. Bus ready to convey people who are migrating from Yagaba to Kumasi………………………….. Jagari herb for preparing soup in the dry season………………………………………………………………. Bus ready to convey people who are migrating from Yagaba to Kumasi……………………….…..

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1.0 INTRODUCTION Increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through human activities has resulted in additional warming of the Earth’s surface, with several anticipated disastrous impacts. Undoubtedly, even though Africa is the least emitter of GHGs, the continent has been predicted to experience the worse of the impacts of climate change. The most devastating adverse impacts of climate change in most subtropical countries includes frequent drought, increased environmental damage, increased infestation of crop by pests and diseases, depletion of household assets, increased rural urban migration, increased biodiversity loss, depletion of wildlife and other natural resource base, changes in the vegetation type, decline in forest resources, decline in soil conditions (soil moisture and nutrients), increased health risks and the spread of infectious diseases, changing livelihood systems, etc (Reilly, 1999; Abaje and Giwa, 2007). However, initial efforts at dealing with the problem of global warming concentrated on mitigation, with the aim of reducing and possibly stabilizing the GHG concentrations in the atmosphere (UNFCCC 1992). Even if this stabilization was achieved, sea level rise and global warming would continue to increase over centuries because of the inertia of the Earth systems (Nyong et al., 2008). Hence in more recent times adaptation has also featured strongly in most international discussions. Adaptation methods are those strategies that enable the individual or the community to cope with or adjust to the impacts of the climate in the local areas. Such strategies will include the adoption of efficient environmental resources management practices such as the planting of early maturing crops, adoption of hardy varieties of crops and selective keeping of livestock in areas where rainfall declined. They also include the use of technological products that enable the individual to function in the ‘‘new’’ condition (Nyong et al., 2007). Over the course of history and up to this day, traditional communities have continued to rely heavily on their own indigenous knowledge systems in observing the environment and dealing with natural hazards. These communities, particularly those in hazard prone areas, have collectively generated a vast body of knowledge on disaster prevention and mitigation, early warning, preparedness and response. This knowledge is obtained through observation and study and is often based on cumulative experience handed down from generation to generation (Pareek and Trivedi, 2011). Indigenous peoples who are vital and active parts of many ecosystems may help to enhance the resilience of these ecosystems. Their livelihoods depend on natural resources that are directly affected by climate change and variability, and they often inhabit economically and politically marginal areas in diverse, but fragile ecosystems. In addition, they interpret and react to climate change impacts in creative ways, drawing on traditional knowledge as well as new technologies to find solutions, which may help society at large to cope with the impending changes (Jan and Anja, 2007). Doss and Morris (2001) emphasized that the perspectives of the indigenous people, the way they think and behave in relation to climate change and variability, as well as their values and aspirations have a significant role to play in addressing and managing climate change and its impacts. Despite this, indigenous and other traditional peoples are only rarely considered in academic, policy and public discourses on climate change, despite the fact that they are greatly impacted by impending changes of climate (Berkes and Jolly, 2001). Furthermore, while the importance of indigenous knowledge has been realized in the design and implementation of sustainable 7


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development projects, little has been done to incorporate this into formal climate change adaptation strategies. This has basically been due to the overconcentration of efforts on scientific and conventional approaches. Invariably, these conventional approaches, including the application of climate models, have been used in various ways to predict future climate scenarios in most countries. However, these models paint the bigger picture of climate change and provide estimates for the likely consequences of different future scenarios of human development; they are not very good at providing information about changes at the local level. In recent years, there has been an increasing realization that indigenous groups are a valuable source of this information. Indigenous peoples are not only keen observers of climate changes but are also actively trying to adapt to the changing conditions. In some instances, people can draw on already existing mechanisms for coping with short term adverse climatic conditions. Some of these responses may be traditionally included in their normal subsistence activities, while others may be acute responses, used only in case of critical weather conditions (Stott and Kettleborough, 2002). In Ghana, majority of the population are still dependent on traditional approaches of sustenance to develop and improve on their livelihood. Efforts to enhance productivity in sectors such as agriculture with conventional and technological approaches have been hugely inadequate, leaving most farmers and rural dwellers to continually utilize and devise their own indigenous and traditional modes of sustenance. Despite the fact that efforts have been made towards fighting climate change from scientific views, research and policies directed towards indigenous knowledge and perception are highly needed, in order to reduce the vulnerability of these rural dwellers and enhance their cultural resilience and adaptive capacity. It is, therefore, important to understand indigenous perceptions of climate change and their preferences of strategies towards adaptation. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) (IPCC, 2007) confirmed that global climate change is already happening. The IPCC report found that communities who live in marginal lands and whose livelihoods are highly dependent on natural resources are among the most vulnerable to climate change. Many indigenous and traditional peoples who have been pushed to the least fertile and most fragile lands as a consequence of historical, social, political and economic exclusion are among those who are at greatest risk (IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 2007). According to a report commissioned by DFID-Ghana in 2005, the three northern regions represent the poorest parts of the country, which is accompanied by failure to achieve economic growth. This is because the north remains dependent on low return food crop farming, and this is the main explanation of low economic growth and persistently low incomes. Many studies, including different participatory poverty studies, highlight the extent of vulnerability throughout northern Ghana, particularly in the Upper East. A key dimension of central importance for these studies is food insecurity. One indicator of this is the extent of extreme poverty identified in the most recent Ghana Living Standards Survey (DFID, 2005). In addition to these trends in vulnerability and low economic growth, there are further indications of declining levels of production of major food crops which are generally associated 8


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with falling yields even though areas under cultivation are expanding; thus raising questions about the potential of using these crops to stimulate economic growth and livelihood improvements (DFID, 2005). One factor that has constantly been missing and remains unresolved in most studies and discussions on livelihood issues in the three northern regions is the extent to which climatic parameters, and their variability is contributing to the kind of changes in current and projected livelihood scenarios. On the other hand, though the economic situation in the south have been relatively good, current and projected changes in environmental resources and climatic variables are likely to impact negatively on the livelihood of most forest fringe and forest dependent communities, as well as coastal communities whose major sources of livelihood have been centred around water and fisheries resources. Though some efforts have been made at the global and national levels in terms of modelling climate change and impacts of climate change, there have been far less information on the views of traditional and rural people, and the modifications in their life styles which are aiding them to cope with their changing environment, which could in turn serve as potential for targeted responses and support. This study is therefore aimed at identifying and documenting impacts of climate change and variability on rural livelihoods, and indigenous or traditional approaches communities use or used to apply to adapt to these changes in micro-climatic variables. Considering that these knowledge systems have always been part of indigenous or traditional Ghanaian communities, they offer readily available and significant opportunities in mainstreaming and strengthening the application of scientific and conventional approaches in climate induced disaster risk reduction in all sectors of rural livelihoods. The study will also offer some elements that will facilitate integration of socio-cultural considerations in programmes and actions to address climate change impacts through adaptation measures. The specific objectives are; 1. To determine community-level information on degree of observed and perceived climate changes and extreme climate variability 2. To identify manifested climate impacts on various sectors of rural livelihoods 3. To determine community-based adaptive strategies in response to the impacts of climate change 4. To document and map-out indigenous approaches and indicators used to predict climatic parameters as early warning signals and triggers for changes in rural livelihood activities. 5. To assess the level of awareness, access and application of meteorological information by communities The overarching question that this research seeks to answer is the extent to which local temperature and rainfall parameters have changed from the community perspective, and its associated impacts as well as community-based approaches in the context of climate change and extreme climate variability. This question is approached in the study sites by examining the following;

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How do people perceive the degree of change in temperature and rainfall parameters over an extended period of time? What are the manifested evidence and signs that demonstrate the impact and degree of change in temperature and rainfall parameters on rural livelihoods? What are the early, short term and long term responses to these changes? How are temperature and rainfall parameters predicted to inform individual and community based decisions? To what extent does these community based indicators support rural livelihoods and what are the inherent or potential threats to these knowledge systems? What are the recommended approaches to enhance the adaptive capacity of communities to the impacts of changes associated with rain fall and temperature on rural livelihood?

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2.0 RESEARCH APPROACH AND METHODS 2.1 STUDY AREA The study was conducted in five out of the ten regions in Ghana, and largely reflected a representation of the various ecological zones across the country and their corresponding climatic characteristics. These included the Northern, Upper East and Upper West Regions, representing the savanna zone; the Western Region, representing the high forest zone; and the Volta Region, representing the coastal savanna zone. In each region, one district was selected for the study, and in each district three communities were selected based on a set of criteria, except the Northern Region, where two districts were selected. However, in the Volta Region, five communities were studied. These study areas were selected based on already existing areas of operation of the UNDP-Ghana Recovery Project and the African Adaptation Programme.

WEST MAMPRUSI As is found in most of the Northern Region of Ghana, the District has a generally undulating topography characterised by gentle slopes from north-east to south-west, with some isolated visible outcrops and uplands of not more than 10% slope. The district is characterised by a single rainy season, which starts in late April with little rainfall, rising to its peak in July-August and declining sharply and coming to a complete halt in OctoberNovember.Mean annual rainfall ranges between 950 mm - 1,200 mm.The dry season is characterised by Hamattan winds. Maximum day temperatures are recorded between MarchApril of about 45°C while minimum night temperatures of about 12°C have been recorded in December-January. Currently the population is estimated at 117,821, which was recorded in the preliminary results from the 2000 Population. The district is predominantly rural with more than 70% of the population living in rural settlements with populations less than 2000. The principal land uses reflect the almost total rural base of the district economy. About 80% of the people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Large amounts of land are therefore put to the cultivation of major crops like maize, millet, guinea corn, groundnuts and cotton. Important minor crops cultivated include legumes, cassava and yams.

ZABZUGU-TATALE The district has a population of 77469 as of 2002. The soil is very rich in nutrients which is, in part, responsible for the outstanding performance of the district in terms of agricultural output. Generally, the geological formation is similar to that described for West Mamprusi

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The district vegetation is savannah woodland with economic trees such as shea-nut, dawadawa, teak and mango. The climate and vegetation are typical of the savannah and is as similar to that of the West Mamprusi District

TALENSI-NABDAM Agricultural plays the major role in the local economy. Employing about 2/3rd of the labour force and accounting for about 75% of the LGDP. All economic activities are also dependent on it. The main source of employment is crop Agricultural, through which about 90% of the population attain their livelihood. Others activities undertaken by the people are livestock rearing, poultry production, fuel wood extraction, food processing and mining. The climate is characterized by one rainy season from May/June to September/October. The mean annual rainfall during this period is between 800 mm and 1.100 mm. The rainfall is erratic spatially and in duration. There is a long spell of dry season from November to mid February, characterized by cold, dry and dusty harmattan winds. Temperatures during this period can be as low as 14 degrees centigrade at night, but can go to more than 35 degrees centigrade during the daytime. Humidity is, however, very low making the daytime high temperature less uncomfortable. The district is located in an area where soil is predominantly light in texture on the surface horizon, with low inherent fertility due to the deficiency in organic matter contents, nitrogen and potassium content

WA WEST The population for 2O00 from the 2000 Population and Housing Census is 69,284. The agricultural economy in the district is basically subsistence in nature involving over 90% of the labour force who are subsistent famers. The farming system in the district is dictated by the agro-ecological conditions; largely by the rainfall pattern which is uni-modal. Apart of agriculture which engages about 90% of the population, there are very few small scale enterprises such as petty trading and transport services. The climate of the region is one that is common to the three northern regions. There are two seasons, the dry and the wet seasons. The wet season commences from early April and ends in October. The dry season, characterized by the cold and hazy harmattan weather, starts from early November and ends in the latter part of March when the hot weather begins, with intensity and ends only with the onset of the early rainfall in April. The temperature of the region is between a low of 15°C at night time during the harmattan season and a high of 40°C in the day during the hot season. 12


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AOWIN-SUAMAN The district is characterised by moderate temperatures, ranging from 22°C at nightfall to 34°C during the day. The district has a double maxima rainfall pattern averaging 1,600 mm per annum. The two rainfall peaks fall between May-July and September/October. In addition to the two major rainy seasons, the region also experiences intermittent minor rains all the year round. This high rainfall regime creates much moisture culminating in high relative humidity, ranging from 70 to 90 per cent in most parts of the region. The Aowin Suaman District has a population of 119,133 (2000 POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS) found in 312 settlements The population growth rate for the district is 4.7%, which is higher than the regional average of 3.2%. Agriculture is the linchpin of the district economy. The occupation structure of the district indicates that seventy eight percent (78%) of the economically active population are engaged in Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing activities. In addition to cocoa, the main crop grown, the district also produces oil palm, rubber, citrus and coffee on small scale as cash crops. The major food crops grown include plantain, cassava, rice and maize.

KETA MUNCIPALITY The 2000 population census puts the total population at 133,661 which forms 8.2% of the Regional total population. Out of the total surface area of 1,086km2, approximately 362km2 (about 30 per cent) is covered by water bodies. Three main geographic belts may be identified namely the Narrow Coastal Strip, the Lagoon Basin of the middle belt and the Plains of the North. The Coastal Strip is marked by sand bars with a few sea cliffs bordering the coast. The Municipality falls within the Dry Coastal Equatorial Climate with an annual average rainfall of less than 1,000mm. The amount of rainfall reduces as one travels from the north to the coastal parts where only about 800mm annual may be recorded. The Municipality experiences a double maximum rainfall pattern. The major rainy season is between March and July while the minor one begins in September and ends in November .These coincide with the main and minor cropping seasons in the Municipality. The high average temperatures (about 30°C), couple with low relative humidities, promote high evapotranspiration.

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Figure 1. Political Map of Ghana showing study areas

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Figure 2. Map of location of study areas within Agro-Ecological Zones of Ghana

The communities were selected in each district in consultation with the District and Municipal Assembly at each study site. This was to ensure strict adherence to the criteria for the selection of communities. It was also meant to create a sense of participation and ownership of the final output, so as to enhance the implementation of targeted responses based on the outcome and recommendation of the study. The communities were selected based on the following criteria; -

Communities whose major sources of livelihoods are highly climate dependent; Levels of perceived application of indigenous knowledge; Communities highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change; Communities that are already exhibiting some level of impacts of climate change; as much as possible, different agro-ecological zones of Ghana; Communities that demonstrate the use of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in managing their natural resources. 15


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In addition to meeting these criteria, the communities were selected to reflect the composition of the municipality or district in terms of the major sources of livelihoods, as well as the major climate related hazards that manifest in the district. This was to capture as much information as possible to represent the heterogeneity and complexity of the utilization of IK under various manifestation of climate change and its impacts. Also, accessibility to the communities was considered. Table 1 shows the study communities, corresponding districts and regions.

2.2 METHODOLOGY The methodology for identification, analysis and documentation of the role of indigenous knowledge (IK) and adaptation to climate change in all the study areas was conducted adopting similar approach to that by Kihupi et al., (2002), however this approach was modified where appropriate to suit local conditions in Ghana. Data collection started in July, 2011 and ended in August, 2011. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods; key informant interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were used in data collection. Thirty questionnaires were administered to different groups of community residents who are 35 years or older, and have stayed in the community for 20 years or more, whiles focus group discussions (FGD) were organized in each of the selected communities with a much flexible representation of age classes. This was to ensure that the views and knowledge base of all residents of the community were captured irrespective of the age. A total of ninety questionnaires were administered in each district, in addition to personal observations as well as key informant interviews with farmers, NADMO officials and staffs of district agricultural directorates. Various community-based techniques used in weather forecasting were explored. Other issues explored were, the trends in temperature and rainfall observed in the communities, the impacts of the observed changes on the communities, and the indigenous approaches used by these communities to adapt to the observed changes in climate. Additionally, information was gathered on community access to conventional weather forecast and the extent of application to agricultural based decision making. The collected data were analyzed and synthesized using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) and Excel computer programmes. Focus group discussions were important in weighing and balancing the information collected through interviews and one-on-one discussions with a view to produce generalizations that represent the traditional knowledge existing in the community and pattern of climatic variables over an extensive period of more than thirty years. These trends then created an adequate background on which to gauge impacts of climate and how the communities are responding or used to respond to these impacts.

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Table 1. Study communities, corresponding districts and regions REGION

DISTRICT

COMMUNITY Yagaba

West Mamprusi Karemenga Northern Goakodow

Kolikoline Zabzugu-Tatale Mbeabodo Sabari

Nangodi Talensi-Nabdam

Yenduri

Upper East Pwalugu

Bamkpama Upper West

Wa west Jambusi Talawana

Yakase Western

Aowin-Suaman Achemfo Jensue

Tregui Volta Dzita Keta

Dzelukope Abutiakope Anloga

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GPS N 10.23370 ° W 001. 28312 ° N 10.56130 ° W 000.83265° N 10.23820 ° W 000.70988° N 09.12517 ° E 000.22029 ° N 08.99791 ° E000.25800 ° N 09.27968 ° E 000.25790 ° N 10.85874 ° W 000.66645 ° N 10.66292° W000.82679 ° N 10.60234 ° W 000.85658 ° N 09° 54.508 W 002° 43.529 N 10° 01.553 W 002° 46.306 N 09° 44.245 W 002° 46.376 N 05° 49.105 W 002° 52.124 N 05° 46.994’ W 002° 43.504’ N 05° 49.090’ W002° 49.508 N 05.88766 ° E 000.82363 ° N 05.77709 ° E000.77.65 ° N 05.89011 ° E 000.99415 ° N 05.90132 ° E 000. 99467 ° N 05.79712 ° E 000.89883 °

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3.0 RESULTS This section presents the results of the observed and perceived manifestation of changes in rainfall and temperature parameters in all the study districts. Further highlights are given on the impacts of the changes in the climatic parameters, as well as the community level adaptive responses, including indigenous approaches used in predicting rainfall and temperature. The section concludes with the institutional responses deployed in all the districts to address climate related hazards, including community awareness and application of conventional weather forecasting in Ghana. 3.1. AOWIN-SUAMAN DISTRICT (High Forest Zone) Results presented for this district give an indication of the observed and perceived changes in climate parameters in the High Forest Zone (HFZ) of Ghana. The Aowin Suaman District lies in the mid-western part of the Western Region of Ghana between latitude five degrees twentyfive minutes and six degrees fourteen minutes North (5° 25’ N and 6° 14’ N) and longitude two degrees thirty minutes and three degrees five minutes West (2° 30’W and 3° 05’W). The District is situated in the Wet-Semi Equatorial Climatic Zone with mean-monthly temperature of 27 degrees Celsius. The district is known to experience two rainy seasons, though not very marked. The major rainy season occurs from May to July, with a slight drop in rainfall in August and the minor rainy season from September to October. Annual rainfall is usually between 1500 and 1800 millimetres. The results in this district reflect climate parameters change impacts and adaptive responses a forest zone. The Aowin-Suaman District is a major cocoa growing area as well as major source of timber and forestry resources. 3.1.1. Observed climate changes in the community Quantity of rainfall Communities surveyed in the Aowin-Suaman District were unanimous that rainfall has been increasing over the past thirty years. In all the focus group discussion, the communities were unanimous that quantity of rainfall has seen gradual increases over the last 30 years and even beyond, as far as they could remember. Also, 87.5% of respondents to questionnaires indicated that rainfall has increased in the district. In the last 5 years, the communities have observed a marked increase in the quantity of rainfall. About 9% of respondents were, however, of the opinion that rainfall has decreased and 3.4% also thinking that there has been no change in the quantity of rainfall. Invariably, this observed increase in the quantity of rainfall was based on noticeable manifestations of changes in rainfall dependent and related landmarks in the communities as well as livelihood based activities. The indicators below were used as evidence to buttress the observed increases in rainfall quantity; i.

There is increased flooding. For the past 10 years, the place has recorded flooding every year but since 2007, the flood situation has been intense and in a single year, at least 18


ii.

iii. iv.

v.

2011

three flood occurrences could be recorded. From January to July 2011, three major floods have been recorded. The floods are pronounced because of increased rainfall which never used to be the case for the past forty years. In recent times, pools of water have been gathering on footpaths leading to farms due to the increased rainfall. This has resulted in accessibility difficulties which never used to be the case previously. Buildings and other structures are frequently being destroyed by flood waters. In the olden days, the community was not experiencing total flooding even during heavy rains that resulted in flooding. But now a whole community gets flooded leaving just a small segment of the community for evacuation and temporary resettlement. Flooding has become frequent in the community now compared to previous years. In the Enchi market, flooding has been a regular feature but the market women have observed a worsening of situation since 2007 when the flooding became an annual occurrence, sometimes even three heavy floods in a year.

Intensity of rainfall According to the observations of the communities in the district, intensity of rainfall has been increasing from the late 1960s till now. Analysis of responses from questionnaire administration also showed 93.2% of respondents stating that intensity of rainfall has increased. The communities’ observation of increased intensity of rainfall was based on the following manifestations; i.

ii. iii.

Previously flooding in the community occurred every ten years but now flooding occurs every year because the rains come very strongly. Previous flooding years include 1968, 1978, 1987, and 2007. There have been landslides on some hills which have destroyed farmlands in recent years due to very strong rainfall. Rainfall currently comes with strong winds which usually rips off the roofing of buildings and destroys homes and property. This was not the situation previously.

Number of rainy days From FGDs and questionnaires administered, the communities have observed that the number of rainy days per week in a typical rainy season has increased over the past 30 years. Previously, there would be on the average 3 rainy days per week in a typical rainy season whilst currently, on the average, there are 5 rainy days per week in a typical rainy season. Seasonal variation The rainfall pattern has completely changed. Rains no longer come as and when it used to in previous years. There was general consensus on the change in rainfall pattern with 92% of surveyed people confirming that the rainfall pattern has changed. The communities based their observation of the seasonal variation in rainfall on their understanding of rainfall pattern which

19


2011

have characterized their locality and has also been the basis on which farming operations are planned. Their justification of observed seasonal variation was based on the following evidence; i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

Previously, the rainy season was known to commence from May (although some rains would have been recorded in March/April) and peaked in September and October which sometimes resulted in flooding of cocoa farms and carry harvested cocoa away. But this has changed in recent years. Rains are now start in March and continue throughout the year. In 2011 for example, rainfall started in January (one farmer who showed written record of when rains started in 2011 showed 24 January) and has been raining till July (when this study was conducted). There is no differentiation between seasons. There used to be a seasonal dry period but now it rains throughout the year without any clear break to signify a dry season. The dry season was previously from January to March. The period between the 5 and 15 October has been noted as regular periods of flooding since time immemorial and for which the whole community prepared to minimize damage to property, but this situation has changed. Flooding occurs at any time of the year. Land preparation for farming usually was done in January and planting started in March to coincide with the rains, but now this has changed as it rains throughout the year and there are no distinct periods for preparing lands or for planting. Previously the rains used to start between June and July, but this has changed in the last 3 years. Rains now start as early as March and continue throughout the year.

Temperature The community’s observation on temperature changes was varied. About a fifth (22.7%) of the people surveyed said they had observed an increase in average environmental temperatures and can attest that the weather is warmer now than before. This group of respondents reasoned that: i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Though it is raining more now, the warmth from the sun is more than it used to be. Their planted crops are dying now because of too much heat. More cocoa seedlings are getting wilted in the farms now than in the past. Even when the sun comes out for a shorter period of time, the heat is very high. Although it is raining now, there is still more heat in the environment. Now during times when there are no rains and the sun is up, the sun shines very strongly and brings so much heat that cocoa beans dried in the sun dries fast.

A greater majority of respondents (60.2%) were also of the opinion that temperature is decreasing. This was based on the following observations in the community; i. ii.

Increasing rainfall has reduced temperature in the community. Crops that do not need heat are doing well.

20


iii.

iv. v.

2011

Colder nights have increased in recent years more than previously. Previously, there were periods that they used to sleep in the open at night because of heat but that does not happen anymore. There is always cloud formation in the sky and this prevents frequent sunshine and as a result there is reduced heat. There used to be a dry period between January and March when because there were no rainfalls, it was usually sunny and brought heat. But that situation has changed now; the dry period is no more and it has been replaced by rainfall which brings cold weather.

There was a further third group of people that were of the opinion that average environmental temperatures could not be said to have increased or decreased. This group of people made up 17.1% of the respondents surveyed in the questionnaires.

3.1.2. Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on local livelihoods In order to fully appreciate the impact of changes of climate parameters on the livelihood of most of the communities studied in the Aowin-Suaman District, it is important to first understand the livelihood activities. Major Livelihoods: 

  

Crop Farming: The people of the district are predominantly farmers. Major crops grown include; - Cash crops: the major cash crop grown in the district is cocoa, whiles oil palm is also grown on a smaller-scale. Others are also engaged in tree plantations such as teak and a few timber species. - Food crops: they include cassava, cocoyam and plantain, as well as maize. - Vegetables: Tomatoes, pepper, cabbage and carrots. Animal husbandry: Animal husbandry is on a lower scale and usually for subsistence. The animals reared include sheep and to a lesser extent cattle. Aquaculture: Small-scale mining: a major source of livelihood in practiced in Achemfo community.

Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on livelihoods Cocoa farming: i.

ii. iii.

Increased incidence of black pod disease which had lower infection rate in the community in the past, due to relatively lower rainfall quantity, is now on the increase, affecting most of their cocoa trees and reducing yields. Cocoa farms are flooded and trees and pods are washed away and destroyed. Cocoa trees easily fall down at the least wind or slightest application of force, because the soil is always wet and does not hold the trees firmly in the soil. 21


iv. v. vi.

2011

High temperatures results in premature ripening of immature cocoa pods. Most timber species that were planted on their cocoa farms have died as a result of stagnation of water on the farms. Transplanted cocoa seedlings are easily killed when there is a combination of high sunshine intensity and high soil moisture content. The heat warms the soil moisture and the young roots of the seedlings are “cooked” and the seedlings die off.

Photo 1. Cocoa pods affected by black pod disease at Jensue

Photo 2. Cocoa farm with trees killed as a result of flooding Food crop and vegetable farming: i.

ii. iii.

Incessant rainfalls leading to flooding has destroyed most of their food crops. Though the food crops are basically planted for subsistence purposes, they also serve as major sources of income during the off-season of cocoa harvesting. Pest infestation of vegetables due to very moist conditions all year round. Increased rainfall leads to stagnation of water in the soils which kills planted cassava and also destroys tubers of cassava by causing them to rot.

22


iv.

2011

Some crops get more rains than they require and this is negatively affecting their growth and yield.

Animal husbandry: Those who kept sheep, grasscutter, and cattle have had their animals carried away by flood waters. Aquaculture: Most fish farms that were constructed as alternative livelihoods by crop farmers have collapsed. Ponds have been regularly overrun by floods. The flooding has washed away the fingerlings in the ponds and the farms have failed. Small-scale mining: Mining pits are constantly flooded for most parts of the year. This makes mining difficult and extra funds are spent to pump water out of the pit before the workers can enter to work.

3.1.3. Major climate related hazards in the community According to the people, the major climate related hazards which are due to rainfall are; i. ii. iii.

Flooding Increased intensity of rainfall High water table

Impacts of major climate related hazards on community Destruction of life, homes and property: i.

ii. iii.

iv. v. vi.

Tributaries of the Tano River run through most parts of the district and with increases in rainfall, these tributaries easily get full with water and the next occurrence is to overflow its banks and flood the community. Soil erosion is now a big problem in most communities with big galleys visible everywhere in the communities. Some communities, especially those who have their communal toilet facilities located in low-lying areas complain of high water tables which have caused the pit latrines to flood making them unusable. Destruction of houses as a result of frequent flooding. Flooding of farms during rainfall leads to loss of food crops and sources of income In unfortunate situations, people have lost of their lives as a result of flooding

Loss of income: 23


2011

Whole farms are completely destroyed by floods and leads to loss of income. Health: i.

ii.

As a result of increased rainfall, there are constant pools of water gathered in and around the community which serves as breeding sites for mosquitoes. This has led to an increase in the prevalence of malaria. There is pollution of sources of water for the communities (streams, rivers, wells) during floods as filth is washed into the water sources. Most of the communities have no pipeborne water and the strong rains always wash the dirt from the higher grounds into the stream from which they drink.

Transportation and movement: i.

ii.

Roads which link communities in the district have been getting flooded in recent years and this cuts off communities from each other, creating accessibility difficulties in transporting foodstuffs and people. Bridges to farms and other places have been destroyed by floods, making movement difficult.

Other impacts on the community: Schooling in the community is affected as pupils are unable to go to school during heavy rains or flooding.

3.1.4. Community-based coping strategies in response to impacts of climate change Coping with impacts of changes in communities in the Aowin-Suaman district is very limited. Many farmers are of the opinion that they cannot do anything about the “flooding problem” because they are not the cause. Some are of the opinion that the changes they are witnessing in their environment are signs of the end of the world and others also think it might be a manifestation of the wrath of God. Some residents in the community, however, believe that clearing of forests and other human activities may be a factor for the changes they are experiencing but they cannot do anything about it. Upland farming Flooding has become a major problem in the district, hence most farmers who have access to lands on the hills or uplands have started turning them to cocoa farms, so as to escape the damages that flood waters cause to the crops. Cocoa farming is a major income earner in the communities and farmers cannot endure a regular occurrence of water flooding their farms because the farms are in low-lying areas. Water drainage 24


2011

It is common to see small channels and gutters made in most farms and also around the communities. This is to ensure that the flood waters do not stay in the communities and farms for long.

3.1.5. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters This section presents findings of indicators that communities in the Aowin-Suaman district in the Western Region if Ghana. These indicators are used in forecasting climate parameters, notably rainfall and temperature.

25

Table 2. Indigenous indicators in predicting climate parameters in Aowin-Suaman District COMMUNITY

INDICATOR

Jensue

Bird

Tree

LOCAL NAME

DESCRIPTION OF INDICATOR

MEANING OF THE INDICATOR

“Haahor

The bird looks like a duck or the cattle egret

When this bird moves from the south to the north making its sound of "Kwaaakwaaakwaa", then it means there will be more rains. When the bird flies to the south, then it is an indication of fewer rains.

not always reliable, being used

“Onyina" Ceiba pentandra

It is a big tree which is an indicator of rainy season

The tree sheds its leaves from January and by March the tree will be very bare, devoid of any leaves. When the leaves of the tree begin to sprout then the rainy season is near. When the time for the leaves to sprout is due and the leaves do not come back then it is an indication of a warm season with bad rainfall. The sprouting of the leaves is expected in June and when this occurs early, then the rainy season will start early. The size of the sprouted leaves is an indication of the volume of rainfall to expect.


When there is dense fog seen on top of the mountain during April, it is an indication of less rainfall for the season but when the mountain top is clear and no fog is seen, then that season will have more rainfall.


When the rainbow is seen formed in the east in the early morning, then there is going to be less rainfall for the season. But when the rainbow is formed in the west in the early morning, then the season will see more rainfall


The sighting of this bird and the sound it makes is an indication of the approaching of the rainy season. Whenever the bird is heard, it means the rains are near. In the olden days, the elders referred to the bird as “God‟s announcer” because it was regarded as coming to the community annually to announce the beginning of the rainy season. Unfortunately, this bird is no longer found in the community

not being used

Mountain fog

Rainbow

Bird

"Brobbey"

It is bigger than the crow. The bird is blueblack in colour and has a strand of feathers on its head like that of the comb of a cock.

REMARK

26


Enchi

New Yakase

Trees

Emire and Oframo

Bird

Ako-wre

2011

These trees do not readily shed leaves throughout the year. Most cocoa farmers do plant them in their farms because it can provide shade throughout the year. However, these trees shed their old leaves just as the rain season is about to start and sprout new leaves. So as soon as the tree‟s leaves begin to drop, it is an indication that the rainy season will start soon.

not reliable, being used

The movement of this bird is an indication of impending drought or rainy season. When these birds move into the community, it is an indication of no rains. This is so because they live in caves in the soil and do not stay in places that are wet. Conversely, when these birds are seen moving away from the community, it is a signal that the rainy season is imminent.


Rainfall at Adonkrom

Information that there has been heavy rainfall at Adonkrom. When it is heard that flooding has started in Adonkrom, it takes less than 24 hours to reach Enchi

being used

Clouds

When the clouds form in the east, it is an indication of sure rainfall in Enchi

being used

Volume of water in river

The volume of water in the main bridge in Enchi during rains in the months of June and July has been an indication of the extent of rains to expect in October.

not reliable

Frogs

When the frogs are heard croaking in the dry season, it is an indication that the rainy season is near. In recent years, the frogs do not even start croaking and the rains would have started long time.

not reliable

This tree bears fruits and when it flowers, it an indication that the rainy season is near

not reliable

The community has a known weather pattern that they rely on to determine which stage of the year they have reached. June and July usually come with very heavy rains and August usually has less rain and from September to October, there are heavy rains again which usually caused

not reliable

Tree

Weather pattern

kakapenpen

The bird moves in a group and they sleep in caves. They look very much like the sparrow but are smaller. Its feathers are brown in colour

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2011

flooding Old Yakase

Frog

When the frogs are heard in May to June it is an indication of the rainy season approaching. Currently, the frogs still make the sound. Their sound is said to call the rains so when they are heard together at a certain time of the year, it means it‟s time for rains. The frogs are usually heard in June or July.


When this tree bears fruit and ripens, then the rainy season is near. This was usually happening in June/July

not being used

Intense dry season

When the dry season from November to February is very intense, then the rainy season will be good.

not being used

Millipedes and centipedes

When millipedes and centipedes are seen climbing to higher grounds when the rains start, it is a signal that there is going to be flooding in the community. They are noted to first sense the flooding in the soil and they begin to move out to the higher ground or hills.

not being used

Thunder and Lightning

When there is more thunder and lightning in the month of March prior to the rainy season, it is an indication of a very strong rainy season which will flood the community.

not being used

Tree

kakapenpen or nkudua

Tree

Onyina

When it starts gaining leaves after it has shed its leaves from December to March, then it is an indication that the rainy season is near.

not being used

Tree

Nzakowaa

When the leaves of that tree start sprouting, it is an indication of approaching rainfall. This tree usually loses its leaves from December to March. When in May, the leaves start sprouting, and then the rainy season is approaching


When the sun appears very early in the day and the sunshine is very intense it means at sunset the rains will fall

not being used

This tree usually bears fruit in June/July and many birds go to eat the seeds. Anytime the fruits come on the tree and the birds come to eat, it is an indication of the imminent

not being used

Sun‟s appearance Tree

Tanua

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rainy season. When this happens, it means there will be strong rains. When the rains come, it comes to wash away the moth which is formed on the lands. This tree is available and still bears fruits. Weather

Bird

“Owam”

Weather Pattern

Bird

Cloud Formation

Akyenkyena

The bird has black feathers with a long beak and also a long tail. It is not big.

Cold weather from December to January, followed by high temperature in February and March is an indication of rainy season. When there is more heat, then the rains will be strong but when the weather does not get warm then it means the rainy season will not be very strong.

not being used

These birds leave the community when it is the dry season and return to the community when the rainy season is approaching. Previously, these birds were noted to leave the community from December to March and this always coincided with the dry period when they experienced no rains. So when the birds are heard in March it means the rain season is approaching. These birds are no longer found in the community because all their habitats which were trees have been cut.

not being used

There are known periods in the year when the weather is always known to be a particular manner. Cold weather usually starts from November and that weather is less cold than that which comes after December. Stronger cold weather always starts from after Christmas till middle of January. Within that period there are no rains and farmers can start weeding their farms. By February through March, farmers will start burning their farms


When the birds move into the community, it is an indication that the rainy season is near.

not being used

When dark clouds form in the north, it is certain that the rains will fall.

not being used

29

3.1.6. Level of awareness, access and application of meteorological information by communities Access to climate information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) In the Aowin-Suaman district, all respondents said they were aware of the forecasts of the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet). More than half of the respondents (56.8%) said they were aware of both seasonal and daily forecasts of the GMet; 6% percent were aware of only the Daily forecasts and 36.4% were aware of only the seasonal forecasts. Sixty-one percent (61%) of these respondents said they received the GMet forecasts regularly and the remaining 38% said they did not receive regular weather information. The major source of information for weather forecasts was the radio; as 67% said they got their information solely from listening to the radio and a further 24% got their information from both radio and television. Application of information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) Access to the information does not necessarily reflect in the usage of the information. Despite over sixty per cent (60%) of the respondents receiving GMet forecasts regularly, only 26.4% of the respondents said they planned their livelihood activities based on the weather forecasts that they receive. About 31% said they sometimes planned their activities based on the weather forecasts whilst forty-three per cent (43%) emphatically said they do not plan their activities based on the weather information. A number of farmers utilizing the weather forecasts said they used the daily forecasts to decide when to go to the farm and return but not when to plant their crops because they already know their planting season and would stick with it. Some reasons given for not relying on the GMet weather forecasts were; i.

ii. iii.

The people having their own knowledge and experience of the weather upon which they made their decisions. Most of the respondents who are crop farmers prefer to stick with their traditional planting seasons and would not make any effort to change their planting season based on any GMet information. Not getting time or making any effort to listen and really pay attention to any weather information Sometimes the GMet predictions do not come true and have caused disappointments and losses. They were of the opinion that the weather forecasts are not reliable and fail most of the time. A 67 year old farmer at Old Yakasi said “I had planted large tracts of land based on the GMet information and lost everything so I don't even want to listen to them (GMet) again”.

3.2. KETA MUNICIPALITY (Coastal Savannah Zone) The Keta Municipality lies within longitudes 0.30E and 1.05E and Latitudes 5.45N and 6.005N. It is located east of the Volta estuary, about 160km to the east of Accra, off the Accra-Aflao main 30


2011

road. Out of the total surface area of 1,086km2, approximately 362km2 (about 30 per cent) is covered by water bodies. The largest of these is Keta Lagoon, which is about 12 km at its widest section and 32km long. Hence, the remaining land area is only 724km 2 a situation which creates severe constraints on access to land for development in the district.

The results in this section reflect the changes in climatic parameters and the coping mechanisms in a coastal savannah ecological zone. The study explored the complexities in the kind interaction that climatic parameters are having with the lagoon and sea, as well as associated impacts. 3.2.1 Observed climate changes in the community Quantity of rainfall Rainfall quantity is decreasing in the Keta Municipality. According to the surveyed communities, the amount of rainfall that is experienced in recent times has declined drastically, and they based their assertion on the following observations. i.

ii.

iii. iv.

v.

Water level in the lagoons in the community has decreased significantly in recent years. Since the damming of the Volta River, the major source of water inflow into the lagoon has been rainfall, hence with the reduction in the water level in the lagoon, it is a proof the rainfall quantity has decreased. In the 1970s and 1980s when rainfall was high, the River Volta used to overflow its banks and passes through the community during the peak of the rainy season but now such a situation hardly occurs. The rainy season then was continuous and had lots of rain. There used to be pockets of water and lakes around the community, but they are now no more. Flooding is not occurring now as it used to be in previous years when rainfall was always followed by flooding of the community. Now flooding is a rare occurrence. Floods in the communities in the olden days were mostly associated with rainfall which caused the lagoons and lakes to overflow into the communities, so the reduction of these occurrences, is an indication that rainfall has decreased over the years. Previously, channels/drains were regularly constructed in the communities during the rainy season to take flood waters away from the community into the sea but this is no longer done because the rains are not as it used to be, and does not pose flooding hazards to the community anymore.

Intensity of rainfall Rainfall has reduced in intensity. This was based on the following manifestations;

31


i.

ii. iii. iv.

v. vi. vii.

2011

Previously heavy rainfall was very strong and one could not walk through it but now such rains are very rare. Rainfall mostly comes in light showers. The heavy rains that were witnessed in the 1980s are no longer seen in the 2000s Houses are not being destroyed during rains as it used to be in the 1970s and 1980s when very strong rains would always destroy houses. Rains used to come with a lot of thunder and lightning in the previous years but all that has ceased in recent years Previously the thumping of rain drops could be felt heavily on the aluminium roofing sheets but that scenario is no longer felt. “Kpekuitsi” an intense rain which occurs such that people could not look straight but have to look down when walking in the rain does not happen anymore. Nowadays, one can just walk through the rain with ease and only worry about being wet. The community used to flood after 2 hours of rainfall but now flooding will occur only after about 6 hours of rainfall Formerly, it would rain after very thick dark clouds have formed and the rains come heavily but now the clouds can be white and it will rain and such rains are not strong. In recent years, intense rainfall may come for about 30minutes to about 1hour and stop. Previously heavy rains could go continuously for a longer time.

Number of rainy days The number of rainy days per a week in a typical rainy season has decreased in the Keta Municipality. The people had observed that: i.

ii.

In current years, especially in the 2000s, the average number of rainy days in a week during the peak rainy season is about two compared with same periods in the early 1980s, when it could rain almost every day of the week, or at least 4 to 5 days out of the 7 days in week would record rainfall In the past, there used to be times when families would stay indoors and food is prepared for three days because the rains will not stop, but now this does not happen.

Seasonal variation The major and minor rainy seasons have not changed but whereas the major rainy season continues to record rainfall, the minor season is becoming extinct. The community responses were however divided on the onset of rainy season; some believed that the onset of rainy season has not changed, whiles others believe that the onset of rainy season has not necessarily changed but it is no longer predictable. Observed evidence of changes in rainfall patterns, according to the people are: i.

ii.

About thirty years ago (1980s), the rainy season would start in January and end in July, a drop in rainfall in April. But now there are no rains from January to March; rains start in May and end in July. Rains still come in the major season but the minor season rain is becoming extinct 32


iii. iv.

2011

The rainy season does not record consistent rainfall. The rains start and there are intermittent periods of no rain. The onset of the rainy season has also slightly change and become less predictable. There are years that the rains come at the expected time.

Temperature Average temperatures in the community have been on the rise since the 1990s, especially when compared with the temperatures of the 1970s and 1980s. This observation was unanimous in all the communities surveyed and they gave reasons for their conclusion as: i.

ii.

iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii.

In the past (about 20 to 30 years ago), night temperatures were very low and sleeping was comfortable without any sweating. But now the people sweat so much in the night that some of them have to come out for fresh air or bath to keep cool. Night temperatures are high making sleeping uncomfortable. Farmers cannot work for long hours on their farms because even at 9.00 am the sun is high and the heat is so much that they have to stop working. In previous years, especially in the 1980s, farmers could work very actively till 12.00noon. The temperature of the lagoon water is higher now compared to former years where the water was cold. The weather is generally very warm now compared to previous years such as in the 1980s and 1970s Leaves of trees are withering very fast and falling prematurely and the sun more scorching Fishermen have observed that the sea is warm now as compared to previous years and attributes this to general heat in the environment. Even the rainy season which used to have low temperatures is now very hot Fishermen have observed that the sea used to be very cold at 4 am before they would start fishing, but now even at 4am, the sea feels very warm

3.2.2. Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on local livelihoods Major Livelihoods:     

Farming: vegetables, shallots Fishing Fish mongering Animal Husbandry Trading in foodstuffs

Impacts on changes in temperature and rainfall on livelihoods

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2011

Farming: i.

Land becomes hard and tilling becomes difficult because of lack of moisture in the soil and increasing. This makes the land dry and hard making it difficult for farming Shallot used to be the main vegetable grown in the communities but because of the poor rains, green pepper and other vegetables are now grown because they can do well with less water compared with the shallots. Food crops used to grow very well in June/July but now due to unreliability of the rainfall pattern, the crops can fail at that time. Increasing heat dries up the soil and as a result the land no more holds water as it used to. When a farmer waters his/her crops, all the water easily drains away very fast and the crops have very little water grow. Food security: Crop yields have reduced drastically due to low rainfall. Most of the water in the community is salty and as such not suitable for irrigation and rainfall is the major source of water for irrigating crops. So with decreased rainfall, not much water is harvested for irrigation. One farmer cultivating onion, maize, pepper, and tomatoes said, ‘when the rainy season was “normal”, January was the time to plant maize and onion, but this is no longer possible because the rains are not enough. Now the harvest for maize is very low’. About 15-20 years ago, Anloga cultivated enough maize to meet the needs of its people and never imported maize from other parts of the country but now they had to buy from elsewhere at a higher cost.

ii.

iii. iv.

v.

Fishing: i. ii. iii.

iv.

v. vi.

Fish catch has drastically reduced due to low rainfall which affects the water volume in the sea and the lagoon. The sizes of fish have reduced significantly due to low water level in the lagoon. The sand at the beach gets heated very early and burns the feet of fishermen when they are dragging their nets. Now fishermen have to wear socks to protect their feet from the heated sand when they are working at the beach Warm weather limits fish catch because during warm weather, the fish move deeper into the sea where they would have cool water. Due to the current high temperature, the fish are difficult to catch as they move to deeper waters away from the coast and away from the 30 meter exclusive fishing zone where most of the fishermen operate. High temperature of the sea and the lagoon affects fish catch and very little fish is harvested now compared to times when the water in the sea and lagoons were colder Normally, rainfall is followed by good fish catch. The rains would normally draw the fish to the coast because after rains the offshore gets colder and this is suitable to the fish. The fish now move further away from the shore into deeper waters where the water is colder and this makes catch difficult. Usually after heavy rains, the catch is high, but now because there is less rain the catch is low.

Trading in food stuffs:

34


i.

2011

Traders in foodstuffs have been badly affected by reduced rainfall. Food prices have increased and traders can’t even buy in order to sell at a good price to make profit.

Fish mongering: When there is low catch from the sea and lagoons, the fish mongers who are generally women also do not get much to sell. Animal husbandry: Pigs used to be common in most villages but with the devastation of the coconuts and the subsequent disappearance of waste from its processing, feeding the pigs has become a big problem and this has reduced their numbers. Some families still keep a few pigs on free range.

3.2.3. Major climate related hazards in the community According to the people, the major climate related hazards that the community is experiencing are; Rainfall  

Occasional flooding of community and farmlands along the river during heavy rainfall. Windstorms and rain storms that remove roofs of buildings

Temperature 

Increasing heat in the community

Impacts of major climate related hazards on community: This section presents the community’s responses on how the major climate related hazards that they mentioned were affecting their livelihoods. Indigenous knowledge in climate change adaptation in Ghana – Keta Municipality Farming: i.

Hardening of land makes land unsuitable for crop cultivation and more energy is expended on land preparation. Tilling of land before planting becomes an arduous task as farmers have to wet the lands to soften them for tillage and cultivation. Due

35


ii.

2011

to this, farmers are unable to cultivate large tracts of land and crop yield has also reduced. Fruit trees in their homes are being affected by diseases and the people believe that it is the result of low rainfall

Destruction of homes and property: i. ii.

Flooding during heavy rainfall washes away whole farms along the rivers Sometimes after heavy rains, the sea comes inland and destroys farmlands and houses as well as making their freshwater sources saline.

Increasing food prices: i.

Due to reduced rainfall, yield of crops have reduced drastically and it has resulted in increased prices of food items. A female foodstuffs trader remarked that when weather was normal, one bag of maize was GHS 30 but now it is GHS 100.

Productivity of the people: i.

Due to the increasing high temperature, work rate has reduced as people can't work for long hours on their farms or at sea because they easily get tired. The people claim to get tired early and have to stop active work on their farms earlier than they would like to. Formerly, they could work actively till about 2pm and though the sun would have come up by 12noon, the heat will not be too much and they could work on their farms for long hours. But now, they have to cease working even before 12 noon when the sun is expected to be very high.

Health: i.

ii. iii.

iv.

Incidence of malaria in the community is increasing and the people link it to higher temperatures which make them sleep outside of their rooms and get them exposed to mosquitoes. High temperatures have been causing early fatigue in people and they cannot work for long hours. The hot weather makes children sick There is lot of dust in the community due to reduced rainfall. The air is full of dust and it settles in their rooms and on their roofs. Dust which settles on their roofs get mixed with rainwater which enters their wells and affects their drinking water and water used for domestic purposes. Hot weather causes general uncomfortable feeling

Sources of income: i.

A hard type of coconut used to grow in the community, out of which a major business in copra was developed but because of reduced rainfall the coconut is no more and the 36


ii.

2011

business has collapsed. A wholesale shop which used to be where the copra was sold to retailers and transported to other parts of the country is currently closed down and is a relic of the once brisk business that copra provided. Many people have lost their income sources. Fishing being the major livelihood source of the people, low fish catches have affected the income levels of the people. People no longer have enough money to cater for their families. They can no longer adequately take care of their children in school.

Migration: Many people are migrating from the communities because of lack of income from farming and fishing which has been badly affected by reduced rainfall.

3.2.4. Community-based coping strategies in response to impacts of climate change This section presents the innovations and coping mechanisms that residents of the Keta Municipality are putting in place to respond to the impacts due the changes in climatic parameters. Coping mechanisms in farming Farmers are increasingly resorting to the construction of mechanized tubewells for irrigation. Shallow wells have been used in the Municipality and dates back from over 100 years. Lined (sandcrete/concrete) wells and tubewells were introduced in the municipality in the late 1990s. Accessibility to electricity and financial resources is the main factors driving the spread of the tubewell technology. A

B

Photo 3. Shallow well (A) and Tube well irrigation with sprinkler (B) in Keta Municipality

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2011

Farmers need to have two farmlands at in separate locations: upstream and downstream. Farmers migrate upstream during heavy rainfall to avoid their farms being washed away by floods and they farm downstream in periods of low rainfall. In some situations, tilling of the land before planting becomes an arduous task and they have to fetch water and pour on the land before it can soften for them to work on; a practice known in the local language as “kudjedi”. Coping mechanisms in fishing It is becoming a common sight to be seeing fishermen wearing socks when dragging their nets because the sand at the shore becomes too hot in the afternoons. Additionally, in previous times wearing of caps never used to be part of the fishing gear to sea, but now wearing a cap has become part of their dressing due to high temperatures and high incidence of sun; which makes the skin becomes black.

3.2.5. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters This section presents findings of indicators that communities surveyed in the Keta Municipality in the Volta Region of Ghana use in forecasting climate parameters, notably rainfall and temperature.

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Table 3. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters in the Keta Municipality COMMUNITY

INDICATOR

Tegbi

Ambient temperature

LOCAL NAME

DESCRIPTION OF INDICATOR

MEANING OF THE INDICATOR

REMARK

When ambient temperatures get very warm in the early part of the year, from January to April, it signifies good rainy season. The intensity of heat is an indication of how intense the rainy season will be.

A bird

Akpo

These birds are usually sighted as male and female, around January to March

The appearance of the bird, usually in early January indicates that rains will be good for the impending rainy season. When the bird appears, it is heard throughout the community because it makes a lot of noise.

A worm

Kpoengo( yearly worm)

Yellowish in colour with some fluffy furs on the body. They live in the soil like crabs.

The worm lives in the soil and when it comes out of the soil before the rainy season, it is an indication of a good rainy season.

Ants

Likei or zato

Brownish with pincers which they use to bite, when they are farming and you mistakenly hit their mud, they bite. Wherever they are, the python cannot be found there because the ants can kill it. The likei are not poisonous

Whenever the ants leave highland to the lowland near the streams or rivers, it is an indication of little rain and no floods. But when they move from the stream area to the upland, it means there will heavy rains which can cause flooding. So they are an indicator of both higher rainfall and no rainfall.

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Dzita

It is a dog-like animal but not as big as a dog. It is brownish in colour and lives in a burrow underground. They dig their burrows deep into the ground and usually closer to the water table where they store food and live for long periods.

2011

Dog-like animal

Heteklolo

When the animal is spotted out of its burrow looking for water/food, it is an indication that the year will have very little rain or no rain. Even those who have the head of the dead animal can show it to the weather when it is threatening to rain and disrupt an event and there will be no rains.

Bird

Dzeletutu

Bird

Akra

A white bird

The bird appears to signify the end of the rainy season. The bird moves around to find ponds to settle at the end of the rains.

Hawk

Avakpo

A small to medium-sized bird. The upper parts are blackish and its underparts are white heavily streaked with black. The under-wing flight feathers are white with a black trailing edge. The under-wing coverts are mostly black with white spots.

The appearance of the hawk signifies the end of the rainy season. In the community, the farming season starts at the end of the rainy season and that is the time the hawk comes home to catch chicken. So the appearance of the hawk signifies both the end of rainy season and also the beginning of the farming season.

Frog

Sopena

Long-legged frog with brownish camouflage skin. The frog is found around the lagoons and ponds.

The croaking of the frog is an indicator of imminent rains. When the frog starts croaking in the afternoon, it means there is going to be rains in the evening. The croaking of the frog is not an indication of the intensity of rainfall but that it will rain.

Goes round the community making its noise and that indicate that there would be more rains for that season

40

Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation in Ghana direction of movement of sea bird Dzelukope

The birds are either white or grey in colour.

When the bird is seen flying from East to West, then the sea will be rough immediately; in not less than 3 hours.

Degree of hotness of the ground

The ground becoming very hot in early June is an indication of a very heavy rainy season

Warm weather from Jan through to April

When the weather gets hot in January through to April then it is a positive indication of a good rainy year.

Rainbow

Abutiakope

Wenya

2011

A multi-coloured arc that appears in the sky

The appearance of the rainbow during the rainy season signals the end of the rainy season.

Movement of the clouds

Quick-moving clouds are an indication of rainfall and slow moving clouds are an indication of no or little rainfall

Colour of cloud formed

Dark clouds mean it will rain, but where the clouds are white in colour, it means there will be little or no rains.

Sea wave or tide movement and direction

Waves moving perpendicular or directly towards the shore (observer) signifies strong tides and possibility of rough sea. When waves are slightly slanted to the east or west, then it means the tides are calm and the sea is good to go fishing.

Wet sand inspection at the shoreline

When the sand is very soft and a foot print of about 2cm deep can be created then the sea will be rough. But when the fisherman steps on the sand at the beach and there cannot even be a visible footprint or just a slight foot print, then the sea will be good for fishing.

Speed of wave movement

Fast movement of the wave means rough sea, but slow or normal movement means there will be good sea

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Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation in Ghana Sea Bird‟s pattern of feeding on fish in the sea

Anloga

Chili

The feathers are white and grey in colour, with a black strip around the neck. The birds only feed on fish and are mostly found in coastal areas.

2011

Fishermen move towards the birds anytime they are spotted because their presence indicates presence of fish. When the birds are seen feeding on the surface of the sea, it means there are many fish not so deep in the sea but when they fly high and dive into the sea, then the fishes are deep in the sea. Sometimes, when the bird goes up and dives, then there may be big fishes, but when it stays just on the sea and picks, then there are small fishes.

Sea Bird‟s sound and direction of movement

If the birds are making sounds and moving from east to west, then there will be sufficient fish and the sea will be good. But if they are moving from west to east, then the sea will be rough, though there might be sufficient fish.

Type of grass

When the grass flowers, it is an indication that the rains are due and could start any moment from the time the flower appears.

A river bird

Mavividetsi

The bird looks like a little duck. The local name is translated in English as “I will make your soup taste good”

Appearance of the birds signifies the beginning of the rainy season because the birds lay their eggs prior to the rainy season.

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3.2.6. Level of awareness, access and application of meteorological by communities Access to climate information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) All the people surveyed in the Keta Municipality are aware of the weather forecasts of the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) and they sometimes get information on weather from GMet. The major source of weather information is the radio and the television. Crop farmers were more inclined to pay attention to the seasonal forecasts whilst the fishermen were more interested in the daily forecasts. However, majority of the people surveyed said they do not receive regular weather updates from the GMet. Application of information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) Although majority of the people in the Keta Municipality were aware of the activities of the Ghana Meteorological Agency, they do not plan their activities based on the weather information they receive. According to the people who did not rely on the GMet information to plan their livelihoods, their traditional means of predicting the weather are reliable and are usually accurate more than the GMet information. In Dzita for example, the people were unanimous in their response that they continue to rely on their local knowledge in weather prediction to plan their farming and fishing activities.

3.3. TALENSI-NABDAM DISTRICT The Talensi-Nabdam district is located in the Guinea Savanna ecological zone of Ghana. The average of respondents to questionnaires was 61 years. 3.3.1. Observed climate changes in the community Quantity of rainfall The Talensi Nabdam district was unanimous in their observation that rainfall is decreasing in the district over the last 30 years. Ninety-eight percent (98%) of the respondents unanimously stated that rainfall is on the increase. Their observation is based on the following evidence: i. ii.

iii.

In the past, by July all ponds would have been flooded but now it is still dry because the rains do not fall like formerly. Formerly, by July the rivers around the communities where water is fetched will be too full that going to the river side to fetch water one had to be cautious, but this time one could go there to fetch water, even children can go and fetch water Formerly, anytime the clouds formed, there would be rains but now even when the clouds form the rains do not come because the wind blows away everything.

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iv.

v.

2011

Previously there were years that they could do dry season farming because when the rains are heavy that year there would be enough water but now it’s difficult to do it because the rains are scanty Early morning dews are very characteristic of the rainy season but in recent years there is no dew in the morning because there are no rains.

Intensity of rainfall According to the people (83.3% of respondents), intensity of rainfall has increased. Although intense rainfalls are not regular feature of the rainy season, the occasional intense rainfalls are very strong. The people’s observations of rainfall intensity were summarized in the following evidence: i. ii.

Although intense rains do not come often now as compared to previous years, there are occasional heavy rains which when it comes, comes with very strong intensity. Heavy rains in recent years are also usually accompanied by very strong winds which destroys everything. Now, the intense rainfalls are also accompanied by windstorms.

Number of rainy days The people have observed a reduction in number of rainy days per week in a typical rainy season. This conclusion was based on the following evidence that the people presented: i.

ii.

iii.

Previously, in the month of July or harvesting time for the early millet, one could not see the sun for about three days because it would be raining, but now one can see the sun every day during that same period In the peak rainy season in the former years it could rain for three days and mothers could not go out to get food to cook but in recent years such scenarios do no longer exist. Even in the periods when rainfall is expected, when it rains on one day, it may take three to five weeks before the next one comes

Seasonal variation All communities surveyed in Talensi-Nabdam through the FGDs and questionnaires were 100% unequivocal about how the rainfall pattern has changed in their communities. They had observed that: i. ii. iii.

Formerly the rains would start in March and one could sow but now even up to April, there would be no rains and planting cannot begin Rainfall is not as regular as the past, when it drizzles somewhere and one goes ahead to plant, the rains stop and nothing good comes out of the planted crop In the past planting of new crops was done in March/April but now even in July, some farmers had not have rains to sow anything. 44


iv. v.

2011

In the past there used to be uniform rains in all the communities so they could sow at similar time, but now it rains differently and not all communities sow at the same time In the past rice-growing farmers used to sow rice early and there will be rains from September to October for it to fruit well, but this time around usually, there are no rains around September to October

Temperature On the issue of temperature increases, everyone was very strong in stating that temperature has increased markedly in their communities and they had many things to cite as evidence for their conclusion that temperature is on the increase. The following are some of the evidence to support their observation of an increase in temperature: i. ii.

iii. iv.

v.

In the olden days, there were 3 months of intense heat in the year but now intense heat is experienced in about 6 out of the 12 months in the year It was common to see people wearing pullovers and heavy clothes around July when the weather was cold as a result of rains, but now even in July men are seen wearing singlet and going about in the community. In the former years, nobody would sleep outside in the month of July because it would be too cold but now many people are sleeping outside because of heat School children could walk bare footed to school in olden days and would not have any problems because the ground was not so warm, but now no one dares to do so because the ground is so hot. The weather is too hot in recent years because, for example, the periods in the olden days when it could rain for three days that mothers could not go out to get food to cook brought with it cold times but this time such rains are no longer experienced so it is very hot all the time.

3.3.2. Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on local livelihoods Major Livelihoods The people in the Talensi-Nabdam district are predominantly crop farmers. The major sources of livelihoods in the community are:      

Crop farming (including dry season gardening): major crops grown are maize, millet, sorghum, groundnuts, and vegetables) Animal husbandry Fishing: in the Red Volta Aquaculture Small-scale mining(Galamsey) Shea nut collection 45


 

2011

Petty trading (sell maize, fish) Pito brewing (a local drink made from millet)

Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on livelihoods Crop Farming: Crop farming, the major source of livelihoods for the people, is also the most impacted by the changes in rainfall and temperature. Impacts of reduced rainfall on crop farming include: i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

vi. vii.

Crop yield has reduced significantly because the farming is dependent on rainfall and rainfall has decreased significantly in recent years. The yield that one could formerly get from a piece of land cannot be achieved now on that same piece of land, assuming everything is same in the land as was in the olden days. Farming has become very difficult because the rainy season has become very short. Now, rains don’t start early. Normally the rains will come from March to October, but now it comes in July and by September there is no rain. There is time for planting every crop: a time to sow sorghum, millet, maize, etc and it will grow according to its time, but because the rains are unpredictable and also very low, the crops are sown at the wrong time and yields are low. During the former years when rainfall was normal and good, beds for planting sweet potato and other crops would have been prepared in July but now it is not possible because it’s the same land that they use to farm other crops which are more staple so when the rains delay, planting of those crops also delay. Crop varieties that the people have been growing over the years are no longer doing well because of the changed rainfall regime. There used to be a variety of sorghum that their fathers used to sow but because of the current rainfall regime they are not able to plant them. Some of the old sorghum varieties are “yankur”, afanga, lawinlaar, zee”, vodonlarr and another type of groundnut. Now the people are cropping new varieties. The people are now planting “supieh”, a type of beans which is not what they used to grow in the communities. The vegetables don’t ripe well and there is poor yield so they don’t get to the market for the women to sell The major impact of increased temperature on farming activities was that the increasing heat kills planted crops

Fishing: i.

ii.

Formerly fishing was mainly done all year round in the Red Volta but now this is not possible because the river dries up in the dry seasons and even the rainy season has become short so there is not much water in the river for good fishing. When the water level in the rivers and ponds is high and the water temperature is cold, the fish looks bigger and healthier but now the fish are all small and thin

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iii. iv. v.

vi.

2011

After heavy rains, one could get a lot of fish catch but now even moderate fish catches are rare because there are no regular heavy rains Nowadays because of the heat, the fish die in the water and the small ponds after heavy rains, if the fishermen don’t get to it early. In recent years, some farmers are sometimes compelled to block the rivers to create dams from which they can get water to irrigate their crops. This is done at the individual level and not sanctioned by the company. This activity also has a negative effect on fish catch downstream due to low flow. Farmers with lands upstream are usually those who engage in the damming of the water and farmers downstream will be worse off. Previously when there were enough rains, nobody blocked the rivers for dams and fish catch would not be affected. Most little ponds around the communities from which they could fish have dried up. In Nangodi, there was a Ministry of Agriculture garden which had ponds from which they used to fish in when they were children, but for about 16 years now the river has dried and there is no fish.

Shea nut collection: i. ii.

iii.

iv.

The yield of shea nut tree has gone down because there is no rain so the women don’t get enough to bring home as compared to before Shea nut trees usually flower in February and March but now they are not seen flowering at those months. This is because there is no rain. Also, the heat causes the shea trees not to flower well. Long time is spent on collection of shea nut before one could get even a small quantity because most of the trees have low yield. One has to walk for so many miles to get few nuts. Sometimes, by the time that the shea nut will be flowering and fruiting, a rain storm comes and blows everything away.

Animal Husbandry (livestock and birds): i.

ii.

High temperatures cause diseases in animals. When the animals are locked in pens, the heat kills them; and when they are left to roam, people steal them. An animal could be very healthy moving about and the following day it will be seen dead. Strange sicknesses are affecting the animals. Diarrhoea is the main sickness the people know to be affecting their animals but this time another ailment they have observed is that their animals get bleached such that they change colour, leaving only the eyes which remain unchanged. Forage or pasture is reduced in the community because the rains are low. It is, therefore, difficult to tie the goats in the bush for them to graze as has been the practice in the olden days when livestock are tied in the bushes to allow them to graze and at the same time restrict their movement in farmlands to destroy crops.

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iii.

iv. v. vi.

vii. viii. ix.

2011

Water sources have dried up and animals don’t get enough water to drink. Animals travel so many miles to get access to water. By the time these animals make the journey back to the homes they are thirsty again. The birds don’t get termites to feed on so the birds don’t feed well. When the farmer decides to keep them in coops, in order to feed them, they get killed by heat Newcastle disease is high during the period of the heat Formerly one could decide not to give the animals food for about three days and the animals will find their own food because there was grass around. But now there is usually no grass around the communities because there are no rains. Formerly the fowls were only dying during the cold season, around Christmas time but now the birds can die at any time, also from heat. Farmers are not getting enough food to feed their families and that has also affected the birds/fowls so some are dying of hunger Even if the animals get pregnant they don’t deliver at the right time, their term passes; and even when they deliver the young ones die.

Petty Trading: i. ii.

People have no money to buy what is being sold because their major source of income, farming, is not going well. Crop yield is low, not enough to feed the family for one to think about selling the surplus.

Photo 4. A Focus Group Discussion in Yenduri community in the Talensi-Nabdam district

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2011

3.3.3. Major climate related hazards in the community Aside from the impacts of the changes in rainfall and temperature on the livelihoods in the community, the communities came up with major climate related hazards that the community as a whole is facing. These hazards were, again, related to changes in temperature and rainfall. According to the people, the major climate related hazards are; Rainfall:  

Long periods of little or no rainfall Occasional flooding when there is very heavy rainfall

Temperature: 

Increasing heat

Impacts of major climate related hazards on community: Destruction of homes and property: i. ii.

When the Bagre dam in Burkina Faso is opened, the community gets flooded and farms are also washed away. The current of the flow of the rivers also moves the fish away. Occasional flooding from heavy rainfall also causes flooding which destroys home and property

Increasing food prices: i.

Due to poor yields as a result of bad rainfall and increasing heat, demand for food is unable to be met by the production and they have to buy food from other places and this usually comes at a higher price.


ii.

Formerly when the weather was cool one could work actively on the farm very well, go to sleep, wake the following morning and farm again. But now, the weather is so hot that one can’t sleep at night and wakes up already tired and unable to work actively on the farm. Women hunting for shea nuts get tired quickly after picking for just three or four trees because the heat will be on. People always feel weak and lazy and just sleep

Health: i.

Snake bites: Because of the heat snakes also seek shade under the shea nut trees and also feed on the nuts so when women go collecting the fruits, they are bitten by snakes. 49


2011

Sources of income: i. ii.

iii.

Not enough food is produced to feed the family and also get surplus to sell so there is loss of income from sale of farm produce. There were small ponds which got filled when there used to be much rain and most of these ponds had fish in them that the community could catch for domestic use or even sell to make money. But now the ponds are dry because there are no rains for the rivers to overflow and fill these ponds; eventually there is no fish. Because the animals have grown lean as a result of no food, when they are sent to the market the farmers don’t get good prices.

Migration: i.

Many young people have migrated to southern Ghana to look for jobs and earn income to support the families back at home because they are not getting any jobs to do in the communities and agriculture which used to support the community is failing. Even older people wish to migrate.

Water Resources: i.

ii.

Water resources have been negatively affected by the reduction in rainfall. Community people report that most ponds and lakes have dried up. Some water bodies that used to be perennial have become annual whilst other has totally become extinct. Rivers that had never been seen go dry before in previous years can now be seen dry at certain times of the year. At Nangodi, there was a Ministry of Agriculture garden that some men claimed they used to fish in when they were children, but for about 16 years now the river has dried and there is no fish. Reduced rainfall coupled with high temperatures have caused many surface waterbodies, boreholes and wells which served as water sources to dry up and as a result there is no water to drink.

3.3.4. Community-based coping strategies in response to impacts of climate change This section presents community approaches to adjust their livelihood and activities which are impacted on by the changes in climatic parameters. Crop farming It was observed that farmers have responded to the impact of reduced rainfall regime and increased temperature by adopting short duration varieties of the major staple foods which are available. For instance, the “obaatanpa” variety of maize and white guinea corn is the preferred choice for cultivation due to its short time for maturity. The farmers in this district have 50


2011

observed that crop failure associated with maize is lower than “zeeh”, a variety of millet; hence farmers’ preference for crops have shifted to a predominantly maize dominated cropping system, rather than millet which is a major staple of the district. It was also clear that some varieties of beans which took longer time to mature have been abandoned and short rotation varieties such as the white beans “supieh” is being cultivated now. Farmers have also began taking steps to diversify the crops that they cultivate, increased cultivation of vegetables and watermelon are taking a center stage in some communities such as Yenduri. Even though multiple periods of sowing was not characterizing cropping systems in the district, some farmers have adopted the means of acquiring enough seeds to plant three times in order to have an established farm which coincides with the rainfall regime. To address rainfall issues in most of the communities, farmers have adopted the dry season farming along the White Volta as a major farming approach so as to get easy means of irrigating their farms. This has become so established that, it is no more the case that this type of farming is commonly practiced in the dry season, but even in the periods that the rains are expected. Where suitable land is also available, the farmers move to the high lands, so as to avoid instances where flood waters wash away their crops along the White Volta. Other means of irrigation have been also adopted by creating ridges and open channels from the river to their farms. In a few instances water pumps have been employed to siphon water to irrigate crops, however only a few farmers could afford this method of irrigation. The farmers intimated that, the dry season farming using water pumps is a much preferred option due to its reliability. Animal Husbandry Animal rearing is a major livelihood activity in the district, and the practice used to be that the animals are allowed roam around and cater for themselves, but due to increased temperature and reduced rainfall, most of the water bodies close to the communities have dried up, hence very little means of having access to drinking water for the animals. Therefore, water is being fetched for animals nowadays, a practice which never used to be the case. The sale of fowls and livestock has become a final result if the crops fail and there are no other means of generating income to meet the needs of the family. Hence, most households keep a female dominated herd, so as sustain the sale of animals. This is a major coping strategy which is seriously being adopted by all households in the community. Alternative livelihoods In communities such as Nangodi, when the crops fail, an alternative means of generating income is to do menial jobs in peoples’ houses and farms so as to get some money to sustain the family. This activity is being done by both males and females alike. Collection of firewood and shea nuts are age old practices associated with livelihoods in the north. However, these activities have become major sources of generating income to meet 51


2011

family needs in the face of increased crop failure and reduced yield due to temperature and rainfall changes. Most men stated that they have to rely on proceeds from the sale of the nuts and the butter extracted from the Shea nuts to maintain the family and meet social obligations. One clear fact was that, firewood used to be only harvested for domestic use, but now they are compelled to cut most trees around them in order to sell as firewood. Food rationing and dependence on herbs In most instances, not all families are able to generate enough revenue to meet the needs of their families. Hence rationing of the little food that they are able to harvest from the poor yield, or buy from the market is the adjustments that most families have made to the feeding habits. Adults are fed once a day on soup prepared with baobab leaves and served with “tuo zaafi”, whiles children are fed twice; once in the morning (baobab leave soup) and in the evening (baobab leave soup and “tuo zaafi”). Migration Migration to urban areas, mostly Accra and Kumasi to seek greener pastures has become an inevitable option for most families in the district. The migration phenomenon has become entrenched so much that children are being pushed to migrate so as remit to the family back home. In some instances it is the remittances from the older children in urban areas which are used to take care of the whole family. For instance, some families are able to develop resilience to the impacts of crop failure and reduced yield through remittances. These groups of families are seen as well to do, hence serving as a major reason for other families to also advise their children to migrate. Migration was observed to be the final option for most people in the district. However, some of them return in the rainy season to farm, and they go back after harvesting to continue with the activities in the urban areas.

3.3.5. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters This section presents the finding on indigenous indicators that communities surveyed in the Talensi-Nabdam District use in predicting climatic parameters.

52

Table 4. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters in the Talensi-Nabdam District COMMUNITY

INDICATOR

LOCAL NAME

DECRIPTION OF INDICATOR

MEANING OF INDICATOR

REMARKS

Nangodi

Frog

Ngban

It is black like charcoal and it looks big, it is inside a hole always, it is like the fist of an adult, and when its croaking the neck gets big

It shows that there will be rain, when you hear it croaking in the rainy season then it will rain.


Ant

Sansei

They are smaller than the black ones in the house, it does not bite , but it is black, the egg is white and bigger than the ant

The ants live on the ground, if it‟s about raining, you see them in great quantities and in rows, you see them carrying their eggs, it signifies that it is time for the rain to come. Sometimes it can rain on that particular day other times in a few days


Bird

Sawad vinvii

It is a small bird, it is almost like white, it is multi colored, it is black and white, and somewhat blue. They are mostly three or four, the birds are mostly around the community

anytime the bird cries, it is followed by rain in two or three days


Frog

It is the ordinary frog mostly found around houses

The frog signals that everyone should start sowing, because rain has come but if the frog does not come people don‟t sow. When the frog cries, it indicates time for sowing


Hot weather

The temperature is so uncomfortable, and hot beyond the normal temperature they feel during the day

There will be rainfall by evening or during the night


53

Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation in Ghana Clouds

Pwalugu

2011

A very thick dark cloud gathering at the eastern part of the community

There will be rainfall


Ants

Kachi sabliga

They are black. They live around houses, sometimes under pots of water.

When it‟s about to rain the ants carry their eggs to a safe place, they will later bring the eggs back. Anytime the ant is seen carrying its eggs, it means its getting nearer to the rainy season, sometimes one week you see the rain or maybe four days.

reliable, being used

Frog

Kampune

It is black, just the normal frog we see, rough skin

When it croaks it means rain is coming, sometimes when it croaks there will be rain the same day, or the day after.


Thunder

Nyakamaa

It indicates that the raining time near. If that is the first time before the first rains, it will take one month, but if the rains have come already then it will rain that very day or the following day


Flowering of baobab tree

Chua

The moment it flowers the rain will start before the flowers turn into fruit. When they see the flowers, three or four days‟ time, it will rain. If the rains are not good, it does not flower well.


Shea tree

Kanga

Every year when the nuts are emerging, then it shows that the rains are getting nearer.

The moment you see it flowering then the rains are coming. When it flowers more, then the rains will be good. when you see lots of nuts emerging then you know the rains are getting nearer


Movement of wind

Dimbila

Movement of wind to west to east. The direction of movement of dust is used to determine the wind direction

When the winds move from west to east it indicates that the rains are getting nearer, but you can't know that exact day that it will rain


Darkness of cloud

Sangbana

Sometimes the clouds can be very dark but other times it‟s a little bit white

When the clouds move to the east from whatever direction then it shows the rains are coming. It can rain any day following the observation


54

Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation in Ghana Insects

Yenduri

Wuntenbaa

Wind

2011

It is small in size, and it looks like tsetse fly, with six legs, it flies, it is black. It is bigger than the housefly. It is only found in the bush. You can only see it when it is getting to the rainy season. It has a sound that it makes in a hot weather which tells you the rains are getting nearer.

When it makes its sound, in two months‟ time the rains will come


Wind blowing from the west to the east.

This signifies that there is going to be enough rainfall within the rainy season. But when the wind blows from the east to the west, it shows that there will not be rains


Anytime the shea tree fruits plenty it signifies that, there is going to be rainfall


Shea tree

TAN

Bird

Zulim sablehi

It‟s an all-black bird with the beak just like that of an ordinary bird. They roam around the white volta in a group of ten (10) or fifteen (15). It lives around the river

This signifies heavy rainfall


Ants

Salinsar

They look tiny and reddish in colour called zulo. They move in columns and commune with God. When they get the information that it is going to rain they collect their eggs otherwise rains would destroy them.

When these driver ants with their eggs are sighted, it is an indication of approaching heavy rains.


When rain is about to form in the skies the clouds become red. The red looks like the sun-red.

Anytime it is about to rain and the clouds in the east turn sunred it means it is going to rain heavily.


Clouds

55


2011

Worm

Samera

It lives on the ground and is long probably up to the wrist. It is pale blue in colour. It has no legs just like a snake. It has no tongue and a small head. It is as big as the second finger.

Comes out when it is about to rain. When you see them passing it means it is about to rain.


Frog

Wuloye

It has no hair on the body. It lives in water but sometimes comes to land.

when you hear it croaking, it indicates rainfall


Ants

“Cheiin”

Is like a grasshopper. Red in colour. The head is bigger than that of a grasshopper. It has four legs. Fowls feed on it

It indicates that today the sun will be hot. Early in the morning around 7-8am you see and hear it making some “Cheiin” sound. In the afternoon you see a number of them making the same sound and it means the sun is getting hotter and hotter.


56

3.3.6. Level of awareness, access and application of meteorological by communities Access to climate information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) Forty-five percent (45%) of respondents from communities surveyed in the Talensi-Nadam district were not aware any of the weather forecasts of the GMet. However, about 30% said they were aware of the GMet’s seasonal forecasts whilst only 3% said they were aware of the daily weather forecasts. Twenty-three percent (23%) of the respondents were also aware of both the seasonal and daily forecasts of the GMet. Exactly half of the respondents claimed they did not receive regular weather information whilst the other half said they received regular weather information and the major source of information on weather information was the radio. However, 46.7% also said they had no access to any source of information on weather forecasts. Application of information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) Application of climate data by respondents in the Talensi-Nabdam district is very limited. Only 11.7% of the respondents said they planned their activities based on the information they received from the Ghana Meteorological Agency. Almost 70% said emphatically that they do not plan their activities based on weather forecasts from the GMet whilst 20% said they sometimes plan based on the weather forecasts from GMet. The major reason for not planning with the GMet forecasts was the unreliability of the information they receive. They claim the little weather information they receive is too general in terms of the area it covers and not focused on their community so it becomes unreliable to use. The communities, however, take information on the spillage of the Bagre dam of Burkina Faso vey serious and plan accordingly because whenever the information is given and the spillage comes, it causes a lot of destruction.

3.4. WA WEST DISTRICT (Guinea Savannah Zone) The Wa West District is located in the North Western part of the region. It stretches from longitudes 40°N to245° and from latitudes 9"W to32°W, thus covering an area of approximately 5,899.3 square kilometers. The district is located within the Guinea Savanna ecological zone of Ghana. The average age of respondents in the Wa West District was 43 years. 3.4.1. Observed climate changes in the community Quantity of rainfall The quantity of rainfall has decreased drastically according to all respondents surveyed in the district. The drastic reduction in rainfall was being compared with rainfall situations in about 30, 57


2011

40, 50 or 60 years ago. According to the respondents, in the past rainfall was good and supported their major livelihood, which is farming. Other factors the people considered in arriving at the stance that quantity of rainfall has decreased include: i.

ii. iii.

iv. v.

When they were children, the rains used to start by March and continue throughout the rainy season till about November but now even when the rain starts, it would not rain throughout but will stop along the line and the crops will fail. In recent years even the clouds form the rains do not come and this has become very common. Previously, by July that they start farming around the houses, they would have harvested their maize and will be depending on them whilst they farm around their homes. But now, the rains do not come at all and now do their first sowing of corn in July. During the previous years of normal rainfall, they would get good harvest from their farms because their farms depended on the rains for water. After harvesting their crops, there used to be just a 2 month wait after December for the next rains to start but now they wait and roam aimlessly for about 6 months before the rains would come again for them to start making their farms. This has resulted in some of them being compelled to travel south of the country to do “kayaye” (head porters) to find money to support themselves.

Intensity of rainfall One third of the respondents (33.3%) were of the view that the intensity of rainfall has increased, though such intense rainfalls are not regular. Other evidence they gave to support their observation include: i. ii.

In the past, the rains came at the expected time and was evenly distributed throughout the season but now when the rains come, it is unexpected and in violent storms. Generally, rains are no longer strong as it used to be, but when the heavy downpours come, it is so intense that they usually cause flooding.

About 60% of the respondents were also of the view that intensity of rainfall has decreased. This school of thought supported by stance by stating that: i. ii.

iii.

Currently, what is being referred to as heavy rains are actually full of winds and not really rains Previously, rains would be seen and heard hitting the ground hard and thumping on the roofs of buildings but now the rains are very light showers. In the olden days, when in the room and was raining, one could feel it strongly on the roof but now one may not even hear that it is raining until the person wakes up in the morning and sees the ground wet. Long ago, it could rain intensely for 3-4 hours but now rains do not last even an hour

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iv.

2011

There used to be hailstones during very intense rainfall but now the children do not know what hailstones are because they have stopped falling

There were a further 9% of the respondents who had also observed no change in the intensity of rainfall. Number of rainy days Number of rainy days per week has also decreased now compared with about 30 years ago. About thirty years ago, there could be about three days of rain per week in a typical rainy period but now even in the supposed peak of the rainy season, there would be just one day of rains throughout the week. Others have observed that about 30 years ago, during the rainy season it would rain at least three times but now it rains just about once a week and even sometimes it may take a whole week or two and there would be no rains, despite being in the rainy season. Seasonal variation Rainfall pattern has changed in the Wa West district and this was the observation of 97% of respondents surveyed. According to them, the major evidence for arriving at that observation are: i.

The rainy season is now shorter and does not start at the right time. The peak of the rainy season is September but the rainy season starts from April in showers and continues to September where the season peaks. ii. By July they would have harvested their first batch of produce but they are now planting their crops because the rains they did not come in March or April. In the past, rains were very heavy and would rain more than the community needs but now they can’t even get enough rains. iii. Rainy season used to start as expected and last throughout. Now, the rain comes early and peters out. iv. Rainfall used to start intensely in April and continue to October in the previous years when rainfall was good. Currently, it gets to June or July before the rains start and it will end by September. Temperature Temperature is increasing. Average temperatures have risen in recent years when compared with the olden days, in the 1960s and 1970s. The observed evidence of this change includes: i. It is generally warmer now compared with about 30 years ago. ii. Rooms are too warm at night and people cannot sleep in the rooms but have to sleep in the open.

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2011

iii. It could get so warm that after planting their crops, the crops would burn in the soil and not germinate. Even after germination, excessive heat can get the crops burnt. iv. Cannot stay on the farm and weed for longer periods because the heat will be too much. When working on the farm, farmers have to periodically leave and rest in the shades. But this was not the situation many years ago when the sun was not very hot. v. The sun duration is very long and that makes the heat intense for a longer time

3.4.2. Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on local livelihoods Major Livelihoods      

Farming (the major one) - guinea corn (major crop), maize, beans, guinea corn, bambara beans, beans, rice, maize, guinea corn, yams, groundnuts. Crop farming is the major source of livelihood. Pito brewing by women Petty trading Shea nut collection and processing is done by all women. This activity is becoming more important because of the lack of rains to support farming. Fishing in the Black Volta Animal husbandry (sheep, cattle, goats, pigs). Pigs are mainly done by the women because it is time consuming. Also, feeding the pigs is difficult and usually the waste from pito brewing is what is used in feeding them and it is the women who brew the pito.

Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on livelihoods Crop Farming: i.

ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Rainfall pattern has now cut off the cultivation of Guinea corn. The correct time for planting Guinea corn is February to March but now the rains start in July and the crop cannot grow. Lack of rains makes the soil lose moisture and even the seeds they sow can easily be removed by partridges The rains not coming at the right time and affects the crops they grow. The seeds cannot germinate because there are no rains Soils have become dry and lost their nutrients and does not support crops. Crop failure due to low rainfall as farming is rainfall-dependent It could get so warm that after planting their crops, the crops would burn in the soil and not germinate. Even after germination, excessive heat scorches the crops and kills them. Normally after germination of the seeds, the farmers heap soil around seedling to protect it but now when the sand is heaped at the base of the crop, because of the heat of the sand the, crops are scorched to death. 60


2011

Fishing: i. Decreasing rainfall has resulted in low fish catch ii. When temperature is high during the rainy season, fish catch is very much reduced but when there is high temperature in the dry season then there will be good fish catch.

Animal husbandry: i. Animals do not get grass to graze ii. Water sources for watering animals dry up because of no rains iii. Diseases attacking animals are on the increase due to increasing temperatures and no rainfall. iv. Fowls get attacked by new Castle disease and die because of no rainfall. Pito brewing: i.

Cost of millet has gone up and makes it difficult to get the millet to produce the pito.

Petty trading: i.

People have no money to buy because farming that would have provided them with income to buy other things they need.

Shea nut collection and processing: i.

Low rainfall does not help in good fruiting of the shea tree. As a result, they cannot get enough to collect and process to make money.

3.4.3. Major climate related hazards in the community According to the people, the major climate related hazards are;  

Rainfall: - Long periods of dry spells or little rainfall - Occasional flooding from intense rainfall Temperature: - Extreme heat

Impacts of major climate related hazards on community:

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2011

Destruction of homes and property: I.

Occasional heavy rains cause flooding and destroy homes as well as wash away farm lands.

Increasing food prices: Because the people are not getting good yield from their farms, they have to buy from other places and this has increased the food prices. Sources of Water: I.

Most communities have no potable water for drinking. Those having boreholes either have just one borehole which does not meet the needs of the whole community or has broken down and have to resort to streams which easily dry up as a result of no rains and high temperatures.

Productivity of the people: i. ii.

Farmers cannot stay and work on the farm for longer periods because the heat will be too much. Cannot weed large portions of land because of too much heat and longer sun duration

Health and Nutrition: i.

ii. iii.

iv. v.

Most of the communities have no access to pipe-borne water and they resort to open surface waters and shallow wells. These water-bodies dry-up easily when there are no rains and the remaining water gets contaminated which affects the health of those who depend on these sources for drinking and cooking. Diseases such as Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis (CSM) come to the communities during extreme heat instances. Cannot get vegetables to prepare food for their families. Previously when the rains were good, they would get vegetables to prepare their soup but now they do not get it and do not have money to buy them from the market Malnutrition as a result of no good food. Most children can be seen to be suffering from kwashiorkor in the community. Starvation: many homes do not get a three square meal a day


No money due to low rainfall which causes bad harvest. Farming in the communities is rain-dependent and the frustration in the community is all because there are no rains and as such farming is not going well and they have no money 62


ii. iii.

iv.

v.

2011

Animal rearing is a major support in these times when crop farming is not good so when the animals also die, it becomes a major problem to them. The women believe that the lack of rainfall is having the major impact on the women. Women do not get cover cloths because the men who used to buy for them no longer get money from their harvest to sell. Previously women were not farming and their husbands could take care of the households because harvest was good but now women have been compelled to start farming due to the harsh conditions. Even with women taking to farming, the yields are still not good and the conditions have not improved. Currently, all cropping is for subsistence because they do not even get enough for feeding the family for them to start talking about selling to make money

Migration: i.

Long periods of no rainfall and as such inactivity has compelled most of the youth to travel south of the country to do “kayaye” (head porters) to find money to support themselves.

3.4.4. Community-based coping strategies in response to impacts of climate change Crop farming Dry season farming has become a major farming approach along the Red Volta to address the issue of reduced rainfall for farming in the district. The practice of farming along the river has become pronounced in recent time, because that is the only location where farmers can have access to water, irrespective of the season. However, flooding of the farms during the rainy seasons are major issues raised by the farmers. To address the flood situation, the farmers create gutters in their farms to serve as channels to allow the flood water to flow out of the farms. It has also become established that maize cultivation offers a much better opportunity to take advantage of the prevailing short duration of the rainy season and crop failure which has become associated with the farming season in recent times, hence there is a major shift from most of the staple crops to the cultivation of “obaatanpa” variety of maize which is harvested before the rains cease. Thus, the maize variety has become the most dependable crop in the face of reduced rainfall and increased temperature. Farmers have also identified low-lying areas where soil moisture persists for relatively longer duration. This affords seeds the opportunity to germinate, and by the time the soil become dry again, the next rains might have occurred. Most farmers have also began adjusting their planting times to suit the current rainfall regime, though it has not been very successful, because they lack the ability to predict the trend. Fertilizer application has also become an established practice in recent times, as a means to boost the yield of crops, but most farmers lack the means to purchase and sustain this practice. 63


2011

Animal husbandry Animal rearing has become a major means of diversification from crop farming which is increasingly being relied on by most people, however due to difficulty in accessing ponds which serve as sources of drinking water for the animals, a few of the animal owners have begun digging shallow wells for the animals to drink from. Invariably, this approach is only useful in the wet season; during the dry season animal owners have to fetch water for their animals. These animals are sold to supplement income from other sources. Alternative livelihood “Pito” brewing by women has always been a local beer which is widely consumed in most parts of the north. However, in view of the difficulties associated with crop farming in the district, pito brewing has become a substantial source of revenue for women which are used to support the family. Alternatively, another means of diversified revenue source, aside “pito” brewing and crop farming is the collection of wild fruits such as “dawadawa” and shea nuts and their processing into shea butter, as well as firewood collection and sale. Even though these even though these activities have associated with rural areas in northern Ghana for ages, their availability in the district serves as a good avenue to generate income; hence most women are now actively engaged in it, especially during the dry season when there is very little farming activities and food stock have depleted. Building structures and relocation In situations where flood occurs in some communities, the buildings are affected greatly. In some instances, some people lose their shelter for weeks. In this regard, residents in these communities have begun reinforcing their buildings with strong stakes, and fortifying the walls of their buildings with additional mud. There is also an emerging trend where fire is set in coal pots and placed near the walls to dry and strengthen it against the effects of floods. In Talawana, most residents have moved from their previous place of residence which were in low-lying areas and also closer to the Black Volta river to higher grounds to avoid the continual destruction of their property by floods. Sleeping outside and on roof tops Due to the increased temperature in recent times, ambient temperature has become high, and most residents complain of discomfort at night, in response there is an observed practice where residents sleep outside their rooms in order to overcome the discomfort of increased night temperature. The architecture of most building in the communities has an open space on top of the building where the people can spend the night during very warm periods.

64


Photo 5. Architecture of buildings in Talawana

2011

Photo 6. Research team is shown the roof-top in Talawana where people sleep during warm nights

Migration In the face of all the odds and difficulty in engaging in sustainable forms of employment, most youths in the district head to the south to seek greener pastures. This has become so common that, there are some months in the dry season that all able-bodied people have moved to the south and only older men, women and children are the only people remain in the communities.

3.4.5. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters Findings of local indicators that communities surveyed in the Wa West district used in predicting climatic parameters are presented in this section. The reliability of the indicators as being used now is also presented.

65

Table 5. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters in the Wa West District COMMUNITY

INDICATOR

LOCAL NAME Tantune

DESCRIPTION OF INDICATOR It is black in color with some white rings all over the body. When it appears, it chews all the vegetation.


REMARK

Bamkpama

Caterpillars

When these caterpillars are seen in their numbers in March/April before the rainy season, it is a sign of no or little rainfall in the year. When the caterpillars do not appear, it is a sign of good rains. The people alleged that in some communities in the Northern Region, these caterpillars are eaten as food.

reliable

Grasshoppers

sooree or sonsobo

either green or brown in colour

When grasshoppers appear in their numbers in the month of April, it is an indication that it may not rain. When they appear in their numbers in March/April, it means the rains will not be good for the season.

reliable

Frog

Pontizie

When attacked, threatened or provoked, the “Pontizie” can increase in size by bloating itself up with air and looking big.

When this frog is heard or seen in March or April at the riverside, it is an indication of good rainfall. This is not a frog that makes sounds but when they are seen, it is an indication of good rains in the season

reliable

Frog

Danyieane

A little frog about the size of a thumb which is dark in colour with some white stripes on its back. It lives at the riverside

When it starts croaking in the month of March, it is an indication of good rainy season.

reliable

Frog

Lourno

It has four legs and lives by the riverside and can jump over very long distances. It is eaten by the community

When it makes the sound “weein… weein …weein” in the night around March, it means the rainy season will be good.

reliable

Frog

Shebaa

Reddish/brown in colour. It has long legs. It also stays in the sand during the dry season

when the sound is heard, it means the rainy season will be good

reliable

66

Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation in Ghana Frog-like animal

Bululu

Has big eyes and quite big in size. It has big eyes and always lives in hole. It is black in colour with brown stripes

Direction of sand movement

2011

When the animal croaks (like the sound of a motor bike), then it means the rainy season will be good.

reliable

When the sand is fetched and poured from upwards and the wind blows the sand to the east, it is a sign that the rainy season will be good. When the sand is blown to the West, it means the rainy season will not be good. This activity is done before the rainy season, usually in March/April.

reliable

Shea-nut tree

“taama

When the shea nut fruits are matured by April/month and collection of them has started, it is a good indication of a good rainy season. But when the fruiting goes further than this date, then the rainy season will be bad with low rainfall

Dawadawa tree

“Duwor

If the dawadawa tree flowers during a warm weather, it is an indication of a good rainy season. But when the dawadawa tree flowers and fruits in a clear, cold weather, then the rainy season will have little rain. It is known locally

reliable

Bird

Tuufa

Quite big but not to the size of crow. Has a black beak and is reddish-brown in colour. The tail is black and has a white beak. The bird also has a white patch of feathers on the chest.

When the bird‟s sound is heard during the months of March/April, it is an indication of a good rainy season which is close. The sound is a signal to start preparing the farms for rainfall. When the bird does not signal and one goes ahead to plant, the rains may not come and the crops will die. This bird usually appears in March but when the bird is not seen in March then the rains will delay.

reliable

Bird

Danua

a black head and the body is red/brown. It has white feathers at its sides. The beak is black and small. It is a small bird and the crow is far bigger than it.

When the sound of the bird is heard, it is an indication of the nearness of the rainy season. The bird is usually heard in March and if it delays then the rainy season will be late in coming. When th the bird is not heard by 15 of April, the rainy season will be late.

reliable

67


Jubamsie

2011

bird

Lupuo

The bird‟s feathers are black and white with patches of brown. It is small with a short brown beak and a long tail. The sound the bird makes „Lupuo…Lupuo…Lupuo‟ is translated in the local language as “return to your farms‟

Used to indicate the onset of the rainy season and also if there will be good rainy season. When the bird makes the sounds around March, it is an indication of a good rainy season which will start on time. When the bird appears in late April, it means the rains will be late in coming. The bird therefore signals the beginning of the rainy season and start of farm work.

reliable

Bird

Tilinto

The feathers of the bird have black and white patches and it has a long yellow beak and a long black tail as well. The legs of the bird are red in colour. They move by going upwards and coming down whilst moving forward.

When these birds are seen in their numbers moving from the South to the North in April, it means the rainfall will be good for the season. But if instead of the birds moving in a group, they are seen coming one after the other in May or June then the rainy season will be bad.

reliable

Bird

Dandamona

This bird is always in the bush and it seasonally comes home to inform the community if there will be rains or not. The feathers are red at the chest region. It has a black head and a black tail. The beak is small and white in colour.

When this bird is seen early in March, then it is an indication of a bad rainy season. But when the bird comes late in April or June, then the following months will have good rainfall.

reliable

68


2011

Bird

Silaa

It makes the sound “coocoo coocoo coocoo”. This bird can also pick chicken. It is grey/ash in color. Has a very hard beak which is orange in color. The tail is not very wide and is also grey in color. The mouth and legs are red in color.

When this bird is heard in March, it is an indication of a good rainy season. It lives in the bush and comes in March to signal the rainfall season is come. When the sound of the bird is not heard in March but later somewhere in April/June, it means there will not be enough rainfall.

Centipedes/Mi llipedes

Abukanyile

The millipede is brown in color and centipede is red in color.

When they are seen moving in a group in March, then the rainy season will be start early and will be good. Any farmer seeing the millipedes or centipedes after the month of December or in January when it is generally dry knows that the rainy season will be good.

Frog

poterre

Makes the sound “coorrr…coorrrr….cooorrr…c oooor”. It can either be brown or red with other colour stripes.

When the frog‟s sound is heard in March at the riverside, it is an indication of good rainy season.

Frog

Danyieane

Makes the sound “kwiiin kooon…kwiiin kooon”. These frogs live in holes at the river banks. The frog is brown in colour and has some red stripes on its back.

When the sound of the frog is not heard in March but wait till about May and June, then the rains will not be good that season. There will be a favourable rainy season if the “Danyieane” is heard in March.

The shea tree

tanga

When seen to be fruiting well in March or April then the rainfall pattern will be good for the year for farmers. But when the tree does not fruit in March or April or there is fruiting but the fruit is not good, then the rainfall pattern will not be favourable. When the fruit falls from the tree and the fruit is not well developed that it can be eaten, it is an indication of a bad rainy season.

69

reliable

reliable


Talawana

Dawadawa tree

duwo

Ant

fiinfiin

2011

When the tree fruits in March or April then the rainy season will be good.

reliable

There are some ants that when they come up from the soil in their numbers in March then the rainy season will be good. When these ants are moving, they create a visible path and when that path is followed till a point and its continuation cannot be seen, it is an indication of bad rainfall. Their movement is usually in March and when they are seen moving to the Black Volta and there is no break in their path, then the rains will be good but when there is a break then it means there will be a break in rainfall around May or June.

reliable

rainfall

When the community experiences 2 rainy events in March, it means the rainy season will be good; i.e., there will be sufficient rainfall for the farming season.

reliable

rainfall

No rainfall from the beginning of the year till April is a sign that the rainy season will be bad; there would not be sufficient rainfall for farming.

reliable

heat

Excessive heat in April is a sign of a good rainy season that will give a good harvest

reliable

cold weather

Cold weather in the month of May is a sign of low rainfall to come in the rainy season which will be bad for farming

reliable

rainfall

When it starts raining from April and till July there has not been any major break in rainfall, then it is an indication of a continuous good rainy season to lead to good harvest

reliable

They are black in colour and very small in size. When these ants are moving out of the soil, they all move out of the habitat totally. Wherever they are going, they always move forward till wherever they are going and never turn back. When they are returning to their habitat, they always come through a different path than the one on which they left.

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2011

caterpillars

Nyanyire

When some caterpillars called “Nyanyire” in the local language appear in their numbers, usually from March to April and eats up all the grass, it is a sign of a dry period to follow.

reliable

insects

Nyerecol

When some insects with wings come out of the ground from April to June, it is an indication of a very good rainy season.

reliable

bird

Nmacol

The “Nmacol” has a velvet appearance. When seen for the first time, it may appear to be black but a closer look at the bird may show it to be blue. It has a short beak which is orange in colour. It also has a short tail.

These birds feed on the insects so they come at the same time that the insects appear; as such these also signify good rains.

reliable

bird

Balakuru

It is a small black bird with a pointed beak and slender tail about the length of the forefinger. It has a white patch of feathers on the chest/breast like that of a crow but it is not a crow. A crow is big whilst the “balakuru” is a small bird. The bird is very swift and can move very fast. It can fly swiftly in between a group of people and is even common to find in bigger towns

Feeds on the “Nyerecol” and thus becomes an indicator of good rainfall.

reliable

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3.4.6. Level of awareness, access and application of meteorological by communities Access to climate information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) In the Wa West District, 42.2% of the respondents were aware of both the seasonal and daily forecasts of the GMet information whilst 36.7% of the people were aware of only the seasonal forecasts and 2.2% were aware of only the daily forecasts. However, 14.4% of the respondents were not aware of any GMet weather forecasts. However, regularity of weather information was low as 57.6% of the respondents did not receive regular weather information. The major source of weather information for the people was the radio; 75.6% of respondents received their weather information from the radio. Application of information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) Despite being aware of the weather forecasts, 43.3% of respondents never planned their livelihood activities based on the information whilst 37.8% said they sometimes planned with the information. Only 18.9% said they planned with the weather forecasts they hear from the GMet. The reasons given for not planning with the GMet weather forecasts were: i. ii. iii.

iv. v.

Do not always believe the GMet forecasts because the predictions are not reliable and sometimes fail One farmer said they just plant the crops at the time they traditionally know should plant; if the rains come at the right time, better. If the rains fail, they count their costs. The seasonal forecasts which are very useful to the farmers do not come on time. The farmers claim they cannot wait for the announcement from the GMet before they plant because the information may come late. The information the GMet puts out is not specific to the community and as such they cannot plan with it. The information is not regular

3.5. WEST MAMPRUSI DISTRICT (Guinea Savannah Zone) The district is characterised by a single rainy season, which starts in late April with little rainfall, rising to its peak in July-August and declining sharply and coming to a complete halt in OctoberNovember. The area experiences occasional storms, which have implications for base soil erosion depending on its frequency and intensity especially when they occur at the end of the dry season. Mean annual rainfall ranges between 950 mm - 1,200 mm. The natural vegetation of the district is classified as Guinea Savannah Woodland, composed of short trees of varying sizes and density, growing over a dispersed cover of perennial grasses and shrubs. The average of respondents in the West Mamprusi district was 56 years.

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2011

3.5.1. Observed micro-climate changes in the community Quantity of rainfall All respondents in the West Mamprusi district were unanimous in their observation that the quantity of rainfall in the communities have decreased significantly. As predominantly rain-fed crop farmers, most of their evidence for reduction in quantity of rainfall related with crop farming. Some of the evidence put forward by the community include: i. ii.

iii.

iv. v. vi.

vii.

Currently, the rains only fall over small areas but in previous years the rains fell over a large stretch; usually up to Wa, the Upper West Regional capital. Farming has always been rain-dependent and by July crops would have been planted but due to lack of rains people are unable to plant early. In 2011, even in July maize has not been planted Some rivers which used to flow all year round, including the dry season, no longer flows the whole year because rainfall has reduced and the rivers do not get enough water. Previously after December, there were two rains in the dry season and when the third rains come then planting begins. But now these rains no longer come. At first there were floods in August but the floods have ceased now. In the olden days, there was a particular rainfall that the people referred to as “sisaa”, meaning general rainfall. This rain will fall in every town for people to start sowing, but now the rain falls and not all the communities get the rains. The maize in their farms are bearing tussles but there is no rain, which wasn’t the case at this time of the year during the olden days.

Intensity of rainfall Eighty per cent (80%) of the people had observed that intensity of rainfall is increasing whilst the remaining 20% also had observed that intensity of rainfall is decreasing. Those who believed that intensity of rainfall is increasing gave reasons for their observation as: i.

Now rains come accompanied by strong winds, which was not the case in previous years. The strong winds destroy trees and homes, ripping off roofs.

Those who observed that intensity of rainfall is decreasing claimed that: i. ii.

iii.

In the very olden days, the people could collect “ice” in the rains (and children will be picking and licking them) but in these times there is no ice in the rains One man recounts his childhood when in the olden days, there were days that the rains were so heavy that his father had to carry him because he couldn’t walk. But according to him, there are no rains that can even beat a goat in these days. The rainstorms that used to happen in the olden days are no longer occurring 73


2011

Number of rainy days The number of rainy days per week during a typical rainy season is decreasing. The evidence given to support this observation are: i.

ii.

In the former years, rains used to come weekly or sometimes three days in a week during the rainy season but now it has stopped. During the rainy season it may take one month or at best three weeks intervals for the rains to come. Those days there could be 30 or more rainfalls within the year, but these days the rains come 10 or 15 times within the year. Of the ten rains, only five will be good rains that will be of benefit to farmers with the rest destroying crops and plants.

Seasonal variation Hundred per cent (100%) of respondents said that the rainfall pattern has changed. They have arrived at this observation because: i. ii.

iii.

iv. v.

vi.

vii.

In recent years, when the rains start and farmers go in to plant, the rains would just cease and all the planted crops will fail. Previously, there were rains in May and even in June and July but now there are no rains in these months. In the former years due to these rains, planting of crops began in May but now it is July that on the average, most people begin sowing. Now the weather has changed so much that it is difficult to predict rainfall. In the olden days, farmers could predict when to start farming to coincide with the rains, but now it is so difficult to predict. In 2011 for example, throughout the month of June there were no rains till the second week in July when it rained twice. They used to sow their crops in April and the rains will come till end of August, but is not there again Previously, after the fire festival, there were rainy events but this time those rains do not come. Anytime it rained, it meant time for farming. Currently, the rains come at any time of the year. For example, after the fire festival, the first rain is called Bugunziemsaa, followed by bisankaalasaa, and idrfetri. There is a fourth and a fifth rain before the farming season commences. But now the rains don’t follow any pattern, and when the crops are sown, they fail. Formerly, always after harvesting the first maize, there is one rainy event which causes the harvested corn to produce again, and there was a saying in the communities that “non-child-bearing people ate the second maize called “kaliba” in the local language. Formerly when August was approaching, the community start thinking about the devastating effects that floods will have on their crops, but this time there is nothing like that as the floods don’t even come during the month of August.

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2011

Temperature All respondents were of the observation that ambient temperatures are now higher than before, especially when compared with about 30 to 40 years ago. This observation, according to the surveyed communities, is supported by the following evidence: i. ii. iii. iv.

v. vi.

Seeds sown are dying as a result of too much heat in the soil. Now it gets too hot in the rooms at night that one cannot sleep indoors. Crops are wilting and dying now due to excessive heat compared to previous years. Formerly, in the month of July the people could not sit outside at night because of the coldness of the weather, but now it so warm in the evening that sitting outside is the only alternative. When there are no rains for about 2-4 days, the crops wilt readily, unlike the former years because the heat now has increased. In the olden days after rains, the usual cold weather that persisted for about three days is totally absent now.

3.5.2. Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on local livelihoods Major Livelihoods: Crop farming is the major source of livelihood for the people of West Mamprusi. Generally, the sources of livelihoods for the people are:      

Crop farming (maize, millet, groundnut, soya beans, groundnut) Shea nut collection Fuelwood collection Animal husbandry (livestock and poultry) Petty trading Fishing

Impacts on livelihoods Crop Farming: i.

ii.

Previously, in the month of May the communities experience the first rain and that will be the time to sow “agushi”, then June will be time for sowing maize. But now from March to July there wouldn’t be any rains for planting. Most of the signs that the people used to tell when the rains would come and plan their planting activities accordingly no longer work and farmers are suffering.

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iii.

iv.

v.

vi.

vii. viii.

ix. x.

2011

In the olden days when sowing of corn commenced in April, there would be freshly harvested corn in July but in recent years due to late start of the rains even in July, planted maize is still standing. The times that there should be harvesting of early corn and millet, farmers are now plowing and preparing their lands. There was a rain that comes after the fire festival called bugumziemsaa. It means the rain that will fall immediately after the fire festival, after, bisanglarasaa comes, but these days the rains come any time and don’t follow these patterns. People will rush to their farms and plough and sow but the rains will not come again. They used to experience 3-4 months rain, but these days it comes on and off, then it goes and never comes again, so they cultivate but cannot harvest. As the crops are there still waiting for rain the Bagre Dam in Burkina Fasowill be opened, and it will destroy all their crops. Because of the heat the seeds don’t germinate and when they do germinate and grow they don’t produce well. Crops like tomatoes, onion, and pepper don’t like too much heat and they get killed by excess heat. The heat affects the machines for irrigation, because the heat is too much they irrigate every two days and the machines break down, when the heat is low they irrigate weekly. The leaves look fresh anytime the weather is good, but the leaves coil when the weather is too hot. Crops that were previously grown are no longer doing well in the changed climatic regime. Previously, planted rice could be harvested twice. After harvesting the rice, the rains will come again, and they will harvest the rice again in a year, but now it is not there anymore. Now rice is harvested once. Crops yield has reduced significantly. Farmers no longer get the number of bags they used to harvest; some now get 2 bags instead of 5 bags of maize on the same land. After crops have germinated and reached a particular stage, the rains will stop and the crops will fail. The rains stop mid-way in the crop life and the crops are destroyed. It cannot yield properly.

Fishing i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Less fish catch because of low rainfall. Normally, fish catch in the various waterbodies increase when there is rainfall. Because most of the water bodies have dried up, there is no fish. High temperature affects the eggs of the fish such that they cannot hatch. Forest along river banks is depleted and this exposes water to high temperatures which heats up the water and kills the fish. Previously, it would rain upland and bring food materials for fish but this doesn’t happen anymore.

Petty trading i.

High temperatures causes the processed shea butter to melt 76


2011

Shea nut collection i.

Lack of rains makes the covers of the shea nuts very hard and sometimes the nuts have to be boiled before they can be opened Strong winds that usually accompany rains blows the flowers on the shea tree away and the trees cannot bear fruit. The shea nuts now bear little fruits. Because of the reduction in rain, the nuts are so small. Previously the shea nuts were very big. Shea trees don’t produce more nuts now compared with previous years. Previously the women could pick shea nuts until August/September, but now in July shea nut collection would have ended though collection would have started in May. Previously after first collection, the tree will produce again and the women will collect again till September, but now it has stopped.

ii. iii. iv.

Animal husbandry i.

No water for animals to drink, especially in the dry season. In previous years when there were good rains, there were always small pools of water collected after rains from March which served as sources for animals to drink. Excessive heat kills most of the animals There is lack of grass and forage for animals due to no rains. As a result the animals don’t feed well and grow lean. Because there is no good feed for the animals, they are unable to breast feed their young ones well

ii. iii. iv.

3.5.3. Major climate related hazards in the community Rainfall:   

Strong winds accompanying rains (wind storms) Long periods of low rainfall and dry spells Flooding as a result of spillage of Bagre dam in Burkina Faso

Temperature 

Extreme heat

Impacts of major climate related hazards on community Major climate related hazards in the communities are; 77


2011

Destruction of homes and property: i.

There is so much wind instead of rain now, and it blows the flowers of shea nut trees, which gives fewer yields

Food availability: i.

ii.

Because of the rains they used to have they had enough food for the family throughout the season, but now we get 2 bags and in short time it has finished so they suffer Because there is no rainfall, hunger is the main problem of the community


High temperature causes sicknesses to the people and they can’t work on their farm

Desperation: i.

Impact of lack of rainfall and increasing temperature on the livelihoods of the people have created difficult times for the people that they are always worried, desperate and thinking about what they can do to improve their lives.

Health: i.

High temperature causes fever, headache, malaria and CSM in the communities.


Agriculture is the main source of livelihood for the people so with the negative effects of changing climate on farming, the people have very little income to depend on.

Water sources: i. ii.

Water bodies are drying up easily and early because of too much heat and low rainfall. Because of lack of rains which causes farmers to cultivate close to the rivers, most of the riverine trees have been cleared, exposing the water to more heat and hence water loss through evaporation

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2011

3.5.4. Community-based coping strategies in response to impacts of climate change Crop farming Changing from long duration maturing crops to short duration maturing crops: It was evident that the onset of rainfall delays and it ends early now. In response to this change in the rainfall regime, most farmers in the district have changed the variety of seeds of maize from a four month duration to the three month duration variety. The four month varieties are “gbitugu”, “kanchaloncho”, “kawandapele”, whiles the three month variety is “obaatanpa” and popularly called agric variety. It was also revealed that in previous times when the rainfall pattern was judged to be good and predictable, farmers used to plant early millet (“nara”), red corn, yam, “sanzi” (early beans) and bambara beans, but because of the reduced rainfall regime they are not being sown anymore. Now, the farmers cultivate white beans and the “agric variety” of corn (“obaantapa”). Farming along river banks: Dry season farming is a widely adopted as a coping mechanism to the declined rainfall. This farming activity is practiced along the White Volta, and vegetables are the major crops that are cultivated. The vegetables are judged to be more profitable than any other crop such as maize or millet. This practice of farming along the river is widely practiced by most communities, as a means to supplement the little harvest that was made in the rain season. Increasingly farmers have preference for farming along the river.

Photo 7. Farm established along the River

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2011

Keeping seeds for replanting failed farms: Because of the prolonged dry spells and the reduced rainfall condition, farmers now don’t sow all their seeds; they keep some so that in case the first one does not germinate they can be replanted. In a few situations, some farmers have been able to acquire water pumps, hence irrigation in the dry season is easy and they are able to cultivate large areas. There is also a practice of hiring out the pumps to those who do not have, so that when the crops are harvested and sold, the farmer repays the cost of hiring to the owner of the pump. Crop selection based on productivity: Farmers also use their experience gathered from cultivating crops in previous seasons to change or maintain the crops to be planted in the coming season, based on how successful performed in terms of yield and failure. Animal husbandry Animal selling in most communities were noted to be due to an impending situation that requires bulk money, such as payment of dowry, paying for school fees or medical bills. However, in recent times most people sell their fowls or livestock generate income due to the failure to get enough food from the farm. This has become more pronounced in recent times when crops fail and yield is poor. Alternative livelihood The shortage of the rain is causing them to cut trees and burn charcoal and also sell some firewood, because there is no food, and they have to sell it and get money. In previous time, the cutting of firewood was just for domestic purposes, but now charcoal and firewood selling has become a major source of household income.

Photo 8. Charcoal burning as an alternative livelihood to farming 80


2011

Migration It has become a common site for most people to advise some of the children to migrate to the south so they can remit their families back home. They young ones go to the south in the dry season, and in the rainy season they come to farm, but now because the rains are bad, some are remaining there.

Photo 9. Bus ready to convey people who are migrating from Yagaba to Kumasi

Eating of leafy vegetables In situations where the crop fail and yield is so poor, food stock in most homes do not last beyond the end of the rainy season, hence in the lean season, most families depend on baobab leaves and some other leafy vegetables such as “gora” and “jagari” to prepare soup to feed the family

Photo 10. Jagari herb for preparing soup in the dry season 81


2011

3.5.5. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters

Findings of local indicators that communities surveyed in the West Mamprusi district used in predicting climatic parameters are presented in this section. The reliability of the indicators as being used now is also presented.

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Table 6. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters in the West Mamprusi District COMMUNITY Goakodow

INDICATOR

LOCAL NAME

Wind movement

DESCRIPTION OF INDICATOR It starts blowing from the west to east, it is not strong, it does not blow trees down. The normal wind blows all over, but this one only blows towards the east, it can start by 12 and by 4-5, rain will come.

Shea tree Vitellaria paradoxica

Karemenga


REMARKS

when this wind blows for between 4-5 hours duration, the rain falls


When the fruits of the shea trees ripe, they start sowing. This indicates the onset of the rains


Ant

Black in color, and very small

whenever the ants are seen carrying their eggs from one point to the other, it signifies rainfall


Duck

Domestic duck

whenever the duck is seen flapping its wings in a dry place, then there is going to be drought, but when it does so in wet place, then it signifies rainfall


Clouds

This cloud appears red in color

It signifies rainfall


It is smallish and black, their eggs are white. They don‟t carry their egg far away, when it is about to rain they just change their position

If they see the ants carrying their eggs, and changing their position then it will rain, it does not matter the direction or elevation, once they are moving then it means it will rain


Digging the ground after 30-40 minutes of rainfall, and using the tip of the index finger to the wrist to determine the depth of seepage after rainfall

This knowledge is used to make decisions on planting timeand type of crop to sow. Poor rainfall mostly seeps to the middle of the index finger, whiles good rainfall seeps to almost the wrist.

very reliable, being used

Black ant

Depth of rainfall seepage in soil

Sinsaase

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Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation in Ghana Amount of rainfall

The community appears to have similar rainfall pattern as Burkina Faso, so anytime it rains so much, they know there will be spillage from the Bagre Dam, but when the amount of rainfall is poor, then there will be no spillage.


When the leaves coil, then it signifies hot temperature, but when the leaves are straight and normal, then ambient temperature is normal and relatively cool.


Shrub

Fufruloley

Ant

Guri

It is big, the head is bigger than the body, it is black

When you see them in the dry season in your farm and you see them, then there will be rain the following day

reliable,bei ng used

Bird

saaninga

Black bird, small like the size of a closed palm of an adult, it has a long beak, the colour of the beak is yellow, the body is longer than the beak.The bird cries like chii , chiiiiiii, chii, chiiiiiiii

Whenever there is drought and the bird is crying then there will be rain the following day


A sound comes at the eastern part of the community, then the following day there will be rain.


Whenever in the evening you see a moon and there is a yellow circle around it then there will be rain, what confirms it is it is that when the following morning you see the sun rises and the same ring is around it then the rain will come.

Whenever this happens, 3-4 days it will rain


It is crop that has roots, it grows uplands, in preparing the land for farming they cut it, when you see it growing again, then there will be rainfall in 3 days. It is like ginger, when you uproot it and leave it squirrels feed on it.

Rainfall in 3 days, they move with rain, so if rain will not come it will not germinate. Any year that you see it and there is no rainfall, then there will be drought.


Sound

Yagaba

2011

Wind

Crop

Sarchere

84

Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation in Ghana Mosquitoes

Dunsi

2011

Whenever there is a lot of mosquitoes disturbing children in the night and the following day the wind is still, the leaves of trees are also still, then they know there will be rain.

rainfall the following day


Direction of wind

Anytime they see the wind blowing eastward then they know there will be rain. when a wind is blowing it pulls the branches of the wind and also dust, so these are what is used to determine the direction of the wind

rainfall in a few hours‟ time


Ant

Black in colour

When the ants are seen carrying their eggs from one point to the other, it signifies rainfall

Direction of wind

A very mild wind which does not blow off roofs

When the wind is blowing eastwards for a long time, it is an indication of rainfall

not reliable, not being used not reliable, being used

Night temperature

One feels very uncomfortable, and sweats at night

This shows that there will be rains the following morning

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not reliable, not being used

3.5.6. Level of awareness, access and application of meteorological information by communities Access to climate information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) In the West Mamprusi district, 35% of the respondents surveyed were not aware of the GMet weather forecasts whilst 48.3% of the respondents were aware of both the daily and seasonal weather forecasts. Five per cent were aware of only the daily forecasts whilst 11.7% were aware of only the seasonal forecasts. However, 63.3% said their information of weather forecasts was not regular and the remaining 36.7% said they received regular weather information. The major source of information for the people is the radio (53.3%). Ten percent (10%) of the respondents also got their weather information from fellow farmers. Other sources of weather information are the television and MOFA extension agents. Application of information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) The respondents from the West Mamprusi did not utilize the weather information at all as almost 98% of respondents said they do not plan their livelihood activities based on the weather forecasts they receive. Their major reason for not using the weather information was that the information was not perceived to be reliable. They claimed that the forecasts they receive are usually for a large area, for e.g., the whole of the Northern Region, and should they plan with it, their crops will be planted and the rains will not come as forecasted. The forecasts are not specific to their community and can fail them.

3.6. ZABZUGU-TATALE DISTRICT (Guinea Savannah Zone) The Zabzugu/Tatale District is situated on the eastern flank of the Northern Region. The district vegetation is savannah woodland with economic trees such as shea-nut, dawadawa, teak and mango. The average age of respondents in the Zabzugu-Tatale district is 52 years. 3.6.1. Observed micro-climate changes in the community Quantity of rainfall Quantity of rainfall in the Zabzugu-Tatale district has decreased significantly, according to 100% of respondents to questionnaire and this was overwhelmingly endorsed by all Focus Group Discussions. The following were evidences that community alluded to in support of their observation: i.

Formerly by July, the shrubs would have been covered by floods, but these days it is not so anymore

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ii. iii. iv. v.

vi. vii. viii. ix.

2011

Harvesting of yams should be happening in July during the years when rainfall was good but now as a result of bad rainfall, no farmer is harvesting yams in July. Previously, there were rains after Christmas in January but in recent years, after Christmas it takes 3 months for the rain to come In the olden days, the rainy season could go up to November or December. Now the rains only go as far as October. In the past, there were some areas that were considered not fit for planting because they were always flooded but now there are no more floods in those areas and farming is going on there. Whilst there were rains even during harvest times in the olden days, now there are no rains even during times that were previously known for planting. In the past by July the streams on the way to the village would have been flooded such that the village would be cut off and no car could come to the village. There used to be no drought in July, but now there is drought in July. Some years back, the early rains used to cover lots of areas and also soaks the soil for about a week, but now, the soil dries up in just two days after rains.

Intensity of rainfall Observations on intensity of rainfall were varied in the communities surveyed. Almost 70% of respondents were of the view that rainfall intensity has increased. The 70% supported their observation with the reason that there are more rainstorms now than previously, although these incidences are not regular. Thirty per cent (30%) of the respondents also said they had observed a reduction in rainfall intensity and they supported their observation with the fact that there are more windstorms now, rather than intense rainfall, compared to the previous years. Number of rainy days The respondents were unanimous in stating that the number of rainy days has reduced. According to the people, now when it rains once during the rainy season, it may take three weeks to a month for the next rains to come again. This is unlike the past where during the rainy season there could be at least one or two rainy days per week in a typical rainy season. Seasonal variation From the FGDs and questionnaire administration, the rainy season and rainfall pattern has changed significantly. The observed evidence (manifestation) of this change are: i.

ii.

At first, there were rains in November, and harvesting of guinea corn was done in November, but now there are no rains in November. There used to be rains also in February but now there are no February rains. Formerly it was raining in august and sorghum would have been planted, but these days there are no rains in August 87


iii. iv. v.

2011

The rainy season used to be continuous but now when the season starts, it may take a long time for the next rains to come Planting of groundnuts was in February-March, but these days there are no rains in February-March to plant groundnut Rains used to start from April and continue through May to June and July. But now the rains delay and come in June which brings with it flooding and destroys crops

Temperature There was another 100% unanimous observation that ambient temperature has increased now, compared with about 30 to 40 years. The observed evidence of this change are: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

vii.

There is less rainfall so there are long periods of sunshine which brings heat. CSM is on the increase in the communities and that is caused by excessive heat. Formerly there was no CSM in the communities. Crops are wilting and dying on the field now more than before The weather is very warm even in July and August which is very unusual because at first during July and August the weather used to be very cool Warm months were restricted to certain months but now it is hot throughout the year The people have stopped planting some crops because increasing heat kills them. Some beans used to be planted in January and harvested in June, but we have stopped planting it, eg “esengye” One cannot sleep in the room because of excessive heat. July is originally part of the rainy season and should be cold but it is so hot that one cannot sleep indoors.

3.6.2. Impacts of changes in rainfall and temperature on local livelihoods Major Livelihoods The major livelihood sources for the people are       

Crop farming (maize, yam, tomatoes, cassava, rice, pepper, soyabean, millet) Fishing in river Oti Trading, eg, Fish mongers Shea nut and Dawadawa collection Fuelwood collection Charcoal production Animal husbandry (livestock and poultry)

88


2011

Impacts on livelihoods Crop Farming: i.

ii. iii.

iv. v.

vi.

vii. viii. ix.

The people have stopped planting some crops because increasing heat kills them. Some beans used to be planted in January and harvested in June, but we have stopped planting it, eg “esengye” Low crop productivity and yield due to low rainfall and increasing heat. Pest infestation of the vegetables and crops is increasing. There are some caterpillars which attack crops and when there are no rains the pest number increases. The soil becomes so hard that plowing is difficult Most farmers used to farm guinea corn, but not anymore. Guinea corn used to be planted in August and got good yield but now when it is planted in August, the crops fail due to low rainfall Yam yield has decreased considerably, even with the application of fertilizer. Size of the tubers has reduced. At first, yam would not die in the yam mounds, but now, more yams die in the mounds due to excessive heat Cassava should have been planted before April and harvested in August-September, but most farmers are now planting their cassava. Maize plants die due to excessive heat Vegetables are not yielding well.

Animal Husbandry: i.

ii.

iii. iv.

Now from January to April when there are no rains, animals suffer from hunger, because there are no grasses for the animals to feed on. The poultry feed on grains, but now, there are very little grains to be given to the birds, because there is little grans and it is even not enough to feed the people. Insect/flies that bite the livestock and causes diseases and deaths are multiplying in the community due to less rain. Anytime the rains come, the flies go away but now that the rains don’t last, the flies are so many. Animals don’t reproduce as much as they should. The animals used to give birth every year, but now that they don’t feed well and they don’t reproduce every year More diseases affect the animals and kill them

Fishing: i.

Fish catch has reduced. Water level has reduced and this has pushed the fish deep down into the rivers, because the fishes prefer colder waters. Fish catch is high during cold weather and now that it is hot throughout the year, fish catch has reduced. Now with 10 fishing nets, fish catch is not as much as it used to be with 3 fishing nets. Fishermen were previously catching so much fish that they could throw

89


2011

some back into the river, but now they don’t even get enough fish to take home; to even think of throwing some away. As the water gets warm, it kills the fish. Previously, there was fish caught in March, but now no fish is caught in March

ii. iii.

Trading (fish): i.

Because farmers don’t get enough fish, there is very little to sell. Some fish traders have to buy from other places (e.g. Bator) in order to sell. At first women used to engage the services of people to process fish brought by their husbands but now there is not enough fish, even for the family. Their businesses have collapsed due to less fish catch.

ii.

Shea nut and “Dawadawa” collection: i. ii. iii. iv. v.

The Shea and Dawadawa trees are now producing less fruits. The Shea nut trees are not bearing fruits anymore The Shea nut trees are dying The yield of the trees is not as high as before Dawadawa collection has also reduced

3.6.3. Major climate related hazards in the community According to the people, the major climate related hazards are; Rainfall:  

Low rainfall with long periods of dry spells. Flooding; attributed to spillage of Bagre dam

Temperature: 

Excessive heat

Impacts of major climate related hazards on community Destruction of homes and property: When the Bagri dam of Burkina Faso is opened, the flood waters wash away their crops that have been planted along the river banks. Food availability:

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i.

ii.

iii. iv.

2011

Due to low crop productivity and poor yields, there is famine and hunger in the communities. At first in August there were new yams, but now, there are no new yams even when the old yams are finished creating hunger in the community. Some farmers used to sow a black beans variety called “esengye”, but they don’t sow it anymore because it does not thrive under the current conditions. The beans used to supplement their food in the home, but now they only eat tuo-zaafi In Nangodi, farmers would have harvested the early millet in July and prepare the fields again for Guinea corn, but in July farmers are still sowing early millet. At first, the houses were full of fish, but now they don’t get much fish. There used to be fish in any stream around the village, but now it is not so any more

Photo 11. Maize now being planted in July instead of harvesting at Nangodi


Due to increasing heat, farmers are unable to stand on their feet and work for long hours. They get tired early and have to stop working for the day earlier than previously.

Water sources: i.

The streams in the communities which serve as the main water sources for the people dry out, especially in the dry season and those closer to the River Oti resort to fetching water from it. However, the River Oti gets polluted in the dry season.

Health: i. ii.

Heat related diseases are on the increase in the communities. Snake bite during shea nut picking has increased because the snakes also seek shelter under the trees from increasing heat.

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Sources of income i.

The major source of income, which is crop farming, is negatively impacted by changes in rainfall and temperature so most of the people do not have money.

Migration: i.

People migrate to other places to look for jobs. Mostly they migrate to Kumasi and Accra to find menial jobs to do and get income and then return to the community. Usually after a number of trips down-south, the migrants end up staying in Accra or Kumasi.

3.6.4. Community-based coping strategies in response to impacts of climate change Crop farming Farming along the Oti River to supplement the yield from the farms has become prominent farming activities in most communities. The females plant vegetables and they do it in the month of May, when most soils at the river bank are still moist. However, there is no farming along the river during the rainy season. During the dry season farming along the river is the major means by which farmers are able to continue farming maize. Farmers have shifted from relatively long to short duration crops. They used to plant a variety of beans called “esengye” (black beans) and millet “simpie”, but due to the fact that it is long duration and mostly fails because rainfall has reduced, they now plant the white variety and the “obaatanpa” variety of maize. Animal husbandry Due to the fact that the rainy season has changed, there is a prolonged lean season; hence sale of animals is an immediate stop-gap measure which is used to generate income to sustain the family. Also, during the dry season, owners of animals have to fetch water for their animals to ensure that the animals always have water to drink. Migration Few communities have incidence of migration to the south. This is to ensure that there is a reliable source of financial inflow during the lean season. High night time temperature

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Sleeping outside at night has become a common practice to escape the discomfort of high temperature at night. Alternative livelihood To some extent the sale of firewood and charcoal is practiced to sustain livelihoods. Also, most women engage in shea nut collection and processing so as to generate income.

3.6.5. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters Findings of local indicators that communities surveyed in the Zabzugu-Tatale district used in predicting climatic parameters are presented in this section. The reliability of the indicators as being used now is also presented.

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Table 7. Indigenous indicators in predicting climatic parameters in the Zabzugu-Tatale District COMMUNITY

INDICATOR

Kolikoline

Ants

LOCAL NAME

DESCRIPTION INDICATOR

OF


REMARKS

Ants carrying their eggs and moving from their holes to other place. These ants are found anywhere and they move in a straight line, whiles carrying their eggs. When they undertake this activity, it rains on that day or the following day


In the morning when you open the guinea fowls, and you give them grains, and they refuse to eat, it signals that it will rain that day. The knowledge was acquired through frequent feeding of the fowls and their eating pattern


They can be found at homes and under trees and in the bushes. They are black

Ants carrying their eggs, means it is going to rain


Wind direction

Normal wind blowing towards the east. This can be observed by the movement of dust and leaves of trees. The weather could be hot and, when the wind starts blowing, the weather gets hot, then the rains come. This wind blows stronger and for 1 hr.

indicates rainfall


sheep and goats

In the morning, you will see all animals lying on the ground, not moving out to the field to graze, and no wind blowing,

It will rain.


Frog

These frogs are big, ash in colour, but not too black. They make holes in the ground.

When you hear them making the "kurr kurr" sound in the morning then it will rain.


They are black ants

Guinea fowl

Mbeiabodo

Ant

“sansar

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Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation in Ghana Shea tree

Sabari

2011

The shea tree fruits during the rainy season, so sowing of seeds and land preparation commences when the fruits are seen


Ant

Small black ants, normally found in holes under trees, stones and in houses. They don‟t bite

When seen in a long queue carrying their eggs, and moving from a low land to a high land, then it means it will rain soon.


Duck

Domestic duck

They stay on the ground and flap their wings against the soil, just as they do in water, the rains may come the same day or it will take about three days.


When the wind moves towards sunset, it indicates there will be rain; we use the direction of movement of leaves of trees to know the movement. The rains come between 3- 5 hours


Wind

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3.6.6. Level of awareness, access and application of meteorological by communities Access to climate information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) Awareness of GMet forecasts in the Zabzugu-Tatale is minimal. Almost 56% of the respondents are unaware of GMet weather forecasts. Also, almost 31% of the respondents were aware of both daily and seasonal forecasts. Also 69% of respondents said their information on weather forecasts is not regular and the main source of information for the people is the radio. Application of information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) Eighty-four percent (84%) of the respondents did not plan their activities based on the weather information they received. Their reasons for not using the information were; i. ii.

The radio station (Savanna Radio) that provide the information on weather forecasts is broadcasted in Dagbani and some of the farmers do not understand the language The information that the weather forecasts provide are very general and becomes less useful to the farmers in the local conditions.

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4.0 DISCUSSION 4.1 COMMUNITY-LEVEL INFORMATION ON OBSERVED CLIMATE CHANGES AND EXTREME VARIABILITY The discussion of results is done by grouping the results under three main ecological zones. Results from communities surveyed in the Northern, Upper East and Upper West Regions are grouped and discussed under the Guinea Savannah zone. The Keta Municipality comes under the Coastal Savannah zone whilst the Aowin-Suaman District is discussed as representative of the High Forest Zone of Ghana. 4.1.1 High Forest Zone – Aowin-Swaman District Rainfall (quantity, intensity, rainy days, seasonal variation) Throughout the study, the Aowin-Suaman district was the only place where communities reported observing increases in their rainfall. Almost 90% of the respondents said that quantity of rainfall has been increasing since the times that they could remember to date. Their observation is very much in line with previous projections that the Environmental Protection Agency made for Ghana’s First National Communication to the UNFCCC (2001). In the first communication, projected rainfall decreases consistently in all the agro-climatic zones with the exception of the High Rainforest Zone where the rainfall consistently increases with time between 2000 and 2100; with annual rainfall expected to increase by 110.5 mm in the year 2100 (Ghana EPA, 2000). The accuracy of the local people’s observation in relation to the scientific estimates made in the first communication, gives credence to the fact that though local or indigenous people may not understand the concept of climate change, they rightly observe the changes that are happening in their environment (Gyampoh et al., 2009). Rainfall events and occurrences within their communities are rightly observed by the people and used as evidence to buttress their stances on the degree of change in rainfall in their environment. For example, they cite increased flooding in their communities as evidence. According to the people, they have recorded flooding every year in the past 10 years but since 2007, the flooding situation has been intense and in a single year, at least three flood occurrences could be recorded. In 2011 alone, they had observed three major floods in their communities from January to July and this, they attribute to increased rainfall because this has not been the case for the past forty years. The people in the district also rightly observed increases in intensity of rainfall and the number of rainy days per week in a typical rainy season. The major livelihood source of the people is agriculture and this makes them pay close attention to the rainfall pattern. As a result, any slight change in rainfall is rightly observed by them because it has significant effects on their livelihood source. Previously, there would be on the average 3 rainy days per week in a typical rainy season but currently, on the average, there are 5 rainy days per week in a typical rainy season. At the peak of the rainy season, there could be rains throughout the week and sometimes there is no sighting of the sun. The people unanimously observed that the rainfall 97


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pattern has changed. The normal rainy season in the district is observed to commence from May (although some rains would have been recorded in March/April) and peak in September and October, after a slight drop in August. A changed in this pattern has been observed recent years as the rains now start in March and continue throughout the year. In 2011 for example, rainfall started in January and has been raining till July (when this study was conducted). Known periods in the year when flooding was known to occur may have changed?? and the people prepare in anticipation of the floods can no longer be adhered to as the floods can occur at any time of the year. The correct local observation of changes in rainfall makes a strong point of not disregarding local perceptions in climate change interventions. Temperature Unlike rainfall which is very easy to detect any slight changes, slight temperature changes are usually not so easy to detect without instrumentation and this was evident in the communities’ response to observation of temperature changes. According to the IPCC (2007) even globally, mean surface temperatures have risen by 0.74°C ± 0.18°C when estimated by a linear trend over the last 100 years (1906–2005). This seemingly slight change is usually not so distinct for easy appreciation without instrumentation and as a result, the unanimity with which the whole community agreed to increases in rainfall was missing when it came to their observation of ambient temperature. Whilst about a fifth (22.7%) of the people said they had observed increase in average environmental temperatures, 60.2% were also of the opinion that temperature is decreasing and another 17.1% of respondents had not observed any change in temperatures. However, all these schools of thought offer evidence to support their observations. The major argument for those observing a reduction in ambient temperatures was that increasing rainfall always brings cold weather and this has reduced temperature in the community. According to them, there is always cloud formation in the sky and this prevents regular solar radiation from reaching the community and as a result there is reduced heat. Those who have observed increase in environmental temperatures also give their reasons as though it is raining more now, the warmth from the sun is more than it used to be. They also acknowledged that the sun appears for a shorter period of time now compared with about thirty years ago but conclude that even when the sun comes out for a shorter period of time, the heat is very high. From Ghana’s first national communication to the UNFCCC (Ghana EPA, 2000), there are consistent increases in both the maximum and the minimum temperatures over the years in all the agro-climatic zones but the temperature rise decreases towards the forest zones. According to the communication, by 2020 average temperatures in the high rainforest zone will see an increase of 0.7oC over the 1961-1990 baseline of 29.3oC. This change is not so drastic and may account for the seeming difficulty in the communities coming to a consensus on whether temperature is increasing or not. Moreover, effects of slight temperature changes on agriculture are not very striking as that of rainfall changes so the people are unable to readily 98


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notice the change as compared with rainfall changes. In Africa, temperature changes can affect yields and yield quality mostly in semi-arid and arid regions, instead of the moist regions like the Aowin-Swaman district and this can contribute to the people’s lack of coherent knowledge on temperature changes because most of their observation is linked to the impacts that change has on their farming. 4.1.2. Coastal Savannah (Keta Municipality) Rainfall (quantity, intensity, rainy days, seasonal variation) The coastal savannah zone of Ghana generally does not receive much rainfall and the Keta Municipality is one of the driest along the coast of Ghana. The mean annual rainfall for this zone is about 800 mm and communities surveyed in the Keta Municipality have observed a reduction in amount of rainfall over the years. The people had observed that water level in lagoons in the community has decreased significantly in recent years and this is a situation that the Keta Municipal Assembly already recognises as a major problem. Most water bodies are dwindling in size because rainfall is the main source of water. However, the impact of excessive evaporation and siltation in these lakes cannot be ruled out as other factors reflecting in the low water levels. The volume of water in lagoon, creeks and lakes fluctuate seasonally in accordance with the rainfall pattern. The rainfall pattern has not changed: major rainy season between March and July and minor season between September and November. These seasons coincide with the main and minor cropping seasons in the Municipality. But generally the rainfall received in these two seasons has reduced, with the minor season almost becoming extinct. The minor season farming is gradually disappearing for those who rely solely on rainfall to farm. The regular flooding that was occurring in the communities around the 1970s and 1980s as a result of overflowing of the Volta River are no longer occurring, according to the communities. Through communal labour, the people used to construct channels during the rainy season to direct water away from their communities into the sea to avoid flooding but this is no longer being done because rainfall is low. Striking evidence that the rainfall is reducing is changes in vegetation whilst moving from the Northern parts of the municipality to the Southern parts along the coast. Previously, the northern portions had been receiving more rainfall than the south and the northern vegetation was marked by tall grasses and interspersed with medium sized trees. The tree density was also quite higher than the coastal areas which have very sparse vegetation. Currently it becomes quite difficult to distinguish between the vegetation as one move from the north to the south of the Keta Municipality. The whole vegetation has become mainly short grasses and short trees with a few palm and baobab trees. Neem trees are becoming increasingly prominent throughout the municipality and the Neem tree is noted for its drought resistance; thriving in areas with sub-arid to sub-humid conditions, with an annual rainfall between 400 and 1200 mm.

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Temperature Generally mean monthly temperature is estimated to be 26.7οC, while the mean monthly minimum temperature may be as low as 15οC, and mean monthly maximum temperature could be as high as 35οC. Temperature observations by communities surveyed in the Keta Municipality is consistent with projection of increases in maximum temperatures in the coastal savannah zone of Ghana. Temperature projections for the coastal savannah show a gradual increase (Daze, 2007). Many of those surveyed were quick to narrate how night temperatures have increased over the years. This observation was virtually the one that most people used to identify that average temperatures are increasing. Respondents were always quick to say, “In the past (about 20 to 30 years ago), night temperatures were very low and sleeping was comfortable without any sweating. But now we sweat so much in the night that sometimes we wake up at night to come out for fresh air or bath to keep cool before getting back to continue the sleep”. The people’s ability to identify changes in night temperatures is very understandable because usually daily minimum temperatures which are usually recorded at night tend to increase more than daily maximum temperatures recorded at the peak of sunshine intensity during the day. Night-time temperatures have risen almost twice as much as daytime temperatures over land since 1900 (Walters, 2007). The difference between the daily maximum and minimum temperature is referred to as the diurnal temperature range (DTR). Decrease of the DTR has been touted as evidence of “climate change”. It has been shown that rise in mean surface air temperature has resulted, in part, from the daily minimum temperature increasing at a faster rate or decreasing at a slower rate than the daily maximum. 4.1.3. Guinea Savannah (Wa West, West Mamprusi, Talensi-Nabdam and Zabzugu-Tatale districts) Rainfall (quantity, intensity, rainy days, seasonal variation) It is very clear from the study that the quantity of rainfall in the Guinea savannah in recent times has decreased substantially compared to the 1960’s. Farmers and most residents are unanimous to declare that the rainfall pattern, as it pertains now, never used to be what they have known it to be when they were young and growing up. The communities demonstrated a good sense of the intricate relationship they have with the environment by drawing on key manifestations based on their livelihood and landmarks in their farms and communities to buttress their assertion that indeed rainfall parameters, has declined. For instance, most communities constantly used the fact that when the rainfall quantity was good, crop failure and low productivity was not part of their concerns as they go about their agricultural activities. The rains were adequate for their crops to mature and yield well that they never have to look forward to when the next rains will come, as they are doing presently. This community observation of declining rainfall parameters is similar to the observations by Ishaya and Abaje (2008) in Nigeria, where 83.5% of respondents believed that rainfall is decreasing every year. Similarly the observations of the community confirm earlier reports that the Sudan savannah zone had the highest decreases in rainfall in Ghana (EPA, 2000).

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Though the rainfall quantity has declined, on occasions where it rains, the communities observed that the intensity is high. This is characterised by wind and rain storms which rip of roofs and uproot trees. Most respondents in this study have observed that even though these manifestations used to happen previously, the spate of occurrence is on the high side now, and they feel it mostly because the destruction includes damages to food crops. In addition to the quantity and intensity of the rains, seasonal variation and number of rainy days are critical rainfall parameters which are very important to the sustenance of agricultural systems. Hence farmers attach a lot of importance to mechanisms that help them relate to the onset and termination of rainfall. In this study, there was an unequivocal acclamation that indeed the rains begin very late and end earlier than expected. Respondents cited several observations based on their farming practices and livelihoods to demonstrate the extent to which seasonal variation in rainfall has become unfavourable. There were various instances where farmers noted that the planting regime for most food crops have shifted. All the communities noted that harvesting of early millet “zeeh” and maize used to be in the month of July, but nowadays the rains will not even come by July to the extent that now, land preparation and sowing rather commences, when they should have been harvesting. It was also clear that the communities have noted a rather worrying duration of rainfall, which is woefully inadequate for most of their crops maturity and yield. This shortened duration and delayed onset of rainfall was summarized by Isha, a mother of five and farmer that, “Previously, there were rains in May and even in June and July but now there are no rains in these months. In the former years due to these rains, planting of crops began in May but now it is July that, most people begin sowing”. This observation is also confirmed by meteorological data taken by the West Mamprusi District Agriculture Directorate. Invariably, inspite of the fact that rainfall duration has shortened and onset has also delayed, farmers are not very much able to predict the pattern of the rains to understand seasonality as they used to do. For instance most communities used to know that after the fire festival, there used to four different types of rain, and the fifth is what was used to signal the beginning of land preparation for the farming season. However, the rainfall pattern has become so irregular that most of the community based decisions are no more applicable. Thus, there now appears to be a much longer period for the dry season, whiles the rainy season has become shorter and less predictable. This shows that as much community members do not have conventional equipment to determine and measure climate parameters, they depend on their day-to-day activities to make critical observations about their climate. According to Orlove et al., (2008), though farmers do not describe rainfall amounts in millimetres of precipitation, they distinguish the quantity of rain that has fallen during each season, by scraping soil away with their hands, or digging with hoes, they examine soil moisture after the onset of the rains to determine when enough has fallen for viable planting. A similar approach is being used by Jato, a farmer at Karemenga in the West Mamprusi District.

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Temperature The communities again unanimously asserted that temperature has increased far more than they used to experience when they were young. This observation confirms the assertion that temperature increases will be highest in the savannah zone of Ghana (EPA, 2000). The observed increases in temperature were based on several evidence, which are linked to the daily activities and livelihood of the respondents. Now ambient temperature has been observed to last far longer than it used to be. In Wa West, a respondent stated that periods of intense heat used to last for about three months, compared to the recent times, where heat duration last for about six months. Hence, it is a common sight nowadays to see people wearing their normal light clothes in July, while previously, they would have been wearing heavier clothes. This was captured so well by Sule, a resident of Pwalugu that “In the former years, nobody would sleep outside in the month of July because it would be too cold but now many people are sleeping outside because of the heat”. Also, farmers believe that most of their crops easily wilt when the rains do not come for about a week, whiles in previous times, for the same period, the crops survived quite well. They attributed the difficulty of the crops withstand periods of relatively less rainfall to high temperatures which makes soil moisture evaporate within a shorter time. A similar observation was made by Ishaya and Abaje (2008) in Nigeria, where 73% of respondents observed that ambient temperature has increased. It is also common to find some water bodies which are heavily relied on usually dry up just after the rainy season. Thus, based on the observations of the communities involved in this study, not only has ambient temperature increased, but the duration in a given year has also increased.

4.2. CLIMATE IMPACTS ON VARIOUS SECTORS OF RURAL LIVELIHOODS 4.2.1 High Forest Zone (HFZ) Communities in the Aowin-Suaman district are predominantly crop farmers and it is one of the major cocoa growing areas in Ghana. Oil pal is also another cash crop grown in the area. Along with cocoa growing, all farmers also grow food crops such as cassava, cocoyam and plantain, and also maize and vegetables like tomatoes, pepper, cabbage and carrots. Rearing of animals is mainly for subsistence and is done on the free range around homes. Changes in climate have had mixed impacts on the livelihoods of the people. The major impacts of changing climate on livelihoods in the district relates with increasing rainfall. Temperature change is not very marked and as a result the people do not really see the impacts of the change on their livelihoods. However, rainfall increase has been very significant and its impacts on livelihoods have been well noted.

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Cocoa farming It is well established that cocoa is highly sensitive to changes in climate- from hours of sun, to rainfall and application of water, soil conditions and particularly to temperature due to effects on evapotranspiration (Anim-Kwapong and Frimpong, 2006). Rainfall and temperature changes could create optimum conditions for pest development and also modify host resistance and result in changes in the physiology of host-pathogen/pests interaction. Black pod disease: The major concern of all cocoa farmers surveyed in the district was the increase in incidence of the black pod disease; a fungus disease that flourishes in damp conditions and causes cocoa pods to turn black and rot. This disease, according to the farmers and also confirmed by District Assembly officials whom we worked with on this study, was unknown in the community some few years ago. But the disease is now spreading fast in the communities and farmers attribute this to increasing rainfall. According to Anim-Kwapong and Frimpong (2006) in their work on “Vulnerability of agriculture to climate change - impact of climate change on cocoa production” under the Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment under the Netherlands Climate Change Studies Assistance Programme Phase 2 (NCCSAP2), cocoa farmers interviewed in different cocoa growing regions in Ghana also indicated that excessive rainfall was accompanied by high incidence of black pod disease and yield losses. Research has shown that the black pod disease is closely related to weather and climate; more prevalent in damp situations and is most destructive in years when the short dry period from July to August is very wet (Anim-Kwapong and Frimpong, 2006). This is exactly the situation in the Aowin Swaman district: previously, the major rainy season was from May to July and the minor September to October, with a drop in August, but now rains start latest by March and continues throughout the year without any break or drop in rainfall. The impact of increased rainfall on cocoa trees through the incidence of black pod disease had also been in reported in Neighbouring Ivory Coast where weeks of heavy rainfall in south-western Ivory Coast was reported to have triggered an outbreak of black pod (Mark, 2010) The impact of black pod disease is a major issue that should be of great concern to the nation because this disease can wipe away this major livelihood source of the communities and the country as a whole. Worldwide, the black pod disease is the most destructive of a number of diseases which attack the developing or ripening cocoa pods. The Phytophthora species: P. palmivora and P. megakarya are the main causative organisms of the disease in Ghana (Opoku et al 1999). The P. megakarya can cause losses ranging from 60-80% in newly affected farms to almost 100% in old affected farms in the black pod season (May to mid-June) whilst losses due to P. palmivora are estimated at 4.9-19% (Blencowe and Wharton, 1961; Dakwa, 1984). Temperature change is not directly affecting cocoa production in the district. However, some farmers believe that if the sun were to be intense and enough heat generated, the dump conditions that increasing rainfall creates in the farms to create the optimum conditions for black pod disease would have been curtailed. 103


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Flooding of cocoa farms: Apart from black pod disease, intense rainfall also floods the cocoa farms and the stagnant water left in the farm for longer days causes most trees to die. Although flooding is not a new thing to farmers in the district, previously, the period between the 5 and 15 October has been noted as flooding period and farmers always prepared themselves to minimize damage that the floods will cause to their farms. But now flooding occurs at any time of the year and causes consistent damage to farmlands; both cocoa farms and food crop farms. The resultant effect of all this is loss of income. Cocoa is the major source of income for the people in this district, and Ghana as a whole, and with this alarming trend, the people are not getting what they should be getting from cocoa production. Food crop and vegetable farming Flooding: the major effects of changing climate on food crops and vegetable production in the Aowin-Suaman district has got to do with increase in rainfall and flooding. Cassava production is one of the worst affected as farmers complained that too much moisture in the soil causes tubers of cassava to get rotten before it is harvested. This is because cassava thrives well under moderately moist soils and too much soil moisture is negative to the production of the tuber. The dump conditions that are created by intense rainfall also causes a lot of pest infestation on vegetables as well causing pepper and tomatoes to rot because of too much rainfall. Animal husbandry Animal production is not a major source of livelihood in the district. Animal keeping is mainly to meet household needs. A few farmers complained of losing animals to flooding but that is not a major problem that affects the whole community. Aquaculture A few farmers that have ventured into aquaculture as a means of diversifying their livelihood sources have suffered major losses due to increasing rainfall. Whenever it floods, their ponds are run over by flood waters and all the fish is lost, needing re-stocking with fingerlings. This has become a major disincentive to fish farmers and many of them have already abandoned the venture. Small-scale mining Small-scale mining, popularly known as “galamsey”, is a major source of livelihood in communities that have gold deposits as most young men in the villages are engaged in this. At Achemfo, one of the communities studied in the Aowin-Suaman, small-scale mining is a major livelihood source. With outmoded and improvised equipment, the miners have dug deeply into the soil from where they prospect for gold. The miners complained that they are unable to 104


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enter the mining pits as often as they used to because the pits are filled with water for most part of the year. This has brought on an added cost of getting big water pumps and powers them to pump water out of the pits on a regular basis before they can enter the pits. Destruction of life, homes and property Destruction of homes, life and property has been a result of regular flooding in the communities. There a numerous streams and rivers that traverse the length and breadth of the district. With increasing rainfall, most of the rivers get full and overflow their banks into the community. Previously, according to local knowledge and experience, major flooding was a decadal issue but since the year 2000 there has been flooding every year. In 2007, there was a major flood in the Aowin-Suaman district which made the news headlines throughout Ghana and since then there has been increasing floods in the communities. Since 2007, there are at least 3 major floods each year and this creates a lot of problems for the communities, with some loss of human life. Buildings regularly collapse with every flood and animals and farms are also washed away. Erosion resulting from flash floods and runoffs from heavy rains is common sight throughout the communities and is a big worry to the residents. Many people have the soils at the bases of their mud-built homes washed away by floods leaving the buildings hanging dangerously. Many homes have already been destroyed by floods and rain/windstorms and more seem likely to suffer the same fate is nothing is done immediately about it. Health The communities report an increase in malaria and water-borne diseases as a result of increasing rainfall. Although this assertion could not be verified within the time and space of the study, it is know that the anopheles mosquito which transmits malaria breed in water habitats so any conditions that create the right atmosphere for it to thrive will cause an increase in incidences of malaria. It is not only the amount and intensity of rainfall, but also the time in the year, whether in the wet or dry season, that affects malaria transmission. Most of the communities surveyed have no access to pipe water and drink from surface water bodies and shallow wells which easily get contaminated when there is heavy rainfall. Filth from upstream is washed into the surface water-bodies whilst underground movement of water causes contamination of shallow wells.

4.2.2. Coastal Savannah The majority of the population in the Keta Municipality are crop farmers, fishermen and livestock keepers (including birds). Sheep and goats, pigs, ducks and local fowls are some of the

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animals and bird kept by the people and this is done on free range. The women are mainly engaged in trading in fish and foodstuffs and other goods. The municipality is one of the major vegetable producers in Ghana; well known for cultivation of shallots. Dzita and Tebgi, which were part of the communities surveyed, are major shallot producing areas. Other vegetables grown are okro, tomato and pepper. Farming: vegetables, shallots Decreasing rainfall is having a big negative impact on crop farming. Soils in the area are generally sandy and often without any top layer of humus. So when it rains, the water drains away easily and leaves the soil dry for most part of the time. This situation coupled with decreasing rainfall is reducing soil water availability shallot, okro, pepper and other vegetables. The already high and still increasing average temperatures, reducing rainfall and in relation low relative humidity creates the right conditions to promote high evapo-transpiration. High evapotranspiration will also worsen the general water deficient conditions of the place and make farming more difficult, especially in the minor rainy season and the dry season. Farmers who do not have the resources to get irrigation facilities for their farms are thus left out of dry season farming. One major constraint to farmers is the lack of good land for cultivation. Most of the land of the municipality is covered by water. Farm sizes are small; about 0.5 ha per farmer on the average. Many farmers in areas where the top sandy soil is underlain with clayey soils lament the situation where due to increasing temperature and lack of rainfall, their lands harden and become difficult to till. This has affected the farmlands the people are able to cultivate. Farmers have to wet their lands with water to soften them before they can prepare them for cropping and this is an extra drain of energy and resources. Fishing Fishing in the Keta Municipality is carried out in the sea, lagoons and rivers. The vibrant fishery industry which has supported many families is a pale shadow of itself. It was always a joy when fishermen recounted their previous experiences in fishing with fondness. However, talking about fishing in recent years was full of despair and hopelessness. Most fishermen conveyed that if the situation was like this when they were young, they wouldn’t have followed their fathers into the business. Fishermen claim fish catch has reduced in recent years and they attributed it to changes in climate. From experience, changes in temperature in rainfall have always had effects on fish catch. Previously, though there were periods of low rainfall when they would get little catch from the sea and lagoons, this period was not so long as it is now. Long periods of low rainfall, according to the fishermen, had more effects on lagoon and lake fishery. Low water level in the

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lagoons, lakes and sea due to low rainfall results in low fish catch. When the water level is high, it opens up many possibilities to the number and type of fish that may be caught. Normally, good rainfall is followed by good fish catch. The rains would normally draw the fish to the coast because after rains the offshore gets colder and this is suitable to the fish. The fish now move further away from the shore into deeper waters where the water is colder and this makes catch difficult. Usually after heavy rains, the catch is high, but now because there is less rain the catch is low. “Climate change is already impacting the world’s oceans and will have serious consequences for the hundreds of millions of people who depend on fishing for their livelihoods”, according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2008). The fishermen have observed that warm weather limits fish catch. They assert that during warm weather, the fish move deeper into the sea where they would have cool water and this is supported by the FAO’s report that the Atlantic ocean in particular is showing signs of warming deep below the surface (FAO, 2008). This is true because most fish like humans, have different temperatures they prefer. Changes in sea temperatures alter the body temperature of aquatic species used for human consumption and therefore impact their metabolism, growth rate, reproduction and susceptibility to diseases and toxins (FAO, 2008). Warm would adversely affect marine fishing especially Pelagic fishing (fishing those species which live near the surface of the sea (Ngaira, 2007). Now fishermen have to move far into deeper waters to catch fish unlike previously where they could fish within their 30 meter exclusive fishing zone. Due to the current high temperature, fishermen have observed that the fish move to deeper waters away from the coast and away from the 30 meter exclusive fishing zone where most of the fishermen operate. The effect of this scenario is that most fishermen are getting very little catch. Fish mongering Sale of fish is mainly a business reserved for the women in coastal communities along coast and those along the lagoons in the municipality. The women can only get the fish to sell when catch is high. With decreasing fish catch, most women have been driven out of business. Farmers are not getting enough catch per the amount of time and money spent on fishing and as a result the landed fish is sold at high prices to the women. Those without huge capital to buy the fish for sale have had to abandon the business. Many women who made fortunes and got empowered from the trading in fish have been rendered unemployed. Some are no longer able to support their husbands in the managing their households as they used to and now have to depend on the husbands for petty things that they used to buy for themselves. Animal Husbandry Animal husbandry is not a major livelihood source of the people so they do not pay much attention to them and as such were unable to detect any real impacts of decreasing rainfall and increasing temperature on them. Moreover, these animals and birds are usually kept on free range. Sheep and goats kept by households are fed on household waste. 107


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Some members of the community who used to keep pigs complained that feeding the animals have become difficult so many have discontinued their rearing. The pigs were previously fed on waste from coconut processing so they were common in communities along the coast. The destruction of coconuts by the Cape Saint Paul Wilt disease1 has affected the number of pigs in the communities. Trading in foodstuffs Reduction in crop yields means less food to sell. Most women are unable to cope with the financial demands in travelling to places outside the municipality to buy foodstuff to come and sell. Those who are able to travel far to buy the produce to sell, have to add extra to the price to recover their costs and this has increased the cost of food items in the community. Maize, which most communities used to produce enough to feed themselves and sell some, is now being imported into the community. Personal communication with officials of the municipality indicated that the Municipality is a net importer of foodstuffs. Many foodstuff dealers have been rendered jobless and this is having a negative effect on the community. Other impacts on the community attributed to changing climate: Sea level rise and coastal erosion The case of coastal erosion in Keta is well known in Ghana and its attribution to changing climate sometimes becomes very debatable though it is open knowledge and established that a warmer climate would lead to coastal flooding due to sea level rise (IPCC, 2007; Ngaira, 2007). It is estimated that ocean expansion could cause a rise in sea levels of between 20 and 140 cm if the average temperature increased by between 1.5 to 4.5oC. (Ngaira, 2007). Other factors influencing the coastal erosion in Keta Municipality is sand winning; an established economic activity. The extensive winning of sand along the coast, especially around Dzita, Dzelukope, Tegbi, and Woe areas have increased sea erosion in those areas. Health Malaria increase in the community, as respondents from communities surveyed claimed is a result of having to sleep outside due to increasing night temperatures may need further investigation to validate. However, the communities’ assertion cannot be discounted because most Anopheles mosquitoes are nocturnal (active at night). Ambient temperature and humidity are also important factors in the development of the plasmodium parasite in the mosquito. Higher temperatures accelerate the parasite growth in the mosquito and there is increasing temperature in the communities. Optimum temperatures also determine whether the Anopheles survives long enough to allow the parasite to complete its cycle in the mosquito

1

The Cape Saint Paul Wilt Disease (CSPWD), a lethal-yellowing type disease of coconut has been in Ghana since 1932. The disease epidemic which began around Cape Saint Paul in Woe near Keta destroyed thousands of coconut palms and caused the collapse of the coconut industry in the Volta region by the mid-1950s.

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host. Also the larvae of Anopheles mosquito breeds in diverse habitats including rice fields and irrigation water. Flooding The occasional flooding that communities along the coast in the Keta Municipality complained of can be attributed to the geology of the place. Underlying the shallow soils in those areas is a hard and compact clay formation. This kind of geological formation covers a large portion of the land area of the municipality and makes the area liable to flood anytime there is intense continuous rainfall. Loss of income The summary of all the impacts of changing climate on the livelihoods of the people in the Keta Municipality is loss of income. Migration When one cannot make ends meet in his locality after trying all means, the obvious alternative left for them is to migrate. Many young people in Keta Municipality have migrated and continue to migrate to Accra to look for jobs because agriculture and fishing are no longer profitable and the youth cannot look forward to making a future out of it. This has had an obvious impact on the social structure of the place. In most communities visited, the elderly dominated were seen all over whiles a few young men were found.

4.2.3. Guinea Savannah Most communities in the study districts are highly dependent on rainfall and temperature for major livelihood activities. In the northern savannah, the major livelihood options include crop farming, animal husbandry, shea nuts (Vitellaria paradoxical) and “dawadawa” (Parkia biglobosa) collection, fishing, sale of fuelwood, pito brewing and petty trading. Among these livelihood activities, women are the major players in shea nut and “dawadawa” collection, pito brewing and sale of fuelwood. Crop farming Agriculture in northern Ghana is mainly rainfed. All the farmers interviewed depend on rainfall for their farming, there are only few instances where farmers utilise irrigation mechanisms to supplement rainfall. Hence decreases in rainfall, shortened duration of the rainy period as well as delayed onset, in addition to increases in temperature are having tremendous impacts on most crop farmers. It is also a common sight to find farmers planting their seeds two to three times, before they germinate and establish. Difficulties in germination are a major challenge to 109


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most farmers. After the crops germinate, the growth and maturity stage is also another critical stage that farmers have to contend with. It was noted that unlike the previous times where farmers used to experience rainfall at least once in a week during the rainy season, nowadays, it can take up to three weeks before the rain falls again. Hence most crops wilt and eventually fail. On occasions when the crops are able to pass through and bear fruits, the yield is woefully low. This was captured well by the chief of Yenduri in the Talensi-Nabdam District who said that “Crop yield has reduced significantly because farming is dependent on rainfall and rainfall has decreased significantly in recent years. The yield that one could formerly get from a piece of land cannot be achieved now on that same piece of land, even though we apply fertiliser”. Though it is possible that most of these farms have lost their fertility due to extensive cultivation, the climate dimension to the reduced yield cannot be totally discounted. For instance while low productivity could be partly attributed to low soil fertility, the shortened rainfall regime during the cropping seasons and increased temperature coupled with reduced rainfall quantity and rainy days, could easily cause crop wilting and failure of seeds to germinate. Farmers are quick to recognise that the periods between one rainfall to the other has seriously prolonged, hence the difficulty for the seeds and seedlings to germinate and establish, when temperature is constantly high and there is no moisture to provide the needed conditions for growth. The availability of water is very critical to crop tussling, reduced rainfall could result in delayed or less tussling which could in turn affect the yield. Because farmers are unable to predict the rainfall pattern as they used to do in previous times, there is a marked lack of confidence to boldly sow seeds after it has rained. This is because; there have been several instances where farmers have thought that the rains are going to be consistent, but have rather turned out to be irregular and their whole investments have been wasted. This has become a major problem, to the extent that, in waiting for the rains to be more regular, farmers end up planting nothing, and the dry season sets in. According to the study by Orlove et al., (2008) in Uganda, predictions about the timing of the onset of rains are particularly important, because some longer cycle crops, such as potatoes and maize, are often planted in dry soil in anticipation of the rains. Some farmers report that this practice is becoming less common as they are losing confidence in the reliability of the rains and in their ability to predict them. Some crop varieties that the people have been growing over the years are no longer doing well because of the shortened rainfall regime. Hence most long duration crops which last up to four months or more are being abandoned. There used to be a variety of sorghum that farmers used to plant such as “yankur”, afanga, lawinlaar, a type of millet called “zee” and a variety of beans that is black in colour, but because of the current rainfall regime they are not able to plant them. As one woman noted in Mbeiabodo, a farming community in the Zabzugu-Tatale District, the black beans used to be of tremendous value because that was what most families used to depend on during the lean season when their crops have not matured. In view of the difficulties in successfully cultivating crops, as they used to do in previous times, hunger has become a major problem, especially in the Talensi-Nabdam, West Mamprusi and Wa West Districts. Crop farming is the major source of livelihood for the subsistence purposes 110


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as well as commercially. Hence with crop farming heavily impacted on by changes in climatic variables, most families are struggling to sustain themselves. Animal husbandry Animal husbandry which basically comprises of the rearing of goats, sheep cattle, guinea fowl and domestic fowls is a primary source of livelihood through its sale and nutritional requirement. It is instructive to note that while crops are failing and yield remains low, managing livestock is also becoming very daunting. The current rainfall regime presents critical challenges to most livestock owners. It has always been a common practice to tie goats and sheep during the cropping season because they could stray and feed on cultivated crops. This practice had always been easier because the prevailing rainfall regime used to be so favourable that animals easily got water to drink. But now, because the duration of rainfall has shortened and become irregular, coupled with increased temperature, ponds and pools of water which used to be easily accessible around the community for animals to drink have dry up. This situation is worsened in the dry season when most accessible water bodies also dry up. Thus, with the current prolonged dry season regime prevailing, most animals and their owners are left with very little options to overcome challenges associated with water accessibility. As Baba pointed out in Nangodi, “it never used to be the practice to fetch water for the goats and sheep when I was growing up, but now, if one does not consciously anticipate that the animals are thirsty, you end up losing them, especially the young ones”. If only the water were to be easily accessible, they would have allowed the animals to roam about and find their own water, but if one tries it, they are easily stolen. Water availability is just one side of the coin, finding grass for the animals to feed on has also been a huge challenge in recent times. Most respondents cited the fact that grass availability for animals to graze has drastically reduced to the extent that owners have to go round in the dry season to cut grasses for their animals. Therefore, due to the difficulty in accessing water and grasses for the animals, farmers attribute frequent abortions in goats and sheep, mortality and the fact that animals are growing lean to obvious changes in the climatic parameters. Owners of animals asserted that, because their animals are not feeding well, they do not look very attractive and healthy to attract good prices from buyers. It is also a common practice to feed fowls on grains and termites, in a kind of managed but largely extensive system. However, as one farmer pointed out, he does not get enough to feed himself and the family, how can he reserve any grain to feed the fowls? As for the termites, it is so difficult to come by them nowadays that respondents attribute their unavailability to the intense heat that has characterise their environment in recent times. Fishing Because the Red and White Volta’s as well as River Oti pass through most of the districts studied, fishing is an integral part of the livelihood support systems in the study communities. For a long period, fishing in these communities have generated so much income through its sale 111


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by women and also to meet the nutritional requirements, that respondents could not have lost sight of the marked reduction in the quantity of fish catch in recent times. Fishermen clearly showed a good sense of their understanding of the major season when fish catch booms, and other season where the catch becomes relatively low. Hence, the rainy season was observed to be a favourable time for fishing because the catch was mostly high, whiles the dry season represented the periods when catch remains low. It was also pointed out that fishes always prefer colder environments; hence the prevailing situation where temperature has been high has resulted in a lower catch. The small water bodies which also used to serve as fishing areas have all dried up, whiles the volume of the Volta’s substantially reduce, to the extent that one can walk in certain portions of the river. According to a fish monger in Mbeiabodo, in the past, the quantity of fish that her husband used to bring was so much that she had to engage the services of other women to assist her to preserve them. But now, she has to be going to the Battor community along the River Oti to get a sizeable quantity of fish to sell. By extension, it is logical to understand the assertion of the fishermen that reduced rainfall duration and amount, as well as increased temperature has resulted shorter periods for profitable and productive fishing, while the amount of catch has remained low. Shea nut and Dawadawa collection Shea nut collection and the subsequent processing into Shea butter has been a prime source of revenue for women and children in northern Ghana. This major source of revenue generation is being impacted on drastically by changes in the rainfall pattern. Respondents in the study had observed a relatively lower flowering on most of the trees, in some instances, the trees skip flowering for a season or more. They asserted that, this phenomenon is uncommon occurrence associated to the Shea tree. This links very much to a further assertion that the most Shea trees are now bearing relatively low quantity as compared to years past, which is also true for the Dawadawa tree. For instance, one woman in Talawana, in the Wa West District one woman stated she used to collect about eight bags of Shea nuts in but nowadays the best quantity one can get is just three bags, even though they roam farther and spend much more time in the collection. It is very common that temperature and rainfall variability could cause the trees to skip certain phenological activities. In this instance, rainfall has been projected and observed to have decreased in the northern savannah, while temperature has very much increased (Ghana EPA, 2001), it is highly possible, that even though the Shea and Dawadawa trees are typical savannah species, their tolerable thresholds for climatic parameters (solar radiation, temperature and rainfall) are being exceeded, hence the possibility of skipped phenology. This assertion has been similarly cited by Anim-Kwapong and Frimpong (2008) for cocoa, where projected increases of solar radiation and temperature could hamper photosynthetic activities and hence result in fruit abortion or skipped phenology relating to flowering. Though snake bite in an uncommon observation in rural areas, the present spate of reported cases of snake bites have assumed a rather worrying level. Most of the women who took part in the focus group discussions as well as the interviews constantly point out difficulties in dealing with snake bites and the fear of being bitten whiles picking shea nuts and dawadawa. In their opinion, temperature increases has caused snakes to seek shade under most of the shea trees, 112


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which is a dominant tree species in most parts of the north. Hence the resultant bites. This assertion could be valid because, according to them, in the past, the snakes just feed on the nuts and move away, but because of the heat, they are now commonly found under trees, which could explain why most of the bites were noted to have occurred under shea trees. The present spate of low yield of shea trees and the associated incidence of snake bites, is captured well by Imma, an elderly woman in Bankpama, in the Wa West District that, “ one has to walk many miles, far away from home, than they usually do, in order to get a few nuts, and even with that, you might end up coming home with an additional snake bite”. Inspite of all these difficulties, shea nut collection and dawadawa remains a towering pillar in the livelihoods of mots communities in the northern savanna, and women in particular. Fuelwood collection, sale and petty trading The business of collecting and using fuelwood goes beyond domestic purposes. It is a major source of income for communities to supplement proceeds from the farm and other sources, it is also an option that is undertaken when the dry season sets in and farming is no more possible. Though not being impacted on directly by climatic parameters, fuelwood collection and sale is seriously filling the gap, in an era where crop yield and failure is exceptionally low. Most women are also engaged in petty trading, where food stuffs and fish are sold. However, these business activities are seriously being impacted on by the effects of changes in climatic parameters on the main sources of getting wares to sell. For instance, most food stuff sellers claim it is difficult to get enough to sell and in instances where they are able to get, they are compelled to sell at relatively high prices, because that is the only means by which they can break even. This also means that most people cannot buy because they do not have money due to poor productivity. It is a vicious cycle which eventually results in a collapse of most businesses, and total inactivity of a hitherto vibrant rural enterprise. Pito consumption is highly typical of northern dwellers, and it is also more of a cultural identity. The main raw material for brewing pito is millet. It is therefore logical to understand the linkage that once rainfall duration has shortened and become irregular, the yield of most crops has been affected and so is millet. Hence, there is an emerging difficulty in easily accessing this raw material for pito, in effect, the prices of pito has shot up and continue to go up, to the extent that a pito brewer in Nangodi has to purchase millet from Bolga in order to get enough to brew. Implications of changing climatic trends on rural livelihood options in the northern savannah It is instructive to note that a greater majority of the livelihood options being undertaken by most communities in the northern savannah are climate dependent or climate related, with crop farming, fishing and animal husbandry being the most impacted on. These activities are incidentally undertaken by the majority of rural dwellers, and are the main sources of food and income for the sustenance of families. It was very clear from the study that based on the geographical location of the community, residents are likely to be doing two or more of these major activities, in addition to shea nut collection and fuelwood sale. 113


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It is possible to assume that under normal circumstances, if one livelihood option is being impacted on negatively by climate, there will be natural shifts to options which are less dependent on climate. But observations from this study pointed that, this is highly impossible under the circumstances and without external intervention. It is also very clear that all the livelihood activities are being impacted on similarly and variously at the same time and in particular seasons. For instance, whiles crop farmers are complaining of reduced and shortened duration of rainfall, coupled with increased temperatures which affect crop productivity, animal rearing is also constrained by difficulties in accessing water and grass. The challenges in these sectors of the rural livelihood are irrespective of the season. In effect, there is very little window of opportunity for the rural dweller and for that matter most communities in the northern savannah to explore and juggle between different livelihoods depending on the season. These difficulties are being translated to more downstream business in the trading sector. It was a common observation for respondents to cite difficulties in accessing raw materials and food stuffs for major businesses, hence prices soar or traders eventually stop. It is becoming an emerging trend that some food stuffs are being bought from market centers in the big town such as Bolga and Wa, because these products are no more available or very scarce in the communities in particular seasons. It is important to understand that the play-outs in these livelihood options means that, wild fruit and fuelwood collection is assuming a major livelihood activity in most of these communities, given that the duration of the lean season has lengthened. However, these sectors are also not devoid of their own challenges which could be traced to changes in climatic parameters. Hence, though women are actively engaged in the collection of shea nut, it is obvious that quantities collected are dwindling, whiles trees that never used to be harvested are being cut for fuelwood. Consequently, people have to walk for long distances to fetch fuelwood and also collect wild fruits to sell. Differentiated impacts of changes in climatic parameters on livelihoods in the northern savannah The gender dimension in the assessment of impacts of various activities on livelihood is a critical exercise which could inform responses and lead to a holistic build-up of mechanisms to address issues. Whiles both males and females are equally engaged in crop farming as well as animal husbandry, the effect on fishing directly affects men. However, due to the fact that women are primarily the major players when it comes to preservation and processing of fish, every notable reduction in fish catch have also meant that trading in fish is seriously being burdened. Though the observed and perceived changes in the climate parameters are impacting on all or most sectors of rural livelihood, it has been observed that there is an extended impact on specific activities which are culturally or generally known to be the mainstay of women. For example, pito brewing and shea nut collection are huge businesses which engage most women and generate much needed revenue for the sustenance of families. However, with observed reductions in quantity of shea nuts collected in recent times, there is an additional effect of further straining women to walk much longer distances, in order to gather enough quantities that can generate meaningful income. All these additional tasks 114


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potentially drain the women especially in the peak of the shea nut collection season, and this is combined with routine chores in the house and farm, as well as increased risks of snake bites. Pito brewing, on the other hand, consistently came up as being constrained in the supply of the major raw material, which is millet. This basically stems from the fact that most crops which are used in the brewing process are long duration, which coincide with the beginning of the dry season, hence crop failure and low yield is becoming a rather regular occurrence. This has resulted in the scarcity of millet and hence propelled prices. In some instances, the women also increase the price of the final product to meet their cost, which is very logical, but in other instances, the business is sadly ended, because there is not much capital to meet the increasing cost of purchasing the raw material.

4.3. COMMUNITY-BASED COPING STRATEGIES IN RESPONSE TO IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE 4.3.1 High Forest Zone – Aowin-Suaman District Coping with black pod disease The Aowin-Swaman district has a unique unfortunate situation where most of the affected farmers seem helpless about the situation. Cocoa farmers who are having their trees affected by the black pod disease are unable to do anything about the problem on their own. Purchase of chemicals for cocoa spraying is prohibited as the chemicals are solely provided by government and not for sale. However, the farmers complain that they do not receive enough chemicals to eliminate black pod disease. The district assembly also explains that at the beginning of the National Cocoa Diseases and Pests Control (CODAPEC) programme in 2001/02 cocoa season, a survey conducted showed that some portions of the district had no problems with black pod disease so they were excluded from chemicals to treat black pod disease. The black pod control programme covers all cocoa districts in the Volta, Brong Ahafo and parts of Western, Ashanti and Eastern Regions and has not yet been reviewed. So now that those portions that were previously not recording the disease are now recording it, they are constrained in chemicals to treat the disease because they still receive the same consignment of chemicals that were previously allocated to them. The cocoa farmers continue to look up to the government to provide them with chemicals to spray their farms and until that is done they have no major coping strategy to the black pod disease. Coping with flooding Farmers with lands in low-lying areas are relocating to uplands to avoid flooding. Some farmers are also constructing channels/gutters in their farms to direct runoff away from the fields and prevent stagnating of water in the farmlands. These are not really effective way of coping with the floods and its effects on their livelihoods but that is the only option they could think of. 115


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Generally, most farmers do not think there is anything they can do to prevent flooding since rainfall comes from God and they can’t tell God to stop sending rains. They are of the view that “all crops fail, and there are no crops that can withstand flooding”. Similarly in the communities, channels are constructed to ensure flow of water and prevent creation of pools that become habitat for mosquitoes.

4.3.2. Coastal Savannah Farming and food security Shallow wells and mechanised tubewells: To ensure all-year-round cropping, many farmers who have the resources are going for irrigation. Many shallow mechanized wells and drip irrigation facilities are seen in the community, mainly for minor rainy season and dry season farming and this has been documented by many researchers (Nielsen et al., (2006). Farmers who are financially sound go in for the mechanised tubewells (which run on electricity) whilst less financially sound farmers use the shallow wells. The boom in the construction of mechanized irrigation may increase the groundwater abstraction resulting in overexploitation and disturbance of the fragile equilibrium between the freshwater and the saline natural waters in the lagoon, the sea and the brackish water in the subsurface (Nielsen et al., 2006). Farmers practising tubewells have relatively larger farms than shallow well farmers with farm sizes ranging from 0.2ha to 5ha and majority of these being 0.4ha (WRC, 2008). It is evident that when poor farmers become financially sound, they would also shift to tubewells because use of shallow wells with rope and buckets is energy consuming (WRC, 2008). This is likely to further impact on the water balance in the municipality. “Kudjedi”: It is arduous enough to farm on dry soils where one is expected to constantly irrigate to avoid wilting of crops so the situation becomes unbearable when farmers have to fetch water to wet the soil before it can even be tilled. Although this is a long standing practice in some communities, it is too energy demanding. It involves use of buckets to fetch water from nearby streams to water the land and this is mainly practiced by poor farmers. Avoiding Flooding: In a severely land-constrained municipality like Keta, farmers needing two farmlands, one uphill and another downstream is a big problem because apart from constrained access to land, nearly 80% of the land is covered by soils not suitable for cultivation. The cost in land preparation for two farmlands is too high for the peasant farmers but they have to do this to avoid losing their entire livelihood. So within one year, a farmer may have to move to the uphill 116


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farms during heavy rainfall to avoid his/her crops being washed away and also move downstream closer to the river/lagoon when the rains are stop and there is the need to get water for production. Such a coping strategy, though labour and capital intensive, is also not sustainable but, unfortunately, that’s all farmers can afford and are doing now. Fishing Fishermen in Abutiakokpe and Dzelukokpe are giving meaning to the saying “necessity is the mother of invention”. Now they have to wear ‘a pair of socks’ to protect their feet from the heated sand at the beaches. They are also wearing caps to protect their heads and eyes from the intense scorching sun.

4.3.3. Guinea Savannah Local communities have coped or with lived with climate variability over the years using a number of strategies. The strategy adopted by individuals or households, to cope with extreme events depend on the type of resources, economic activities and social networks that can be accessed. Strategies ranged from migrating to other areas, collection of wild fruits, depending on remittances, switching to non-farm activities, or in extreme cases sale of assets (Orindi and Murray, 2005). In the Guinea savannah, coping strategies mainly include dry season farming along the banks of major rivers, cultivation of short rotation crops, wild fruit and fuelwood collection and food rationing. Dry season farming along perennial rivers The prevailing climate in most communities results in low crop productivity and crop failure during the major farming season. This has forced farmers to undertake serious cultivation along the banks of the Volta’s and the Oti River. According to them, after the crops have performed too badly, it is a matter of necessity to explore other means of getting more food and also generating income. Although in the past p, farming used to be undertaken along the banks of the rivers, the climate situation has pushed more people who could not produce enough as they anticipated in the primary season, to also embark on this practice. The major crop which is cultivated in the dry season farming along the river banks includes vegetables, groundnut and beans. It is believed that the atmosphere along the bank provides good moisture, whiles farmers are able to fetch water to irrigate the crops, pumps are however used by few farmers and others involved in block farming. The cultivation of crops along the rivers have caught on so well that even in the rainy season, some farmers still prefer planting maize and other crops so as to meet the water requirements of the crops. However, not all communities in the districts covered in this study do dry season farming because they are not “privileged” to be close to a river body.

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Though farming along the rivers are now entrenched practices, there is an associated flood risk. This observation was also made in a report by the World Bank that northern Ghana is susceptible to major flooding along key rivers in the Volta basin, in particular the Black and White Voltas (World Bank, 2011). It is instructive to note that, with the exception of some communities in the Wa West District which occasionally experience rainfall induced flooding, most of the study communities emphatically stated that the flood situations which have become perennial is largely due to the spillage of the Bagre dam. This spillage causes serious havoc to crops which are planted along the banks of the major rivers. As a result, farmers are in constant fear anytime, until they harvest their crops. Though advance notice are given by the National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) through the Information Services Department, sometimes a month before the spillage, there is usually very little that can be done to salvage crops which has already been planted and not yet reached full harvest. Planting of short rotation crops It was very clear in all the study communities that instead of harvesting maize and early millet by July, most farmers were yet to sow and some are even preparing their lands. Furthermore, all the communities stated that crops fail and yield is low because the onset of the rainy season has shifted from March to July, while the duration has shortened. Hence relatively long duration (four months) crops such as millet (both early and late varieties) don’t get to mature well before the end of the rainy season. As a result most farmers have shifted from planting crops which take four months or more to mature to those that take three months or less to mature. As a result it was common to see vast lands of maize, but relatively small-cultivated land area put into millet. There are instances, where particular crop varieties are no more being planted, because they generally fail under the prevailing climatic condition, for example the variety of maize being planted now is the “obaatanpa”, popularly called agric maize, whiles “zeeh”, a variety of millet which takes very long to mature is gradually facing off. This shows that farmers are very conscious of the intricate relationship they have with the environment, and when the need be, the respond accordingly. For now, it is the farmers who are modifying their cropping systems to suit the “new” climate pattern. Wild fruit and fuelwood collection Given the difficulties with the agricultural sector, more energy and time are being spent on the collection of wild fruits to generate some income through its sale to sustain households. The collection of Shea nuts and Dawadawa as well the collection and sale of fuelwood has become a major livelihood option, especially in the lean season. As one woman put it, nobody would have gone round cutting firewood and burning charcoal if the yield of crops well as they used to have. In an environment where trees are already sparse and undergoing degradation, further subjecting them to harvesting without replacement will mean that in the near future, the roles that trees play in the savannah will become critical. However, this is a pure strategy to survive and generate more income.

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Food rationing and consumption of herbs Food rationing is an emerging trend which has become a strategy to manage the little farm produce that was harvested to last most families and household the entire duration of the seasons till major crops are harvested again. In Nangodi, a woman stated that she feeds her family on soup prepared with baobab leaves and served with tuo-zaafi in the evenings, but in the morning, they feed the children with only the soup. Adults are fed once a day in the lean season. This is a practice that never used to be in the community, but they are forced to adjust their feeding habits, if they are to survive. Interestingly, the Ghana School Feeding Program2 at Yagaba was cited as a good means of feeding the children, given that there was very little food in most houses. Though this initiative was not crafted with a coping mechanism to the impact of low productivity of crops in mind, it is serving a very useful purpose for the community in meeting the feeding requirement for children. Aside the use of leaves of baobab trees for the preparation of soup, another herb, “jagari” is also used. Basically most people don’t have money to buy vegetables, neither do they have enough food stuffs, so by rationing and using local herbs which are edible, they are able to survive the lean season. Selling of domestic animals Just as most respondents conveyed that they engage in other activities to cope with the difficulties in the lean season, the sale of livestock and fowls always serve as a good window of opportunity to get some relieve from the biting challenges that confront them. Animals are mostly sold to middlemen who transport them to the south to sell, while on some occasions; the owners themselves take their animals to town to sell. However, the sale of animals is not a permanent activity because, some of them have to be left for the future, whiles in some instances, most of the animals are too young to attract any meaningful price. Thus, owners are caught in a complex mix of decisions which have to be carefully taken in order not to jeopardise future opportunities to sell or emergency circumstances such as ill health. Menial jobs (“By day”) In some instances, people undertake menial jobs for income. This basically comprises weeding the farms of others who are able to build some resilience because they have more sustainable sources of income. In Sabari, a community in the Zabzugu-Tatale District, most women fetch water for the customs officials who reside in their community, this practice of fetching water increases in the lean season where farming activities are very much reduced.

2

The Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP) commenced in 2005 with the intermediate objective of reducing hunger and malnutrition; increasing school enrollment, retention and attendance and to boost local food production. The GSFP is an initiative under the comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Pillar 3 seeks to enhance food security and reduce hunger in line with the UN-Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

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Migration Migration to the south is always the final resort when all options run out. Though migration to the south, basically Kumasi and Accra is the major phenomenon, there are also some instances where people migrate first to other bigger towns in the north such as Tamale, Wa and Bolga, before they continue to the south. This is mainly undertaken by the youth who are very energetic and feel their capacity is being underutilised and limited by their environment. These migrants serve as major sources of remittances to their families back home. As a matter of fact almost every respondent in most of the communities has migrated before, or has a child who has migrated. There also some instances where respondents encourage their children and other youth in the community to migrate to the south. According to Issifu, people are migrating to the extent that if you are a young person without any deformity, it sometimes becomes embarrassing to stay in the community. Interestingly most of these youth come back to the communities during the farming season to undertake farming activities and go back during the lean season. There are instances where some of these migrants have been given skills such as dressmaking and hairdressing and equipped to return home to practice, but they end up coming back to Accra or Kumasi. This is a very logical thing to do when everyone around is busy looking for what they will eat, they practically no way one will think of sewing a dress or making herself look nice by doing a hair craft. Incidentally, most these migrants hail from the same communities and the potential competition is just inevitable in a market that is practically nonexistent. Small-scale mining (galamsey) The north is very much endowed with minerals and gold mining is a business option that has never escaped entrepreneurs. There are many abandoned mining pits in many communities, indications that some of the study communities have been very busy gold mining towns. In the wake of difficulties in agriculture and other livelihood options, some of the youth engage in galamsey. This is a really difficult and risky activity which is not very much encouraged. A parent would rather encourage his/her child to migrate rather than engage in galamsey. However as risky as galamsey is, people are engaged in it, because it is a matter of survival. Sleeping and spending more time outside due to increased ambient temperature and linkages to malaria incidence Most respondents in the study intimated that, because ambient temperature has increased, there is a lot of discomfort in the night and practically difficult to sleep. Hence they spend long time outside their rooms and in some instances sleep outside instead of sleeping in their rooms. This has serious implications for the incidence of malaria. It could be possible that increased temperature creates conducive environments for mosquitoes to thrive, however, it is also possible that given the rate at which time spent out has increased, it is possible that mosquito bites could also increase because people are exposed to them for longer times. As result, it is 120


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possible that malaria incidence in the communities as was being stated by the communities could attributed to exposure rather than increased temperatures creating conducive atmospheres. However, given that mosquitoes survival are favoured by certain ranges of temperature like those in the tropics, it is also not farfetched to assume that there is a possibility that temperature increases has favoured the survival of mosquitoes. Impact of coping strategies on social structure and implications for increased vulnerability of rural communities Observations and interactions from the communities showed that changes in rainfall parameters and temperature are unequivocally real and the manifestations are precariously impacting on their sources of livelihood, which are climate dependant or climate related. It is also obvious that the impacts on the livelihood are increasing the level of vulnerability and ability to carry out normal duties as they used to do. As a result, migration and other mechanisms to cope offer slim opportunities which are hardly capable of building resilience and reducing vulnerability. In effect, there is a greater tendency for children to be given out to serve as domestic helps and also for the youth to migrate to do menial jobs. It is therefore common to see only old people and children in some communities during the lean season. Basic tasks that are undertaken by young people and children are now being done by very elderly people, some of who can barely stay on their feet. In view of the fact that children are now looking after their parents in the form of remittances, the much noted respect that is accorded adults is eroding. The tendency to have an issue resolve because a parent commands authority is gradually being shifted, it becoming more of “who pays the piper calls the tune”. Figure 3 shows the complex interaction being exhibited in most of the communities studied.

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Figure 3: Impact of changes in climatic variables on livelihood and resilience (Thin arrows signify failed outcome of coping strategy).

4.4. LOCAL KNOWLEDGE IN CLIMATE PREDICTION 4.4.1 High Forest Zone – Aowin-Swaman District Local knowledge in rainfall and temperature prediction Communities surveyed in the district, as expected, have local knowledge on how the climate parameters around them behave. With rainfall being the major climatic parameter that has seen major changes in the communities and that has the major effect on their livelihood; most of the local/indigenous knowledge on weather was related to rainfall. The indicators they use to determine when it is likely to rain or not ranged from trees, birds, amphibians (frogs), insects and the clouds. Most of the indicators are not considered reliable anymore by the people. They claim that though the indicators may come at the times that they had been noted to come, the climate has just changed and relying on the indicators is no longer of any importance.

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Indigenous Knowledge (IK) transfer and Storage All the knowledge that they have in climate prediction has not been documented in any way. Already some farmers are unable to recollect what they used to know some years back because they have not been relying on the knowledge for some time now. This is because the knowledge has been failing in recent years. The rainfall pattern has changed totally and though the indicators may show up at certain times of the year, it not totally reliable to predict what is likely to happen. Knowledge continues to be important to the people if continues to play significant roles in their livelihoods. The more the knowledge becomes less relevant to their livelihoods, the faster the people lose track of the knowledge. Younger farmers learn from the knowledge of older ones so as the older farmers begin to forget the indicators used to predict rainfall events and seasons, the younger ones have nothing to learn from. It was realised from the survey that most people have forgotten exactly how the indicators were being used in the past Potency of application of IK and implications for community based early warning system There is still some level reliability with the use of the indigenous knowledge in climate change prediction but the potency of the use of the indigenous knowledge in the Aowin-Suaman district for community based early warning systems will be a big challenge. This is because already the people have lost much confidence in the indicators of approaching rainy season. They have resigned to the fate that flooding will surely come whether they are aware of it or not; whether they are warned early or not. The people just expect the floods to come and as and when it comes they will do whatever they can to cope whilst the flood lasts. 4.4.2. Coastal Savannah Local knowledge in climate prediction Indigenous knowledge provides valuable insights on how communities have interacted with their local environment (UNEP, 2008). The people in the Keta Municipality rightly observe their environment and have taken note of specific creatures whose appearance at certain times of the year always has some significance. With their close proximity to the sea, lakes and several lagoons, most of their local knowledge in weather prediction centers on water-related events or birds. For example, the people have observed a river bird which lays its eggs prior to the rainy season at the river banks and have correctly used the appearance of this bird in the community to predict the beginning of the rainy season. Other water-related creatures that the people have used as weather indicators include birds, frogs and even the sea waves. It is interesting to note here as well that the local knowledge in weather prediction had more to do with rainfall prediction than temperature prediction. This may be due to the people’s dependence on rainfall more than temperature for their livelihoods. Also, changes in rainfall usually follow a distinct, easily identifiable pattern than temperature so it becomes relatively 123


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easier to associate events in the environment with them. Another reason for the seemingly ease with which communities get indicators for rainfall is the fact that temperature changes are usually very gradual and almost unnoticeable compared with changes in rainfall pattern. One thing worth noting is that some of the indicators the people used have become extinct because the indicators depended on certain things in the environment which are no longer available. So with time, certain indigenous knowledge practices will become outmoded because of rapid changes in the environment or the socio-economic and cultural scene. Indigenous Knowledge transfer and Storage The indigenous knowledge of communities in the Keta Municipality has not been documented despite the long usage of this knowledge system. This signifies a certain lack of recognition for the knowledge systems over the years. Without any documentation, the knowledge continues to be passed on from generation to generation through word of mouth as children work with their parents at sea or on farms. This has been the form that most indigenous knowledge has been communicated throughout the world over generations (Thrupp, 1989). This knowledge has originated from the adaptive skills of the local people usually derived from many years of experience and practices that have accumulated through constant experimentation and innovation (Rajasekaran, 1993). In the process of this inefficient knowledge transfer, most of the knowledge has been lost. The lack of systematically recording indigenous knowledge has made them not readily accessible to policy makers, researchers and development agents although several writers have provided detailed overviews of indigenous knowledge systems in agricultural development, pastoral management, and agro-forestry (Rajasekar, et al., 1991; Babu 1991). Documenting indigenous knowledge in the Keta Municipality should be a matter or urgency. This invaluable, diversified, and comprehensive, knowledge should not be overlooked and allowed to move into extinction. It is a fact that IKs have often been overlooked by western scientific research and development because of their oral tradition (Warren, 1990). Local indigenous communities should not only be seen as recipients of technical messages but not the originators of either technical knowledge or improved practice. Potency of application of IK and implications for community based early warning system The IKs found in the Keta Municipality are more related with predicting when the rainy seasons will start in anticipation for planning farming activities. However, in the fishing communities there are very good IK that can be used for community-based early warning systems. Already, the fishermen rely on these indicators to make decisions on when to go to fishing. For example, fishermen have observed the movement of a particular sea bird and have drawn the conclusion that when the bird is seen flying from East to West, then the sea will be rough immediately; in not less than 3 hours. This knowledge has been working in the olden days and still working now. When probed further, there will be other signals that can serve great purpose as early warning signals to help communities prepare for natural disasters and to take appropriate measures to 124


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mitigate the effects of those natural disasters. These IKs can be validated and used over a wider area. When indicators for weather and climate signify the occurrence of a long dry spell or drought, it will also be a signal for crop failure or bad yield which can lead to famine. When drought is predicted then early maturing or drought tolerant crops will be cultivated. Similar knowledge can be utilised in disaster prevention and mitigation. This can only be possible when people change their thinking that indigenous knowledge is primitive, out-dated and inefficient (UNEP, 2008). When indigenous knowledge is approached with a positive mind, then it will become useful to society. Because IK is regarded as primitive, it is being lost to the youth who are ‘increasingly unwilling to acquire, use and blend indigenous knowledge with contemporary knowledge’ (UNEP 2008). Not all indigenous knowledge practices are naturally in harmony with the environment (UNEP, 2008) or with modern systems and this needs careful, critical analysis to determine their place in conventional knowledge. Changes in environment may render an IK that was previously potent, unsuitable for the new environment.

4.4.3. Guinea Savannah Local knowledge in rainfall and temperature prediction The dependence of communities on their own understanding of times and seasons and manifestations of landmarks and events in predicting climatic parameters proved to be a huge body of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) system which is intricately woven around specific livelihood activities. In agriculture, rainfall prediction based on flowering patterns of baobab trees or shea nut, as well as the movement of wind has always been used to signal the commencement of land preparation and sowing. These IK have also been employed to understand the pattern of the weather for ages, and they have been built around specific events such as the celebration of the fire festival, “bugum”, to the extent that farmers count the number of rains and based on the sequence could determine that it is time for planting. It is also clear that majority of the indicators for predicting rainfall are plants or animals which live in their surroundings. The use of the croaking of a particular species of frog, appearance of flowers and fruiting as well as the quantity of these flowers and fruits easily indicate the extent to which the rain will fall, whether it will be good or bad. The extent to which communities readily offer and enumerate the various IK being used to predict mainly rainfall indicates that in the absence of conventional means of weather forecasting, local people have their own approaches, which they have used to support the decisions on various aspects of the livelihood.

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IK transfer and Storage Interestingly, these IKs are not documented but exist as part of the knowledge systems which are transferred from one generation to the other in the course of performing farming activities or some other activities which relate to specific activities. For instance it was common people to say that they acquired a particular IK from a parent, an elderly person or another colleague. There are other instances when the indicators begin to manifest and then they are explained as having implications for rainfall. In almost every study community in three out of four districts in the northern savannah, the observation of an ant carrying its eggs and moving from one point to the other has been used to accurately predict rainfall. These knowledge systems are passed on from father to child and it continues to future generation. Potency of application of IK and implications for community based early warning system Though most of the communities gave several IK that are being used in different forms to predict rainfall and timing of agricultural activities, indications from the study showed that in recent times most of the are failing and highly unreliable. It is a bit worrying that knowledge systems which have constantly been used for ages are beginning to lose their applicability and ability to direct and support decision making. It was common to hear farmers saying that formerly whenever one sees a shea tree flowering, it is an indication of the beginning of the rainy season, hence frantic efforts are put in place for land preparation and other activities to begin for farming. But in recent times, flowering will occur and there will be no sign of the rains. This confirms the fact that the months for the rain season has shifted. Most farmers have lost confidence in their own entrenched mechanisms for going about their livelihood activities. In situations where farmers are still using particular IK’s, they seriously have problems with the spate of occurrence, for example, it was common to expect that frogs will be croaking at particular times and seasons, but these have changes to the extent that these indicators do not happen anymore. It is possible that with temperatures increasing and rainfall decreasing most IK indicators are beginning to lose the environmental triggers that make them exhibit the characteristics that signal particular event.

4.5 AWARENESS, ACCESS AND APPLICATION OF METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION BY COMMUNITIES 4.5.1 High Forest Zone – Aowin-Suaman District Access to weather information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) Awareness of weather information from the Ghana Meteorological Agency was is not an issue in the Aowin-Suaman district. Every person encountered in the community had heard of the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) and their weather forecasts. Interestingly, more 90% of 126


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respondents said they were aware of either both the daily and seasonal forecasts or only the seasonal forecats of the GMet. The Aowin-Swaman Radio, a subsidiary of the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation, and other private radio stations in the district provide weather information to the people and with the district having electricity in most of the communities, access to information is good. It becomes evident from this district that availability of electric power, financial resources and level of literacy influence accessibility to weather information. Most of the homes had financial resources to buy radio sets and televisions which enhanced access to weather information. Application of information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) Access to weather information in the Aowin-Swaman district did not necessarily reflect in the use of the information in planning livelihood activities. With 100% awareness of GMet weather forecasts, less than 30% of the respondents would plan their livelihood activities based on the weather forecasts that they receive whilst 31% said they only relied on the weather forecasts occasionally in planning their livelihood activities. Forty-three percent (43%) emphatically said they do not plan their activities based on the weather information and the reason for nonusage of the data was mainly an issue of trust. The farmers claim that consistently, the information put forward by the GMet has been failing and not reliable. Despite the other reasons put forward by the communities for non-usage of the weather information it was clear that the main issue was that they did not trust the weather forecasts they received. Where trust between the information provider and the user of the information is breached, the information becomes useless to the supposed beneficiary. Interestingly, whilst not using the GMet forecasts because they were failing, most farmers still claimed to use their own indigenous knowledge in weather prediction although they conceded that even their local knowledge has been failing because of general change in weather patterns that have proved indicators and knowledge of planting seasons less efficient. 4.5.2. Coastal Savannah Zone – Keta Municipality Access to climate information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) Socio-economic factors affect the level of meteorological information since the weather information is mainly disseminated through the radio. People who do not have radios are, therefore, excluded from hearing weather forecasts. People who are illiterates are also discriminated against in accessing such meteorological information if the radio information is not in their local language. In the Keta Municipality, all those surveyed were aware of the GMet and weather forecasts through radios. From the survey it was realised that the education level of the residents was good. Almost everybody encountered had had some level of education and this will influence the level of accessibility of weather forecasts.

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Application of information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) Irrespective of communities’ awareness of weather data, majority of them did not plan their activities on the information they received. This can be attributed to many factors, notable amongst them the inaccuracy of forecasts; inadequate weather forecasts information for meaningful decisions and untimely releasing of seasonal forecasts giving farmers less time to make preparations. Many farmers preferred the seasonal information to the daily forecasts because their planting was seasonal rather than daily. The farmers also wished that the seasonal forecasts of rainfall will be made available to them before the planting season commences. Fishermen also preferred the daily forecasts because they would go to sea on a daily basis. Where the right information do not reach the right target audience at the right time, it becomes useless to the users. The people still depend on their indigenous knowledge in planning their activities. 4.5.3. Guniea Savannah Access to climate information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) Accessibility to weather information from GMet played out in most of the communities in a rather interesting manner. From the onset of the discussions, respondent quickly assert that they have access to the information, but upon further clarification, they back down. It turned out that most respondents confuse early warning information on the spillage of the Bagre Dam with weather forecast from GMet. Majority of the respondents are aware of the daily forecast, but not the seasonal forecast. While a good number of the respondents are totally unaware of both the seasonal and daily forecast. The reasons are very variable, whiles some respondents attributed inability to know about weather information to lack of electricity, which could be used to power radio or televisions, others noted that the language in which the information is disseminated cannot be understood. Invariably, communities which are connected to the national grid are noted to be very much aware of the weather forecast through the television and radio with the radio being the dominant media. This shows that of all the media options for disseminating information, the radio is the most affordable, most accessible and easiest to use. However, this depends on whether the community has access to electricity or not since in communities where there were no electricity, regular spending of income on dry-cell batteries is a constraint. It was obvious that seasonal forecast, if available, is not reaching most communities irrespective of whether they have access to electricity or not. This could be due to the fact that seasonal forecast are mostly packing for relevant institutions for disaster management. However, in the face of currents shifts in rainfall pattern and failing IK application, community access to weather information is very much needed.

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Application of information from Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) The kind of weather information that is available to communities in the northern savannah is not very much useful to their livelihood decision support processes. Some respondents intimated that though they have access to the daily forecast, they do not plan their farming activities based on this information. This was attributed to the fact that weather information is too general and hardly reflects manifestations at the community level. Others also stated that weather information need to be disseminated in multiple languages to take care of settler communities who do not speak the local language or districts where diverse languages are spoken. The present scenario as demonstrated in the communities are very interesting, on one hand IK’s relating to rainfall and other climates predictions are largely failing, on the other hand, communities do not plan their livelihood activities based weather information from the GMet. This is a critical dilemma that needs urgent solution if rural dwellers are to be supported to cope with the changes in the environment.

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5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 CONCLUSION From first hand community experiences with weather as elaborated in this report, there is enough evidence from this study that something drastic is happening in our environment; our climate is changing. Temperature is generally on the increase throughout the study areas. Rainfall patterns have also changed throughout the study areas. Change in the quantity of rainfall received in different agro-ecological is, however not uniform. Whilst the quantity of rainfall is reducing in the Northern Savannah (Zabzugu-Tatale, Wa West, West Mamprusi and Talensi-Nabdam districts) and coastal savannah (Keta Municipality) zones of Ghana, it is on the increase in study areas in the High Forest Zone (Aowin-Suaman District). The changes in rainfall and temperature are having significant effect on livelihoods of people living in surveyed communities because their major livelihoods are climate-dependent. Most of the people are small-scale farmers, fishermen and traders in foodstuffs and any slight change in rainfall have serious repercussions on their livelihoods. The people are, however, not sitting idle and hopeless about the situation. They have observed changes in the environment and are coping with the changes using their indigenous knowledge. Some of the coping strategies need to be studied and improved upon to help the local people cope with changed in their environment. Most communities stand the risk of losing all their indigenous knowledge on weather and climate because they have never been documented. Unless something is done about it soon terms of documenting this knowledge, in a few years this useful resource will be lost. Availability and access to conventional meteorological information does not necessarily guarantee its usage. Where the right information does not get to the intended audience at the right time, the information loses its relevance. Weather forecasting in Ghana needs more improvement to enable localised forecasts that will meet the needs of specific communities. Where forecasts do not meet the expectations of the targeted users; where forecasts are seen to fail always; and where forecast are not presented in a useful means, the expected users lose confidence in the forecasts and they do not benefit from it. The weather information provider (GMet) must create a good reputation and be widely trusted as a reliable source of information. Weather information must be simple, non-technical and easy-to-use or interpret and if possible presented in the local language of the targeted audience. 5.2 RECOMMENDATION 5.2.1 Validating indigenous knowledge and incorporating into scientific knowledge systems Traditional communities rely on traditional knowledge and it is necessary to integrate their knowledge systems with scientific knowledge and emerging technologies. So far, little has been done in documenting IK and making it useful in climate change adaptation and disaster risk 130


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reduction. There is a need for more research into indigenous knowledge in weather prediction and forecasting, disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. A strong case can be made for integrating Indigenous knowledge into conventional climate adaptation if it is well researched and validated and found useful for the purpose for which it is intended. Like the application of any knowledge system, indigenous knowledge has its limitations or weakness, and these must be recognized if its integration with scientific knowledge is going to be worthwhile. In doing critical analysis of indigenous knowledge, it must be approached objectively without any prejudices. There is always the tendency of approaching the issue from a biased point of view which negates the usefulness of the exercise. 5.2.2. Weather Index-based crop insurance Small holder farmers are faced with high yield variability due to climate related perils such as increased temperature, reduced rainfall regime and duration. The impacts of these adverse climate conditions go far beyond the livelihoods of farmers. There is the need to develop and test the market viability of Index Based Weather Insurance (IBWI) products to reduce the impact of weather risk on smallholder farmers in Ghana, and particular northern savannah, where majority of the poorest of the poor are found. 5.2.3. Reducing vulnerability of farmlands to flooding from Bagre Dam The communities in the Guinea Savannah stated clearly that most flood situations are due to the spillage of the Bagre Dam in Burkina Faso. It was also clear that farming along the perennial rivers are basically due to difficulties and inconsistencies associated with rainfall, rather than any other factor. Hence, susceptibility of crop farms to flood situations after the spillage. Though early warning signals are being given, its impacts on crop protection and food security remains the same. This is because, by the time the warning signals are given, farmers would have planted and the crops would have been in advanced stages of maturity. In order to improve on the susceptibility of croplands along the banks to flood due to spillage, there is the need to go beyond the routine of collaborating with the Burkinabe to issue advance notice, to a coordinated monitoring of rainfall pattern in order to ensure that farmers can cultivate their crops and harvest, without coinciding with the spillage. 5.2.4 The need to validate and sieve out potent IK’s for wider application It was also obvious from the study that local communities use or used apply various indigenous approaches to predict rainfall and plan their livelihood activities. However, not all of these knowledge systems are still being reliably applied, though some claim they still use them, others also assert that, the indicators do not really represent the manifestations that are associated with these IK’s. It will therefore be important to first extend this study to other geographic areas to understand the dynamics of climate changes and responses. Also mapping and documenting indigenous knowledge should be encouraged to feed into broader framework of validation, which could be used to complement science-based forecasting.

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Given that some respondents attributed their inability to apply weather information in their farming activities and decision making processes to the information being too general, point to the potential window of opportunity that exists to use indigenous knowledge to predict a more localised forecast. Thus GMet could give the general forecast, but the communities could downscale that information using validated IK’s which will be disseminated widely.

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Jan S, Anja B (2007). Indigenous Peoples and Climate Change. University of Oxford and Missouri Botanical Garden. Kihupi NI, Kingamkono R, Rwamugira W, Kingamkono M, Mhita M, Brien KO (2002). Promotion and Integration of Indigenous Knowledge in Seasonal Climate Forecasts. Consultancy report submitted to Drought Monitoring Center (Harare, Zimbabwe). The Pilot Project Research Team. Sokoine University of Agriculture. Tanzania. Ladislaus B. Chang’a, Pius Z. Yanda and James Ngana (2010). Indigenous knowledge in seasonal rainfall prediction in Tanzania: A case of the South-western Highland of Tanzania. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning Vol. 3(4), pp. 66-72 Mark, M. (2010). Ivory Coast Rainfall Triggers Black Pod Disease, May Curb Cocoa Production. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-07-19/ivory-coast-rainfall-triggers-black-pod-disease-maycurb-cocoa-production.html Ngaira, J.K.W., (2007). Impact of climate change on agriculture in Africa by 2030. Scientific Research and Essays Vol. 2 (7), pp. 238-243. Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/SRE ISSN 1992– 2248 © 2007 Academic Journals Nielsen, Lars, Jørgensen, Niels O.,& Gelting , Peter (2006) Mapping of the freshwater lens in a coastal aquifer on the Keta Barrier (Ghana) by transient electromagnetic soundings. Journal of Applied Geophysics 62 (2007) 1–15. Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Nyong, A., F. Adesina, and B. Osman Elasha. 2007. The value of indigenous knowledge inclimate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in the African Sahel. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 12:787-97. Opoku, I. Y., Akrofi, A. Y. and Appiah, A. A. (1999). The spread of Phytophthora megakarya on cocoa in Ghana. Journal of Ghana Science Association (Special edition), 2 (3) 110-116. Orlove , B. C. Roncoli , Merit Kabugo and A, Majugu. (2009). Indigenous climate knowledge in southern Uganda. The multiple component of a dynamic regional system. Climate change. Orindi, V.A and Murray, L.A. 2005. Adaptation to climate change in east Africa: a strategic approach. Gatekeeper. 117.IIED. London. Pareek, A and Trivedi, PC. 2011. Cultural values and indigenous knowledge of climate change and disaster prediction in Rajasthan, India. Indian Journal of traditional knowledge. Vol. 10 (1). 183-189 Rajasekaran, B. (1993). A framework for incorporating indigenous knowledge systems into agricultural research, extension, and NGOs for sustainable agricultural development. Studies in Technology and Social Change No. 21. Ames, IA: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University. Stott PA, and Kettleborough JA (2002). Origins and estimates of uncertainty in Predictions of twenty-first century temperature rise. Nature 416: 723-726.

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Appendices Appendix 1. Terms of Reference: STUDY ON INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN GHANA

1. Background The role of indigenous knowledge (IK) to minimise the impacts of climate change particularly in vulnerable societies cannot be overemphasised. Whilst efforts are being made to ensure efficient and effective early warning systems, through proper design and implementation of climate change adaptation strategies, attention appears to have focussed on technology and infrastructure needs with very little consideration for the critical role that individuals, culture and societies could play in facilitating adaptation. Indeed, societies of whom adaptation plans are made are governed by norms, values and belief systems. These belief systems, to a large extent, determine the kind of adjustments made in natural and or human systems in response to actual or expected climate stimuli. Unfortunately, indigenous knowledge based on belief systems is hardly documented and hence very difficult to even take cognisance of in adaptation planning processes. Clearly, an optimal blend of IK and conventional knowledge is critical for successful adaptation particularly at the local level. It is in this direction that the Africa Adaptation Programme (AAP) is supporting a study on the role of IK in Climate Change Adaptation and early warning systems. The AAP is a strategic initiative aimed at creating an environment for more informed and capable adaptation decisions and practice in Africa. The assignment is in line with Output 5 of the AAP, which focuses on adjusting national development processes to fully incorporate climate change risks and opportunities. The AAP also recognises the need for a more structured and systematic engagement of multiple stakeholders to facilitate an aggressive implementation of its five main objectives. Accordingly, the AAP is partnering with the Recovery Programming Support Initiative which was set up following the floods in Northern Ghana in 2007 by UNDP. The UNDP through the Recovery Programming Support Initiative is supporting national efforts at disaster response and in Northern Ghana to effectively plan and respond to the perennial disasters confronting the Northern, Upper West and Upper East Regions of Ghana. The two Projects are therefore seeking the services of a well experienced consultant to produce high quality output which shall be ultimately published in a reputable journal and shared with relevant development partners to 136


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incorporate into their various community sensitization activities where applicable. 2. Objective The main objective of the assignment is to provide useful information, map and document indigenous knowledge to facilitate early warning systems for climate change adaptation in Ghana 3. Approach This assignment is intended to undertake a comprehensive study on indigenous knowledge and climate change adaptation in selected communities. The study will be carried in six districts selected from 4 regions across the country. The six districts will be split into clusters A and B. Cluster A will comprise Talensi-Nabdam (Upper East), West Mamprusi (Northern) and Zabzugu-Tatale whilst Cluster B will consist of Wa West (Upper West) and Aowin Suaman (Western). Three communities in each district will be selected for the exercise making up a total 18 communities in all. 3

The communities will be selected based on the following criteria:     

Communities whose major sources of livelihoods are highly climate dependent; Levels of perceived application of indigenous knowledge; Communities that are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change; Communities that are already exhibiting some level of impacts of climate change; as much as possible, different agro-ecological zones of Ghana; Communities that demonstrate the use of IK in managing their natural resources.

Given the extensive nature of the assignment, there shall be two teams (A and B). Team A shall be responsible for all the districts in Cluster A, whilst team B will be responsible for all the districts in Cluster B. Both teams will however visit Keta (Volta) to pre-test and also conduct the actual field study subsequently before embarking on field work in the rest of the districts. In each community, the team will be expected to spend two working days to collect and validate field data. In total the team will spend six working days in each district. To facilitate community entry and language translation, the team of consultants will work closely with the Planning Officer and or the Assembly person(s) for each District Aowin Suaman, Mamprusi West and Keta are three of the five pilot districts of the Africa Adaptation Programme. 3

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Assembly. The United Nations Volunteer (UNV) field Assistants of the Recovery Project in three of the four of the districts in the Northern region will assist the team and learn from the processes as well. Prior to the field work to gather data in all the districts, there shall be a meeting between the key stakeholders (PMU of the AAP and the staff of the Recovery Project) and the team of consultants. During the meeting, the team of consultants shall share the proposed methodology, questionnaire etc. Logistics and other administrative issues will also be discussed. The methodology shall be pre-tested in one of the communities preferably in the Keta Municipality where a representative of the Programme Management Unit (PMU) and Recovery Project will have the opportunity to observe and participate in the exercise. Lessons learnt will then be discussed and incorporated in a short meeting before dispatching the teams to the rest of the districts. During main field data collection in all the districts, however, there shall be one or two visits by the key stakeholders to ensure that the consultants work according to the agreed methodology. The exercise will as much as possible identify, solicit, process and document first-hand community-level information on observed and perceived climate changes over time, manifested climate impacts as well as local strategies to facilitate adaptation. Participatory approaches, including formal and informal discussions shall be used to illicit information on indigenous knowledge as it relates to climate change adaptation.

The consultants will be required to use robust statistical and analytical processes to draw inferences from community engagements. Additionally, consultants are expected to comprehensively document IK at the community level, which will be used for future development of knowledge products as part of outputs under knowledge management of the AAP. This will require the use of a high sensitive camera and sound recording gadgets. 4. Work Assignment The national consultant, who shall be expected to work in close collaboration with the AAP/PMU and the Planning Officers in each district and UNVs in some of the districts, shall be responsible for the following: 1. Develop and design an elaborative methodology for identifying, mapping and documenting indigenous knowledge. The methodology must include criteria for selecting communities and respondents during the fieldwork. 2. De-brief a small team of key stakeholders in a meeting in Accra. 3. Provide technical directions to data collection team during the fieldwork. 4. Conduct reconnaissance and literature search to collect preliminary information and facilitate identification of communities in each district assembly. 138


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5. Identify knowledge of communities on observed and/or perceived changes that have occurred in their microclimate. 6. Identify and map the knowledge of identified communities on: i. Observed and/or perceived direct and/or indirect impacts of climate change on their livelihoods. ii. Categories of positive and negative impacts. iii. How climate change impacts are manifested at the community-level. iv. Indicators communities use or used previously to identify and codify impacts of climate change. v. Indicators communities use or previously used as basis to predict or forecast expectations in the local climate. vi. Areas or sectors of their livelihoods on which the impacts manifest vii. Analyse and process the field data in order to generate a draft version of climate change and IK atlas.

5. Expected Output The selected national consultant will be expected to deliver on the following products by the end of the service contract:   

 

An interactive map of the selected communities where indigenous knowledge is used to adapt to climate change. Indicators communities use or used previously to adapt to climate change, which can be used as early warning signals. A synthesis report on manifestations and impacts of climate change on various sectors of rural livelihoods, and the indigenous approaches that are used to adapt to these changes and impacts. Atlas of evidence of local knowledge in climate change adaptation. A comprehensive report detailing the whole process, from inception to conception.

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Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change

Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change

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