masaryk university brno faculty of education

MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO FACULTY OF EDUCATION Department of English Language and Literature

Contemporary American Christian Fiction: Young and Rivers

Diploma thesis

Brno 2012

Author: Bc. Petra Böhmová, DiS.

Supervisor: PhDr. Irena Přibylová, Ph.D.

Bibliografický záznam: Böhmová, Petra. Contemporary American Christian Fiction: Young and Rivers. Brno: Masaryk University, Faculty of Education, Department of English Language and Literature, 2012. Supervisor PhDr. Irena Přibylová, Ph.D.

Declaration I hereby declare that this diploma thesis, titled “Contemporary American Christian Fiction: Young and Rivers”, is the result of my own work and that I used only the cited sources. Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou diplomovou práci vypracovala samostatně, s využitím pouze citovaných literárních pramenů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s Disciplinárním řádem pro studenty Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy univerzity a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb., o právu autorském, o právech souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů (autorský zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů. Brno 20th April 2012 .....…..................... Petra Böhmová

Acknowledgements: I would hereby like to thank PhDr. Irena Přibylová, Ph.D. for her time, patience, valuable advice and supervision regarding the compilation of this diploma thesis.

Annotation The diploma thesis Contemporary American Christian fiction: Young and Rivers deals with features of the genre and show them using two books, namely the autobiographical novel The Shack (2007) written by William Paul Young and the romance novel Redeeming Love (1997) by Francine Rivers. The thesis comments on the social background for the current rise of Christian fiction in America. Attention is drawn to Evangelical Christians who are the most probable writers of the genre. Furthermore, authors‟ motivations, general features of Christian fiction, the most frequent topics together with possible criticism of the genre are discussed. For later analysis, defining of the basic aspects of narrative style and a depiction of the autobiographical and romance novel are important. The crucial part of the thesis is the analysis of the above mentioned novels in the context of the information acquired.

Anotace Diplomová práce Současná americká křesťanská fikce: Young a Riversová pojednává o rysech tohoto žánru a ukazuje je na dvou knihách: na autobiografickém románu Chatrč (2007) od Williama Paula Younga a na milostném románu Vykoupená láska (1997) od Francine Riversové. Práce nejprve představuje společenské pozadí soudobého nárůstu křesťanské fikce v Americe. Pozornost je věnována evangelikálním křesťanům, kteří jsou nejčastějšími tvůrci tohoto žánru. Dále se práce zabývá motivacemi autorů k vytvoření křesťanské fikce, základními rysy tohoto žánru, nejčastějšími tématy a možnou kritikou. Pro pozdější analýzu je důležitá charakteristika vyprávěcího stylu spolu s definováním autobiografického a milostného románu. Nejdůležitější částí práce je analýza výše uvedených knih v kontextu informací získaných v sekundární literatuře.

Key words: contemporary American fiction, postmodernism, Christianity, Evangelical Christians, Christian values, autobiographical novel, romance novel Klíčová slova: současná americká fikce, postmodernismus, křesťanství, evangelikální křesťané, křesťanské hodnoty, autobiografický román, milostný román

Table of Contents 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 9 2. Christianity in the Context of American Society ........................................................ 11 2.1 Christianity and American Identity ....................................................................... 11 2.2. Development of the Role of Christianity in the USA .......................................... 12 2.3 Conservative and Liberal Christians ..................................................................... 14 2.4 The Evangelical Perspective.................................................................................. 15 3. Christian Fiction .......................................................................................................... 17 3.1 Motivations for Writing......................................................................................... 17 3.2 General Features .................................................................................................... 19 3.3 Topics .................................................................................................................... 20 3.4 Possible Criticism .................................................................................................. 22 4. Literary Context .......................................................................................................... 24 4.1 Aspects of Narrative Style ..................................................................................... 24 4.2 Autobiography ....................................................................................................... 26 4.3 Romance novel ...................................................................................................... 28 4.4 The Thriller............................................................................................................ 30 5. Analysis of The Shack by William Paul Young ......................................................... 33 5.1 Author‟s Style in The Shack ................................................................................. 33 5.1.1 The Genre ....................................................................................................... 33 5.1.2 The Form ........................................................................................................ 34 5.1.3 The Style ......................................................................................................... 35 5.1.4 The Language ................................................................................................. 39 5.2 Content and Topics of The Shack ......................................................................... 39 5.2.1 Content ............................................................................................................ 39 5.2.1 Topics ............................................................................................................. 40

5.3 Personal Motivations for Writing The Shack ........................................................ 45 5.4 Other Features of Christian Fiction in The Shack ................................................. 47 6. Analysis of Redeeming Love by Francine Rivers ....................................................... 50 6.1 Author‟s Style in Redeeming Love ........................................................................ 50 6.1.1 The Genre ....................................................................................................... 50 6.1.2 The Form ........................................................................................................ 51 6.1.3 The Style ......................................................................................................... 51 6. 1. 4 The Language ............................................................................................... 54 6.2 Content and Topics of Redeeming Love ................................................................ 56 6. 2. 1 Content .......................................................................................................... 56 6.2.2 Topics ............................................................................................................. 56 6. 3 Personal Motivations for Writing Redeeming Love ............................................. 61 6.4 Other Features of Christian Fiction in Redeeming Love....................................... 63 7. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 65 8. Resumé ........................................................................................................................ 68 9. Summary ..................................................................................................................... 69 10. Bibliography.............................................................................................................. 70 11. Appendices .................................................................................................................. 9

1. INTRODUCTION Recently, there has been a resurgence of Christian fiction in America. The aim of this diploma thesis will be to describe features of the genre and demonstrate them using a focused sample of literature, namely the autobiographical novel The Shack (2007) written by William Paul Young and the romance novel Redeeming Love (1997) by Francine Rivers. The reason I have chosen this topic is largely connected with my Christian faith. I would like to know more about the phenomenon of contemporary American Christian fiction. Writing this diploma thesis may be a good opportunity to gain useful theoretical information about the genre. I can later apply them to the analysis of two novels which I personally appreciate. In the theoretical part, I will firstly discuss the role of Christianity in the context of American society. I will try to comment on the relationship between Christianity and American identity. The focus on the development of the role of Christianity in the USA will be of help. Furthermore, attention will be concentrated on Evangelical Christians who are assumed to be the most probable writers of Christian fiction. Secondly, I will attempt to depict the genre of Christian fiction. I will deal with possible causes of the emergence of Christian fiction in contemporary American society. Furthermore, general features, the most frequent topics together with the most prominent types of Christian fiction will be suggested. Thirdly, the literary context will be discussed. Since the novels I will deal with are written in a narrative style, I find it useful to discuss its features. One of the chosen works has characteristics of an autobiographical story. Another one can be classified as a romance novel. Therefore, I will attempt to define the genre of autobiography and the romance novel. I will also comment on the thriller which is regarded as another typical genre in Christian fiction. In the practical part, I will analyze the two above mentioned novels. Firstly, I will focus on the author‟s style. Secondly, the thesis will deal with Christian topics included in the novels. Thirdly, the personal motivation for writing the book will be discussed. Lastly, I will add some other features of Christian fiction in the chosen books. 9

Concerning the methods used in this diploma thesis, the theoretical part will be developed out of an exploration of the field, finding specific writings on contemporary Christian literature, gathering these materials and summarizing them. The analytical part will be based on a study of two Christian novels in the context of previously gathered information. Secondary literature will be used to provide background information mentioned both in the theoretical and analytical part. The most crucial source will be the publication Faith and Fiction: Christian Literature in America Today (2007), written by Anita Gandolfo, Professor of English at the U.S. Military Academy, who offers an exhaustive discourse about the phenomenon of Christian fiction. The chapter “In God we trust? Religion in American life” from the book American Cultural Studies: An Introduction to American culture (2006) written by Professor of American Studies Neil Campbell and Senior Academic Counsellor Alasdair Kean will be of help in a depiction of the cultural context. Other sources will provide the thesis with information important for literary context of the works being analyzed. In my opinion, my diploma thesis may be useful to anyone who is interested in the contemporary role of Christianity in the USA. Furthermore, those who are concerned with Christian fiction and its analysis in the academic context may find some valuable information here. It may similarly be of interest to those wanting to know more about an emergence of new genres in Christian literature. The thesis will also offer a practical demonstration of approaches to writing Christian fiction. I may present some findings of this diploma thesis in my church community.

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2. CHRISTIANITY IN THE CONTEXT OF AMERICAN SOCIETY In this chapter, I will focus on the connection between Christianity and American identity. Furthermore, I will briefly present an account of the development of the role of Christianity in the USA. The aim will also be to depict diversities among conservative and liberal Christians. Lastly, I will try to define Evangelicals, who play an important role in the writing of popular Christian literature.

2.1 Christianity and American Identity In this section, I will deal with religion (in this case Christianity) and its influence on the sense of identity in the context of American society. The main sources will be Hans Mol‟s Faith and Fragility: Religion and Identity in Canada (1985), Neil Campbell‟s and Alasdair Kean‟s American Cultural Studies: An Introduction to American culture (2006), and Anita Gandolfo‟s Faith and Fiction: Christian Literature in America Today (2007). Hans Mol is Professor Emeritus of the Social Scientific Study of Religion at McMaster University in Canada. As the British sociologist Anthony Giddens (2001) suggests, religion is a “central part of human experience, influencing how we perceive and react to the environments in which we live” (qtd. in Campbell and Kean 106). It represents a great power to influence society. Mol states that religion either “reinforces particular units . . . or reconciles the tensions between them . . . or redress[es] imbalances”. He sees religion as the source of forces “which lead to identity consolidation and those which lead to identity fragmentation” (Mol 1-2). Consequently, religion appears to be closely connected with the identity of a particular country. In the United States of America, the church is separate from the state. On the one hand, as Campbell and Kean claim, in general this separation represents “the secular identity of the state and [forbids] it from the promotion of specific forms of religious belief and practice”. On the other hand, these authors attribute to religion a crucial importance in American society, in spite of the fact that it is not formally established. According to them, Christianity appears to be valued even in politics. For example, “the 11

federal Congress has chaplains who watch over its business and pray for its successful conclusion” (Campbell and Kean 107-9). One of the American presidents, Dwight D. Eisenhower (1946), declared: “Without God, there could be no American form of government, nor an American way of life. Recognition of the Supreme Being is the first – and most basic expression of Americanism” (qtd. in Gandolfo 41). This statement resonates with Josef Jařab‟s (2000) assertion: “Faith in God and faith in America converged in the American creed” (10). In conclusion, Christianity appears to be a crucial tool for forming the identity of American society. Even though it is not officially established in politics, religion represents an important part of American cultural identity. As the American Jewish writer and sociologist of religion Will Herberg (1955) claims: “Americans are able to be both secular and religious simultaneously because religion is not simply a faith expression but a form of cultural identity” (qtd. in Gandolfo 63). Christianity seems to be deeply embedded in American consciousness even though there are some conditions that tend to weaken its position. This will be one of the themes of the following section.

2.2. Development of the Role of Christianity in the USA As this thesis is dealing with Christian literature in the USA, it is crucial to define the social context in which it originates. There are two already mentioned resources I find useful for this purpose. The first book was written by Neil Campbell and Alasdair Kean (2006), and the second by Anita Gandolfo (2007). The American philosopher Thomas Kuhn (1970) defines the social context as: “the entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques, and so on shared by members of a given community” (qtd. in Gandolfo 42). The general idea of the American attitude to Christianity might be connected with the well-known mottos, such as “In God We Trust” on the back of twenty dollar bill or “God Bless America” in one American patriotic song. There is a question as to what extent these slogans are topical at the present time. For a better understanding of the current role of Christianity in American society, it might be helpful to focus briefly on the development of its position. 12

The roots of American society dating back to the 17th century could be defined as Christian thanks to the Pilgrim Fathers. As Campbell and Kean put it, the Puritans saw themselves as chosen people and regarded the New World as the Promised Land. This period was followed by the Great Awakening in the 18th century and later by the Revolution, which saw the separation of the church from government, rationalism and the concept of individual freedom. In the early 19th century, the Second Great Awakening appeared and later there was a rise of Evangelicalism. The latter put emphasis on conversion, personal morality, Biblical authority, passing on the gospel, and the practical application of Christianity (Campbell and Kean 110-115). According to Campbell and Kean, denominational loyalty was apparent at first: Catholics were distinct from Protestants and there were tensions within Protestantism, too. However, later on, some cooperation among denominations could be observed (Campbell and Kean 113-114). The importance of the Christian faith was still evident in the first half of the 20th century. However, the times were changing and in the second half of the 20th century there came a period of liberalization of moral values and a consequent erosion of the position of Christianity in American society. As Anita Gandolfo states, “the United States experienced a major eruption of its secularizing power in the era known as The Sixties. The celebration of individualism . . . intensified the differences”. In that time, two important events confirmed these secularizing tendencies in American society, namely the elimination of school prayer in 1962 and the legalization of abortion in 1972 (Gandolfo 43). On the one hand, as Campbell and Kean show, according to a social survey conducted in 2004, it appears that the USA might be regarded a Christian country: “94 per cent of Americans said they believed in God, 63 per cent said they belonged to a church of some kind, and 44 per cent attended a weekly church service.” (106). On the other hand, Gandolfo observes that in the time of secularization apparent in the last fifty years, Christians seem to have separated themselves from mainstream society. She comments on this phenomenon in the following way: “the effect of disestablishment was to move religious practice gradually into the private sphere, where

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it eventually became a haven from the harsh and cruel world as society became more complex and competitive” (Gandolfo 43). According to Campbell and Kean, Christians create their own communities, which offer them various opportunities to meet and spend time together. They mention different kinds of Christian social and cultural institutions or activities, such as shops, schools, religious services and different forms of popular entertainment (TV programmes, music and literature) (Campbell and Kean 115-117). Nevertheless, the era of consumption has its impact on Christians, too. For example, they are tempted to spend Sundays in malls or cinemas, instead of devoting their time to deepening their faith (Campbell and Kean 113). Some sociologists claim that the individualistic society has a considerable impact on Christianity in other ways as well. The American Professor Robert Wuthnow (2005) notices a change in the concept of salvation: “Christians talk about personal fulfilment and happiness . . . more than they do about life beyond death, defining salvation as the key to a prosperous life more than to a heavenly kingdom” (qtd. in Gandolfo 51). Gandolfo makes a similar point: “Americans want an emotionally satisfying encounter from their religious affiliation, and the most successful churches are those that meet those needs” (176). In conclusion, Christianity in the USA has experienced times of awakening, but also declines. The last fifty years might be characterized as the time of individualization, liberalization and consumption, which has had a considerable impact on Christianity as well.

2.3 Conservative and Liberal Christians A majority of Americans consider themselves to be Christians. However, the extent to which they follow Christian values and requirements is another matter. There is a tendency towards liberalization in American society. Consequently, people in general might be divided into two groups: conservative and liberal. This division can be applied to Christians as well. In this section, I will try to explain the difference between these two categories. I will draw from Mathew Sweney‟s collection Spirituality and Religion in American culture: A Collection of Papers from American Studies 14

Colloquium (2000) and from Anita Gandolfo‟s publication (2007). Mathew Sweney is a writer a translator. The American writer Stephen Carter (1993) describes the liberalization of American society in the following way: “In contemporary American culture, the religions are more and more treated as just passing beliefs – almost as fads, older, stuffier, less liberal versions of so-called New Age – rather than as the fundaments upon which the devout build their lives” (qtd. in Gandolfo 53). Czech sociologist Professor Otakar Machotka (1946) claims something similar: “Only a small percentage of believers, the fundamentalists, stick to the dogmatic aspects of Christianity” (qtd. in Sweney et al. 45). According to Campbell and Kean, orthodox or conservative Christians consider God as moral authority, whereas progressive or liberal ones think that morality does not rely on any external agent of control (114-115). Gandolfo adds that they “value human reason as the ultimate authority”. On the one hand, conservatives fear a corruption of moral values. Liberals, on the other hand, fear extremism (Gandolfo 49). As Gandolfo further states, the majority of writers and commentators might be defined as liberals. Therefore, conservative Christians have a rather unpopular image in today‟s media (Gandolfo 54). One consequence of this, according to the American sociologist James Davidson Hunter (1991), is that a form of censorship occurs in Christian literature. Conservative Christians therefore perceive a need to establish their own alternative culture (qtd. in Gandolfo 56). This issue will also be discussed later. In conclusion, owing to liberalization trends, many Christians are tending towards formal church membership. The authority of God is being substituted by reason or some other value. Consequently, Christian principles are losing their worth. The number of conservative Christians is declining.

2.4 The Evangelical Perspective As a majority of American Christians and writers of Christian popular literature are Evangelicals, I will focus this section on their characteristics. It can be asserted that there are many conservative Christians among Evangelicals. The main points of this 15

discourse will be Boris Vejdovsky‟s (2000), Anita Gandolfo‟s (2007) together with Neil Campbell‟s and Alasdair Kean‟s (2006) thoughts. Boris Vejdovsky is Professor of American literature. At first, it might be useful to define the term Evangelicalism. According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, it represents a conservative movement in Protestantism (“Protestantism”). The Prayer Foundation presents the following characteristics of Evangelicals: the demand for personal conversion, the importance of biblical authority, the belief in salvation through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and active participation in passing on the gospel (“Evangelical Characteristics & Beliefs”). The aim of Evangelicals is to follow Biblical principles, which means that they can be considered conservative Christians. Due to the liberalization of American society and “practising Non-Christian values”, conservative Christians may feel detached from mainstream culture (Gandolfo 65). However, Hunter (1991) states that they seem to be ready to raise their voices and fight against secularization through the media and literature, thus establishing their alternative culture (qtd. in Gandolfo 56). It can be caused by the fact that they aspire to pass on gospel. Another crucial point of Evangelicalism is the importance of conversion, or being born again. Evangelicals emphasize a personal relationship with God through His Son, Jesus Christ. Vejdovsky relates to this emphasis in the following way: “The sacred may appear to have a foundational and universalizing character [but] it is also something extremely intimate” (105). Being born again represents among others being saved from secular matters (Campbell and Kean 119). The need of separateness can be seen here again. Significantly, Gandolfo notices a connection between these Evangelical emphases and American individualism (179). The most important traits of Evangelical Christians are the emphasis on Biblical principles, personal conversion and passing on Christian values. On the one hand, these issues are causes of separateness from mainstream culture. On the other hand, they are reasons for establishing an alternative culture.

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3. CHRISTIAN FICTION I will devote this chapter to a depiction of the genre called Christian fiction. Firstly, I will focus on the reasons for writing this type of literature. Secondly, I will try to characterize the genre in general. Thirdly, the topics used in Christian fiction will be discussed. Fourthly, I will outline the most prominent types of the genre. At the end, possible criticism of it will be suggested.

3.1 Motivations for Writing It seems that due to liberalization in mainstream American culture and the consequent separateness of conservative Christians, Evangelicals feel a need to establish their own culture. Not only do they build communities, but they also seek a voice through the media and literature. Anita Gandolfo (2007) offers some interesting insights into this theme. She stands, for example, that “the emergence of Evangelical Christian fiction as a publishing phenomenon is a symptom of a major shift in American religion” (180). This rise occurred in the late twentieth century. It might show that conservative Christians are not satisfied with the state of contemporary literature and aspire to bring something new to it. Gandolfo provides a number of possible reasons for the rise of Christian fiction. She considers the most obvious one to be that of providing “conservative Christians an alternative to the secularizing influences of the dominant culture” (65). This phenomenon might also be connected with a need for diversity (Gandolfo 74). Christians may try to separate themselves from the postmodern culture. It can be useful to provide some information about postmodern philosophy. The British Professor Stuart Sim (2010) characterizes postmodernism as full of “scepticism about authority, received knowledge and wisdom, political and cultural norms” (3). This scepticism “undermines other philosophical theories claiming to be in possession of ultimate truth” (Sim et al. 3). According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, postmodernism denies “that there are objective, or absolute, moral values”

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(“postmodernism”). The concept of relativism may lead to the supposed absence of any universal truth. The American religious studies scholar Huston Smith (1995) discusses Lyotard‟s definition of postmodernism, “incredulity toward metanarratives”, in the context of religion. He suggests that the “religious impulse challenges all three species of postmodernism. Contra polemical postmodernism, metanarratives/worldviews are needed. Contra mainline postmodernism, reliable ones are possible. And contra minimal postmodernism, they already exist - in the world‟s great, enduring religious traditions” (Smith, “The Religious Significance of Postmodernism”). In this way, postmodernism contradicts Christian established teachings. Postmodernism draws on Friedrich Nietzsche‟s suggestion for a “revaluation of all values” (Sim et al. 3). Consequently, Christian values are questioned and even rejected. The British philosopher Pamela Sue Anderson points out that there is a “disruption of . . . religion by the fluidity of postmodern thinking (Anderson 47). For example, Patrick O‟Donnell (2010) notices how the genre of the novel deals with family relationships (172). Recently, there has been a shift in these relationships, as he adds: “the family is no longer „nuclear‟, in any falsely idealized sense” (O‟Donnell 173). Similarly, also other values are undermined. Consequently, Christian writers have an ambition to pass on moral principles to future generations (Gandolfo 49). Christian fiction might thus encourage readers to believe that life according to Biblical principals is possible. It can also make some Biblical stories more understandable. It appears that for Christian writers it is natural to produce Christian fiction. The topics are often connected with authors‟ life experiences. There Christian writer Frederick Buechner (1997) expresses this as follows: “I‟m like any other novelist. I‟m trying to listen to what goes on in the lives of my characters and to the interesting things that happen to people; and, because I am a religious person, I always listen for the religious things that go on” (qtd. in Gandolfo 131). In conclusion, at least five reasons for writing Christian fiction can be suggested. There are to offer Christian alternative to secular culture, thus diversifying it, to pass on Biblical principles to future generations in postmodern times, to encourage believers on 18

their way through life, to make Biblical stories clearer, and simply to write fiction from the Christian point of view.

3.2 General Features In this section, I will depict the general features of Christian fiction. Anita Gandolfo‟s book (2007) provides a comprehensive account of this topic. As Gandolfo states, contemporary Christian fiction encompasses almost all genres of popular literature existing in the secular sphere (67), except, of course, those which go against Christian principles, such as pornographic literature and so forth. One of the reasons why Christian fiction is on the rise is that it offers an opportunity for believers to pass on Christian values in the time of secularization. However, Christian fiction is popular not only with conservative Christians, but also with those who “do not belong to any church or „seekers‟ who dabble in a variety of religious traditions”, as Gandolfo asserts. She further claims that “many Americans who long for the certitude of the classical paradigm and are uncomfortable with the dominant culture today” may find a support in the genre of Christian fiction (Gandolfo 85). Gandolfo suggests that Christian views can determine the text. On the one hand, therefore, she compares Christian fiction to “the Catholic novel of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries”. On the other hand, she considers it to be part of popular literature (Gandolfo 63-67). In other words, Gandolfo regards Christian fiction as something quite distinct from literary fiction. According to her, its main purpose is to meet people‟s emotional needs (178). She gives the following explanation: “The reader is not looking for ambiguity or metaphoric allusions so much as escapism, light entertainment for relaxation” (130). Gandolfo labels Christian fiction as escapist, especially romance novels. However, Christians have an opportunity to read literature that is concerned with their values and beliefs which plays an important role in their spiritual lives (Gandolfo 64-68).

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In spite of the remarks contained in the previous paragraph, Christian fiction can contain symbolism, too. The Chronicles of Narnia (1949-54) series can serve as a good example. They are rich in Biblical symbolism. Nevertheless, as Gandolfo writes, it always depends on readers whether they are able to see the symbols or not (152). According to Gandolfo, “in contemporary society, religious faith requires a belief in things beyond [human] comprehension”. However, people are influenced by “the post-Enlightenment society” which relies rather on reason. Consequently, in order to reinforce faith in secular culture, Christian fiction incorporates Bible stories and Christian values into the novel. In other words, it combines the “product of the traditional paradigm . . . [with] . . . the genre of the modern paradigm”. Nevertheless, she states that „since the modern paradigm, unlike the Bible, credits no ruling mythos1”, Christian fiction may tend to be rather didactic (Gandolfo 145). Christian fiction covers almost all existing genres. It might be classified as popular literature, aiming to meet the reader‟s emotional needs, to entertain them or to help them relax. However, the genre can be symbolic, too. Christian writers combine the traditional paradigm of Christian values with the modern paradigm of the genre of the novel. Christian fiction is popular not only with Christians, but also with those who aspire to reinforce traditional values. The purpose of the genre is not only to provide entertainment, but also to reinforce readers‟ faith and educate them in Christian and Biblical issues, as will be discussed in the following section.

3.3 Topics I find it important to mention the most common topics incorporated in Christian fiction. I will draw from Hans Mol‟s (1985) and Anita Gandolfo‟s (2007) suggestions. According to Mol, Christian fiction deals with stories from the everyday lives of believers. It can depict both Christians and the Church. The Church and its representatives are sometimes viewed critically (Mol 276). Christian literature may either criticize what is wrong, or simply apply Biblical principles to its characters. 1

The pattern of basic values and attitudes of people, characteristically transmitted through myths and the arts (“mythos”).

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Gandolfo points out communication with God and adherence to Christian values: “… prayer is a central part of the life of the characters in a Christian novel, and they can be expected to uphold the social values associated with Christians, an emphasis on fidelity in marriage and eschewing premarital sex, for example” (63). The emphasis tends to be practical and might serve as a support for readers in their daily struggles. As Gandolfo notices, the focus of Christian fiction is “on faith [rather] than on religion”, on communication with God rather than on doctrine (131). Christian fiction may also include a story about some “apparent incursion of God into human life . . . [while] some characters believe that the apparently miraculous is a sham, some hoax being perpetrated” (Gandolfo 144). The characters also often seek for God‟s will for their lives: “characters not only frequently ask for God‟s guidance but receive it almost instantly, and often audibly, [which] may seem to be a reductive description of the religious practice of discerning God‟s will” (Gandolfo 70). As Gandolfo further claims, Christian fiction can be based on Biblical teachings. For instance, the authors can help readers gain a better grasp of Biblical stories, or to be able to see them from another point of view (Gandolfo 145). Writers may also try to pass on Biblical truths in a clearer way. Mol suggests that such novels deal with “biblical archetypes and religious symbols”, together with concepts such as “salvation, sin, crucifixion and resurrection” (271). However, Gandolfo argues that the theology in such novels can be oversimplified (70). This, of course, depends on the author‟s acquaintance with it. According to Mol, there is also a tendency to pit two opposites against each other. For instance, “evil versus good, unbelief versus belief, disloyalty versus loyalty, irresponsibility versus responsibility…” (264). The better component might be glorified, the worse one condemned. It seems that Christian fiction sometimes presents a black and white worldview. The American novelist Ron Hansen (2002) suggests that Christian issues can be involved in writing subconsciously (qtd. in Gandolfo 152). The reason for this might be the fact that the authors‟ faith is so crucial for them that it influences their books to a large extent, even though they are not aware of it.

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In conclusion, Christian fiction might touch the following topics: a depiction of the Church and Christian everyday life with an emphasis on Biblical principles, the need for communication with God, God‟s intervention in an individual‟s life, seeking for God‟s will, an explanation for Biblical stories or teachings expressed in a more acceptable way, or pitting two contrasting values against each other in order to distinguish good from evil.

3.4 Possible Criticism In this section, I will try to depict the most important reasons for criticizing Christian fiction. For this purpose I will draw on the chapter “Language and Narrative Discourse: The Ideology of Female Identity” from the American literary and cultural studies scholar Janice A. Radway‟s Reading the Romance: Woman, Patriarchy, and Popular Literature (1984) and on Anita Gandolfo‟s (2007) publication. According to Gandolfo, the objection can be raised that both authors and readers of Christian fiction often lack literary expertise (84 and 147). As has been mentioned above, the genre is classified as popular literature. Consequently, it tends to be characterized as a popular, rather than as an art form. However, Christian fiction does appear to be well-liked by readers (Gandolfo 130). Furthermore, as Radway claims, some critics consider popular literature as a depiction of a “fantasy world bearing little resemblance and no applicability to the reader‟s own” (188). However, Gandolfo finds the reality described in Christian fiction “consistent with the life experiences of its readers” (85). There is also an assumption that the style of Christian writers is “intentional” (Gandolfo 77). The American fiction writer Robert Olen Butler (1997) suggests: “The true work of art is not a known thing before its creation. You do not as an artist decide what the novel is going to say and then construct something to say it” (Butler qtd. in Gandolfo 130). Gandolfo rejects the didacticism of Christian fiction and finds it harmful for the genre of the novel. She also states: “the novel, like the society in which it developed, is considered as a form fueled by reason and liberated from the tyranny of religion or any authority that seeks to dominate the individual” (Gandolfo 84). 22

Some even argue that the term Christian fiction may be misleading. It might, for example, be difficult to distinguish fictional features from the Biblical ones. A reviewer of The Left Behind series writes: “One can argue that the books are only fiction, but will the intermingling of Bible truth and fiction not leave wrong impressions in the minds of people? Will the average reader be able to tell truth from fiction?” (“Tim LeHaye (with Jerry Jerkins)”). Nevertheless, this blend of facts and fiction also occurs in other types of fiction, for example in historical novels. There can, therefore, be at least four objections to Christian fiction. According to critics, authors and readers of this fiction do not appear to be largely educated from the literary standpoint. Furthermore, the situations depicted by Christian fiction can diverge from reality. Christian authors also tend to present Christian values in their writings, which can be considered as didacticism. Lastly, it might sometimes not be easy to distinguish fact from fiction.

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4. LITERARY CONTEXT In this section, I will focus on the literary context of the novels to be analysed later, namely on aspects of narrative style, romance novel and autobiography. I will include here comments on the thriller, which is another typical genre of Christian fiction.

4.1 Aspects of Narrative Style Since the books dealt with in this diploma thesis can be classified as stories written in the narrative style, it might be helpful to introduce some basic terms and themes of narratology. For this purpose I will use two main sources. One of them is a chapter called “Discourse and the discourse situation” from Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose (1981) written by English linguists Geoffrey N. Leech and Mick Short. The second one is a part called “Narratology” from Peter Barry‟s Beginning theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory (2009). I will also draw from Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory (1999) written by late English author and dictionary writer J. A. Cuddon. At first, it is important to define terms. According to Peter Barry, it can be said that narratology comprises “the study of how narratives make meaning, and what basic mechanisms and procedures are common to all acts of story-telling”. Moreover, “narratology . . . is not the reading and interpretation of individual stories, but the attempt to study the nature of „story‟ itself” (Barry 214- 215). There are six questions that might be asked when analysing books written in narrative style. They are suggested by the French literary theorist, Gérard Genette (1980). The first of these “is the narrative mode known as „mimetic‟ or „diegetic‟?” (Genette qtd. in Barry 224). While mimesis might be characterized “as the concept of imitation” (Cuddon 512), diegesis refers to “a narrative account” (Cuddon 225). Furthermore, Genette poses the following question: “How is the narrative focalized?” This is the issue of point-of view. Basically, there are two options: the

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outside point-of-view, where only external things are told, and internal focalization which means the opposite (Genette qtd. in Barry 224). According to Genette, the question of “who is telling the story” might be considered. Briefly speaking, there can be a neutral detached narrator represented by the author himself/herself, or the story is told by some of the characters (Genette qtd. in Barry 225-226). Leech and Short define I-narrators and third person narrators. The Inarrator might be either the author himself/herself, or the main character who is telling the story. The latter “produces a personal relationship with the reader which inevitably tends to bias the reader in favour of the narrator/character”. As Leech and Short further state, “it is more usual for a novelist to employ an „impersonal‟ style . . . where reference by the narrator to himself is avoided” (Leech and Short 265-266). The third person narrator seems to be more objective. Nevertheless, in the postmodern era, there have been experiments with this form. For instance, the narrator can play with readers. As Genette claims, the question of time in the story is also worth considering. The temporal logic may be linear (chronological), or there can be some lapses in time (time inversions). The story can “contain references back [or] references forward” (Genette qtd. in Barry 226). In other words, there are flash-backs and flash-forwards. The Free Dictionary defines flashback in the following way: “A literary or cinematic device in which an earlier event is inserted into the normal chronological order of a narrative” (“flashback”). Regarding flash-forward, it states: “A literary or cinematic device in which the chronological sequence of events is interrupted by the interjection of a future event” (“flash-forward”). According to Genette, the previously mentioned options can be combined as well (qtd. in Barry 226). Furthermore, Genette asks: “How is the story packaged?” The story might, for example, have some framework narratives which include embedded narratives. Basically, this means that there is a story within a story (Genette qtd. in Barry 227). As the literary scholar and critic Marie-Laure Ryan (1986) suggests, embedded narratives may be defined as story representations in the character‟s mind. There can be either retrospective

interpretation,

or

projections

of

the

future

(qtd.

in

Gander). Genette also called these meta-narratives, meaning a “narrative within the narrative” (qtd. in Barry 227). 25

According to Genette, the representation of speech and thought is another important theme. Among other things, this concerns direct, indirect and free indirect speech (Barry 229-230). The Free Dictionary define direct speech as “the reporting of what someone has said or written by quoting his exact words” (“direct speech”). Indirect speech (or reported speech), means: “the reporting of something said or written by conveying what was meant rather than repeating the exact words” (“indirect speech”). Free indirect speech, by contrast is described as “a style of third-person narration which uses some of the characteristics of third-person along with the essence of first-person direct speech” (“free indirect speech.”). Leech and Short find it useful to define how the author deals with irony, tone and distance. Concerning irony, they give the following definition: “… a double significance which arises from the contrast in values associated with two different points of view”. As to authorial tone, Leech and Short describe it as: “the stance of attitude taken by an (implied) author towards his readers, and towards (parts of) his message”. Distance concerns the question of whether the author is interfering or disappearing in the progress of the novel (Leech and Short 272-80). As Barry states, narratologists “switch much of their critical attention away from the mere content of the tale, often focusing instead on the teller and the telling” (Barry 233). In other words, in narratology, it is not so much what the story is about that is important, as the literary qualities of the narrators and their writing. In conclusion, there are at least six questions that narratologists ask when analyzing a text: whether the story is rather showing or telling, from what point of view the story is being told, what type of narrator is telling the story, how the author deals with time in the story, what types of narratives are included in the text and how speech and thought are represented in the text. Another important issue is also the recognition of irony, authorial tone and distance.

4.2 Autobiography Since one of the books this diploma thesis is concerned with is considered to be an autobiographical novel, it would be useful to discuss this genre. As for sources, I 26

have chosen the Encyclopaedia Britannica and the chapter titled “Autobiography and the Early Novel” written by the late American academic and writer Nellie McKay as a part of the book The Columbia History of the American Novel (1991) edited by Emory Elliott et al. As for autobiographies, the following description can be given: “intimate writings made during life that were not necessarily intended for publication (including letters, diaries,

journals,

memoirs,

and

reminiscences)

[or]

a

formal

book-length

autobiography”. Furthermore, this genre “offers a special kind of biographical truth: a life, reshaped by recollection, with all of recollection‟s conscious and unconscious omissions and distortions”. Autobiographies can be divided into the following types: “thematic, religious, intellectual, and fictionalized” (“autobiography”). McKay gave a more detailed division of the genre: “the conversion, captivity, criminal, slave, and travel narratives, ethnic, immigrant, colonial, and transcendental autobiographies”. She saw a connection between the autobiographical genre and the American identity: “For autobiography, in its valorization of individualism and its focus on the success story, has always been eminently suited to the dominant American temperament”. Therefore, she regarded it the most prominent American genre (McKay 27-28). According to McKay, in autobiography the border between reality and fiction is not always clear. Consequently, she considered it a fictional genre (McKay 45). The American scholar Albert A. Stone (1982) makes a similar point when he perceives “tensions between memory, reflection, and imagination” in autobiography. Although the autobiography is a genre usually written by one person, it is a “social experience” (Stone in McKay 29). As this thesis analyses one Christian story with autobiographical features, it might be useful to mention one possible plot of religious autobiography. The following quotation originally deals with Indian captivity narrative, but in some aspects it can also be applied to the Christian journey. The story is suggested by the American writer Richard VanDerBeets in his book The Indian Captivity Narrative: An American Genre (1984): “The narratives follow a pattern of the subject‟s Separation from his/her culture (symbolic death), Transformation (through ordeals that ensure the movement from 27

ignorance to knowledge and maturity), and Return (symbolic rebirth)” (VanDerBeets in McKay 32). Christians also experience inner separation from the secular culture. They are transformed through their faith in God. Even though they have to live in the liberal society, their worldview is changed. The previously mentioned plot can be also observed in St. Augustine‟s Confessions (1470). J. A. Cuddon characterized this autobiography as “an intensely personal account of spiritual experience and an extraordinary instance of deep psychological self-analysis of a kind that has become commonplace only in modern times” (63). There are different subtypes of autography. In general, thematic, religious, intellectual, and fictionalized ones can be named. Autobiography appears to fit into the American identity, especially because of its emphasis on individualism. It usually contains some features of fiction. Christian autobiographies tend to deal with some change in the author‟s life which is caused by God.

4.3 Romance Novel Another genre important for the later analysis is that of romance novel. The main sources for this section will be Janice A. Radway‟s (1984) and Anita Gandolfo‟s (2007) publications. I will also draw on the Encyclopaedia Britannica. At first, it is important to define the genre. According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, it is a “literary form . . . that came into being in France in the mid-12th century”. The original French word refers to “the speech of the people”. The story deals with “a love affair, generally one of a rather idyllic or idealized type, sometimes marked by strange or unexpected incidents and developments” (“romance”). Radway highlights some interesting results in her survey. Women give the following reasons for reading romance literature: escape from everyday struggles, an opportunity to become acquainted with distant places and times, relaxation, taking time for oneself, and gaining inspiration from the heroine‟s life (Radway 61).

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Furthermore, Radway claims that women may read romances in order to “protest against the role prescribed for them by the culture”. Thus through romantic novels they can imagine better conditions and the fulfilment of their needs (Radway 208-212). Women may also “apply information learned about the fictional world to the events and occurrences of theirs” (Radway 187). However, Christian romance can offer some new features. As Gandolfo suggests, the typical romance story connects “finding a spouse with finding God”. It often deals with Biblical truths and enables readers to absorb them in a more comprehensible way. Believers can easily identify themselves with the characters. Christian romance novel can also “reinforce [Christian] values” and give readers inspiration for their everyday lives. The purpose of this genre is thus is not only to entertain, but also to educate. Therefore, many readers regard these novels as “life-changing”. (Gandolfo 69-77). As for the language forms used, according to Gandolfo romantic novels often lack metaphorical meaning (189). Radway similarly considers the prose of the contemporary romance to be full of “cliché, simple vocabulary, standard syntax, and the most common techniques associated with the nineteenth-century realist novel”. She also believes that this simplicity helps readers to be more emotionally involved because they need less effort to comprehend the text (Radway 189-196). Two Christian romance writers who can be mentioned here are Francine Rivers and Karen Kingsbury. As Gandolfo claims, Francine Rivers writes mainly historical romances and deals with Biblical figures. She seems to be very popular with readers. I will devote to her novel Redeeming Love (1997) in the analytical part. Rivers‟ other well-known book is called Lineage of Grace (2009) and introduces Biblical women. Her novels appear to help readers understand the original text better. Gandolfo calls these books “religious romance, a story that can communicate the essence of relationship with the Divine” (70-71). Karen Kingsbury traces in her novels the lives of one particular family, the Baxters. Gandolfo claims that she “has moved the traditional romance novel in the direction of family drama with her Baxters, committed Christian parents whose children all find their own way to Jesus through personal struggles”. According to Gandolfo, readers may be encouraged by a strongly idealized Christian family as much as by the 29

self-contained heroines in other romance novels. Kingsbury also tries to evoke pseudofriendship with her readers. (Gandolfo 72-75). In conclusion, Christian romance is read not only to fulfil women‟s emotional needs or provide relaxation, but also to learn about Biblical characters and everyday Christianity in a more convenient way. It might bring inspiration to daily life. The relatively simple language used helps readers to be more emotionally involved.

4.4 The Thriller Another genre used in Christian fiction is the thriller. I will present a definition by J. A. Cuddon (1999) together with Anita Gandolfo‟s (2007) thoughts. Cuddon described the thriller as “a tense, exciting, tautly plotted and sometimes sensational type of novel (occasionally a short story) in which action is swift and suspense continual” (914-15). In Christian fiction, the thriller may be connected either with “spiritual warfare” (Gandolfo 90) or with an “apocalyptic vision of the end times” (Wuthnow qtd. in Gandolfo 180). Firstly, I will focus on the theme of spiritual warfare. Gandolfo characterizes this with the following words: “the contest between angels, demons and humans”. According to her, Christians consider this fight a struggle between spiritual and “secular culture” as well (Gandolfo 66). Their enemy might also be identified with “New Age Spirituality” (Gandolfo 90) which The Free Dictionary defines as “a complex of spiritual and consciousness-raising movements originating in the 1980s and covering a range of themes from a belief in spiritualism and reincarnation to advocacy of holistic approaches to health and ecology” (“New Age Movement”). The New Age relates to the postmodern era. The New Age philosophy was very topical at the time Christian writer Frank E. Peretti wrote his book This Present Darkness (1986). Gandolfo pictures Peretti‟s story in the following way: a “… secret New Age organization actively seeking to take over

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the country by infiltrating the government as well as schools and churches”. She states that the fight is actually focused on “godless humanism” (Gandolfo 90). Although This Present Darkness has been very popular, Gandolfo regards Peretti as an amateur writer. She characterizes his writing as: “… filled with turgid prose, stereotypical characters, and plodding narration interspersed with scenes of violent battles . . . the awkwardly constructed narrative is especially problematic”. Gandolfo attributes its popularity to “evangelicals‟ desire to believe that the righteous will ultimately win the day in America as they do in Ashton” [the town where the story happens] (89-91). Secondly, there are thriller stories about the end times, which are intended to serve as a more comprehensible explanation of the Biblical book of Revelation. The Left Behind series written by Tim LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins are well-known. They are concerned with the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. Gandolfo explains this issue in the following way: “Jesus descends from heaven…, those Christians who are deemed faithful and worthy, will be gathered to meet Him in the air. This is known as the Rapture . . . Shortly after this Rapture, when the true Christians vanish from their homes and families, the Antichrist begins his work on earth” (Gandolfo 91-92). As for the positives, these books might help readers to understand the Biblical truth better. They also “… allow[s] conservative Christian readers to experience the thrill of a type of fiction normally unavailable to them” (Gandolfo 91-95). Nevertheless, some drawbacks of the stories can be named. According to Steve Rabey (1999), these thrillers tend to have “plastic characters” (qtd. in Gandolfo 96). Furthermore, the American journalist and novelist David Gates (2004) states that: “Left Behind focuses on God‟s wrath rather than God‟s love is the reason that many mainline Protestant scholars object to the underlying theology of the series” (“Religion: The Pop Prophets”). Gandolfo sees a possible drawback in the assumption that “most consumers of popular fiction are unsophisticated readers and easily conflate fact and fiction”. Consequently, conservative Christians worry that readers might regard the book as “an orthodox presentation of Biblical truth” (Gandolfo 91). Another argument is presented by the American economic historian Gary North (2001): “Believing that there is no long-term future, individuals are less likely to save or work diligently to build a 31

business or a career, or be concerned with any long-range planning” (qtd. in Gandolfo 102). The Christian thriller tends to be either a description of spiritual warfare or a depiction of the end times. Spiritual warfare can be identified with the fight between positive and negative spiritual forces or the struggle between Christian and secular culture. Apocalyptic visions of the end times are connected with the Left Behind phenomenon. The positive aspect that can be mentioned is the aspiration to make Biblical teaching more clear. However, there is a danger of a difficulty in distinguishing fact from fiction.

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5. ANALYSIS OF THE SHACK BY WILLIAM PAUL YOUNG In this part, I will analyse the autobiographical novel, The Shack (2007), written by William Paul Young. Firstly, I will focus on the author‟s style, especially on genre, structure and language. Secondly, I will introduce the content of the book and comment on its topics. Thirdly, I will deal with the possible author‟s motivations for writing the novel. Fourthly, I will offer some other reasons why the chosen work can be regarded as Christian fiction.

5.1 Author‟s Style in The Shack

5.1.1 The Genre The Shack is classified as a novel. However, it is possible to go further and specify the type of the novel, which might be more complicated than would seem at first sight. Actually, many readers believe that the book presents a biographical story of Mackenzie Allen Phillips, as William Paul Young writes in the foreword. On the one hand, Young states that the main character of the book, named Mackenzie, is a good friend of his. He claims to have known him “for more than twenty years”. According to Young, the story described in the novel begins seven years before The Shack (2007) was written. The most important part of the novel takes place three years before the release of the book. Young is actually one of the characters in the novel. He acts as Mackenzie‟s close friend who helps him go through hard times. Young declares that Mackenzie asked him to write the story because he finds his friend more competent in writing (The Shack 8-12). Despite the fantastic features occurring in the book, the author states that the story is intended to describe the truth. As Young writes: “What you are about to read is the best Mack can remember about what happened”. However, he adds: “Whether some parts of it are actually true or not, I won‟t be the judge” (Young, The Shack 12-13).

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On the other hand, in a number of interviews and also on his website, WindRumors.com, William Paul Young admits that the story is actually a fiction. However, it has autobiographical features. Young states: “Mack, of course, is not a „real‟ person. My children would recognize that Mack is mostly me, that Nan is a lot like Kim, my wife, that Missy and Kate and the other characters often resemble our family members and friends” (Young, “Is the story of THE SHACK true”). Consequently, this does not mean that the book is a complete fiction. Young further argues: “… the emotional pain with all its intensity and the process that tears into Mack‟s heart and soul are very real. I have my „shack‟, the place I had to go through to find healing. I have my Great Sadness . . . that is all real”. He also admits that he went through “… the loss, the grief, the process, the conversations, the questions, the anger, the longing, the secrets, the lies, the forgiveness…” Young comments on his experience with God as well: “Then there is God who emerges so very real and true, unexpected and yet not unexpected, but surprising…” (Young, “Is the story of THE SHACK true”). In conclusion, it can be said that William Paul Young is toying with readers when he claims that the novel gives an account of his friend‟s life. Actually, the book describes Young‟s own struggles. The shack represents his sore spot with a need of healing which has come through his relationship with God. Consequently, it can be stated that The Shack is a Christian novel with autobiographical features. It tries to deal with real issues from the author‟s life while working with symbols. The novel also fits with the assertion that Christian autobiographies tend to describe some crucial change in the main protagonist‟s life which is caused by God. St. Augustine‟s autobiography can be named as an example (Cuddon 63). In this case, Mack‟s (or William‟s) transformation is made by God‟s supernatural intervention.

5.1.2 The Form I will briefly touch here on the formal aspects of the novel. The Shack consists of eighteen relatively short chapters. The titles of the individual sections try to capture the mood of their content. Some of the titles refer to emotions or the will (The Great 34

Sadness, A Meeting of Hearts, A Morning of Sorrows, Choices of the Heart), others tend to be rather philosophical (Verbs and Other Freedoms, A Piece of π), playful (Guess Who‟s Coming to Dinner or God on the Dock) or poetic (A Confluence of Paths, A Long Time Ago, In a Garden Far, Far Away, Wade in the Water, Outbound Ripples). Each chapter begins with a quotation from various writers (usually Christian ones), poets, philosophers or scientists. The excerpts are somehow connected with the story of each section. This intertextuality characterized as “relating to or deriving meaning from the interdependent ways in which texts stand in relation to each other” (“intertextuality”) is typical for postmodern writing. It can be observed that some of the titles refer to the author‟s own experienced emotions, while others appear to solve philosophical questions, deal with something fantastic or play with the readers, while the rest of them show a use of poetic devices. The connection between the author‟s experiences, philosophical questions and unrealistic features may represent a fusion of autobiographical and fictional features in The Shack. The quotations from Christian authors might be found agreeable by Christian readers. They can thus perceive a connection between their various readings.

5.1.3 The Style Since The Shack is written in the narrative style, I will analyse the book according to Gérard Genette (1980) (in Barry 2009) together with Geoffrey N. Leech and Mick Short (1981), who deal with this literary style. The novel appears to resonate both with “a narrative account” (Cuddon 225) and “the concept of imitation” (Cuddon 512). On the one hand, Young is telling the story as well as depicting what happens in character‟s minds. On the other hand, the author also lets the characters speak, which represents the imitation of reality. Young uses many dialogues, especially in the part where the main protagonist meets God in person. The readers have an opportunity to witness an authentic communication with God. Therefore, Christians may be more emotionally involved. However, there might be a danger that God‟s utterances could be considered an equivalent to His speech in the Bible. 35

The focalization of the story should also be defined. Basically, The Shack is told from the narrator‟s point of view, which represents external focalization (Gennete qtd. in Barry 224). However, the narrator sometimes seems to be personally involved in the main protagonist‟s concerns. One example can be given: “But Mack had already left the room to wrestle with his dreams; maybe tonight there would be no nightmares, only visions, perhaps, of ice and trees and gravity” (Young, The Shack 23). The author‟s involvement might be caused by the fact that he actually writes about himself. The question of who is telling the story will be taken into consideration as well. The story is told by a third person omniscient narrator. He describes what happens in the story as well as what the characters say and feel. There are hints that the author also knows what the future will bring. One example can be given: “Mack did not know it then, but within twenty-four hours his prayers would change, drastically” (Young, The Shack 39). The third person omniscient narrator implies an objective point of view. It enables readers to be informed about everything important for the story. Concerning the anticipation of the future, it appears that the author is trying to prepare readers for something rather unexpected. They can become more eager to learn more. This approach appears to be typical for fiction. Another important issue that should be taken into account is the chronology of the story. As Genette states, the temporal logic may be linear (chronological), or there can be some lapses in time (time inversions). The story can “contain references back [or] references forward” (Genette qtd. in Barry 226). The novel starts with finding a strange message which evokes memories of the past. In the second chapter, the plot is interrupted by telling a tragic story. The technique of flashback is used here. At the end of the fourth chapter, the novel returns to the original plot and continues chronologically till the end. According to the British lecturer in English Barry Lewis (2005), the temporal disorder is one of the characteristics of postmodern fiction (97-98). As the previous paragraph implies, the storyline is fragmented. Actually, two stories are incorporated in another story. Therefore, the novel can be divided into five parts. At the very beginning, the plot is interrupted by the narration about past events. Without this retrospection, the original story would not make sense. Hereafter, the plot returns to the original story again. However, it is disrupted by a story describing a 36

supernatural meeting with God in person. The beginning of the book together with the third and the fifth part can be regarded as frame narratives, whereas the retrospective story together with depiction of transcendental events can be considered embedded narratives. The fragmentation due to time disorder and embedded stories might appear as disruptive. However, it has a potential to stimulate readers‟ curiosity about the causes and effects of events included in the story. Consequently, the whole book should be read in order to understand the context and meaning of the novel. The fragmentation of the story is again postmodern feature (Lewis 99-100). According to Genette, the representation of speech and thought are other themes worthy to analyze. It deals with types of characters‟ speeches (Genette qtd. in Barry 229-230). Young mostly uses direct speech. There are only a few instances of indirect speech. Concerning the representation of thought, Young presents the characters‟ thoughts both directly and indirectly. There can be found examples of quoted thoughts, such as: “„This is one of those rare and precious moments,‟ thought Mack, „that catches you by surprise and almost takes your breath away‟” (Young, The Shack 36). However, the author usually presents the thoughts indirectly. Young also uses free indirect speech to express characters‟ thoughts. There are some examples that contain both the reproduction of characters‟ thoughts and their authentic questions, such as: “Thoughts tumbled over each other as Mack struggled to figure out what to do. Was one of these people God? What if they were hallucinations or angels, or God was coming later?” (Young, The Shack 87). The text appears to be vivid and easy to comprehend, especially due to a frequent use of direct speech. Thanks to the authentic speech, readers have an opportunity to be more involved in the story. Moreover, the passages including the free indirect speech can help readers to put themselves into characters‟ situations more easily. Leech and Short find it important to define how the author deals with irony, tone and distance. As for authorial tone, Leech and Short claim: “the stance of attitude taken by an (implied) author towards his readers, and towards (parts of) his message”.

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Distance concerns the question of whether the author is interfering or disappearing in the progress of the novel (Leech and Short 272-80). As far as the irony is concerned, it occurs only in speeches of the characters and it is not used by the author himself. Concerning the authorial tone, in at least one case Young appears to communicate with his readers: “There are times when you choose to believe something that would normally be considered absolutely irrational” (Young, The Shack 67). However, communication with readers might be sometimes mistaken with free indirect speech: “He now faced another dilemma. What should you do when you come to the door of a house, or cabin in this case, where God might be? Should you knock?” (Young, The Shack 82). Although Young mostly acts as an objective narrator, there is again one example where he comments on the issues described in the novel: “Perhaps there is suprarationality: reason beyond the normal definitions of fact or data-based logic; something that only makes sense if you can see a bigger picture of reality. Maybe that is where faith fits in” (Young, The Shack 67). As for the distance of the author, it appears that he is rather disappearing in the novel with the exception mentioned in the previous quotation. On the one hand, mostly objective authorial tone reinforces the reader‟s ability to judge the issues solved in the novel from their point of view. Consequently, the text does not appear to be didactic. On the other hand, occasional communication by the author with readers and his comments on the story may not be found disturbing. In conclusion, the frequent use of dialogues makes the story more vivid. The third person omniscient narrator enables readers to be informed about everything important for the story. For example, they have an opportunity to be better prepared for something rather unexpected. The fragmentation of the story due to time disorder and embedded stories may stimulate readers‟ curiosity about a progress of the story. Only reading the whole book enables readers to understand the context and meaning of the novel. The text appears to be easy to comprehend, especially due to frequently used direct speech. Therefore, readers can be more involved in the story. Especially Christians might appreciate reading the dialogues with God. Moreover, the use of free indirect speech can help readers to put themselves into the characters‟ situations more 38

easily. A mostly objective authorial tone reinforces readers‟ ability to judge the issues solved in the novel from their point of view and not to be influenced by didacticism. However, the book consists of a considerable amount of God‟s speech, which some readers might regard as an equivalent to God‟s communication through the Bible.

5.1.4 The Language To a large extent, William Paul Young uses standard language, especially in his narration. In dialogues, colloquial language is often applied. The Shack occasionally contains figurative language, such as metaphors, similes, personifications and allusions. One example of metaphor can be mentioned: “Although spring was surely just around the corner, the god of winter was not about to relinquish its hard-won dominion without a tussle” (Young, The Shack 14). The following extract shows the use of simile: “Even his efforts to shake it off were exhausting, as if his arms were sewn into its bleak folds of despair and he had somehow become part of it” (Young, The Shack 25). Regarding personification, one example can be given: “A pebbled beach awaited their approach, and behind it a backdrop of rich and dense forest rose up to the base of a mountain…” (Young, The Shack 143-144). The use of allusion can be observed in the following extract: “„Your imagination,‟ she interrupted his train of thought, „is not serving you well at this moment.‟ „No kidding, Sherlock,‟ is what he thought” (Young, The Shack 160). The use of colloquial language makes the dialogues more authentic and agreeable to readers. Thanks to the figurative language, readers may find the story easier to imagine and the text becomes more vivid. This can oppose the assumption that Christian fiction tends to be poorly written.

5.2 Content and Topics of The Shack 5.2.1 Content At first, for better understanding of the novel The Shack, I will introduce its plot in brief. More detailed content is available in appendix n.1. 39

The story is set in Oregon. While Mack and his three children are camping, the youngest daughter Missy disappears. Later investigation shows that she has become a victim of a serial killer. The tracks lead to an old shack in a small valley. Due to this experience, Mack‟s relationship with God becomes alienated. One day, Mack finds a strange message in the letter box. It says: “Mackenzie, it‟s been a while. I‟ve missed you. I‟ll be at the shack next weekend if you want to get together. Papa”. He eventually visits the shack, where a supernatural story unfolds. Mack gradually meets three people: a large African-American woman named Elousia (also called Papa) representing God the Father, an Asian woman named Sarayu portraying the Holy Spirit and a Middle Eastern man picturing Jesus Christ. Later on, a woman named Sophia (God‟s wisdom) enters the story. The following pages of the novel describe a number of conversations among Mack and these characters which actually lead to the healing of Mack‟s pain. I will describe their topics in the next section.

5.2.1 Topics In this section, I will focus on the topics included in the novel The Shack. In the crucial part of the book, William Paul Young describes the main protagonist‟s personal encounter with God. Through the medium of their dialogues, many Christian issues and values are discussed. As Gandolfo suggests, Christian novels tend to deal with an “incursion of God into human life” (144). On the one hand, in postmodern times, characterized by “scepticism about authority, received knowledge and wisdom, political and cultural norms” (Sim et al. 3) and a denial of “objective, or absolute, moral values” (“postmodernism”), Christian writers aspire to reinforce Christian values. On the other hand, they themselves can be influenced by postmodern philosophy. For example, they may question established concepts and aspire to bring something new into them. Young sometimes applies this approach in dealing with Christian issues. However, he also tries to strengthen Christian values. The main character Mack meets with God in the shack over the course of two days. Young uses this relatively short time to discuss a number of Christian topics, 40

which would normally represent a life-long experience. The British author Nigel Watson (2005) regards “fragmentation of experience and compression of time and space as a defining feature of late 20th century” (40). The questions and answers about current Christian issues are imbedded in dialogues between Mack and God. The story about their encounter constitutes a considerable part of the book. The novel pictures characters regarding Christianity as a part of their everyday lives. However, a tragic experience has a considerable impact on their view of God and evokes many questions. Mack starts to doubt about God‟s goodness and his faith becomes stagnant. In that moment, supernatural intervention of God in the shack takes place. The shack is a symbol of the deepest pain of an individual (Young, The Shack 65). However, Mack‟s hurt is gradually healed by a comprehension of issues that he has not understood well before. Actually, many of his prejudices melt away. As Gandolfo states, the authors can help readers gain a better grasp of Biblical stories, or to be able to see them from another point of view (145). I will touch on some of the issues in the following paragraphs. One of the topics discussed in the novel is the nature of God and human misconceptions about it. The three characters that Mack meets in the shack represent the Trinity. This shatters Mack‟s ideas about this concept, especially when God is introduced as two women and one man while none of them is white (Young, The Shack 87). Papa gives Mack an explanation: I am neither male nor female, even though both genders are derived from my nature. If I choose to appear to you as a man or a woman, it‟s because I love you. For me to appear to you as a woman and suggest that you call me Papa is simply to mix metaphors, to help you keep from falling so easily back into your religious conditioning. (Young, The Shack 93) According to the author, the problem dwells in the fact that people usually have a misleading idea of God: “many folks try to grasp some sense of who I am by taking the best version of themselves, projecting that to the nth degree, factoring in all the goodness they can perceive, which isn‟t much, and then call that God . . .I am far more than that, above and beyond all that you can ask or think” (Young, The Shack 98). 41

However, the characters of the Trinity are pictured as ordinary people who cook, listen to music, do the gardening or go fishing, which might also break stereotypes. Readers are confronted with an alternative picture of God which might differ from their established concept and lead to re-evaluation of their original idea about Him. Mack is also surprised by God‟s friendliness, spontaneity and expressions of His love (Young, The Shack 83). For example, Papa often says: “I am especially fond of [him/her]” (Young, The Shack 92). Mack is later able to understand this seemingly senseless utterance when he reflects on his love for his children: “When I think of each of my children individually, I find that I am especially fond of each one” (Young, The Shack 155). God the Father is a well-known name for God. However, people may fail to see Him as a loving father, only as the strict one. Young tries to help readers to realize that there is a resemblance between God‟s approach to them and their love for their own children. It might help the readers to understand God‟s love better. Another issue is the relationship between God‟s love and freedom he gives. Papa explains these concepts to Mack as follows: …we want to share with you the love and joy and freedom and light that we already know within ourselves. We created you, the human, to be in a faceto-face relationship with us, to join our circle of love . . . everything that has taken place is occurring exactly according to this purpose, without violating choice or will. (Young, The Shack 124-125) The freedom given by God and the human choice between good and evil are connected. Sarayu characterizes the relationship between these two concepts as follows: “evil is a word we use to describe the absence of Good, just as we use the word darkness to describe the absence of Light or death to describe the absence of Life. Both evil and darkness can only be understood in relation to Light and Good” (Young, The Shack 136). Sophia also touches on this topic: “Papa has never needed evil to accomplish his good purposes. It is you humans who have embraced evil and Papa has responded with goodness” (Young, The Shack 165). The existence of evil in this world is probably one of the most disputable issues among both Christians and non-believers. Young shows that people have freedom to choose either good or evil and therefore, also evil has its considerable impact on this world. 42

Jesus‟ death is another important topic. Papa claims: “through his death and resurrection, I am now fully reconciled to the world” (Young, The Shack 192). Both Papa and Jesus have scars on their hands as proof. Jesus‟ death partly bears resemblance to a sad legend about an Indian princess which actually foreshadows Missy‟s death at the beginning of the novel. The princess sacrificed her life in order to save her future husband and other men who suffered from a fatal disease (Young, The Shack 27-28). The meaning of Jesus‟ death is explained in an understandable way. Jesus‟ death is related to forgiveness. For Mack, self-forgiveness as well as forgiving his father and especially Missy‟s murderer is crucial for his further healing. Papa speaks about forgiveness to the killer in the following way: “What he did was terrible. He caused incredible pain to many. It was wrong, and anger is the right response to something that is so wrong. But don‟t let the anger and pain and loss you feel prevent you from forgiving him and removing your hands from around his neck” (Young, The Shack 227). The author tries to reinforce the value of forgiveness in Christian life. He shows its necessity among people, which can motivate readers to adjust their relationships. Mack and Jesus also speak about The Church. Jesus considers it to be His bride. However, Mack‟s experience with the Church is not very positive. Therefore, Jesus explains the difference between the Church he has intended and the institution which people have established: “you‟re only seeing the institution, a man-made system. That‟s not what I came to build. What I see are people and their lives, a living breathing community of all who love me, not building and programs” (Young, The Shack 178). This dialogue can help readers to see the Church from a different point of view and understand that it is affected by human imperfection while God‟s idea is different. Their established conceptions are again put into question. The author also defines the contrast between religion and a personal relationship with God. Gandalfo notices that the focus of Christian fiction is “on faith [rather] than on religion”, on communication with God rather than on doctrine (131). In The Shack Jesus claims: “religion is about having the right answers, and some of their answers are right. But I am about the process that takes you to the living answer and once you get to him, he will change you from the inside” (Young, 198). This might lead Christian 43

readers to put an emphasis on their relationship with God, rather than on some mere set of rules. This approach is typical for Evangelicals. It can again question the established conceptions. Two more topics are heaven and eternal life. In the story, Mack has an opportunity to spend a while in heaven. It is described as full of light and colours. Splendid nature is everywhere around. Here is a part of its depiction: He looked at his hands, wonderfully crafted, and clearly visible inside the cascading colors of light that seemed to glove them. He examined the rest of his body to find that light and color robed him completely; a clothing of purity that allowed him both freedom and propriety. Mack realized also that he felt no pain, not even in his usually aching joints. In fact, he had never felt this well, this whole. (Young, The Shack 210-211) This description might motivate Christian readers not to be afraid of death and to look forward to the eternal life with God in heaven. Another topic is salvation for followers of other religions. Jesus admits that heaven is open for people of different origin, occupation, denomination, religion, and life history. He claims: “Most roads don‟t lead anywhere. What it does mean is that I will travel any road to find you” (Young, The Shack 182). This disputable issue might bring readers an alternative idea of God‟s dealings with non-Christians. Mack‟s meeting with God helps him to understand the difference between God‟s and the human point of view. One example can be given. Sarayu asks Mack to help her work in the garden. The garden is messy but she claims that in fact, it looks nice from above. Actually, the garden is Mack‟s soul. She states: “To you it seems like a mess, but to me, I see a perfect pattern emerging and growing and alive – a living fractal” (Young, The Shack 138). Readers can realize the limitedness of their point of view. According to Young, for God everything makes sense. This discovery might bring them encouragement. As Gandolfo suggests, “in contemporary society, religious faith requires a belief in things beyond [human] comprehension”. Nevertheless, people are influenced by “the post-Enlightenment society” which relies rather on reason. Young combines the 44

“product of the traditional paradigm . . . [with] . . . the genre of the modern paradigm [novel]”. Young does not seem to choose a didactic tone to reinforce Christian values. He rather provides readers with an alternative to secular culture. In conclusion, Young comments on topical Christian issues through fictional dialogues between the main character and God. He further tries to reinforce Christian values in postmodern times, affected by the destabilization of all values. Mack is gradually acquainted with a number of issues concerning Christianity which brings him a healing of his inner pain. The following examples can be named: the nature of God and possible misconceptions about it, God‟s love and the freedom he gives, the importance of Jesus Christ‟s death, forgiveness, the contrast between good and evil, the Church, religion versus a personal relationship with God, heaven and eternal life, salvation available for all people and the difference between God‟s and the human view. The umbrella theme is inner transformation of the main character thanks to a supernatural meeting with God. The novel might encourage Christian readers in their everyday faith, clarify for them some important Christian issues and reinforce Biblical values. However, the author sometimes considers the established concepts relative and offers an alternative view.

5.3 Personal Motivations for Writing The Shack In this section, I will try to present Young‟s motivations for writing The Shack. Gandolfo gives at least five reasons for writing Christian fiction. These are to offer “conservative Christians an alternative to the secularizing influences of the dominant culture”, thus diversifying it, to pass on Biblical principles to future generations, since the authors are usually “concerned with the spiritual development of their own children”, to encourage believers on their way through life, to make Biblical stories clearer, and simply to write fiction from the Christian point of view (Gandolfo 49-131). According to Young‟s web site WindRumors.com, he originally wrote the novel as a gift for his children. Publication of the book was not his intention. Young did not consider himself to be a writer. Therefore, he thought that it was up to him what and how he would write. He states: “So, I didn‟t have to follow any normal rules about 45

writing something. Actually, I didn‟t even really know or care about what the normal rules might be . . . never thought about it” (Young, “Is the story of THE SHACK true”). Young further claims that he wrote the book under the name of Mackenzie Allan Phillips at first. He admits that he wanted to make his children laugh at that idea. While reading the book, they were able to recognize that the novel is actually about their father and people around him. When the book became famous among his friends and other people, Young finally decided to publish it (Young, “Is the story of THE SHACK true”). In a talk show on American TV programme The 700 Club, he says: “I wrote the book out of obedience to my wife actually . . . I‟ve never written anything for publication, but she had been after me for years to sort of write something for the kids, sort of a legacy” (“William Paul Young: A Look Inside „The Shack‟”, The 700 Club). He further states: “I wanted my kids to enjoy a story and through the story to understand their own father better and the God that their father is so in love with” (Young, “Is the story of THE SHACK true”). Furthermore, Young asserts that he wrote the novel as an audit of his life. He was actually fifty years old when he produced the book. For Young, the Shack is “a metaphor for that place where we get stuck or damaged, or where we‟ve made really bad choices, or where we‟ve piled up a lot of stuff in our lives that we don‟t want to go back to and deal with”. He also reveals his Christian roots. Young comes from a family of missionaries and preachers. Moreover, he studied theology and served in church. However, Young experienced struggles with shame and secrets kept inside him which resulted in a “huge personal failure” at thirty-eight years old. This experience affected his life and it took eleven years to get out of this shack and be healed. As Young claims, God helped him to deal with issues which were not properly solved since his childhood. In his book, he shortens the healing process into two days (“William Paul Young: A Look Inside „The Shack‟”, Youtube.com). Young wanted his family to know what he had been going through. He also claims that the book might possibly spare his children from going through the same hard times as their father (“William Paul Young: A Look Inside „The Shack‟”, Youtube.com). However, Young‟s writing may have also universal value. He is aware 46

of the “tremendous pain” in this world with “a loss of deep understanding of God”. Young suggests that even Christians need to grasp that God is actually on their side. He wants to encourage others to come to God the Father in the middle of their pain and to overcome their separation from Him. Young further adds: “I wanted to deal with the hardest things possible so that it would speak to anybody in any situation”. Young perceives God as much bigger than people are able to imagine (“William Paul Young: A Look Inside „The Shack‟”, The 700 Club). It can be said that Young‟s motivations for writing the novel were very similar to the ones stated by Gandolfo at the beginning of this section. The novel offers readers an alternative solution to their struggles, which means through communication with God. Understanding of the true nature of God is also very crucial. Young wanted to pass this message to his children and also to encourage other believers in their hard times. Furthermore, he introduces Christian issues in an original and comprehensible way.

5.4 Other Features of Christian Fiction in The Shack In this section, I will present some more evidence of features of Christian fiction in The Shack. For this purpose, I will use extracts from reviews of the book. As Gandolfo claims, Christian fiction aims to meet readers‟ emotional needs. It offers “light entertainment for relaxation” (130). Nevertheless, the features mentioned are not the only important ones. Since the genre is called Christian fiction, it should have some characteristics which might distinguish it from the other types of fiction. According to Gandolfo, the genre focuses on Christian and Biblical issues in order to “reinforce values and provide succor”. It may also give readers an inspiration for their everyday Christianity (Gandolfo 63-178). As has been written, Christian fiction should meet readers‟ needs. Supposing that most of the readers of the genre are Christians, their needs may be connected with getting an inspiration for their everyday lives, which reinforces their faith. The major part of positively tuned comments on The Shack finds this novel an inspirational story. The English adventurer, writer and television commentator Edward Michael (Bear) Grylls (2007) considers the novel “faith-enhancing” (qtd. in Young, The Shack 47

back-cover). The American Christian musician Michael W. Smith (2007) confesses that The Shack lead him and his wife to repentance “of [their] lack of faith along the way” (qtd. in Young back-cover). The Canadian teologian Eugene Peterson (2007) even claims that the novel “has the potential to do for our generation what John Bunyan‟s Pilgrim‟s Progress did for his” (qtd. in “The Shack: Where Tragedy Confronts Eternity”). The American journalist and publishing consultant Mike Morrell (2007) states that reading The Shack mediates him a meeting with God (qtd. in “The Shack: Where Tragedy Confronts Eternity”). The producer of ABC News Patrick M. Roddy (2007) appreciates the depiction of God‟s mercy which has lead to his inner transformation (qtd. in “The Shack: Where Tragedy Confronts Eternity”). Concerning the issue of readers‟ emotional needs, many reviewers confirm that the novel touches their feelings. The American Christian writer Gayle E. Erwin (2007) states: “I was crying by page 100. You cannot read it without your heart becoming involved” (qtd. in Young, The Shack introduction). The Canadian corrections counsellor Dale Burenski asserts: “At times I had tears in my eyes, and others I was laughing out loud” (qtd. in “What Others Are Saying about The Shack”). The American pastor and counselor Larry Gillis describes his reading of The Shack in the following way: “I read and wept and slept and read again. I am full of words, inexpressible thoughts, shades and hues of hope and light and joy” (qtd. in “What Others Are Saying about The Shack”). Furthermore, in connection with emotional needs, the book can offer readers comfort in their struggles. The American founder of Ambassador Speakers Bureau Wes Yoder considers The Shack: “a beautiful story of how God comes to find us in the midst of our sorrows, trapped by disappointments, betrayed by our own presumptions” (qtd. in “What Others Are Saying about The Shack”). The Canadian radio host of The Drew Marshall Show Drew Marshall admits the “healing impact” of the novel on his life (qtd. in Young, The Shack introduction). Especially those who have experienced something similarly tragic as the main character of The Shack might be encouraged by the book. The American hospice chaplain Dave Coleman confirms it as follows: “We lost a son . . . and this story

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brought comfort and healing. I dealt with the questions this book addresses every day . . .” (qtd. in “What Others Are Saying about The Shack”). Some reviewers hint at the fact that the novel has an ability to clarify some difficult Biblical or Christian issues. Gayle E. Erwin (2007) appreciates that the book is “teaching powerful theological lessons without patronizing” (qtd. in Young, The Shack introduction). One of the issues discussed in the book is the problem of suffering and evil in this world. The American Christian author James Ryle (2007) claims that Young deals with this issue in a creative way (qtd. in Young, The Shack introduction). Patrick M. Roddy (2007) states that thanks to the novel, he is able to understand the concept of the Trinity better. He can also perceive faith in God rather as a relationship than a religion (qtd. in “The Shack: Where Tragedy Confronts Eternity”). According to the American Christian writer Wayne Jacobson (2007), another valued issue included in the book is the depiction of God‟s nature (qtd. in “What Others Are Saying about The Shack”). However, some critics find the novel heretical. For example, Cathy Lynn Grossmann (2008) in USA Today argues: “It slams „legalistic‟ religion, denomination and doctrines. It barely even mentions the Bible” (“„Shack‟ Opens doors”). Another possible feature of Christian fiction may be the ambition to entertain or to help readers relax. It is open to dispute whether the novel The Shack does so. Although many reviewers admit that there are moments which make them laugh, the purpose of the book might lie elsewhere. Its main aims have been described above. It also appears that the topics and depth of the issues prevent readers from merely relaxing during their reading. In conclusion, it appears that The Shack can be regarded as Christian fiction among others thanks to the fact that many readers find it inspirational and encouraging for their faith. Furthermore, the story touches their emotions, comforts readers in hard times and can help them to be healed from their past negative experiences. Lastly, for some readers, the book brings an illustrative clarification of a number of Christian and Biblical issues.

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6. ANALYSIS OF REDEEMING LOVE BY FRANCINE RIVERS In this part, I will analyse the romance novel, Redeeming Love (1997), written by Francine Rivers. Firstly, I will focus on the author‟s style, especially on genre, structure and language. Secondly, I will introduce the content of the book and comment on its topics. Thirdly, I will deal with the possible author‟s motivations for writing the novel. Fourthly, I will offer some other reasons why the chosen work can be regarded as Christian fiction.

6.1 Author‟s Style in Redeeming Love

6.1.1 The Genre The book Redeeming Love (1997) is a historical romance novel written by Francine Rivers. I will present a number of reasons for this genre identification. Firstly, “love affair” (sometimes rather idealistic) is a crucial part of the story (“romance”). Relationships between men and women are very important for the plot of the novel. Secondly, the book deals with different kinds of emotions. Thirdly, the novel contains some “unexpected incidents and developments” (“romance”). Fourthly, since the story takes place in the 19th century, Redeeming Love can be regarded a historical novel. Furthermore, Redeeming Love is not only an ordinary historical romance but it has features of Christian romance. According to Gandolfo, the typical Christian romance story connects “finding a spouse with finding God” (77). The book Redeeming Love is a good example of this characteristic. The main protagonist eventually finds God thanks to her husband. I will discuss the features of Christian fiction in more detail in chapter 5.2. In conclusion, Redeeming Love can be classified as a Christian historical romance novel. The book brings an account of a love affair which is supposed to take place in the 19th century. Since the novel deals with Biblical and Christian issues, it has features of Christian fiction. 50

6.1.2 The Form In this section I will briefly comment on the formal aspects of the novel. Redeeming Love is divided into four thematic parts: The Child of Darkness, Defiance, Fear, and Humility. The titles of these parts refer to the progress of the story, especially in connection with the main protagonist‟s approach to life. The novel consists of thirtyfour fairly short chapters. As in The Shack, each chapter begins with a short quotation which foreshadows what the section will deal with. In some cases, there are citations from various famous personalities, in others, especially in the second half of the book, verses from the Bible can be found. As the quotations used in the book usually refer to Christian issues or Biblical teachings, they confirm the fact that Redeeming Love represents a Christian fiction.

6.1.3 The Style Since Redeeming Love is a novel, I refer to Genette‟s, Leach‟s and Short‟s analysis of the narrative style again. Redeeming Love also appears to be both diegetic and mimetic. 2 There are parts where only description occurs. For example, there is a depiction of what people do, say and think or some place is described. However, more frequently, Rivers uses dialogues to imitate reality. Consequently, the story appears to be very vivid. Concerning the focalization of the story, Gennete presents two options: the outside point-of-view, where only external things are told, and internal focalization which means the opposite (Gennete qtd. in Barry 224). Redeeming Love is told from different points of view. Not only is there a narrator‟s objective point of view, but there are different characters‟ points of view as well. Consequently, in some cases, the focalization is external while in others internal. This focalization technique is typical for postmodern writing. The narration sometimes verges into the character‟s thoughts, for example: “Sarah‟s smile fell in confusion. They spoke so coldly to one another. Neither 2

see Cuddon‟s Dictionary (pages 225 and 512)

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looked at her. Had they forgotten she was there? What was wrong?” (Rivers 7). This can be applied not only to main characters but also to minor ones. Providing different points of view may enable readers to understand the characters‟ situation more easily. As to the question of who is telling the story, there can be a neutral detached narrator, represented by the author himself/herself, or the story is told by some of the characters (Gennete qtd. in Barry 225-226). Redeeming Love is narrated by a third person omniscient narrator who describes both what happens in the story and what the characters say or feel. However, as mentioned in the previous paragraph, the thoughts of characters tend to enter the narrative voice. Regarding the issue of time of the story, the novel starts with relating the main character‟s life since her childhood. After a prologue, there is a lapse in time because the story continues ten years later. The rest of the book describes the following two years of the main protagonist‟s life. However, the story is interrupted by a number of memories of the past. The postmodern technique of flash-back is used. The reminiscences of the past events appear to enrich the plot as well as to make the story more complete and comprehensible. As far as the depiction of the novel segmentation is concerned, according to Gennete, there can be some framework narratives which include embedded narratives (qtd. in Barry 227). In Redeeming Love, a number of short stories embedded in one main plot can be found. They are in the form of memories and they should provide a broader context of the story and its characters. Types of characters speeches should also be taken into account, especially “direct, indirect and free indirect speech” (Gennete qtd. in Barry 229-230). Francine Rivers mostly uses direct speech. However, she sometimes does not avoid indirect speech. Thanks to the frequent use of direct speech, the novel Redeeming Love appears to be vivid and, consequently, it helps readers to be more involved in the story. Concerning free indirect speech, there are some instances which contain both the reproduction of character‟s thought and his or her authentic questions. The example was already given in the paragraph concerning focalization.

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There are also other voices that enter the text. Some of them represent prayers sent by characters or their authentic thoughts. They are written in italics. Other voices should impersonate either God (typed in bold italics) or a tempter speaking (typed in bold) to characters‟ minds. These multiple typefaces are typical for postmodern writing (Lewis 99). The voices usually create a dialogue with the character. One example can be given: “How am I supposed to teach her what love really is when my own instincts are getting in the way? Lord, what am I doing wrong? She‟s more distant now than she was in Paira-Dice. Have patience, beloved” (Rivers 131). There can be also a dialogue between God and the tempter, such as “Run away from him, Angel. Run away now – Stay, beloved” (Rivers 142). The incorporation of these voices shows a struggle between good and evil and may highlight the importance of communication with God, which is typical for Christian novel. As in The Shack, it is not always clear whether the novel presents authorial speech or character‟s thought. Part of Michael‟s and Sarah‟s dialogue can serve as an example: “„I want everything.‟ „Your litany.‟ He could hope all he wanted, and he could ask, too. But all was going to get was what was left. Nothing. Nothing at all” (Rivers 98). However, this exemplification is only an exception. As far as the representation of thought is concerned, Rivers introduces characters‟ thoughts rather indirectly. There can be found some examples of quoted thoughts but Rivers usually applies free indirect speech or indirect speech to express what the characters think. Frequently free indirect speech may help readers to immerse in characters‟ thinking more deeply and understand their views better. Regarding authorial voice (Leech and Short 272-80), the irony appears to occur only in speeches and thoughts of the characters. It is not used by the author herself. As to the authorial tone, it seems that the author does not attempt to communicate with the readers or express her attitude to the story. Only narrative voice together with character‟s thoughts and speeches are presented in the book. Consequently, it can be said that the author disappears in the novel. The author lets readers create their own views of the story and the characters. In conclusion, Redeeming Love as well as The Shack brings a vivid story thanks to the frequent use of dialogues. Free indirect speech may help readers to understand 53

characters‟ views better. The voices representing God and the tempter picture a struggle between good and evil and at the same time highlight the importance of communication with God, which is typical for the Christian novel. The third person omniscient narrator together with an occasional look into characters‟ minds enables readers to be informed about everything important for the story. It also helps them understand the characters better. The presented memories of the past enrich the plot and make the story more complete. Since the author does not attempt to interfere in the text, readers have an opportunity to create their own views both of the story and the characters. 6. 1. 4 The Language The language of Redeeming Love is largely standard. In direct speech, Rivers sometimes uses colloquial or ungrammatical language, especially with characters from lower classes. There is one example: “„You sure about this Rab? You weren‟t just drunk, were you? It don‟t sound right somehow. Didn‟t he give a name or nothin‟?‟” (Rivers 34). The author occasionally applies archaic language, namely in Biblical verses: “Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil, for Thou art with me” (Rivers 366). Rivers‟ language appears to be rich in figurative language, such as metaphor, personification or simile. There is an example of metaphor: “Michael sat in the willow chair, his heart in his throat as he knelt before him and pulled off his boots” (Rivers 145). Personification can be found in the following quotation: “Joy leaped inside Michael but only briefly” (Rivers 143). As to simile, there is an example: “The words washed over her like a warm, heavy wave and swept back into a distant sea” (Rivers 319). The author uses many short, abrupt sentences, often in combination with anaphora: “She got up. She had to do something. Anything. She needed light and warmth . . .” (Rivers 115). The use of colloquial or ungrammatical language in characters speeches makes the text vivid and contributes to the picture of characters. Archaic language in Biblical verses can be found agreeable by readers because they might be used to it. Figurative language seems to enrich the novel and make it more approachable for readers. Thanks to the use of short, clipped sentences, the text becomes more rapid and may make the 54

readers eager to read on. Rivers is viewed as “an experienced and accomplished writer” (Gandolfo 70).

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6.2 Content and Topics of Redeeming Love 6. 2. 1 Content The novel Redeeming Love was inspired by the Biblical story of Hosea (New International Version, Hos. 1.1-13.9). The prophet Hosea received the command to marry a prostitute Gomer. Although she ran away from him many times, he did not stop loving her. Their relationship is intended to represent God‟s steadfast love for Israel. In the following paragraphs, I will briefly introduce the content of Redeeming Love to give the context for the topics I will deal with later. In appendix n.2, there is a more detailed description of the story. The story begins in New England, in 1835. The main protagonist Sarah is sold into prostitution as a child. Her name is changed to Angel. Later on, she succeeds in escaping to California. However, since she has no other skills, she becomes a prostitute again. On account of her way of life, Angel is very hardened. Nevertheless, one day, Michael Hosea enters the story. God tells him that he should marry Angel, which later really happens. They live in Michael‟s cabin in wilderness. Nevertheless, Angel is not able to love him. She runs away from Michael twice, once returning to her original profession, the second time working in a shop. Michael always manages to track Angel down and bring her home again. He forgives her everything. Angel gradually falls in love with Michael but at the same time she fears to feel anything. She considers herself unworthy of Michael‟s love. Eventually, Angel flees from him for the third time. In a new place, she asks God to enter her life. Michael still waits for his wife to return but he will not go to find her. Finally, Angel sets off home and with deep grief, she asks Michael for forgiveness. He shows his steadfast love to her. From that time, Angel has no reason to escape their marriage again.

6.2.2 Topics In this section, I will focus on some topics included in the novel Redeeming Love. Regarding the main themes, Rivers focuses on a depiction of God‟s unconditional love, transformation of the main character and on a number of Christian values. Especially in 56

postmodern times, Christians find it important to reinforce their values. Gandolfo suggests that “they fear a general degeneration of moral values in society as a whole that will hamper their ability to transmit their moral views to their children” (49). As Stuart Sim (2005) states, postmodernism is “more concerned with destabilizing other theories and their pretensions to truth than with setting up a positive theory of its own” (12). However, according to Anderson, Christian writers may “embrace it as a critique of a particular secular framework” (Anderson 47). They thus give readers another alternative. Moreover, as Anderson further argues, the “postmodern claim to dethrone human reason opens the way to the faith of Christianity (48). Francine Rivers tries to communicate Christian values through the examples of Christian characters and via a number of Christian topics incorporated in the story. Rivers presents a picture of God‟s unconditional love to His people according to the Biblical book of Hosea. This love is introduced through Michael‟s relationship with Sarah. Moreover, it again proves Gandolfo‟s assertion that Christian authors may help readers gain a better grasp of Biblical stories, or to be able to see them from another point of view (Gandolfo 145). This use of intertextuality is typical for postmodern fiction. Again, as in The Shack, Sarah has to deal with her misconceptions about God. Due to her traumatic childhood and lack of fatherly love, she is not able to believe in God‟s love and grace. The change comes very slowly, through love and forgiveness demonstrated by her husband Michael. As Gandolfo claims, the typical Christian romance novel connects finding a partner with finding God (77). In Redeeming Love, God‟s love is demonstrated using the example of Michael‟s love for Sarah. Michael‟s love is put in contrast with other men who appear in Sarah‟s life. As Sarah‟s thinking is influenced by being a prostitute, Sarah presumes that the love of a man is connected only with sex. Actually, the novel mentions or alludes to love scenes quite often, which proves that Redeeming Love is a romance novel. However, Michael regards sex as a gift from God intended only for marriage. Furthermore, Michael‟s ambition is to win Sarah‟s heart before their love making takes place. Even though he finds it difficult to wait, he wants sex to be a medium of expressing their mutual love and commitment. Furthermore, Michael considers fidelity 57

an essential value in marriage. He stays faithful, even though his wife does not. On the one hand, in postmodern times, this approach to marriage might be regarded as oldfashioned and dogmatic. On the other hand, it can resonate with people who support traditional values. Another crucial Christian value is forgiveness, which is closely related to love. Michael forgives Sarah many times. Although he gives her everything, she runs away from him three times. Sarah is not able to forgive her father and men in general. It seems that she also struggles with self-forgiveness. Sarah refuses to accept forgiveness freely and instead wants to deserve it. One extract can be mentioned: “Forgiveness was a foreign word. Grace inconceivable. Angel wanted to make up for what she had done, and she sought to do it by labor . . . She worked to make it up to Michael” (Rivers 200). However, at the end of the novel, she accepts both God‟s and Michael‟s forgiveness. Rivers shows God‟s forgiveness to His people using the example of the relationship between Michael and Sarah. The novel makes the issue more comprehensible. In spite of Michael‟s occasional struggles with being a loving husband, Michael‟s kind of love sometimes appears to be very idealistic. This may be one of the reasons why Redeeming Love is so popular with women readers. The reading of this romance novel can enable women to give vent to their dreams. However, according to the author, ideal love is actually possible with God. Rivers thus applies Christian values to the genre of the romance novel. In Redeeming Love, some of the characters are Christians, while others lead rather worldly lifestyles. As in The Shack, the Christian characters seem to regard Christianity as part of their everyday life. For them, prayers and reading the Bible are a matter of course. The characters often mention Biblical figures and consider their examples to be worth following. One extract can be mentioned: “As he undressed, Michael kept thinking about Adam in the Garden of Eden. How had he felt the first time Eve came to him? Scared half to death, yet surging with life?” (Rivers 145). The thought processes of Christian characters are tied up with Bible stories and teachings. Therefore, everyday Christianity is regarded as an important value, which might be appealing for Christian readers.

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According to Hans Mol, Christian fiction sometimes tends to pit two contrasting values against each other, such as “evil versus good, unbelief versus belief . . . selfishness versus altruism” (264). In Redeeming Love, secular characters can sometimes be seen as opposites of Christian ones. In this way, a contrast between sin and purity is presented. However, it does not mean that nonbelievers are viewed as only negative. The author mentions a number of positive characters who are not supposed to be Christians. Although Rivers does not picture the characters only in black and white terms, the contrast between sin and purity is obvious. The relationship between a godly man and a prostitute is an illustrative example of God‟s unconditional love. Without this contrast, the message would not be so strong. Everyday Christianity is similarly related to communication with God. As Gandolfo states, “prayer is a central part of the life of the characters in a Christian novel” (63). Michael is used to speaking with God anytime. The novel is rich in examples of Michael‟s prayers and questions directed to God. One extract can be mentioned: “„I loved her, Lord. I loved her enough to die for her, and she did this to me. Maybe she‟s beyond redemption. How do you forgive someone who doesn‟t even care enough to want to be forgiven?‟” (Rivers 192). Not only does Michael speak to God, but God also answers him. Here is part of a dialogue between Michael and Sarah concerning communication with God: “„He talks to you personally?‟ „He talks to everyone personally. Most people just don‟t bother to listen.‟” (Rivers 120). The novel shows that communication with God is possible which might be motivating for Christian readers. Another important topic included in Redeeming Love is seeking God‟s will and the struggles connected with this search. As Gandolfo notices, “characters [of Christian fiction] not only frequently ask for God‟s guidance but receive it almost instantly, and often audibly” (70). One of the main characters, Michael Hosea, seeks God‟s will from the very beginning. He realizes that God wants him to marry a prostitute, help her to start a new life and show her God‟s love. Since the relationship with Sarah is not very easy, Michael experiences many struggles and is not always sure whether he understands God‟s will properly. One example can be mentioned: “God, why her? Tell me that. Why not a gently reared girl, untouched until her wedding night? Why not a God-fearing widow? Lord, send me a plain woman, kind and enduring . . . Why do you 59

tell me to marry a harlot?” (Rivers 72). However, as the story continues, Michael does not stop clinging to God‟s will, which eventually proves to be the best. Rivers is possibly trying to provide readers with an example of unshakable faith and encourage them to believe in God in every circumstance. Rivers also refers to a number of Biblical teachings. The most crucial one which penetrates the whole novel is a picture of God‟s love. However, there are also some other examples that the author mentions. Michael once explains to Sarah that when people only think about doing something wrong, it represents the same sin as if they actually do it. He clarifies how hatred and murder are closely related. Consequently, no one deserves God‟s grace. However, God offers it to people as a gift (Rivers 291). It appears that incorporation of Biblical teachings into the context of characters‟ lives may help Christian readers to revise them in a practical way. Since the teachings are naturally embedded in the story, they do not function as instructions. As in The Shack, the important theme is the transformation of the main character. On account of Sarah‟s traumatic childhood and time spent in a brothel, she resists every expression of love, both from Michael and God. However, Sarah‟s heart gradually begins to melt and she is able feel love for her husband. Nevertheless, Sarah has a fear of her own emotions. She believes that they can be misused. Eventually, Sarah decides to leave her husband because she is afraid of loving him and thus being hurt. Actually, Michael becomes a god for her. Therefore, she is not able to receive God‟s love either. Only after she comes to God of her own volition, independently of Michael, can she meet with Him. Sarah‟s thinking is changed and she is willing to accept both God‟s and Michael‟s forgiveness, which transforms her life. Rivers probably wants to show that everyone can be changed by God‟s intervention in his or her life. However, the decision is left to people themselves. In conclusion, the main themes of Redeeming Love are a depiction of God‟s unconditional love and other Christian values. As in postmodern times all values are destabilized, Rivers tries to reinforce them. She thus offers readers another alternative. Rivers demonstrates these values both through the characters and through the story. God‟s unconditional love is shown using the marriage of a godly man with a prostitute. Without this contrast, the message would not be so strong. Michael‟s kind of love may 60

sometimes appear rather idealistic, which might be appealing to women readers. Christian values, such as everyday Christianity, unshakable faith, marriage, fidelity and forgiveness are demonstrated through Michael. They might seem dogmatic for secular readers but can resonate with both Christians and non-believers who want to reinforce traditional values. Since Biblical teachings are naturally embedded in the story, they do not function as instructions. Lastly, the theme which penetrates the whole novel is a transformation of the main character Sarah. It may encourage readers to believe that God is able to change their lives completely.

6. 3 Personal Motivations for Writing Redeeming Love In this section, I will focus on some of Rivers‟ reasons for writing Redeeming Love. She presents them in an epilogue of the book. Gandolfo gives the following reasons for writing Christian fiction: to offer “conservative Christians an alternative to the secularizing influences of the dominant culture”, thus diversifying it, to pass on Biblical principles to future generations, to encourage believers on their way through life, to make Biblical stories clearer, and simply to write fiction from the Christian point of view (Gandolfo 49-131). Rivers got the inspiration while reading the Book of Hosea, as she states: “That portion of God‟s Word hit me so profoundly that I knew this was the love story the Lord wanted me to write! . . . His deeply moving story of His passionate love for each of us – unconditional, forgiving, unchanging, everlasting, self-sacrificing – the kind of love for which most people hunger their entire lives, yet never find” (446). As the title of the novel suggests, Rivers wanted to give an account of God‟s redeeming love. She was aware of the fact that many people might seek for this kind of love all their lives. Therefore, Rivers decided to show it to readers through the medium of a love story. Actually, she rewrote a Bible story in a new context. In this way, she made the Biblical teaching more comprehensible. Gandolfo comments on Redeeming Love in the following way: . . . the essence of the Book of Hosea, the expression of God‟s redeeming love, is so superbly presented in Rivers‟ novel that the average Christian, 61

relying on reading alone, would be more likely to be inspired by the novel than its Biblical source. The absence of the need to interpret in the romance novel enables the reader to be more affectively involved in the narrative. (Gandolfo 69) Rivers perceived much evil in this world: “There are many who struggle to survive in life, many who have been used and abused in the name of love, many who have been sacrificed on the altars of pleasure and „freedom‟ . . . Too many have awakened one day to discover they are in bondage, and they have no idea how to escape” (446). She actually dedicated the novel to “those who hurt and hunger” (Rivers, dedication). Consequently, Rivers tried to encourage those who have experienced something hard and show them a way out: “I want to bring the truth to those trapped in lies and darkness, to tell them that God is there, He is real, and He loves them – no matter what”. It appears that she wanted to offer readers another alternative to solve their problems. The author admits that she was also “burdened and soul-hungry” and so was her husband. Consequently, their marriage was threatened. However, Rivers claims it was restored thanks to their relationship with God (444-446). Not only did Rivers write the novel to show readers God‟s love, she also wanted to give thanks to God in this way, as she suggests: “Writing Redeeming Love was a form of worship for me. Through it, I was able to thank God for loving me even when I was defiant, rebellious, contemptuous of what I thought being a Christian meant, and afraid to give my heart away” (Rivers 446). Actually, Redeeming Love was the first Christian romance Rivers produced. Her previous works were written for the secular market. In conclusion, writing Redeeming Love was motivated by reasons that resonate with Gandolfo‟s (49-131) suggestions. Rivers was inspired by the Biblical book of Hosea which she decided to interpret by rewriting it as a romance. Since the author was aware of struggles that many people experienced, she wanted to show readers the nature of God‟s love. Rivers offered them an alternative solution of their difficulties through God‟s help and thus gave them an encouragement on their way through life. Lastly, her wish was to pay tribute to God through her novel. 62

6.4 Other Features of Christian Fiction in Redeeming Love In this section I will try to focus on other characteristics of Redeeming Love which are related to the genre of Christian fiction, namely romance. I will again use some of book reviews. According to Gandolfo, Christian romance novel often “convey[s] the essence of Biblical truths to the reader in a more accessible fashion” (69). As has already been mentioned, Redeeming Love offers a retelling of the Biblical book of Hosea which can be found more understandable by readers than the original text. Gandolfo also suggests that Christian fiction tends to “engag[e] the readers with characters they identify with and care about” (76). April McKinnon in her review of Redeeming Love confirms that the novel has fulfilled this purpose: I can still identify with Angel so much. No, not in how her life has played out or what she chose to do to try to survive, but in her feelings and emotions and thought processes. I too have felt, and still sometimes do, that I am unworthy and afraid; that I am not doing anyone any good. I have felt the desire to be loved by someone as deeply and fully as Michael loves Angel. (McKinnon, “Redeeming Love by Francine Rivers”) It appears that Rivers has succeeded in capturing the feelings of the majority of people. Everyone might sometimes experience his or her inferiority and desire to be loved unconditionally. Therefore, it can be easy for readers to identify with the main character. Christian fiction also aspires to “reinforce values” (Gandolfo 69). In Redeeming Love, the main protagonist Michael aspires to live according to Biblical principles, which is put in contrast with some secular characters of the novel. For example, he finds marriage a very important value and, consequently, a breach of the marriage vow is unthinkable for him. His attitude proves to be right. Rivers thus encourages readers to maintain Christian values. As Gandolfo further states, readers might find Christian fiction “inspirational and life-changing” (69). There are a few reactions to Redeeming Love that support this view. The American Christian writer Liz Curtis Higgs suggests: “it is a masterpiece that 63

moves beyond allegory to touch the reader at the deepest level where faith is born . . . You cannot read this book and not be changed” (qtd in “Redeeming Love: Still Changing Lives”). The American singer Amy Grant claims something similar: “The truth that ran through that story absolutely took me to my knees. And I was a changed person when I finished reading that book” (qtd. in “Redeeming Love: Praise”). The reviews show that the novel might touch readers inside and lead them to re-evaluation of their lives. Consequently, they can possibly make some changes in it. Christian romance may also try to fulfill women‟s emotional needs (Gandolfo 178). Some reviews prove that the novel touches readers‟ emotions. For example, the American writer Angela Hunt states: “My heart and soul were profoundly shaken as I realized anew the lessons portrayed through the stories of Hosea and Gomer, Michael and Angel. This may be the single most moving book you will read this year - or in your lifetime” (qtd. in “Redeeming Love: Praise”). Radway adds that romance can help women readers “to imagine a more perfect state where all the needs . . . would be adequately addressed” (212). They might, for example, wish to experience the love depicted in Rivers‟ novel, as McKinnon writes. The book can basically enable readers to imagine that their needs are met. However, Christianity goes further since it claims to offer something more than imagination of true love. According to Rivers, people have an opportunity to experience an ideal love, though not given by people but by God. In conclusion, Redeeming Love retains many features of Christian fiction. It tries to offer a comprehensible account of a Biblical story. Readers may find it easy to identify with the characters. Furthermore, Christian fiction has a potential to fulfill their emotional needs. The author attempts to reinforce Christian values through the male character‟s approach to life. Readers claim to regard the novel as inspirational and lifechanging.

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7. CONCLUSION The aim of this diploma thesis was to describe features of contemporary American Christian fiction and eventually show them using a narrowed sample of literature, namely the autobiographical novel The Shack (2007) written by William Paul Young, and the romance novel Redeeming Love (1997) by Francine Rivers. The procedure started by exploring the field and finding specific writings on contemporary Christian literature, and continued with gathering these materials and summarizing them. The practical part was based on a study of the above mentioned novels in the context of previously gathered information. This method has proved to be optimal for this diploma thesis. The secondary literature provided useful background information for the contemporary rise of American Christian fiction together with a description of its features, which became a good basis for later analysis. Even though the Christian tradition in the USA goes back to the Pilgrim Fathers in the 17th century, there has been recent influence from postmodern philosophy, secularization and liberalization, thus weakening its position. The destabilization of all values may be having a negative impact on Christian faith. Therefore, conservative Christians (Evangelicals) in particular, who consider God to be the supreme moral authority, find it necessary to reinforce Christian values in contemporary society. They put the emphasis primarily on a personal relationship with God, Biblical teachings and passing on the gospel. Evangelicals have chosen media and literature as a platform for their own alternative culture in order to strengthen their values. The above mentioned emphases constitute a crucial message of their writings. Their purpose is not only to entertain but also to educate or inspire readers in a practical way. Moreover, since the novels largely relate to faith and people‟s attitudes, they have the potential to affect or even change readers‟ lives. Consequently, they are often called “life-changing”. Christian fiction covers almost all possible genres existing in the mainstream market. Its popularity is evidently not exclusive to Christians, since many of the books are actually bestsellers. Therefore, Christian novels are regarded as popular literature. They seem to be appealing to anyone who is not content with subversion of traditional 65

values in recent times. Christian writers combine the old paradigm of traditional values with the modern paradigm of the genre of the novel. Nevertheless, some critics view these writers as lacking literary expertise. Moreover, their style is considered rather intentional and didactic. However, postmodern philosophy enables Christian authors both to express their discontent with the trends of contemporary society and provide an alternative to the dominant culture. While analyzing the novels The Shack (2007) and Redeeming Love (1997), most of the presuppositions stated in the theoretical part were confirmed. Both authors are Evangelicals. Their emphasis is on the personal relationship with God and on Biblical teachings. Both novels attempted to incorporate a depiction of God‟s nature and a number of Christian values into the genre of novel. William Paul Young uses the form of dialogues with God as a medium to discuss various Christian topics. They are naturally incorporated into the story. On the one hand, the author may thus try to strengthen Christian values. On the other hand, Young himself appears to be influenced by the philosophy of postmodernism, since he questions some of the established concepts and provides readers with an alternative viewpoint. Francine Rivers connects the genre of the romance novel with the Biblical story of Hosea. Actually, she provides a parable about God‟s love through a love story. The concept of ideal love relates to God Himself. Women readers in particular may enjoy reading the romance novel while they can learn more about God‟s love. Rivers uses the main male character‟s example, dialogues and the plot itself to demonstrate Christian values, such as love, forgiveness, fidelity, and purity in order to reinforce them. The main characters of both novels experience difficult life circumstances which are eventually resolved. Young and Rivers claim that they thus aspire to offer readers alternative way of dealing with their problems. The novels discuss the possible transformation of human life thanks to God‟s intervention. Actually, both books are on the bestseller list. Moreover, reviews have confirmed that they have the potential to change their readers‟ viewpoint or even their lives. However, there are some aspects of the hypothesis that have not been affirmed by the analysis. For example, one assertion was that Christian literature is rather poorly 66

written. I have found the language of the chosen novels rich and vivid. Furthermore, I do not consider Christian fiction necessarily didactic, as some critics argue. Both the novels analyzed have proved to offer an alternative to mainstream culture. They present Christian values in an unstrained way, rather than use them as a tool to force Christian doctrine on the reader. I found the writing of this diploma thesis worthwhile, since I believe that secondary literature has provided me with an objective viewpoint regarding the genre of Christian fiction. I was thus able to read the novels in the light of new facts and hopefully with a less biased perspective. Furthermore, since I suppose that this field is not much explored in the Czech Republic, I hope this thesis will bring some benefit in this respect. I originally wanted to analyze three novels but the scope of this diploma thesis would not be sufficient to accomplish this aim. Therefore, a potential extension of this thesis might be to analyze other genres of Christian fiction together with a comparison of their approaches. Another possibility might be to discuss genres and features of Christian fiction for children or young adults. I will conclude with words of Frederick Buechner (1992), who describes an ideal Christian novel as: “a novel less about the religious experience than a novel the reading of which is a religious experience” (qtd. in Gandolfo 148).

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8. RESUMÉ Diplomová práce Současná americká křesťanská fikce: Young a Riversová definuje rysy výše zmíněného žánru a ukazuje je na dvou příkladech, jmenovitě na autobiografickém románu Chatrč (2007) od Williama Paula Younga a na milostném románu Vykoupená láska (1997) od Francine Riversové. Práce nejprve seznamuje čtenáře se společenským pozadím soudobého nárůstu křesťanské fikce v Americe. Jako reakci na postmodernismus, sekularizaci a liberalismus vytváří evangelikální křesťané alternativní kulturu, mimo jiné prostřednictvím literatury. Práce se zabývá jejich motivacemi, základními rysy křesťanské fikce, jejími nejčastějšími tématy a možnou kritikou. Pro pozdější analýzu jsou vymezeny základní přístupy k vyprávěcímu stylu spolu s definováním autobiografického a milostného románu. Nejdůležitější částí práce je analýza výše uvedených knih v kontextu informací získaných pomocí sekundární literatury. Výsledky analýzy se do značné míry shodují s východisky představenými v teoretické části.

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9. SUMMARY The diploma thesis Contemporary American Christian fiction: Young and Rivers defines features of above mentioned genre and demonstrates them using two examples, namely the autobiographical novel The Shack (2007) written by William Paul Young and the romance novel Redeeming Love (1997) by Francine Rivers. Firstly, the thesis describes the social background to the current rise of Christian fiction in America. This reveals that Evangelical Christians are creating an alternative culture, among other things through literature, as a reaction to postmodernism, secularism and liberalism. Secondly, the thesis focuses on authors‟ motivations, general features of Christian fiction, the most frequent topics, together with possible criticism of the genre. Thirdly, aspects of narrative style together with characteristics of autobiographical and romance novels are discussed. The crucial part of the thesis analyses the above mentioned novels in the context of the information acquired. The outcomes of the analysis largely confirm the hypothesis stated in the theoretical part.

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10. BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary sources Rivers, Francine. Redeeming Love. Oxford: Monarch Books, 2005. Print. Young, William Paul. The Shack. London: Hodder & Stoughton Ltd, 2008. Print.

Secondary sources Anderson, Pamela Sue. “Postmodernims and Religion.” Sim 45-50. Barry, Peter, Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009. 214-233. Print. Campbell, Neil and Alasdair Kean, American Cultural Studies: An Introduction to American culture. Routledge, 2006. 106-130. Print. Cuddon, J. A.. Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Ed. C. E. Preston. Harmonsworth: Penguin Books Ltd., 1999. E-book. Gandolfo, Anita. Faith and Fiction: Christian Literature in America Today. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 2007. Print. God’s Word, New International Version. Colorado Springs: International Bible Society, 1984. 671-679. Print. Jařab, Josef. “Foreword.” Sweney 8-11. Leech, Geoffrey N. and Mick Short, Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose. New York: Longman, 1981. 265-280. Print. Lewis, Barry. “Postmodernism and Literature (of: Word salad days, 1960-90).” Sim 95106. McKay, Nellie. “Autobiography and the Early Novel.” The Columbia History of the American Novel. Ed. Elliott Emory. New York: Columbia University Press, 1991. 26-45. Print. Mol, Hans. Faith and Fragility: Religion and Identity in Canada. Ontario: Trinity Press, 1985. 1-3, 264-276. Print. 70

O‟Donnell, Patrick. The American Novel Now. Reading contemporary American fiction since 1980. Chichester: Willey-Blackwell, 2010. 172-187. Print. Radway, Janice A.. Reading the Romance: Woman, Patriarchy, and Popular Literature. The University of North Carolina Press, 1984. 186-220. Print. Sim, Stuart. et al. The Routledge Companion to Postmodernism. Ed. Stuart Sim. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005. E-book. Sim, Stuart. “Postmodernism and Philosophy.” Sim 3-12. Sweney, Matthew, et al. Spirituality and Religion in American culture. A collection of papers from American Studies Colloquium. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého, 2000. Print. Vejdovsky, Boris. “The Sacred and The Secret.” Sweney 101-107. Watson, Nigel. “Postmodernism and Lifestyles.” Sim 35-44.

Internet sources “autobiography.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 09 Feb. 2012. . “direct speech.” The Free Dictionary. Dictionary/Thesaurus. Farlex, Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Mar. 2012. . “Evangelical Characteristics & Beliefs.” The Prayer Foundation. 2007. Web. 6 Feb. 2012. . “flashback.” The Free Dictionary. Dictionary/Thesaurus. Farlex, Inc., 2012. Web. 1 Apr. 2012. . “flash-forward.” The Free Dictionary. Dictionary/Thesaurus. Farlex, Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Mar. 2012. . “free indirect speech.” The Free Dictionary. Dictionary/Thesaurus. Farlex, Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Mar. 2012. .

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Gander, Pierre. “Embedded Narratives and Tellability: Summary by Pierre Gander.” pierregander.com. Nov. 1997. Web. 16 Apr. 2012. . Gates, David. “Religion: The Pop Prophets.” Rickross.com. Newsweek, 24 May 2004. Web. 16 Apr. 2012. . Grossmann, Cathy Lynn. “„Shack‟ opens doors, but critics call book „scripturally incorrect‟.” USATODAY.com. 29 May 2008. Ganett Co. Inc., Web. 3 Mar. 2012. . “indirect speech.” The Free Dictionary. Dictionary/Thesaurus. Farlex, Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Mar. 2012. . “intertextuality.” The Free Dictionary. Dictionary/Thesaurus. Farlex, Inc., 2012. Web. 10 Apr. 2012. . McKinnon, April. “Redeeming Love by Francine Rivers: Book Review by April McKinnon.” PeterPollock.com. 24 Nov. 2010. Web. 6 Apr. 2012. . “mythos.” The Free Dictionary. Dictionary/Thesaurus. Farlex, Inc., 2012. Web. 9 Apr. 2012. . “New Age Movement.” The Free Dictionary. Dictionary/Thesaurus. Farlex, Inc., 2012. Web. 7 Apr. 2012. . “postmodernism.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 03 Mar. 2012. . “Protestantism.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 06 Feb. 2012. . Purdue Online Writing Lab. 2012. Purdue University. Web. 16 Apr. 2012. . 72

“Redeeming Love: Praise.” francinerivers.com, 2010. Web. 6 Apr. 2012. . “Redeeming Love: Still Changing Lives after 20 years.” scribd.com. Scribd Inc., 2012. Web. 16 Apr. 2012. . “romance.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 10 Feb. 2012. . Smith, Huston. “The Religious Significance of Postmodernism: A Rejoinder.” Faith and Philosophy. Philosophy documentation centre. 12. 3. (1995): 409. Web. 10 Apr. 2012. . “The Shack: Where Tragedy Confronts Eternity: Editorial Reviews.” Amazon.com. Amazon.com Inc., 1996-2012. Web. 3 Mar. 2012. . “Tim LaHaye (with Jerry Jenkins): Book Review, The Left Behind Series.” Rapidnet.com, 2005. Web. 16 Apr. 2012. . “What Others Are Saying about The Shack.” theshackbook.com. Windblown Media, 2007. Web. 3 Mar. 2012. . “William Young: A Look Inside „The Shack‟.” The 700 Club. CBN.com. The Christian Broadcasting Network, Inc., 2012. Web. 20 Mar. 2012. . “William Young: A Look Inside „The Shack‟.” You Tube. Youtube.com. theoffical700club. 10 Mar. 2008. Video. 20 Mar. 2012. . Young, William Paul. “Is the story of THE SHACK true . . . is Mack a „real‟ person?” Wind Rumours: The official site of Wm Paul Young author of The Shack. Wind 73

Rumours Inc., 15 Aug. 2007. Web. 20 Mar. 2012. .

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11. APPENDICES Appendix n. 1 Detailed Contain of The Shack The story is set in Oregon and it claims to be an account of the author‟s friend‟s life. His name is Mack. However, the book is actually a novel with autobiographical features. The events described in The Shack have only symbolical meaning. The book opens with a scene describing severe weather which cuts Mack off from his workplace.

At the very beginning, the presence of “The Great Sadness” is

mentioned (Young, The Shack 14-16). Later in the book, there is an explanation of what stands behind these words. Mack finds a strange message in the letter box. It says: “Mackenzie, it‟s been a while. I‟ve missed you. I‟ll be at the shack next weekend if you want to get together. Papa”. Because of the rough weather, the postman has not actually arrived, which makes to story more mysterious (Young, The Shack 16-22). Here the plot returns to past. The issue of The Great Sadness is brought to light: Shortly after the summer that Missy [his youngest daughter] vanished, The Great Sadness had draped itself around Mack‟s shoulders like some invisible but almost tangibly heavy quilt . . . Even his efforts to shake it off were exhausting, as if his arms were sewn into its bleak folds of despair and he had somehow become part of it. (Young, The Shack 24-25) The circumstances of Missy‟s disappearance are described. Mack and three children of his decide to camp at Wallowa Lake. There they meet another two families who are very easy to befriend. However, everything changes during the last day of their camping. While Mack‟s two older children are canoeing on the lake, his son starts to drown. Mack hurries to help him. Fortunately, he eventually saves his son‟s life (Young, The Shack 26-42). Nevertheless, when the worst seems to be over, Mack finds out that his youngest daughter is missing. Everybody helps to find her. They try to discover any possible hint

where she could be. The police are also assisting. A little ladybug pin is found in the place where Missy was playing for the last time. Unfortunately, this leads to possible identification of her kidnapper with the serial killer, the so called Little Ladykiller (Young, The Shack 43-52). Mack starts to be overwhelmed with despair. As the investigation is continuing, the tracks lead to an old shack in a small valley. To Mack‟s deepest grief, “Missy‟s torn and blood-soaked red dress” is found there. However, her body is not discovered. The murderer has not left any evidence related to his identity (Young, The Shack 53-64). The following weeks prove very difficult both for Mack and his family. The presence of The Great Sadness penetrates them all. A memorial service for Missy is held. After three and a half years, Mack‟s beloved daughter is “officially presumed” dead. Consequently, Mack‟s relationship with God becomes alienated (Young, The Shack 63-65). Here the novel returns to the strange message found in the mailbox. Mack contemplates whether the note is just a “cruel hoax” or whether it is written by the killer or even by God. On the one hand, Mack wants to know the answer but on the other hand, he is not sure if there is something good to be expected from God after all his experiences (Young, The Shack 65-66). It appears that everything indicates the fact that the message really originates from God. Moreover, as Young writes, “Papa was Nan‟s favourite name for God and it expressed her delight in the intimate friendship she had with God” (Young, The Shack 22). Finally, Mack decides to visit the shack the following weekend. However, Mack does not want his family to know about his intended trip. Consequently, he welcomes Nan‟s idea to take the children with her to see their relatives that very weekend. Before Mack‟s departure, he calls his friend Willie in order to borrow his car. His friend is not willing to believe that God acts in this way and he offers Mack to go with him to help in potential danger. However, Mack does not accept his suggestion (Young, The Shack 6572). While Mack is approaching the place where the shack is located, he is seized with panic. However, he eventually enters the shack. There are still traces of blood. Mack is overwhelmed by emotions such as grief, despair, anger and hatred towards God. Many

questions emerge in his mind. Finally, he leaves disappointed, supposing that his journey has been useless. However, as Mack is going back to his car, suddenly everything around him starts to change. Despite the fact that there was snow a few minutes ago, it appears that winter is being transformed into spring. Not only is nature completely changed, but the shack behind him is “replaced by a sturdy and beautifully constructed log cabin”. Consequently, Mack thinks that he has probably gone crazy. Everything around him looks like a dream (Young, The Shack 74-82). In that moment, a supernatural story starts to develop. Mack gradually meets three people. One of them is a large African-American woman named Elousia (also called Papa). She should represent God the Father. However, Papa seems to be a jovial person. The second one, an Asian woman named Sarayu seems to portray the Holy Spirit. She is described as a rather mysterious person distinguished by colours, scents and light. The third person, a Middle Eastern man, is supposed to be Jesus Christ. He is depicted as a man with a big nose looking like a labourer. Later on, a woman named Sophia appears. She should represent “a personification of God‟s wisdom” (Young, The Shack 171). The following pages of the novel describe a number of conversations between Mack and these characters. Besides the conversations, Jesus enables Mack to have a look into heaven in order to be assured that Missy is all right. One day, they launch forth to find the place where Missy is buried. However, before they can do so, it is necessary for Mack to understand the issues they have been talking about and also to forgive the murderer. Consequently, his Great Sadness is healed. At the end of the novel, the readers find out that the supernatural meeting with God is probably caused by Mack‟s car accident and his unconsciousness. However, this experience has changed Mack‟s life forever (Young, The Shack 207-248).

Appendix n. 2 Detailed content of Redeeming Love The novel Redeeming Love was inspired by the Biblical story of Hosea (New International Version, Hos. 1.1-13.9). The prophet Hosea received the command to marry a prostitute Gomer. Although she ran away from him many times, he did not stop loving her. Their relationship is intended to have represent God‟s steadfast love for Israel. The story of Redeeming Love begins to develop in New England, in 1835. The main protagonist Sarah grows up with her mother Mae and their maid Cleo. When she is seven years old, she meets her father and learns that he actually does not love her and he would even prefer if she had not been born at all. Her father has his own family somewhere else. This discovery brings Sarah a lot of pain (Rivers 6-15). Once she goes on a trip with Cleo. Sarah finds out that men can be abusive to women. Cleo explains to her what the life is about: “Nobody cares about anybody in this world . . . We all just use each other in one way or another. To feel good. To feel bad. To feel nothing at all. The lucky ones are real good at it. Like Merrick. Like your rich papa. The rest of us just take what we can get” (Rivers 16-26). When they return home, they find out that something is wrong. Mae wants to move somewhere else. Sarah and her mother try to find a shelter at Mae‟s parents. However, Sarah‟s grandfather is not willing to house them since Mae had an affair with a married man and has even a child with him. Eventually, they find a place in a shack on the docks where Mae makes money as a prostitute. Sarah and her mother are ridiculed because of Mae‟s profession. Sarah has to learn how to hide her true emotions. One day, Mae meets Rab, who becomes her partner (Rivers 27-30). As Sarah turns eight, her mother gets sick and eventually dies. Sarah is left with Rab who should take care of her. However, he finds a new home for Sarah. There is a wealthy man who supposedly wants to adopt a little girl. Rab regards it a good chance for his nurse-child. However, that very day he and Sarah enter the man‟s house, Rab is killed and Sarah unwillingly becomes the mistress of a dangerous paedophile. Her name is changed to Angel (Rivers 31-40). I will use this name in the following paragraphs.

Ten years later, Angel succeeds in escaping to California, Pair-A-Dice. Since she has no other skills, she becomes a prostitute in a brothel, The Palace, owned by “the Duchess”. In the town, there are many men to be found, due to the gold rush. Because of her pretty appearance, Angel is very well-paid. However, her money is taken from her by her boss. On account of her way of life, Angel becomes very hardened. Her only friend is a prostitute named Lucky (Rivers 41-46). One day, the second main protagonist Michael Hosea enters the story. God tells him that he should marry Angel. To his surprise, he finds out that she is a prostitute. Michael has to pay high fees to be able to speak to her. In spite of a number of attempts to release Angel from the brothel, she does not want to accept Michael‟s offer. Her heart is hostile to all men. Michael leaves the town disappointed. However, he returns in a few days and finds Angel beaten by her bodyguard. Michael offers to marry her and leave the place for good. Angel eventually agrees (Rivers 47-93). Michael and Angel live in his cabin in wilderness. Day by day, Angel‟s physical conditions are getting better. However, she suffers from a lot of inner pain. She is not able to love anybody and she even tries to prevent herself from doing so in the future. Now she has an opportunity to learn how to cook, keep the house, grow plants and so forth. After some time, another character enters the story. It is Michael‟s widowed brother-in-law Paul. He immediately recognizes who Angel is, which causes a tension among them all (Rivers 94-170). One day, Angel decides to return to Pair-A-Dice. She wants to get her money back and thus become independent from all men. Angel asks Paul to take her to the town while he is going to sell his produce there. He demands sex with her in revenge and Angel agrees. Consequently, Paul becomes even more hateful towards her. In PairA-Dice, Angel finds The Palace burnt out and since she has no money, she agrees to return to her original profession in a local saloon (Rivers 171-180). After some time, Michael manages to trace Angel and brings her home again. One day, they meet the Altman family whose carriage is broken and Michael offers them a place to stay in their cabin for some time. Angel befriends Mrs. Altman and her oldest daughter Miriam. The Altmans are Christians and they do not condemn her because of her past. Angel gradually falls in love with Michael but at the same time she is worried

about her feelings. Angel has the fear that if she gives vent to her emotions, they will be misused by Michael, as was with the case with her mother and father. She has misconceptions about the true love (Rivers 181-271). Once Angel finds herself too emotionally close to Michael, she decides to run away again. Her new destination is Sacramento. Angel meets an old friend of Michael there and for some time she has a job in his shop. A few days later, Michael finds Angel again and takes her home. From that time, she is even more in love with him than before. They have a nice time together. Michael reads to Angel from the Bible and gives her an explanation of Biblical teachings. Nevertheless, she thinks that Miriam would be a better wife for Michael, especially because of her purity. Angel feels ashamed and unworthy of Michael‟s love. She wants to end their relationship, before Michael would do so. Angel is stigmatized by everything the life has confronted her with. She is also concerned about the fact that she would not probably be able to have children. In a flashback, it is revealed that after two abortions, Duke sterilized her (Rivers 272-355). Eventually, Angel leaves again, this time for San Francisco. She leaves her wedding ring at their cabin and assumes that Michael can thus marry Miriam and have children with her. Angel finds a job in a kitchen. However, one day, Duke appears. He forces Angel to become a prostitute again. She agrees in fear. Nevertheless, she prays to God for his help and eventually, one influential Christian named Jonathan saves Angel and another two girls from the brothel. He provides them with shelter in his house. Angel asks God to change her life. She realizes a need to communicate with God herself, not to be dependent on her husband in this respect. Angel starts to help local prostitutes to learn new things and thus be able to leave their professions. Jonathan‟s daughter Susanna assists her (356-424). In the meantime, Paul marries Miriam and Michael still waits for his wife to return. However, he will not go to find her. Miriam tries to persuade Paul to look for Angel. He is not willing to but eventually he consents. In San Francisco, Paul finds out that Angel has changed her life and he reconciles with her. Knowing that Miriam has married Paul, not Michael, Angel agrees to return home. With deep grief, she asks Michael for forgiveness. He shows his steadfast love to her. Angel reveals to him that her real name is Sarah. This name refers to one Biblical woman who was barren but

eventually got pregnant. This happens to Sarah, too. Now, she has no reasons to escape their marriage again (Rivers 403-447).