Present research interests include the investigation of moral development ... correlations among Marcia's statuses and various psychological and sociological variables, few ... In essence, Marcia (1965) proposes that Erikson's identity stage is.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 12, No. 1, 1983
Marcia and Erikson: The Relationships Among Ego Identity Status, Neuroticism, Dogmatism, and Purpose in Life J a m e s E . C 6 t ~ 1 and Charles L e v i n e 2
ReceivedJune30, 1982
Implicit in James Marcia's writings and in the many studies that have employed his measure of ego identity is the assumption that his four ego identity statuses are developmentally ordered along a continuum from "being identity diffused" to "achieving" an ego identity. In order to assess the validity o f this assumption, hypotheses were generated and tested concerning the relationship between the above ordering and Erikson's writings regarding the role played in the process o f identity formation by the following three variables: neuroticism, dogmatism, and a sense of purpose in life. I f one assumes that Erikson's perspective is valid, then the results o f this study fail to support Marcia's continuum assumption. While some o f the identity statuses appear to classify persons in a manner consistent with Erikson's writings, not one instance of the postulated ordering of Marcia's four statuses is observed. It is concluded that Marcia's measure is not an adequate operationalization of Erikson's perspective on identity formation.
tDoctoral candidate, Department of Sociology, York University, Downsview, Ontario, Canada. Interests include program evaluation and the empirical investigation of Eriksonian theory. 2Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada. Present research interests include the investigation of moral development from a social-psychological perspective. 3Correspondence should be sent to this author, Department of Sociology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada, N6A 5C2. 43 0047-2891/83/0200-0043503.00/0 © 1983 Plenum Publishing Corporation
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C~I~ and Levine
INTRODUCTION Over the last decade, James Marcia's (1965) measure of ego identity has become a popular technique used to investigate empirically Erikson's (1956, 1963) theory of identity formation in adolescence. While many studies (most of which are summarized by Bourne, 1978a, 1978b) report correlations among Marcia's statuses and various psychological and sociological variables, few have actually investigated the relationship between Marcia's measure and variables considered in Erikson's writings to be integral to identity formation. This hiatus between measure and theory has led Josselson (1973) to conclude that research using Marcia's measure "has produced what is becoming a rather uninterpretable mass of findings," since studies employing Marcia's measure have "often strayed from [those] theoretical underpinnings which might guide interpretations of results" (p. 7). The present study constitutes an attempt to counteract the above tendency in the literature. It does so by generating and testing hypotheses about the relationship between Erikson's writings and Marcia's measure of ego identity. In essence, Marcia (1965) proposes that Erikson's identity stage is characterized by four "ego identity statuses": the identity diffusion status, the identity foreclosure status, the identity moratorium status, and the identity achievement status. (The literature contains many descriptions of the identity statuses, e.g., Bourne, 1978a, 1978b, so it is not necessary to describe them here.) Marcia (1966) postulates that these statuses represent "concentration points along a continuum of ego identity achievement" (p. 551). This continuum ranges from "being" identity diffused to "achieving" an ego identity. Thus, for Marcia (1966), the extreme points of this continuum represent possible "polar outcomes" (p. 551) of the identity stage. As an hypothesized developmental order of "low" to "high" degrees of ego identity, the identity diffusion status is postulated to be lowest, followed by the identity foreclosure status, then the identity moratorium status, and finally the identity achievement status. In his writings, Erikson makes several references to the relationship between identity formation and neurosis, dogmatism, and a sense of purpose in life. Generally speaking, Erikson (1969) considers the identity stage as "a period for meeting one's neurosis" (p. 147). For Erikson, this confrontation with one's neuroses may either impede or facilitate a successful resolution of the identity stage. For example, Erikson (1968b) writes that "identity closure" can be based upon a "neurotic overidentification with one's parents" (p. 63). In this case, such neurotic overidentification may aggravate the problems the individual faces in attempting to cope with the
Marcia and Erikson's Writings
45
identity stage and, hence, impede the resolution of that stage. On the other hand, Erikson (1979) notes that one's neuroses can become objects of reflection and can provide grist for the mill of development: "what under prejudiced scrutiny may appear to be the onset of a neurosis is often but an aggravated crisis which might prove to be self-liquidating and, in fact, contributive to the process of identity formation" (p. 125). In reference to dogmatism and identity formation, Erikson (1968a), states that "it is important to understand [that] intolerance may be, for a while, a necessary defense against a sense of identity loss" (p. 132). Thus, there is sometimes a psychological "need" to think dogmatically. Erikson (1968a) continues: "When the human being ... loses an essential wholeness, he restructures himself and the world by taking recourse to what we may call totalism .... It is an alternate, if more primitive way of dealing with experience, and thus has, at least in transitory states, certain adjustment and survival value" (p. 81). Thus, Erikson (1968a) links dogmatism with ego growth and maturity; As the ego matures, it becomes more capable of "a greater tolerance of tension and diversity" while a less mature ego resorts to "totalities and conformities [which] help preserve a sense of security" (p. 82). Finally, Erikson has commented on the relationship between ego identity formation and having a sense of purpose in life. For Erikson, a consolidated ego identity includes a feeling of continuity with the past, of meaning in the present, and of direction in the future. This sense of purpose in life is most strongly experienced when one feels a sense of fidelity with one's society. This sense of fidelity is defined by Erikson as "the capacity to be loyal to a vision of the future" (1975, p. 209) and as a need "to be true to ... a variety of pursuits more or less sanctioned by society" (1968a, p. 235). The virtue gained with a successful mastery of the identity stage is this sense of fidelity or purpose in life. This commitment to a world view not only gives one a sense of purpose but also protects one from identity confusion. Erikson (1964) says that a sense of fidelity "must mature in youth lest the individual ego suffer an unduly aggravated crisis or lasting damage (p. 175). Given the above views of Erikson we hypothesize that measures of neuroticism and dogmatism will be inversely related to the developmental ordering of the ego identity statuses suggested by Marcia and that a measure of a sense of purpose in life will be directly related to his suggested ordering. The only exception regarding the above concerns the hypothesis pertaining to neuroticism. While we predict the inverse relationship just stated, we exclude from this prediction any expectations regarding the ordering of the moratorium status. Erikson suggests that neurosis can play two different roles during identity formation; neurosis can act as an impediment to identity formation, or it can appear as an "aggravated crisis"
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in the service of identity formation. While the appearance of neurosis in the form of an "aggravated crisis" need not occur, it clearly may occur. If it does occur as an "aggravated crisis," then, by definition, only Marcia's moratorium status subjects should manifest it (i.e., respondents defined by Marcia's measure as being "in crisis"). Given the above discussion, it is clear that the relative performance of moratorium status subjects on a measure of neurosis is difficult to predict. While such subjects may score in a manner consistent with the postulated order of Marcia's statuses, it is also possible that they may not, given Erikson's perspective.
METHOD Subjects
Fifty-six male university students voluntarily participated in this study. All were attending classes at the University of Western Ontario. All subjects were paid $3.00 for their participation. The mean age of subjects in this sample was 20.8 years (SD = 2.4) and the mean academic year was 1.6 years (SD = 0.9). Measures
Ego Identity Status. Subjects were assigned to an ego identity status on the basis of information obtained during a semistructured interview using the format recommended by Marcia (1965). Two judges were in full agreement in assigning 75°70 of the subjects to particular ego identity statuses. Through discussion, the two judges reached agreement on assigning each of the remaining 25% of the subjects to Marcia's statuses. Ego identity status assignments were based upon the subject's demonstration of (a) the presence or absence of commitment to an occupation, political ideology, and religious ideology, and (b) whether or not the subject had experienced or was experiencing a crisis period of active and independent decision making about these commitments. Neuroticism. Neuroticism was measured with the Neuroticism Scale Questionnaire (NSQ; Scheier and Cattell, 1961). The NSQ is a 40-item questionnaire designed as a general estimate of "neurotic trend," or neuroticism in the traditional psychoanalytic sense. The four subscales of the NSQ are estimates of (1) tendermindedness versus toughmindedness, (2) depressiveness versus cheerfulness, (3) dependence versus dominance, and (4) unbound, free-floating anxiety.
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47
Scheier and Cattell (1961) report split-half reliabilities of 0.67 for the total scale, 0.55 for the tendermindedness subscale, 0.57 for the depressiveness subscale, 0.47 for the submissiveness subscale, and 0.70 for the anxiety subscale. The Cronbach (1951) alpha reliability estimates of the NSQ for the present sample are 0.60, 0.51,0.46, 0.31, and 0.65, respectively. Dogmatism. Dogmatism was measured with Rokeach's (1960) Dogmatism Scale. This 40-item instrument was designed to measure the degree of closed-mindedness of individuals with any set of attitudes and beliefs, not just those pertaining to right-wing authoritarianism as measured by Adorno et al.'s (1950) scale. The Dogmatism Scale is composed of six subsections intended to tap various components that contribute to a dogmatic outlook. Rokeach (1960) has estimated odd-even split-half reliabilities for his scale on various samples and these estimates have ranged from 0.68 to 0.93. The Cronbach (1951) alpha coefficient of internal consistency of the total scale for the present sample is 0.77. Alpha coefficients for the six subsections were also estimated for the present sample; since the alpha coefficients were so low (i.e., < 0.15) for three of these subsections, they were not included in the analysis. However, three subsections did have sufficient reliability coefficients to justify consideration here. The primitive belief subsection has an alpha coefficient of 0.60 for the present sample, the authoritarianism subsection has an alpha value of 0.61, and the alpha coefficient for the intolerance subsection is 0.51. The primitive beliefs subsection taps beliefs about fearfulness, helplessness, and insecurity about the world as well as doubts about selfadequacy; the authoritarian and intolerance subsections tap beliefs about the absolute nature of authority and the rejection of "out-group" beliefs, respectively. Purpose in Life. A sense of purpose in life was measured with Crumbaugh and Maholick's (1969) measure of Frankl's (1955) conception of purpose in life. The Purpose-in-Life Scale (PIL) is a 20-item instrument. Low PIL scale scores indicate an "existential vacuum" in the individual's life. Crumbaugh and Maholick (1969) estimated odd-even split-half reliabilities for their scale of 0.81 and 0.85 for two independent samples. While the PIL is based on an item analysis that employed the criterion of face validity, its authors have, without investigating its factor structure, claimed that it is unidimensional. Thus, in the present study the factor structure of the PIL was investigated. The 20 items were factor analyzed (i.e., principal factoring with iteration) with varimax rotation. After iteration, two factors with eigenvalues greater than unity were found. The first factor had an eigenvalue of 7.00 and accounted for 61.5o/o of the variance. This first factor was labeled "a future sense of purpose" and is composed of scale items 1, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 13, and 20. The second factor had an eigenvalue of 1.15 and accounted for 10.1% of the variance. This
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f a c t o r was l a b e l e d " a p r e s e n t sense o f p u r p o s e " a n d is c o m p o s e d o f scale items 1, 2, 5, 9, 16, a n d 19. T h e C r o n b a c h (1951) a l p h a coefficients f o r f a c t o r s 1 a n d 2 f o r the p r e s e n t s a m p l e a r e 0.89 a n d 0.84, respectively, a n d 0.89 for the t o t a l scale.
RESULTS
Neuroticism
T a b l e I c o n t a i n s the m e a n s , s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s , a n d F values for the N S Q a n d its subscales. O u t o f the five a n a l y s e s , o n l y t w o r e v e a l e d a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e a m o n g the e g o i d e n t i t y statuses. T h e t e n d e r m i n d e d ness versus t o u g h m i n d e d n e s s s u b s c a l e was f o u n d to s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e the ego i d e n t i t y statuses (F(3, 52) = 3.65, p < 0.018). A s u b s e q u e n t N e w m a n - K e u l s p r o c e d u r e r e v e a l e d t h a t the i d e n t i t y m o r a t o r i u m status was s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e n e u r o t i c a l l y t e n d e r m i n d e d t h a n the o t h e r three ego i d e n t i t y statuses. N o n e o f the o t h e r ego i d e n t i t y statuses were signific a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m e a c h o t h e r o n this m e a s u r e . T h e analysis o f t h e
Table !. One-Way ANOVA for the Neuroticism Scale Questionnaire and Its Subscales Ego identity status Achievement (n = 12)
Moratorium (n = 8)
Foreclosure (n = 16)
Diffusion (n = 20)
37.8 10.6
36.6 7.0
39.4 7.0
35. i 6.8
Tenderminded Mean SD
9.8 3.2
13.6 2.7
9.3 3.7
9.9 3.0
Depressive Mean SD
8.4 3.0
6.3 2.9
7.8 3.2
7.6 2.8
Dependent Mean SD
9.8 3.1
7.5 2.9
10.9 3.1
8.5 2.6
Anxiety Mean SD
9.9 4.6
10.5 2.9
11.5 2.6
9.05 3.6
Total scale Mean SD
"p < 0.018. bp < 0.029.
F Ratio < 1.0
3.65"
< 1.0
3.24b
< 1.0
Marcia and Erikson's Writings
49
dependence versus dominance subscale also produced a significant result (F(3, 52) = 3.24, p < 0.029). A subsequent Newman-Keuls procedure revealed that the identity foreclosure status was significantly more neurotically dependent than the identity moratorium status and the identity diffusion status. This range test did not significantly differentiate the identity achievement status from the other identity statuses on this subscale, nor did it differentiate the identity moratorium status from the diffusion status. Dogmatism
Table II presents the results of the analysis of the Dogmatism Scale and its relevant subsections. Out of the four analyses carried out, only one revealed a significant difference among the ego identity statuses and this was the analysis of the intolerance subsection of the Dogmatism Scale (F(3, 52) = 2.74, p < 0.05). A Newman-Keuls analysis revealed that the identity moratorium status was significantly less intolerant than the identity diffusion status and the identity foreclosure status. This range test did not significantly differentiate the identity achievement status from the other ego identity statuses or the identity diffusion status from the identity foreclosure status.
Table I!. One-Way A N O V A s for the Dogmatism Scale and Several Subsections Ego identity status Achievement (n = 12)
Moratorium (n = 8)
Foreclosure (n = 16)
Diffusion (n = 20)
152.0 28.8
140.1 23.8
156.4 20.1
150.7 20.2
0.92
Primitive beliefs Mean SD
53.9 13.2
54. l 9.7
53.5 10.1
51.8 7.9
0.17
Authoritarianism Mean SD
29.8 8.5
22.5 7.2
29.0 7.0
27.2 7.8
1.69
Intolerance Mean SD
30.0 8.1
24.0 7.9
31.6 5.0
31.6 6.7
2.74 a
Total scale Mean SD
=p < 0.05.
F ratio
50
C~t~ and Levine Table I!!. O n e - W a y A N O V A s for the Purpose-in-Life Scale and Its T w o Factors Ego identity status Achievement (n = 12)
Moratorium (n = 8)
Foreclosure (n = 16)
Diffusion (n = 20)
113.8 7.3
100.5 21.9
107.4 14.0
103. I 14.8
Future purpose Mean SD
48.8 3.6
39.8 1 I. 1
44.9 5.2
43.4 7.4
3.03"
Present purpose Mean SD
32.7 3.8
29.8 8.5
32.3 6.7
31.0 5.8
0.49
Total scale Mean SD
Fratio 1.8
°p < 0.037.
Purpose in Life The results of the analysis of the PIL scale and its two factors are presented in Table III. Only one of the three one-way ANOVAs produced a statistically significant result. The future sense of purpose factor significantly differentiated the ego identity statuses (F(3, 52) = 3.03, p < 0.03). The Newman-Keuls procedure revealed that the identity achievement status had a significantly greater sense of future purpose than the identity moratorium status. The identity diffusion status and the identity foreclosure status were not significantly different from each other or from either the identity achievement status or the identity moratorium status on this factor.
Discriminant Analysis The above analyses yielded significant effects due to neurotic tendermindedness, neurotic dependency, intolerance, and a future sense of purpose in life. These subscale variables were analyzed with a multiple discriminant analysis procedure in order to test for their combined ability to differentiate among Marcia's statuses. Using the stepwise method of entry (i.e., Wilks' method) and restricting classification to the one significant function, these four subscale variables were able to predict group membership in the identity achievement status with 16.7070 accuracy, the identity moratorium status with 87.5070 accuracy, the identity foreclosure status with 43.807o accuracy, and the identity diffusion status with 40.0°70 accuracy. The overall percentage of correctly classified cases was 42.86070.
Marcia and Erikson's Writings
51
Moreover, with all four personality variables entered, the moratorium status was significantly different from each of the other three identity statuses, but the other three identity statuses could not be differentiated from each other.
DISCUSSION None of the above results support the hypothesis that the ego identity statuses are developmentally ordered in the manner suggested by Marcia. However, the findings of this study suggest that some of Marcia's statuses may classify persons in a manner consistent with Erikson's views on identity formation. The results observed on two subscales of the NSQ are not totally inconsistent with Marcia's perspective and can be interpreted in terms of Erikson's writings on the role neurosis plays in the process of identity formation. The neurotic dependency subscale isolated Marcia's foreclosure status as being significantly more neurotically dependent than the moratorium and diffusion statuses. This finding supports Marcia's conception of the foreclosure status by indicating what may be the emotional basis of some persons' uncritical acceptance of parental values as a guide to commitment formation. In addition, this finding regarding the foreclosure status appears to be consistent with Erikson's (1968b, p. 63) recognition of the phenomenon of "identity closure," a phenomenon based on a neurotic overidentification with one's parents, which presumably impedes the process of identity formation by bolstering the individual's use of defense mechanisms. The finding that moratorium status subjects were significantly more neurotically tenderminded than any of the other statuses can be interpreted as consistent with Erikson's notion that neurosis may sometimes serve identity formation. The neurotically tenderminded individual is described by Scheier and Cattell (1961) as being "somewhat affected, often imaginative, even to the point of being fanciful ... often 'idealistic' and impractical ... favoring unrealistic emotional goals" (p. 21). This description appears to be consistent with Erikson's description of how some individuals react to the identity crisis. While the Dogmatism Scale failed to differentiate Marcia's identity statuses, one of its subscales did. Moratorium subjects were observed to be significantly more tolerant than the other statuses. This finding appears to be compatible with Erikson's writings. Marcia's in-crisis, moratorium subjects are, by definition, engaged in the process of reformulating and speculating about commitments; according to Erikson (1968a, p. 82), such
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developmentally advanced persons are likely to exhibit a relatively greater tolerance of "out-group" beliefs. The last finding worthy of mention stems from the future sense of purpose subscale of the PIL. This subscale differentiated between the achievement and moratorium statuses. The greater sense of future purpose in life observed for the achievement status appears to be consistent with Erikson's contention that achieving a future-oriented sense of fidelity with one's society is necessary in order to resolve the identity crisis. This future sense o f fidelity may be stimulated by the achievement status subjects' commitment to ideology and occupation and may be undermined in moratorium status subjects because of their indecisiveness regarding such commitments. The results of the discriminant analysis, as well as the several significant differentiations among some o f the identity statuses just discussed, indicate that portions of Marcia's attempt to operationalize the ego identity formation process appear to be worthy of further investigation. However, the results of the present study do not support Marcia's postulated ordering of his ego identity statuses along a developmental continuum. While some statistically significant differences among Marcia's statuses were observed on certain subscales of neuroticism, dogmatism, and purpose in life, there was not one instance in which all four of his statuses where differentiated as predicted on any of the total scale measures of the three variables investigated or on any of their subscale measures. Furthermore, the moratorium status appears to be the only status that can be consistently differentiated from the other statuses on the variables measured. This suggests that while the moratorium status may tap an essential part of the identity formation process as postulated by Erikson, the other three identity statuses may be tapping no more than different modes of "commitment formation," a psychosocial task that Erikson considers to be only one important aspect of identity formation.
REFERENCES Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J., and Sanford, R. N. (1950). The Authoritarian Personality, Harper & Row, New York. Bourne, E. (1978a). The state of research on ego identity: A review and appraisal. Part I. J. Youth A doles. 7:223-25 I. Bourne, E. (1978b). The state of research on ego identity: A review and appraisal. Part 1I. J. Youth Adoles. 7: 371-392. Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychornetrika 16: 297-334. Crumbaugh, J. C,, and Maholick, L. T. (1969). Manual for the Purpose-in-Life Test, Psychometric Affiliates, Munster, Ind. Erikson, E. H. (1956). The problem of ego identity. J. Am. Psychoanalyt. Assoc. 4: 56-122.
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Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and Society, Norton, New York. Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and Responsibility, Norton, New York. Erikson, E. H. (1968a). Identity: Youth and Crisis, Norton, New York, Erikson, E. H. (1968b). Psychosocial identity. Int. Encycloped. Soc. ScL 7: 61-65. Erikson, E. H. (1969). Gandhi's Truth, Norton, New York. Erikson, E. H.. (1975). Life History and the Historical Moment, Norton, New York. Erikson, E. H. (t979). Identity and the Life Cycle: A Reissue, Norton, New York. Frankl, V. (1955). Man's Search for Meaning, Beacon, New York. Josselson, R. L. (1973). Psychodynamic aspects of identity formation in college women. J. Youth Adoles. 2: 3-52. Marcia, J. E. (1965). Determination and construct validity of ego identity status. (Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1964.) Diss. Abstr. 25: 6763. (University Microfilms No. 65-5606.) Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. J. Personal Soc. PsychoL 3: 551-558. Rokeach, M. (1960). The Open and Closed Mind, Basic Books, New York. Scheier, I. H., and Cattell, R. B. (1961). Handbook for the Neuroticism Scale Questionnaire "The NSQ'; Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, Champaign, Ill.
