Medicinal Plant Conservation
MEDICINAL PLANT SPECIALIST GROUP
Volume 15 Newsletter of the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission Chaired by Danna J. Leaman
Chair’s note........................................................................................................................................... 2 Taxon file Conservation of the Palo Santo tree, Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb, in the South America Chaco Region - Tomás Waller, Mariano Barros, Juan Draque & Patricio Micucci.............................. 4 Manejo Integral de poblaciones silvestres y cultivo agroecológico de Hombre grande (Quassia amara) en el Caribe de Costa Rica, América Central - Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez........................ 9 Regional file Chilean medicinal plants - Gloria Montenegro & Sharon Rodríguez.................................................. 15 Focus on Medicinal Plants in Madagascar - Julie Le Bigot.................................................................. 25 Medicinal Plants utilisation and conservation in the Small Island States of the SW Indian Ocean with particular emphasis on Mauritius - Ameenah Gurib-Fakim................................................................. 29 Conservation assessment and management planning of medicinal plants in Tanzania - R.L. Mahunnah, S. Augustino, J.N. Otieno & J. Elia...................................................................................................... 35 Community based conservation of ethno-medicinal plants by tribal people of Orissa state, India Saujanendra Swain & Nihar Parida..................................................................................................... 41 Estado de la conservación de las plantas TRAMIL incluidas en la Farmacopea Vegetal Caribeña Sonia Lagos, Xinia Robles & Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez.............................................................. 46 FairWild in the South Caucasus - Heiko Schindler & Bryony Morgan................................................ 52 Notices World Health Organization Consultation on Conservation Guidelines for Medicinal Plants Danna J. Leaman.................................................................................................................................. 57 Notices of publication - Helle O. Larsen.............................................................................................. 59
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Chair’s Note Danna J. Leamann In late March of this year I participated in the 2nd meeting of all the chairs of IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) specialist groups, held in Abu Dhabi with support of the Abu Dhabi Environment Agency and the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund. Like the 1st Chair’s Meeting (Al Ain, 2008), this gathering brought together specialist group chairs and Red List Authorities with SSC staff, SSC focal-points within the IUCN secretariat programmes, and representatives of other IUCN commissions. The meeting provided opportunities to report on MPSG’s activities and successes, learn from experiences of other specialist groups, explore ideas for collaboration with the IUCN programmes and other commissions, and to articulate some future goals that will contribute to the IUCN Species Strategic Plan for the next quadrennium (2013-2016). The meeting was timed to promote preparation for and participation of SSC members in the upcoming 5th IUCN World Conservation Congress, 6-15 September, Jeju, Republic of South Korea. A summary of useful information presented at the meeting a publication containing all of the SSC specialist group summary reports is available in the new “members area” of the recently restructured and more accessible SSC pages on the IUCN website: http://www.iucn.org/about/work/ programmes/species/who_we_are/about_the_species_survival_commission_/ssc_members__area_/ Achievements and ongoing activities Implementation of the FairWild Standard In the previous volume of Medicinal Plant Conservation, Wolfgang Kathe described the process through which the International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP) became a part of the comprehensive FairWild Standard and the formation of the FairWild Foundation to oversee its further development and implementation [MPC Volume 14, pp 14-17; www.FairWild.org]. As of Decem-
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ber 2011, approximately 30 species of terrestrial plants were being wild-harvested under FairWild certification, involving 7 companies, and resulting in 10 finished products on the market containing FairWild-certified ingredients. MPSG retains a strong interest, on behalf of IUCN, in supporting the FairWild Standard, and indeed many members of MPSG continue to be involved in its management and implementation: for example, five members of MPSG are currently FairWild Foundation trustees. However, our formal role has become more closely focused on providing advice and solutions for key technical challenges. These include: • elaboration of a risk/resilience analysis tool applied as a first step in the FairWild certification process, enabling the requirements of the standard to be applied more or less rigorously to species at higher or lower risk of unsustainable wild harvest; • adaptation of FairWild Standard and implementation tools, particularly risk/resilience analysis and resource assessment guidance, as guidance for undertaking non-detriment findings required by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) for perennial plant species listed on CITES appendices I and II; • refinements of resource assessment guidance to address the different needs of low risk/high resilience species compared with high risk/low resilience species; and • initial steps to expand the risk/resilience analysis tool and resource assessment methodology to address sustainable wild collection of fungi and lichens in collaboration with the SSC lichen and fungi specialist groups and the Sustainable Use Specialist Group. Revised global “Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants” Many MPSG members have been involved either in developing the initial 1993 “Guidelines” or in the revision process ongoing since 2003, or both. Recent progress towards a final text agreed amongst the four author organizations (WHO, IUCN, WWF, and TRAFFIC) is reported in this volume of MPC [pp. 57-58].
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Red List Assessments Last summer the European Commission published the European Red List of Vascular Plants (BILZ ET AL. 2011) which includes approximately 100 species of medicinal plants, primarily species listed in the EU Habitats Directive and / or the Bern Convention. During that assessment, coordinated by Melanie Bilz, a member of the IUCN Red List unit staff based in Cambridge, UK, a large number of individuals with expert knowledge of the spatial distribution, population sizes, and likely conservation threats affecting plant species in Europe participated in preparing and reviewing the Red List assessments. A new project began in December 2011 – also with EC funding – to assess the Red List status of 300 additional medicinal plant species native to Europe. This assessment, to be completed in 2014, will result in the first comprehensive assessment of a regional medicinal flora, and provides an opportunity for MPSG members with knowledge of the European medicinal flora to contribute to and review Red List assessments. The geographic range of this assessment extends from Iceland in the west to the Urals in the east, and from Franz Josef Land in the north to the Canary Islands in the south. Future goals Securing Useful Wild Plants Understanding the current status and trends in conservation status of medicinal plants, both globally and regionally, is an information gap that limits our ability to facilitate and undertake conservation action for these species. Useful plants (including crop wild relatives, medicinal plants, and trees) are identified as a priority for Red List assessments in the upcoming IUCN quadrennium (2013-2016). MPSG is working with the Crop Wild Relatives Specialist Group and the Global Tree Specialist Group to develop and find funding for a global project focusing on these species important to human survival. The project as currently proposed has the following main components:
• identifying conservation gaps, focusing particularly on existing protected areas and identifying important areas for medicinal plant conservation; • assessing the vulnerability of medicinal plants to climate change, and contributing to the development of climate change vulnerability indicators for plants; • developing an integrated (in situ and ex situ) conservation strategy for medicinal plants, with a focus on sustainable use; and • increasing the profile of medicinal plant conservation needs and actions. Promoting involvement of MPSG members in the development and implementation of this project will be a priority for MPSG in the coming IUCN quandrennium. Results of this project will support and improve our continuing contributions to broad global initiatives and policies, including: • supporting progress on conservation and sustainable use targets under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), particularly the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation; • reporting on a global indicator of biodiversity used for food and medicine [see MPC Volume 14, pp. 24-29]; and • supporting sustainable wild collection of medicinal plants through the FairWild Standard. Many thanks to Helle Overgaard Larsen for her dedicated efforts as editor of this newsletter, and to all of the authors for their contributions to this volume. References BILZ, M., KELL, S.P., MAXTED, N. & LANSDOWN, R.V. (2011): European Red List of Vascular Plants. – Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/ conservation/species/redlist and http://www.iucnredlist.org/europe
• assessing the conservation status of at least 1,500 medicinal plant species drawn from global, regional, and national priorities, and building capacity throughout the MPSG membership for Red List assessment;
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Norman R. Farnsworth died in 2011 The renowned pharmacognosist and medicinal plant researcher died at 81 on September 10, 2011. The MPSG owes a particular debt of gratitude to Professor Farnsworth for his contribution to our Global Checklist of Medicinal Plants. In 2008, during a meeting of the Canadian Natural Health Products Research Society in Toronto, I described to Professor Farnsworth the challenge we face to answer questions such as “How many species of medicinal plants are there?” and “How many of those species are threatened with extinction?” A few weeks later, Professor Farnsworth sent a base list of more than 20,000 species with documented medicinal uses derived from the NAPrAlert (Natural Products Alert) Database he created in 1975. This list, together with the MAPROW database created by former MPSG Chair Uwe Schippmann, was an important contribution to our Global Checklist of Medicinal Plants, which now includes more than 28,000 species of plants with well-documented medicinal uses. Danna J. Leamann
Taxon file Conservation of the Palo Santo tree, Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb, in the South American Chaco Region Tomás Waller, Mariano Barros, Juan Draque & Patricio Micucci Introduction Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb (Zygophyllaceae), locally known as Palo Santo (holy tree), is a large endemic tree of what is known as the Gran Chaco region of Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and, marginally, Brazil (Figure 1). Mature individuals reach a height of 8 to 20 m and 30 to 70 cm in diameter, and exhibit a high-density aromatic wood (1,280 kg/m3).
Figure 1. Distribution range of Bulnesia sarmientoi in the Gran Chaco with locality records from the Missouri Botanical Garden (MOBOT) Data Base.
settlement conditions in more sparsely distributed soil-specific plant communities. These communities in Paraguay cover about 3.7 million ha (UNAGTZ 1991) and in Argentina about 2.5 million ha (FB 2010). In these areas average trunk standing The species inhabits the semi-arid sectors of the volumes range from 0.7 to 3.3 m3/ha (MUTARELLI Gran Chaco, where annual rainfall varies from 600 1979, GIMÉNEZ ET AL. 2007a); however, at localized to 900 mm, sharing the area with other typical lo- spots old trees dominate the forest in relatively cal hardwoods (ZERBATTO ET AL. 2009). The Palo dense patches known as palosantales. In very speSanto can be found mixed in the forest throughout cific sites trunk timber volumes can reach up to ten 25 million hectares, but it only achieves adequate fold the regional average, i.e. 30 m3/ha (ZERBATTO
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bark, crust or leaves. It is locally used as a blood cleanser, sudorific (induces perspiration), diuretic, to heal gastric pain, syphilis, leprosy, gout, rheumatism, rheumatoid arthritis, lumbago and skin wounds and diseases; moreover, to relieve stress and depression, control blood pressure, and prevent atherosclerosis and colds (MERELES & PÉREZ DE MOLAS 2008, CITES 2010, JANZEN 2010). Essential oil trade B. sarmientoi extracts have been used for decades by different industries, mainly as a fixative in perfumes. Residual sawdust, a by-product of the timber industry, is treated with solvents to produce ‘Palo Santo’ resin, which is used to manufacture varnish and dark paints. Mixed with pyrethrum it is used to make mosquito repellent coils. The essenFigure 2. The Palo Santo, Bulnesia sarmientoi, tree can tial oil, also known as ‘lignum vitae oil’, ‘guaiac reach a height of 20 m and a trunk diameter of 70 cm. oil’, ‘guayacol’, ‘guajol’, or ‘guayaco’, has been used to perfume luxury soaps by masking the unET AL. 2009). pleasant smell of synthetic components and as an The species exhibits slow growth and has the abil- excipient in the manufacturing of cosmetics. It is ity to regenerate vegetatively; it has been estimated most widely used in the perfume industry because that trees reach 45 cm basal diameter at 100 years of its mild and pleasant Rose (and Violet) fraof age (GIMÉNEZ ET AL. 2007b, Figure 2). grance. Its ethyl acetate is used as a natural fixative The Palo Santo has historically been exploited be- in aromatic compositions (DI LELLA & RIQUE 1955, cause of the pleasantly-smelling essential oil that MERELES & PÉREZ DE MOLAS 2008, CITES 2010, is widely used in the perfume and soap industry. JANZEN 2010, HARBORNE & BAXTER 2011). Commercialisation of Palo Santo timber was un- The oil of Palo Santo is highly valued in aromatil recently very limited; as of 2002, however, high therapy to which the following advantages are atdemand, mainly from China, has been a driver for tributed: mood uplifting, helpful for meditation large-scale exploitation in Argentina and Paraguay. and rest, improvement of mental clarity, calming, As a result of increasing concerns regarding the relaxing, stress and tension reduction. It is applied sustainability of Palo Santo trade the species was through aroma lamps, light bulb rings, massage and listed in CITES-Appendix II at the 15th Meeting mist spray (SCHILLER & SCHILLER 2008). However, of the Conference of the Parties to CITES (Doha, this industry treats it as ‘Guaiac oil’ in broad sense, Qatar). grouping in this category other Zygophyllaceae Local uses The common name, Palo Santo (holy tree), says it all about what local people feel for this species, which has a very unique place in the culture throughout the Gran Chaco region. It has traditionally been employed for domestic purposes: the burning of its wood is used as an insect repellent and its long-lasting wood is harvested for the production of posts to build cattle fences or for manufacturing handicrafts. The species is highly valued as a medicinal plant for the many healing powers attributed to infusions brewed from of its
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species from the Genus Guaiacum. B. sarmientoi oil is characterized by containing a high proportion of Bulnesol (>45%) and Guaiol (>31%). It is pale yellow, waxy in consistence (solid) at room temperature and with a strong warm woody aroma. The wood/oil yield is reported to be around 3.5 4% in weight (JACOBS 1990, ALPACA 2010, JANZEN 2010). It is obtained by simple steam distillation of wood chips. According to JANZEN (2010) wood scraps and logs are shredded into small chips the size of beans. These woodchips are loaded into autoclave stainless steel distillation stills. Steam
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is passed through the layers of chips, which is afterwards cooled in condensers and separated in Florentine vase units. Argentina started the distillation of Palo Santo essential oil in the beginning of the last century, but extraction stopped completely by the 1970s (ZERBATTO ET AL. 2009). In the beginning, Paraguay exported the entire logs to Europe for oil distillation, but after World War II this was carried out locally (JANZEN 2010). Paraguay currently supplies most of the international demand of Guaiac oil (MERELES & PÉREZ DE MOLAS 2008) and during the last decade the country exported 130-180 tons of essential oil per year, equivalent to an annual harvest of up to about 5,000 tons of timber. Main destination countries for the last three years were, in order of importance, France, Germany, United States, India, Spain, United Kingdom, Korea, the Netherlands and Switzerland. According to Paraguayan producers, most of the wood used in the distillation of Guaiac oil is the byproduct of timber extraction or land clearing activities, such as branches, fallen or useless trees, sawmill leftover boards and sawdust. This information still needs to be corroborated (JANZEN 2010, WALLER & PUCCIO 2010). Timber trade Timber primary production (in tons of logs) of B. sarmientoi in Argentina and Paraguay soared from less than 500 tons in 2000 to 35,000 tons annually in the last years, considering both countries together. Argentina seems to be the main producer, with more than 20,000 tons of timber harvested each year. Most of the timber is destined to the international market as logs or sawn wood. Export records from Argentina diminished sharply in 2008 in the context of a global economic crisis (FB 2010), however, local authorities expect that trade will reach, or even exceed, 2008s harvest levels by the end of 2011. Trade statistics available from Paraguay are dubious and probably under-represent actual trade volumes due to inconsistencies in reporting schemes (FB 2010). The recent inclusion of the Palo Santo in CITES-Appendix II is expected to improve trade control and reporting in both countries. Timber exports from Argentina (pooled data from 2006-2008) and Paraguay (pooled data from 2000-
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2004) have mainly been destined to China: 94% and 89% of each country’s exported volume, respectively. According to traders, wood is used for handcrafting top-quality furniture and for apartment floorings. Main products exported by Argentina (pooled data from 2006-2008) and Paraguay (pooled data from 2000-2006) were trunks in different stages of processing (debarked logs, cylinders and posts), representing 87% and 67% of all products exported by each country, respectively. Secondarily, both countries traded sawn wood (mainly tables for flooring): 13% and 33% of total exports, respectively (Figure 3). Since 2008 internal provincial regulations in Argentina have limited the sale of raw wood (logs), favouring the production of sawn wood to foster local labour (FB 2010). Dynamic of Palo Santo timber harvest in Argentina Argentina is currently the main supplier of B. sarmientoi timber for the international market. The species occurs in three different provinces: Chaco, Formosa and Salta. Based on MORELLO (1968) we estimate the area of occupation to about 8.3 million hectares, and its ecological optimum (sensu MORELLO 1968) to 1.7 million hectares.
Figure 3. Bulnesia sarmientoi debarked logs being transported to a sawmill (above); sawn wood finished for flooring ready to export (bottom). Photo: T. Waller.
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Formosa and Salta have been the main sources of Palo Santo timber; Formosa has accounted for 74% of all exports (data pooled for all years, Figure 4). The proportion of Palo Santo of total timber exports increased from 0% in 2000 to about 9% in 2007 (FB 2010). The two provinces allow harvest and transport of timber under a weak enforcement system, mostly based on quotas, minimum log diameter restrictions, extraction permits and transport certificates. Main constrains identified are the result of low levels of in situ control of the harvest and of timber transportation. Different taxes and rules with regard to wood processing levels have indirectly fostered smuggling activities between provincial jurisdictions. Adulteration of transport permits and false declaration of origin are usual practices – in fact, logs are known to rarely proceed from declared harvest sites (FB 2010). A recent study highlights the mining nature of the selective B. sarmientoi logging at the local or plot level (ZERBATTO ET AL. 2009). Accordingly, most size classes of Palo Santo trees were harvested in six sites evaluated. The volume of wood extracted was, on average, 41% of the original standing volume, with 85% of extraction corresponding to trees larger than 30 cm in diameter (as required by the industry). The timber volume extracted was equal to or higher than the volume of timber remaining in the forest. An analysis of the health condition of standing B. sarmientoi trees suggests that when large trees persist in the forest these are cracked, hollow or have crooked logs, and would therefore be discarded by the industry. Large trees are thus not conserved because of forest management. Finally, it was observed that the amount of felled logs abandoned in the forest, plus the volume of the thick branches of felled trees, is twice the volume of timber effectively removed by the industry (ZERBATTO ET AL. 2009, Figure 3).
2000, 2002, 2010). Overall recorded trade in Guaiacum timber and extracts accounted for about 345 tons in 29 years, and mostly involved Mexico as the exporter and Germany as the importer and reexporter (CITES Trade Database). There is no clear indication that timber and essential oil trade in Palo Santo have augmented as a result of the increased CITES-derivated controls over Guaiacum species. In fact, current timber trade in Palo Santo is due to the increase in the demand from China since 2002, while trade in its essential oil dates back to the beginning of the century. On the other hand, essential oil trade from Guaiacum species and B. arborea has not been properly documented. It seems that Germany was a major importer of chips and wood pulp of Guaiacum that could be attributed to this industry (CITES 2000, CITES Trade Database), however, according to CITES statistics direct trade in Guaiacum essential oil for the last two decades seems negligible (i.e. 386 kg). B. arborea should be included in Appendix II for look-alike reasons and identification material either for essential oil and timber must be developed. Habitat trends Deforestation has increased dramatically over the last 15 years throughout the Chaco region in Argentina and Paraguay. In Argentina the deforestation rate is about 1.3% per year (UMSEF 2006), but mostly occurring out, or in the periphery, of the distribution range of Palo Santo. Up to 2008 deforestation has affected less than 5% of the original Palo Santo distribution area, mostly in the province of Salta (Figure 4). The situation in Paraguay is no better, deforestation over the last 5 years has reached unprecedented levels for the region. Trends in Bolivia are much better: about 95% of its Chaco region is still under forest cover.
At one hand, deforestation is expected to increase along the Palo Santo range area due to livestock rearing projects, but on the other hand, new legislation in Argentina and Paraguay seeks to foster the Trade in similar species Bulnesia arborea from Northern South America progressive settlement of land management plans and other Zygophyllacea species of the Genus to ensure forest persistence. In this scenery, the Guaiacum from Central America and the Carib- long-term conservation of B. sarmientoi in these bean used to be marketed under similar commer- countries will depend on land use planning and cial names (“Lignum Vitae” or “Guaiac”) as B. regulation and the proper management of the resarmientoi. All Guaiacum species are listed in maining Chaco forests (FB 2010). CITES but this is not the case for B. arborea (CITES
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The Netherlands for supporting our research, particularly, to Hajo Schimtz-Kretschmer (DE), Jonas Luthy (CH), Mathias Loertscher (CH) and Stephan Verbunt (NE). Emilio Buongermini gathered information related to Paraguay; Juan Draque and Mariano Barros carried out field-work in the provinces of Formosa and Salta, Argentina; Marcelo Zerbatto and Walter Degano designed field inventory activities. An anonymous reviewer provided useful comments that helped us to improve this publication. References Figure 4. Deforestation (black areas) throughout the Palo Santo distribution range (stripped area) in Northern Argentina (FB, 2010).
Closing remarks Argentina is currently the major exporter of B. sarmientoi timber, while Paraguay is the main producer of essential oil for the international perfumes industry. Under the observed pattern of extractive and selective use of Palo Santo in Argentina, conditions for sustainability at the regional level are not yet ensured for this species, and much less at plot scale. It is worth mentioning that Argentina is currently undertaking a major effort to establish provincial management plans aimed to protect the most important forest regions. As a result of this process large tracts of woods are expected to persist and to be managed for sustainable use. Timber trade statistics in Paraguay are not reliable to assess the magnitude of the harvest. Additionally, Palo Santo inventory information is very scarce. Producers argue that essential oil trade is not a threatening factor for the B. sarmientoi, but for this to be confirmed it will be necessary to clearly demonstrate that wood used in oil distillation is byproducts of other activities (i.e. saw-mill debris, abandoned logs, land clearing). We hope that the recent inclusion of Palo Santo in CITES-Appendix II will contribute to monitor international trade and to foster internal management schemes both in Argentina and Paraguay to warrant the sustainable utilization of this precious species. Acknowledgements We would like to express our acknowledgments to the Governments of Germany, Switzerland and
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ALPACA. (2010): Al Pa Ca S.A. Guaiac Wood Oil, Bulnesia sarmientoi, technical specifications. – Unpublished data sheet. Paraguay. CITES. (2000): 11th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES. Proposal 11.62. Transfer of Guaiacum sanctum from Appendix II to Appendix I. – Available at: www.cites.org/eng/cop/11/prop/62.pdf. CITES. (2002): 12th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES. Proposal 12.54. Inclusion of Guaiacum spp. in Appendix II in accordance with Article II, paragraph 2(b). Available at: www.cites.org/eng/ cop/12/prop/E12-P54.pdf. CITES. (2010): 15th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES. Proposal 15.42. Inclusion of Bulnesia sarmientoi in CITES-Appendix II. Available at: www.cites.org/eng/cop/15/prop/E-15-Prop-42.pdf. DGCRNMA. (2006): Exportación de Palo Santo. Años 2000-2006. – Informe inédito de la Dirección General de Control de los Recursos Naturales y el Medio Ambiente de la Contraloría General de la República (CGR) del Paraguay. 20pp. DI LELLA, E. & RIQUE, T. (1955): El palo santo: su industrialización. Publicación Técnica N° 20. – Administración Nacional de Bosques. FB. (2010): Palo Santo Bulnesia sarmientoi in Argentina – Timber trade and sustainability. Information document prepared for the 15th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES, 13 to 25 Mach 2010, Doha, Qatar. – Fundación Biodiversidad – Argentina. Available at: www.biodiv.org.ar/images/stories/pdfs/ Palo-Santo-Bidodiv-en.pdf) GIMÉNEZ, A.M., HERNÁNDEZ, P., GEREZ, R. & SPAGARINO, C. (2007b): Anatomía de leño y anillos de crecimiento de Palo Santo (Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorez ex. Griseb Zygophyllaceae). – Rev. de Cs. Forestales Quebracho, 14:23-35. Santiago del Estero. GIMÉNEZ, A.M., HERNÁNDEZ, P., GEREZ, R. & RÍOS, N.A. (2007a): Diversidad vegetal en siete unidades demostrativas del Chaco semiárido argentino. – Madera y Bosques (México), 13(1):61-78. HARBORNE J.B. & BAXTER, H. (2001): Chemical Dic-
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tionary of Economic Plants. – John Wiley and Sons Ltd. West Sussex, England. JACOBS, H. (1990): Vegetationsanalytische und strukturelle Untersuchungen einer regengrunen Trockenwaldvegetation im östlichen Bereich des zentralen Chacos unter Berucksichtigung des Einflusses der Viehweide. – Diplomarbeit der Forstlichen Fakultät der Georg-August-Universität Göttingen. 113 p. JANZEN, H.K. (2010) Guaiac wood oil, Paraguay and CITES. Paper presented at the International Conference “North African and Mediterranean Essential Oils and Aromas: 2010 Tales and Realities of our Industry – a new decade of challenges and opportunities”. 26 30 Sept. 2010, Marrakech. – International Federation of Essential Oils and Aroma Trades, London. MERELES, F. & PÉREZ DE MOLAS, L. (2008): Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb (Zygophyllaceae): estudio de base para su inclusión en el Apéndice II de la Convención CITES. – WWF. Asunción, Paraguay. MORELLO, J. (1968): La vegetación de la República Argentina. Las grandes unidades de vegetación y ambiente del chaco argentino. Primera parte: objetivos y metodología. – INTA, Serie Fitogeográfica 8:125pp. MUTARELLI, E. J. (1979): Riqueza de los bosques espontáneos. – In: COZZO, D. (Ed.), Arboles forestales, maderas y silvicultura de la Argentina, Enciclopedia Argentina de Agricultura y Jardinería, Segunda Edición, Tomo II, Fascículo 16-1. Editorial ACME. Buenos Aires. pp 18-33. SCHILLER, C. & SCHILLER, D. (2008): The Aromatherapy Encyclopedia: A concise guide to over 385 plant oils. – Basic Health Publications, Inc. 235pp. UNA–GTZ. (1991): Vegetación y uso de la tierra de la region occidental del Paraguay. – Universidad Nacional de Asunción and Misión Forestal Alemana, San Lorenzo. Paraguay. WALLER, T. & PUCCIO, G. (2010): Informe de la Fundación Biodiversidad sobre la Misión a Paraguay. Asunción, 1 al 4 de noviembre de 2010. – Fundación Biodiversidad – Argentina, Buenos Aires. ZERBATTO, M., DEGANO, W.A., BARROS, M., DRAQUE, J., ALVARENGA, E. & WALLER, T. (2009): Situación de la especie Palo Santo (Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb) en la provincia de Formosa: estudio de sitios de extracción en los Departamentos Matacos y Bermejo. – Estudio de Base para la Fundación Biodiversidad con el apoyo de la Oficina Federal para la Protección de la Naturaleza – Alemania. Provincia de Formosa.
Manejo Integral de poblaciones silvestres y cultivo agroecológico de Hombre grande (Quassia amara) en el Caribe de Costa Rica, América Central Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez Introducción La madera del arbusto tropical conocido en Costa Rica como Hombre Grande, en inglés se conoce como Surinam quassia (Quassia amara), es una importante planta medicinal nativa del Trópico Húmedo de América Tropical (Figura 1, 2). Constituye una materia prima que, por más de 150 años, ha sido objeto de comercio en América Latina, en dos direcciones: localmente, para abastecer el mercado regional, caracterizado por volúmenes pequeños; e internacionalmente para Europa y Estados Unidos de América, en mayores volúmenes (OCAMPO 1999).
Figura 1. Quassia amara L. (Simaroubaceae). Photo: Autor.
Las Buenas Prácticas de Cosecha de Poblaciones Silvestres constituyen una forma de contribuir con la conservación de la especie. Por esta razón la empresa Bougainvillea (Box 1) ha adoptado las normas creadas por el Centro Agronómico de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE) para su aplicación, bajo la supervisión técnica de un Técnico Forestal. Tomás Waller • Mariano Barros • Juan Draque • De igual forma se han dado acciones de domestiPatricio Micucci • Fundación Biodiversidad Ar- cación de la especie, por parte del Jardín Agrgentina • Juncal 754, 7th Floor, Apt. 60 • Buenos oecológico de Plantas Medicinales Bougainvillea Aires • Argentina • email: biodiversidad@fibertel. en condiciones de cultivo agroecológico en el Carcom.ar ibe de Costa Rica.
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Como fortaleza de las acciones de manejo y conservación de la especie, es importante señalar que Q. amara tiene la capacidad de rebrotar posteriormente a su cosecha; por esta razón, solamente estamos aprovechando el producto de cosecha, sin poner en peligro el recurso natural. Además, para completar un buen manejo del recurso natural debemos aplicar acciones en la cosecha silvestre que respeten árboles productores de semilla. En este sentido, VILLALOBOS (1997) hace referencia a dejar 60 árboles mayores de 6 cm de diámetro por ha, con el propósito de aplicar una práctica de cosecha silvestre bajo un Plan de Manejo. Pero el mayor problema, que se podría relacionar con la desaparición de la Q. amara silvestre, es el cambio de uso del bosque húmedo tropical, para su trans
La investigación va en la dirección de analizar y comparar el abastecimiento de materia prima del arbusto de Q. amara, en relación con el suministro de madera proveniente de poblaciones silvestres, bajo un Plan de Manejo, en la Reserva Indígena de Kekoldi, Talamanca, Limón, Costa Rica, y de poblaciones silvestres en Costa Rica. Estos últimas se estima a nivel nacional en 40 ton como cosecha potencial para su comercio justo y el aprovechamiento de madera producida bajo un sistema productivo agroecológico, en asocio con el árbol maderable, denominado laurel (Cordia alliodora), en el Jardín Agroecológico de Plantas Medicinales Bougainvillea, en la Comunidad rural de la Esperanza, Matina, Limón, Costa Rica. Se analiza una estrategia de aprovechamiento de materia prima por un período de 8 años, proveniente de ambos sistemas de producción. Características químicas de la materia prima La industria requiere una materia prima que responda a normas de calidad, referido a la autenticidad taxonómica de la especie y al contenido del amaroide cuasina, lactona intensamente amarga. También contiene neocuasinas y alcaloides del tipo de la catin-6-ona.
Figura 2. Hojas de Quassia amara. Photo: Autor.
Los radios medulares son de solo una o dos células en el sentido de la anchura pero de hasta 30 células en sentido longitudinal (TREASE & EVANS 1988, CÁCERES 2006).
La materia prima de la Q. amara esta constituido por la corteza y la madera, ambos de coloración Bajo esta realidad latinoamericana de desaparición blanco-crema, con sabor amargo. El contenido de de los bosques tropicales húmedos, hábitat de Q. cuasinoides en la madera proveniente de poblaamara, que esta poniendo la especie en peligro ciones silvestres esta entre un rango de 0.28-0.20% de extinción y, en otra dirección, el aumento de la que corresponde a diámetros de 4.5 cm a hasta de demanda local e internacional de la madera de Q. 1.5 cm., respectivamente. amara, es urgente establecer sistemas de produc- La madera (xilema) tiene una humedad de 40%; ción agroecológicas. Esto para lograr abastecer mientras la corteza contiene, en promedio, 60% la demanda y contribuir con la conservación de (Villalobos et al. 1996) si la madera proviene de la especie y su variabilidad genética, de las pocas poblaciones silvestres; mientras que en el material poblaciones silvestres establecidas dentro del Sis- proveniente de rebrotes de iguales poblaciones, el tema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación en Costa contenido de humedad promedio de la madera más Rica. Precisamente la presión ejercida por el mer- la corteza es de 49.3% (GUZMÁN 2000). cado internacional hacia las poblaciones silvestres Estas características de contenidos de humedad conlleva que para el año de 1999 la materia prima constituyen aportes para lograr la industrialización exportada ya no corresponde a la especie de Q. am- de la madera de la Q. amara como extracto estandara, en su lugar se incorporan otras especies de la arizado, empleado como saborizante en la industria Familia Simaroubaceae (OCAMPO & MORA 2012). formación a otros sistemas de producción agrícola y ganadera.
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combatir nauseas. En Italia se usa contra los piojos. Además del uso etnomédico ya mencionado, en Costa Rica se utiliza la madera en el uso veterinario para desparasitar animales. En Nicaragua las hojas y madera se emplean en forma externa para el control de garrapatas. En Costa Rica se ha desarrollado un fitofármaco a partir de la madera y corteza autorizado por el Ministerio de Salud. Figura 3. Quassia amara cultivación. Photo: Autor.
alimentaria, biopesticida, uso veterinario y fitofármaco. Además de su aprovechamiento como planta ornamental por sus atractivas flores rojas, visitadas por aves e insectos. Uso tradicional e industrial En Costa Rica, al igual que en otros países latinoamericanos y de Europa, hay varios usos etnomédicos de Q. amara.
Q. amara - producto no maderable del bosque Costa Rica, es un país de solamente 51,000 km2, de los cuales un 40% corresponde a cobertura arbórea. De esta cobertura, un 30% está bajo diversas categorías de protección por parte del Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, lo que conduce a la existencia de un 10%, de área potencial para el aprovechamiento de poblaciones silvestres de Q. amara. Los estudios de distribución de Q. amara en Costa Rica (VILLALOBOS 1996) confirman poblaciones dispersas y de tamaño reducido, en bosques de baja altitud (0-500 metros sobre el nivel del mar), en ambas regiones costeras del Caribe y Pacífica. No existen estudios técnicos que identifiquen, de manera sistemática, el volumen de materia prima proveniente de poblaciones silvestres dentro del territorio nacional.
En Costa Rica, se usa tradicionalmente la infusión de la corteza y madera partida en trozos como tónico amargo, estimulante del apetito, febrífugo y en forma de enemas. También se usa como antihelmíntico contra oxiuros, contra las afecciones De acuerdo con la ejecución de un Plan de Aprovegástricas, para purificar la sangre, contra la fiebre y chamiento Sostenible, planificado en la Reserva los parásitos intestinales. Indígena de Kekoldi (MARMILLOD ET AL. 1995), la En Guatemala se usa la infusión, el polvo y la tin- capacidad productiva de 125 ha es de 12 ton, con tura de la madera, el polvo y la decocción de la un corte promedio anual de 1,800 kg y una rotación raíz y en homeopatía. El vino amargo se usa para de 6 años. Es importante aclarar que no toda el área de 125 ha es productiva comercialmente, además combatir la nausea y mejorar la digestión. que debido a ser plantaciones silvestres, no es acEn Honduras se toma la corteza hervida para el do- onsejable dar rendimientos por hectárea. De acuerlor de estomago, diabetes, fortificar la sangre, mal do con este estudio a nivel nacional se estima un de orin, diarrea y migraña. También se utiliza la volumen aprovechable de 40 ton, lo que representa corteza cocinada para lavados de heridas. una cosecha anual de 6.6 ton, igual situación se da En Colombia se usa madera en maceración en en este caso, no es viable dar rendimientos por ha. agua fría o infusión y es reconocido como uno de Posterior a la cosecha de la población seleccionalos mejores tónicos amargos empleados contra la da, la Q. amara tiene la capacidad de rebrotar. Por atonía de los órganos digestivos. esta razón se analiza el escenario de aprovechamiEn Argentina y Bolivia, la madera del palo amargo, ento de rebrotes procedentes de poblaciones silvesmacerada en alcohol se emplea en forma externa tres, en donde la situación de rendimiento es más compleja, debido a que su crecimiento depende de para el control de piojos. factores de luminosidad de forma natural. Sobre En Europa se preparan vinos amargos, por mace- este manejo, existe poca investigación, que aporte ración de una pequeña cantidad de madera, para elementos para su rendimiento.
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A manera de estudio de caso se hace referencia a una primera investigación, realizada en Talamanca (GUZMÁN 2000), en donde de acuerdo con las tasas de rebrote de la especie, de 134 g/tallo/año, que responde a una zona productiva de alta luminosidad. Es importante señalar que al aplicar el Plan de Aprovechamiento, el rendimiento por individuo no se repite en el futuro, debido a lo heterogéneo del dosel superior, ya que la respuesta va a ser muy especifica, determinada por las condiciones de sitio, además, es importante señalar que no existe aún referencia sobre los contenidos de cuasinoides en la madera. Esta situación es diferente cuando se trata de la primera cosecha de poblaciones silvestres, en las cuales la primera cosecha produce volúmenes entre 9-16 kilos por individuo, ya que responde a un crecimiento silvestre que ha consumido mucho tiempo. Cultivo agroecologico Las características ecológicas de poblaciones silvestres de Q. amara, de una distribución restringida en el sotobosque y con una alta respuesta de producción de biomasa por efecto de la luminosidad (MARMILLOD ET AL. 1995, VILLALOBOS 1995, LEIGUE 1997, GUZMÁN 2000), contribuyen a buscar alternativas para su manejo agroecologico, con el propósito de aumentar la producción de materia prima.
Estas producciones no contemplan la producción de poblaciones silvestres. Estrategia de aprovechamiento de madera de Q. amara Dos estrategias están definidas: 1. Aprovechamiento de poblaciones silvestres, bajo un plan de manejo. 2. Aprovechamiento de poblaciones cultivadas bajo buenas prácticas agrícolas. El aprovechamiento en ambos casos va a estar bajo supervisión técnica de la Empresa Bougainvillea S.A. Es importante señalar que las proyecciones establecidas parten de un proceso de investigación en progreso y diagnósticos preliminares que, con el transcurso del tiempo, van a aportar elementos técnicos para su ajuste La investigación en progreso es importante, para su análisis, pues este es el caso de un arbusto que provee madera como materia prima, además de ser objeto de extractivismo de los bosques. Para las consideraciones del estudio de proyección partimos de que la empresa Bougainvillea – Extractos Vegetales, va a procesar esta especie para el mercado; principalmente como biopesticida. Abastecimiento de Q. amara cultivado en un sistema agroecologico y de poblaciones silvestres La empresa Bougainvillea, S.A. ha implementado acciones de domesticación de Q. amara desde 1986. Por esta razón cuenta en el Jardín Agroecológico con una población aproximada de 2,000 arbustos que, para el año 2004, estarán aportando más de 8,000 semillas para su multiplicación. Al presente se cuenta con una cosecha estimada de 2 millones de semillas anual.
Por esta razón el Jardín Agroecologico de Plantas Medicinales Bougainvillea inició acciones de manejo de Q. amara a partir del año 2000, planteándose el establecimiento de 100,000 plantas en un período de 10 años, con el apoyo financiero del Proyecto O.E.A./A.I.C.D “Desarrollo de Tecnología de Cultivo de Plantas Medicinales y Producción de Fitoterápicos”. El proyecto avanza con el establecimiento de 62,000 individuos dentro de un modelo Agroecológico de producción. El Cuadro no. 1 muestra la población estimada de Para el año 2012 se ha establecido el cultivo agr- siembra acumulada, a partir del año 2001 y hasta oecológico y se cuenta con la producción de mad- 2006. Además estima la producción anual de mateera y hojas para abastecer la industrialización de ria prima, seis años después de la siembra, en kilos la Q. amara, transformada en extractos estandari- de material seco, por un período de 5 años (2007 zados. En la actualidad, la empresa Bougainvillea – 2012). esta en capacidad de producir un volumen de 20 Condiciones ecológicas y Sistema de siembra ton de madera deshidratada, por año, para su industrialización. De igual forma existen iniciativas de La empresa ha implementado el cultivo orgánico, cultivo asociado a cultivos agrícolas por parte de utilizando semilla sexual, bajo un sistema de propequeños agricultores que aumentan el volumen. ducción agroecológica en el Caribe de Costa Rica, con una precipitación de 4,000 mm, una temperat-
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Cuadro 1. Fecha de siembra de Quassia amara y primera cosecha estimada. Período 2001 – 2012. Año de siembra1
1 (2001) 2 (2002) 3 (2003) 4 (2004) 5 (2005) 6 (2006)
No. acumulado de plantas
Año de cosecha2
8,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 12,000 12,000
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Producción anual, kg de material seco3 5,280 6,600 6,600 6,600 7,920 7,920
Cuadro no. 3. Aprovechamiento de madera de Quassia amara silvestre, bajo Plan de Manejo, Costa Rica. Año
Cosecha, kg fresco1
Volumen, kg seco2
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
7,000 7,000 7,000 7,000 3,400 3,400
4,200 4,200 4,200 4,200 2,000 2,000
razón, posterior a partir de la primera cosecha, se inicia el rebrote que se permite desarrollar por un 1 Siembra Octubre – Diciembre 2 período de dos años (determinado por la empresa), Referido a un período de 6 años 3 Calculado para una producción de 1.1 kilos/planta y un en dondeestá lista la planta para volver a cosechar. rendimiento de 60% Se estima, basado en observaciones previas, que las cosechas de rebrotes se pueden realizar cada ura media de 28 C, y una humedad relativa de 90%. dos años, a partir de la primera cosecha, a nivel Además se cuenta con material sembrado por mede la base, con un rendimiento de 1.3 kg de matedio de acodos y se investigan métodos de reproducrial fresco por individuo-rebrote (OCAMPO & DÍAZ ción por estaca. El propósito de los dispositivos de 2006). No se cuenta con datos de investigación que investigación es aumentar el rendimiento por árbol demuestren la vida útil de la plantación, aunque en Producción de primera cosecha de cultivo agr- forma silvestre es perenne. oecológico El Cuadro no. 2 muestra la producción de la pobPara realizar las estimaciones de producción por lación por un período de 6 años (2007 – 2012), que año, previamente se contó con un dispositivo de corresponde a una población de 62,000 individuos investigación establecido en 1998 en donde se ob- en un área estimada de 14 ha. tuvieron los siguientes resultados: la primera cosecha se ejecuta a los 6 años, para un volumen pro- Cosecha sustentable de madera de poblaciones silmedio estimado de 1.1 kilo fresco por arbusto, con vestres un diámetro mayor a 2.5 cm., a una altura sobre la Como se mencionó en párrafos anteriores, la prosuperficie del suelo de 0.30 m., y un contenido de ductividad de poblaciones silvestres es estimada. También es importante señalar que para ejecutar cuasina no menor a 0.20 %. la primera cosecha de poblaciones silvestres, el Cuadro no. 2. Estimación de rebrote de Quassia amara rendimiento es alto (9 – 16 kilos por árbol), como cultivada. Período 2009 – 2014. consecuencia de mayor período de crecimiento. El Año No. de plan- Rebrote año Masa de material período de cosecha silvestre, a nivel de empresa, es tas seco, kg estimado para un lapso de tiempo de únicamente 5 años (2009 – 2014) (Cuadro no. 3). 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
8,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 12,000 12,000
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
6,720 8,400 8,400 8,400 10,080 10,080
Cosecha de rebrotes La Q. amara, tiene la capacidad de rebrotar, cuando se realiza la cosecha de la madera. Por esta
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A partir del año 2013, se considera un menor volumen de aprovechamiento, estimado en 2 ton, por ser rebrote con menor rendimiento. A partir de la primera cosecha (2009 – 2014), se va a incentivar el manejo de las poblaciones silvestres y el enriquecimiento del área para aumentar el rendimiento y su rentabilidad. Es importante señalar, que a partir del año 2012, la empresa únicamente está procesando un 20% de material silvestre y, a partir del 2013, solamente un 10.0%.
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Aprovechamiento integral de materia prima procedente de cultivo y poblaciones silvestres. Durante el primer año de producción, en el 2007, la planta será abastecida con 5,280 kilos de material secos procedente de cultivo. El Cuadro No. 4 hace referencia a los volúmenes de materia seca por un período de 8 años (2007 – 2014) y su procedencia para una industrialización total de 132,840 kilos, en un período de 8 años.
manejo integral constituye la forma adecuada para enfrentar una demanda creciente en el futuro.
Cuadro no. 4. Abastecimiento estimado de madera seca de Hombre grande. Período 2007 – 2014.
Agradecimiento Al Proyecto Desarrollo de Tecnología de Cultivo de Plantas Medicinales y Producción de Fitoterápicos O.E.A. (AICD), por el aporte financiero para establecer el modelo agroecologico para el cultivo del arbusto de Q. amara en el Jardín Agroecologico Bougainvillea, Matina, Costa Rica, al Centro de Investigación y enseñanza (CATIE) en Turrialba, Costa Rica, por la iniciativa de investigación de la Quassia amara como producto no maderable del bosque (PNMB), dentro del Proyecto de Conservación y Desarrollo.(OLAFO), al CIPRONA, U,C.R. y al Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBIO) dentro de la iniciativa del Proyecto INBIO/BID/Fomin, que la empresa Bougainvillea fue participé.
Esta iniciativa desarrollada con un importante producto no maderable del bossque, propio del bosque tropical húmedo, que ha sido explotado de poblaciones silvestres, demuestra que es factible desarrollar herramientas técnicas para contribuir a la conservación y desarrollo de la biodiversidad nativa. Es importante señalar que se cuenta con herramienLa materia prima está constituida por corteza y tas técnicas básicas para lograr un manejo sustentmadera con un promedio de humedad entre 12- able, pero ello implica el considerar la realización de investigaciones para lograr mejores resultados 18%. hacia el futuro.
Año
Cultivado
Silvestre
Masa de material seco, kg
2007 2008 2009
5,280 6,600 6,600 + 6,720 6,600 + 8,400 7,920 + 8,400 7,920 + 8,400 7,920 + 10,080 7,920 + 20,080 108,840
0 0 4,200
5,280 6,600 17,520
4,200
19,200
4,200
20,520
4,200
20,520
2,000
20,000
2,000
20,000
20,800
129,640
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Totales
Discusión Es evidente que para el aprovechamiento de la madera de Q. amara, existen herramientas importantes para lograr un aprovechamiento integral de las poblaciones silvestres y cultivadas, sin poner en peligro la especie dentro del medio ambiente y contar con volúmenes adecuados en la fase de industrialización de la madera de Q. amara, manteniendo factores de calidad. De igual forma, es evidente que el suministro exclusivo de materia prima de poblaciones silvestres, al menos en Costa Rica, no satisface el desarrollo industrial de una pequeña empresa basado exclusivamente en poblaciones silvestres de Q. amara. Por esta razón el lograr un
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Referencias
CÁCERES, A. (ed.). (2006): Propuesta de Monografías Farmacopeicas de 10 plantas medicinales Centroamericanas. – Proyecto OEA/AICD/USAC-089/05. Guatemala. 88p. GUZMÁN, V. (2000): Evaluación del crecimiento de Hombre Grande (Quassia amara) como respuesta a la poda en “Baja Talamanca”, Limón, Costa Rica. Tesis de grado. – Universidad Nacional, Escuela de Ciencias Ambientales, Heredia. 89p. LEIGUE, L. (1997): Elementos ecológicos para la silvicultura de Quassia amara en Talamanca. Costa Rica. Tesis Mag. Sc. – CATIE, Turrialba. 93p. MARMILLOD, D., CHANG, Y., BEDOYA, R. (1995): Plan de aprovechamiento sostenible de Quassia amara en la Reserva Indígena de Kékoldi. In: Ocampo, R. (ed.), Potencial de Quassia amara como insecticida natural. Serie técnica, informe técnico 267. – CATIE, Turrialba. pp. 68-90. OCAMPO, R. (1999): Situación de comercio de plantas medicinales en América Latina In: Memorias XII
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Seminario Nacional de Plantas Medicinales. Petén, Guatemala. pp. 127-132. OCAMPO, R. & DÍAZ, R. (2006): Cultivo, conservación e industrialización del Hombre Grande (Quassia amara). – Litografía e Imprenta LIL, San José. 70p. OCAMPO, R. & MORA, G. (2012): Ethnomedicine of Quassia and related plants in tropical America. In: RAI, M., ACHARYA, D., RÍOS, J.L. (eds.), Ethnomedicinal plants, revitalization of traditional knowledge of herbs. – Science Publishers, Enfield, New Hampshire. pp. 301-332. TREASE, G. & EVANS, W. (1988): Tratado de Farmacognosia 12 ed. – Editorial Interamericana México, D.F. VILLALOBOS, R. (1995): Distribución de Quassia amara en Costa Rica y su relación con los contenidos de cuasina y neocuasina (insecticidas naturales) en sus tejidos. Tesis Mag. Sc. – CATIE, Turrialba. 174p. VILLALOBOS, R., MARMILLOD, D., OCAMPO, R., MORA, G., ROJAS, G. (1997): Variations in the Quassin and Neoquassin content in Quassia amara (Simaroubaceae) in Costa Rica: ecological and management implications. In: GILBERTI, G., CRAKER, L., LORENZ, M., MATHÉ, A., GIULIETTI, A. (eds.), II WOCMAP Congress Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Part 3: Agricultural Production, Post Harvest Techniques, Biotechnology. International Society for Horticultural Science, Leuven.
Chile, in a surface of 155,000 km2, accounting for 20 percent of the total country. This flora has a high degree of endemism with 2,630 species, reaching 51,8% of the total number of species (MARTICORENA 1990). Central Chile has also supported a long history of human occupation and has a relatively high density of population. In fact, 80% of the country’s population is distributed in this area thus and the high demand for land to develop cities and agriculture has caused a significant reduction in the area occupied by native wild vegetation (ARROYO & CAVIERES 1997). Furthermore, the survival of some species, particularly endemic species and those of restricted distribution, is threatened by indiscriminate extraction for medicinal and aromatic uses (MONTENEGRO 2000, MONTENEGRO ET AL. 2003)
In Chile, there is a vast traditional knowledge on medicinal plants, a fundamental resource of primary health care for a great part of the population in indigenous and rural zones, as well as an important source of income for these sectors. Besides wild harvesting a source of plant material is through cultivation. As quality requirements are becoming more and more stringent, standardization for Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez • Jardín Agr- pure products, extracts or crude drugs is of crucial oecológico de Plantas Medicinales Bougainvillea • importance. In Chile a few exotic and introduced Santo Domingo, Heredia, Costa Rica • e-mail: species of medicinal and aromatic plants are under
[email protected] cultivation. Examples are: Matricaria chamomilla, Hypericum perforatum, Rosa eglanteria sin. Rosa rubiginosa, Calendula officinalis, and Rosmarinus officinalis. Favorable growing conditions and public-private investments in research has enabled Regional file increases in the national supply of plant material and production for export. Threats to Chilean medicinal plants Wild harvesting of plant material from natural habitats of the medicinal species in central Chile is a Gloria Montenegro & Sharon Rodríguez very popular tradition and practice, and there is concern due to the great amount of biomass collected Introduction every year; especially regarding plants classified as Central Chile represents one of the biodiversity vulnerable (SQUEO ET AL. 2010). Concerns of mehotspots on earth, with high plant diversity and en- dicinal plant trade reach to policy makers and local demism, and increasing human population density people, mainly because of the lack of knowledge (CINCOTTA ET AL. 2000). A total of 5,082 species regarding in situ regeneration and the conservation have been described for continental Chile (ARROYO status of species that are intensively harvested. A & CAVIERES 1997), and around half of these are few case studies focusing on species biology have found in the Mediterranean climate area of central been done (MONTENEGRO ET AL. 1979, 2001, 2003,
Chilean medicinal plants
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WILCKENS 2005, MONTENEGRO 2006, FISCHER ET AL. 2010) to establish models of plant regeneration based on morphology, seasonality and the position of renewal buds, suggesting the right way to harvest a given species in a sustainable way.
Chilean Mediterranean arid and semiarid zone are: Balsamocarpon brevifolium, Adesmia hystrix, Fabiana imbricata, Acacia caven, Peumus boldus, Quillaja saponaria, Porlieria chilensis and Schinus polygamus.
Natural fires have not played an important role in plant species evolution of the Chilean matorral (ARMESTO & GUTIERREZ 1978, MUÑOZ & FUENTES 1989, MONTENEGRO ET AL. 2004). But anthropogenic fires affect thousands of hectares, especially the matorral, every year in central Chile (CONAF 2010). Native species’ seeds generally cannot tolerate temperatures above 100 degrees Celsius and the soil seed bank is reported reduced (MUÑOZ & FUENTES 1989, GOMEZ-GONZALEZ & CAVIERES 2009). An example is Helenium aromaticum, an important medicinal plant growing on the herbaceous strata of the matorral, whose seedlings do not emerge after application of intense fire on soil samples (GOMEZ-GONZALES ET AL. 2011). H. aromaticum appears today as one of the most vulnerable annual species due to severe fires and heavy commercial harvesting during the vegetative growth period.
A history of studies of medicinal plants in Chile The high floral diversity of Chile incorporates a great number of species with healing properties. The curative attributes of some plants have been historically transmitted by indigenous populations through many generations, mainly orally and with great development in the 19th century. The diversity of the Chilean flora made possible the natural growth of more than a thousand species of medicinal plants, forming diverse pharmacological varieties of astringent, diuretic, analgesic, antipyretic and soothing, among others attributes, identified by the doctors then. Native plants like cachanlagua (Centaurium cachanlahuen), paico (Chenopodium ambrosioides), quinchamalí (Quinchamalium chilense), viravira (Gnaphalium viravira) and cinnamon tree (Drymis winteri) are some of the bestknown by their therapeutic uses during the Colonial Period in Chile (CRUZ-COKE 1995).
In the arid zones of the country charcoal production from woody shrubs is one of the main threats to native vegetation (ESTEVEZ ET AL. 2010). The main species used for charcoal production in the
CRUZ-COKE (1995) is one of the first authors to compile information on medicinal plant species used in Chile. He details the investigations of Fa-
Figure 1. Boldo - Peamus boldus. Photo: G. Montenegro.
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ther Luis Feuilleé, published in 1714, who indicated medicinal uses of plants of Peru and Chile; he provides information on the social and medical work of Doctor Adolfo Murillo, mainly the publication of the Chilean Pharmacopoeia in 1886; and he informs of Guajardo’s work in the year 1890, which described chemical characteristics of some Chilean medicinal plants. GUSINDE (1936) published works related to the traditional uses of medicinal plants by the southern indigenous tribes of the country. In the early twentieth century, plants in their natural state were already part of medical studies. Supported by the constant development of chemistry it was possible to investigate the active ingredients of medicinal plants. Scientific publications from the second half of last century strengthened medicinal herbs through the study of the chemical components that give value to medicinal plants, diversifying the medical practices (PACHECO ET AL. 1977, MONTES & WILKOMIRSKY 1987, MUÑOZ ET AL. 2001). Recently, HOFFMAN ET AL. (2003) identified and described medicinal plants commonly used in Chile through ethnobotanical information about the traditional medicinal uses of more than 60 species of Chilean plants. LOOSER & RODRÍGUEZ (2004) described the medicinal attributes of the Chilean pteridophytes based on an unpublished manuscript of the naturalist Walterio Looser. The authors do clarify, however, that in relation to Chilean medicinal plants “many points that have to be clarified still remain”.
Chemical properties of native plants There is an ancient knowledge regarding the identification, harvesting and medicinal use of Chilean native plants and their chemical principles (active ingredients) that are used in fields like medicine, perfumery, cosmetics, eating industry, industrial and agricultural use. Results of scientific investigations ratify the efficacy of the majority of the medicinal plants used by native towns on specific illnesses, like skin and urinary infections or hypertensive crisis, as well as for their antioxidant, antirheumatic or diuretic properties (RUZ 2011). The Chilean flora has shown to be a good resource of biologically active compounds, such as antibacterials, antifungals, and antioxidants (MONTENEGRO 2000, 2006, VOGEL 2000, MUÑOZ ET AL. 2001, MONTENEGRO ET AL. 2001, 2003, 2005, FISCHER ET AL. 2007, 2010, VOGEL ET AL. 2010). Because of the high degree of endemism, primarily from Chile’s central regions (ARROYO & CAVIERES 1997), it is reasonable to propose that products with unique and particular bioactive properties are likely to be found. Examples are chemical compounds present in honey and propolis, which are closely associated with the botanical origin that they have (ÁVILA ET AL. 1993, MONTENEGRO 2000, MUÑOZ ET AL. 2001, 2007, MONTENEGRO ET AL. 2008, 2009, 2010).
Research on determining levels of antimicrobial activity (HEDERRA 2011), on the antioxidant, antimicrobial and antihypertensive activity levels of native plants and on the identification of types of MONTENEGRO ET AL. (2009) in their work “Secret responsible compounds for this activity through of our plants and other species: how to use them the combination of bioassays with chemical analyfor the benefit of the people”, made a contribution sis has been extensively developed (MONTENEGRO to the rescue and preservation of the cultural patri- 2000, SIMONSEN ET AL. 2006, MONTENEGRO ET AL. mony of Chile, putting together antecedents related 2008, 2009, 2010). to the multiple uses of the plants (medicinal, cos- Extraordinary medicinal and cosmetic properties metic, and domestic uses, among others) that form have been identified in murta or murtilla (Ugni part of the traditions and traditional knowledge of molinae), a southern native Chilean fruit that hisour country. In a similar trend MONTENEGRO (2000) torically has been part of the diet of native towns and MONTENEGRO ET AL. (2010) rescue the value of (INIA 2005). It has a high content of poliphenols, those native plants used selectively by honeybees terpenes and tannins, compounds that make murta (Apis mellifera) for collection of nectar yielding a very attractive element for the dermatological honey with medicinal properties (MONTENEGRO industry, given its regenerative tissue and healing 2007). Lastly, it is worth mentioning the significant qualities, besides multiple uses already applied in contribution made by a group of experts called by the national agro food industry. the Department of Health who carried out an empirical land registry of the medicinal plants, regis- Chilean medicinal plants and their use Only a few species of Chilean medicinal plants are tering 460 different species (PROTEGE 2009).
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widely available in natural populations, with no need of management for protection. Many of the plants that are part of Chile’s national herbarium are in a state of vulnerability associated mainly with informal indiscriminate harvesting.
distribution.
The main species exported from Chile are rosa mosqueta (Rosa aff. rubiginosa) and oregano (Origanum vulgare), with a considerable increase in the production of chamomile and boldo. Rosa mosThe increase in demand for natural products (es- queta and hazelnut seed oils occupy an important pecially plants), nationally and internationally, has place in the national and international cosmetic positive effects in promoting the conservation of dustry, with Chile the major producer and exportnatural plant populations with commercial poten- er of rosa mosqueta oil in the world, mainly to tial. For this reason it is useful to characterize the France, Germany and Japan. Also, the exports of conservation state of native Chilean plants with plants extracts have considerably increased, among medicinal potential. Table 1 was constructed with them, processed extracts of quillay, hiperico, vathat purpose; it shows native and endemic species nilla and parsley, and also a growing production in Chile, their taxonomic identification, growth and export of peppermint essential oils (FIA 2008). form, and state of conservation. Sustainable harvest: regeneration models in Chilean medicinal plant trade plants used for medicinal purposes Medicinal plants are traded in fairs and local mar- Research on conservation and sustainable use of kets by fruit pickers and herbalists. The products are medicinal plants is being developed at the Catholic hand-packed and characterized by irregular qual- University as part of the International Cooperative ity. Data from 2007 show the entrance of medicinal Biodiversity Group (ICBG); the studies seek to herbs in Chilean homes, with an average growth in strike a balance between exploitation and conserthe consumption of around 20% (PROCHILE 2007). vation of natural plant resources in collaboration This has encouraged the development of compa- with people who collect and sell medicinal plants, nies and research institutions to use plant products with a focus on explaining the impact of local and plant selection in areas of food, cosmetics and practices on the conservation of intensively hardrugs, focusing mainly on folk medicine (EVENSON vested species (MONTENEGRO 1994, 2005). So far & WESTPHAL 1995, GUZMÁN ET AL. 2004). Still the data on species threatened by overexploitation has yearly per capita consumption of purchased me been collected: areas of exploitation, the amount dicinal plant based material is low compared with- of biomass gathered, the frequency of collection, and methods of plant harvesting. The biology of Europe. these species has been studied to develop morphoThere is in Chile a recent approach to the global logical models of regeneration based on position market for medicinal plants (POLANCO 2011). Fig- and location on types of branches of renewal buds. ures from the last decade (FIA 2008) indicated an Based on monitoring of experimental plots growth increase of almost 60% in exports of medicinal dynamics have been studied to calculate rates of herbs. Shortcomings identified in relation to trade regeneration after harvesting (MONTENEGRO ET AL. are associated with safety and efficiency records, 2003). standardization, and clinical knowledge, among others (LOBOS 2011, MARLES 2011, POLANCO Sustainable medicinal plant management strategies based on regeneration models have been developed 2011). by MONTENEGRO ET AL. (2007). The quantification The industrialization of the medicinal herb prod- of the increment rates of the number of leaves, foucts has great potentials but entrance to the de- liar area and length of the stems provides informamanding markets of Europe and USA is challeng- tion on the seasonal dynamics of vegetation growth ing and requires elaboration and implementation (MONTENEGRO ET AL. 1979, 1982, MONTENEGRO of supportive regulations. The recognition of the 1987). Species-specific growth measurements, in Chilean Department of Health of 52 herbs as ‘tra- combination with the information about the availaditional medicine herbs’ is a measure that, besides bility of the resources, then allow determination of recognizing officially the curative properties of the sustainable use rates and use types (cutting of trees, plants, implies a greater control in their sale and
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Ephedra chilensis
Pingo-pingo, Transmontana, Solupe, Sea grape
S
Equisetum bogotense
Yerba del platero, Limpia plata, Hierba de la plata, Canutillo
P
Escallonia illinita
Barraco, Corontillo, Ñipa
S
Escallonia pulverulenta
Madroño, Corontillo, Siete camisas
S
Escallonia revoluta
Lun
T
Escallonia rubra
Siete camisas colorado, Ñipa, Yang-yang
S
Escallonia virgata
Mata negra, Meki
S
Eucryphia cordifolia
Ulmo, muermo
T
Fabiana imbricata
Pichi, Peta, Romero
S
Francoa appendiculata
Llaupangue, Vara de mármol
P
Fuchsia magellanica
Chilco, Chilca, Palo blanco
S
Gaultheria mucronata
Chaura
S
core-core
Geranium core-core
P
Geum quellyon
Hierba del clavo, Hallante
P
Gevuina avellana
Avellano, Gevuín
T
Gnaphalium viravira
Viravira, Hierba de la vida, Hierba de la diuca
P
Gunnera tinctoria
Nalca, Pangue
S
Haplopappus baylahuen
Baylahuén
S
Haplopappus foliosus
Cuerno de cabra
S
Haplopappus multifolius
Bailahuén, Cacho de cabra
S
S
Helenium aromaticum
Manzanilla del cerro
P
Crucero, Yaqui, Cunco
S
Kageneckia oblonga
Bollén
T
Colliguay, Coliguay, Lechón
S
Lampaya medicinalis
Lampaya
S
Convulvulus arvensis
Correhuela, Correvuela
P
Latua pubiflora
Palo muerto, Palo de brujos, Latué
S
Coriaria ruscifolia
Deu, Huique, Mataratones
S
Laurelia sempervirens
Laurel, Trihue
T
Corynabutilon viride
Huella
S
Linum chamissonis
Ñancolahuén, Retamilla
P
Corynabutilon vitifolium
Huella
T, S
Lithrea caústica
Litre
T
Lobelia tupa
Tabaco del diablo, Tupa, Trupa
S
Lomatia dentata
Piñol, Avellanillo, Palo negro
T
Lomatia ferruginea
Fuinque, Palmilla
T
Lomatia hirsuta
Radal, Raral, Nogal silvestre
T
Espino, Aromo
Acaena alpina
Cepacaballo, Cadillo
P
Acaena splendens
Cadillo, abrojo, amores secos
P
Acantholippia deserticola
Rica-rica, Kore
S
Adesmia emarginata
Paramela, Paramilla
P
Aloysa salvifolia
Cedrón del monte/Chilean lemon beebrush, Lemon verbena
S
Araucaria araucana
Araucaria, pehuén, Piñonero
T
Argemone hunnemannii
Cardo santo
A
Argemone subfusiformis
Cardo blanco
A, B
Aristolochia chilensis
Oreja de zorro, Hierba de la Virgen María, Birthwort, Pipevine, Dutchman’s pipe
P
Aristotelia chilensis
Maqui
T
Azara mycrophylla
Chin-chin, Roblecillo
S
Azorella compacta
Llareta
S
Berberis empetrifolia
Uva de la cordillera, Palo amarillo, Barberry
S
Bomarea salsilla
Salsilla, Zarcilla, Copihuito
S
Buddleja globosa
Matico, Pañil
S
Calceolaria arachnoidea
Capachito morado
P
Calceolaria thyrsiflora
Capachito, Hierba dulce
P
Centaurium cachanlahuen
Cachanlahue, Cachen, Kachan-l-awen
A
Cestrum parqui
Palqui, Parqui, Hediondilla
S
Cheilanthes glauca
Doradilla
P
Cissus striata
Voqui colorado
Colletia spinosa Colliguaja odorifera
Growth form Acacia caven
T, S
Cryptocarya alba
Peumo
T
Cuscuta chilensis
Cabello de ángel
A
Discaria serratifolia
Chacay, Espino blanco
S
Drimys winteri
Canelo, Fuñe, Boighe, Boique
T
Elytropus chilensis
Quilmay, Poroto del campo
S
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V
V
V
Growth form
Common name
Common name
Cons. status
Scientific name
Scientific name
Cons. status
TABLE 1. Identification, description and conservation status of major Chilean plants.
Geranium
V
V
V
E
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Common name
Lophosoria quadripinnata Ampe, Palmilla, Pesebre
F
Luma apiculata
Arrayán, Palo colorado
T
Luma chequen
Chequén, Arrayán blanco
S
Margyricarpus pinnatus
Hierba de la perilla
S
Maytenus boaria
Maitén
T
Mitraria coccinea
Botellita, Vochi-vochi
S
Muehlenbeckia hastulata
Quilo, Voqui negro, Molleca
S
Mulinum spinosum
Hierba negra, Palo negro, Hierba de la culebra
S
Myrceugenia exsucca
Pitrilla, Pitra, Patagua
T
Myrceugenia planipes
Picha, Pitra, Patagua de Valdivia
T
Nothofagus obliqua
Roble
T
Oenothera stricta
Flor de San José, Don Diego de la noche amarillo, Evening primrose
P
Passiflora pinnatistípula
Granadilla, Flora de la pasión, Pasionaria
C
Peumus boldus
Boldo
T
Podanthus mitiqui
Mitique, Palo negro
S
Puya berteroniana
Chagual, Puya, Cardón
P
Puya chilensis
Chagual, Puya, Cardón
P
Quillaja saponaria
Quillay
T
Quinchamalium chilense
Quinchamalí
P
Retanilla trinervia
Tevo, Tebo
S
Schinus molle
Pimiento, falso pimiento
T
Schinus latifolius
Molle, Lilén
T
Senecio fistulosus
Hualtata
P
Solanum crispum
Natre, Natri, Hierba del chabalongo, Common nightshade
S
Sphacele salviae
Salvia blanca, Lahuénlahuén
S
Stachys albicaulis
Toronjilcillo, Hierba de Santa María
P
Stellaria arvalis
Quilloi-quilloi
P
Triptilion spinosum
Siempreviva
P
Tristerix corymbosus
Quintral
S
Ugni molinae
Murta blanca, Murta, Tautau, Murtilla
T
Weinmannia trichosperma Tineo, Palo santo 1 2
T
P: perennial herb, A: annual herb, T: tree, S: shrub E: endangered, V: vulnerable
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Cons. status
Scientific name
Growth form
TABLE 1. Continued - Chilean plants.
grazing and harvest for human medicinal use) by the community (MONTENEGRO 1986, 1987, ÁVILAET AL. 1988), as well as the efficiency in the use of the available resources. The massive extraction of certain plant species for medicinal use, by either folk medicine or for export purposes requires the evaluation of the conservation status of medicinal plants. Causes of overexploitation, their potentiality and the specific rates of regeneration after harvest must be identified (SIMONETTI & MONTENEGRO 1996). This requires involvement of local communities in the recovery of the traditional knowledge about species-specific utilization activities (TIMMERMANN & MONTENEGRO 1997). It is important to emphasize the local responsibility in the conservation of the biological diversity, promoting programs of sustainable production, cultivation and protection. The study of the mechanisms of species regeneration used in folk medicine, specifically the location and activity of the renewal buds, their growth dynamics and the way and time that they sprout allows for determination of patterns of regeneration (MONTENEGRO ET AL. 2003). Also, the ability of a species to recover from extraction can be established, correlating the regeneration rate with the frequency and amount of material removed. Through an analysis of productivity per season, the rate of productivity per plant with the rate of removal by harvesters can be compared. Comparing the extraction and regeneration of plants at individual sites currently used by growers with the ones used in the past and projecting the data to be applied at community level, it is possible to evaluate whether the population of a given species is maintaining or decreasing as result of resource extraction. Some results show that regeneration is possible when the harvest is done allowing the renewal buds to remain untouched in the plant (BOX 1). The knowledge about the cycles of life of the species helps using products of economic interest in the biologically most appropriate periods. For example, in the case of extract pieces of bark of Quillaja saponaria, a saponin-rich species, exploiting individuals during their biological inactivity, i.e. in autumn and part of winter would be a good idea. So when growth resumes the extracted bark can be regenerated. Another example is the use of the leaves of Peumus boldus Mol., that are rich in boldina. Its
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biomass can be regenerated if renewal buds located in apical or axillary places are kept in place. Apart from all the procedures used to promote sustainable use of the natural plant resources, the reproduction through seed germination, vegetative propagation and/or tissue culture will provide a powerful tool to recover degraded areas and to conserve endangered species helping to preserve the fragile plant biodiversity of our planet. Regulatory framework In Latin America and the Caribbean Islands countries medicinal plants are protected under regulations of CITES. About 30 countries of the region, including Chile, have become signatory of the Convention. The permits and certificates of origin are issued by the SAG (Agricultural and Livestock Service of Chile). In Chile, the Ministry of Health FIGURE 2. Medicinal plant vendor. Photo: G. has generated and incorporated changes in the legMontenegro. islation to ensure the rational use of medicines deleaves grow from September to December, their rived from medicinal plants and natural products extraction during the inactive time is advisable (PARADA 2011). from a management point of view because the old leaves have larger amounts of the active compound Existing regulations regarding medicinal plants in and because extraction of leaves during the grow- Chile are associated (i) to the stage of productioning season reduces the photosynthetic activity, extraction of plant species oriented to the sustain thereby affecting the formation of new organs. able use of plants or plant structures such as leaves Thus, the knowledge about the life cycle of species BOX 2. Regeneration models for different helps to quantify, with some accuracy, the pattern types of plants of biomass productivity throughout the growing season, enabling determination of the rate of accu- Regeneration model 1 represents perennial hermulation of dry matter at different times (MON- baceous species that develop underground stems where the reserve of renewal buds is found TENEGRO ET AL. 1988). Many species can tolerate the removal of a certain amount of biomass and can regenerate from renewal buds or other meristematic tissues. Regeneration models that promote extraction procedures, consistent with a sustainable use of natural resources, have been elaborated for these specific cases (MONTENEGRO ET AL. 2003, Box 2). Other models of regeneration from specific parts of the plant can be added to the previous models, such as a regeneration pattern of the bark from lateral meristems (vascular cambium and phellogen) located on the periphery of the trunk. These meristems are capable of regenerating the bark removed when part of them has been allowed to remain in place. Another example is a model related to the woody species used for their leaves: the extracted
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Regeneration model 2 represents the perennial herbaceous species that develop a bank of buds in the crown located at ground level Regeneration model 3 is linked to cushion plants that have a reserve of protected buds at ground level or underground, which help to regenerate their biomass if the woody structure that protects them is not destroyed Regeneration model 4 represents the woody species that have between the trunk and the root, a lignified tuber (lignotuber) which generates buds from vascular cambium when the aerial part has suffered a serious environmental impact Regeneration model 5 represents annual plants that have a reserve of renewal buds in the seeds.
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and fruits, specifically the exploitation of quillay, from which mainly its bark is extracted; boldo (Peumus boldus) for the removal of its leaves, and shrubs and native trees in general; and (ii) to the processing of medicinal herbs for therapeutic use, to obtain and register a pharmaceutical product with medicinal properties. However, there is no legislation for the conservation of native germplasm of medicinal plants that are exploited indiscriminately (FIA 2001). It is necessary to regulate access to genetic resources in Chile to prevent leakage of material and protect traditional knowledge (MANZUR 2004). The “Global Strategy for Plant Conservation” (GSPC) in Latin America intends to be established as a conceptual guideline for the conservation of plants from the experience developed by the LatinAmerican Network of Botany and also considers the constant loss of species diversity of the world. The work published by CHACÓN ET AL. (2011) is a fundamental element to guide the decisions of management that contribute to the conservation and sustainable use of the vegetable species. References ARMESTO, J.J. & GUTIÉRREZ, J. (1978): El efecto del fuego en la estructura de la vegetación de Chile Central. – Anales del Museo de Historia Natural 11: 43-48 ARROYO, M.T.K. & CAVIERES, L. (1997): The Mediterranean type climate flora of central Chile. What do we know and how can we assure its protection. – In: TIMMERMANN, B.N. & MONTENEGRO, G. (eds.), Aspectos ambientales, éticos, ideológicos y políticos en el debate sobre bioprospección y uso de recursos genéticos en Chile. Noticiero de Biología 5(2): 48-56. ÁVILA, G., MONTENEGRO, G, & ALJARO, M.E. (1988): Incendios en la vegetación mediterránea. – In: FUENTES, E. & PRENAFRETA, S. (eds.), Ecología del paisaje de Chile Central. Estudios sobre sus espacios montañosos. Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago. pp 81-89. ÁVILA, G., GÓMEZ, M., MUJICA, A.M. & MONTENEGRO, G. (1993): La flora nativa sustentadora de colmenas de Apis mellifera en Pichidangui, IV Región de Chile. – Ciencia e Investigación Agraria 20(3): 119125. CINCOTTA, R.P., WISNEWSKI, J. & ENGELMAN, R. (2000): Human population in the biodiversity hotspots. – Nature 404: 990–992. CHACÓN, P., LAGOS-WITTE, S., MORA, A. & MORAES, M. (2011): Manual para la implementación de la ‘Estrategia Global para la Conservación de las Especies
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Vegetales’ (EGCEV) en América Latina: El aporte de la Red Latinoamericana de Botánica al objetivo 1, meta 2. – Red Latinoamericana de Botánica. CONAF. (2010): Estadísticas históricas de Incendios Forestales. Corporación Nacional Forestal de Chile. – Ministerio de Agricultura. Disponible en: http://www. conaf.cl Accessed June 2011. CRUZ-COKE, R. (1995): Historia de la Medicina Chilena. – Editorial Andres Bello. 584 páginas. EVENSON, R.E. & WESTPHAL, L.E. (1995): Technological Change and Technology Strategy. In: BEHRMAN & SRINIVASAN (eds.), Handbook of Development Economics. Elsevier Science B.V. Chapter 37. ESTÉVEZ, R.A., SQUEO, F.A., ARANCIO, G. & ERAZO, M.B. (2010): Producción de carbón vegetal a partir de arbustos nativos de la Región de Atacama, Chile. – Gayana Botánica 67(2): 213-223. FIA (2001): Estrategia de Innovación Agraria para Producción de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas. – Fundación para la Innovación Agraria, Ministerio de Agricultura, Santiago. 67 pp FIA (2008): Resultados y lecciones en plantas medicinales y aromáticas. Proyectos de Innovación en Regiones V, VII, VIII y X. Serie Experiencias de Innovación para el Emprendimiento Agrario, – Fundación para la Innovación Agraria, Ministerio de Agricultura, Santiago. FISCHER, S, INOSTROZA, L., WILCKENS, R., BERTI, M. BAEZA, M. & PASTENE, E. (2007): Characterization and Evaluation of Two Chilean Populations of Geum quellyon. – In: JANICK, J. & WHIPKEY, A. (eds.), Issues in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. FISCHER S., BERTI, M., WILCKENS, R., BAEZA, M., PASTENE, E., INOSTROZA, L., TRAMÓNE, C. & GONZALEZ, W. (2010): Characterization and propagation of some medicinal plants in the central-south region of Chile. – Ind. Crops Prod. Article in press. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.10.012. GOMEZ-GONZALEZ, S. & CAVIERES, L. (2009): Litter burning does not equally affect seedling emergence of native and alien species of the Mediterranean-type Chilean matorral. – International Journal of Wildland Fire 18: 213-221. GÓMEZ-GONZALEZ, S., TORRES-DÍAZ, C. & GIANOLI, E. (2011): The effects of fire related cues on seed germination and viability of Helenium aromaticum (Hook) H.L. Bailey (Asteraceae). – Gayana Botánica 68(1): 86-89. GUSINDE, M. (1936): Plantas medicinales que los indios Araucanos recomiendan. – Anthropos XXXI: 555-571. GUZMÁN, A., LUDLOW, J. & GÓMEZ, H. (2004): Brechas tecnológicas y de innovación entre países indus-
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trializados y países en desarrollo en la industria farmacéutica. – Investigación Económica. HEDERRA, L.M. (2011): Control microbiológico en productos vegetales para uso medicinal. Seminario Desafíos y oportunidades para los productos medicinales de origen vegetal, 3-5 de August 2011. – Instituto de Salud Pública, Proyecto Farmacopea Chilena. Santiago, Chile. HOFFMANN A., FRAGA, C., LASTRA, J., & VEGHAZI, E. (2003): Plantas medicinales de uso común en Chile. 3rd ed. – Ed. Fundación Claudio Gay, Santiago, Chile. 275 pp. INIA. (2005): Domesticación y desarrollo de la murtilla, una baya nativa para la zona sur de Chile. – INIA Carillanca e INIA Remehue. Proyecto financiado por FDI-CORFO 2003-2005. LOBOS, M. (2011): Productos de Origen Vegetal y la Industria Farmacéutica: alcances y necesidades. Seminario Desafíos y oportunidades para los productos medicinales de origen vegetal, 3-5 August, 2011. – Instituto de Salud Pública, Proyecto Farmacopea Chilena. Santiago, Chile. LOOSER, W. & RODRÍGUEZ, R. (2004): Los helechos medicinales de Chile y sus nombres vulgares. – Gayana Bot. 61(1): 1-5. MANZUR, M.I. (2004): Experiencias en Chile de acceso a recursos genéticos, protección del conocimiento tradicional y derechos de propiedad intelectual. – Fundación Sociedades Sustentables. Darwin Initiative. MARLES, R.J. (2011): Challenges and Opportunities for the Safety Assessment of Herbal Medicinal Products. Seminario Desafíos y oportunidades para los productos medicinales de origen vegetal, 3-5 de August 2011. – Instituto de Salud Pública, Proyecto Farmacopea Chilena. Santiago, Chile. MARTICORENA, C. (1990): Contribución a la estadística de la flora vascular de Chile. – Gayana Botánica 47: 85-113. MONTENEGRO, G. (1986): Formas de crecimiento: su definición y naturaleza de sus adaptaciones al ambiente utilizando el sistema de monocaracteres. – Rev. Acad. Colomb. Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales 61(16): 11-20. MONTENEGRO, G. (1987): Quantification of Mediterranean plant phenology and growth. – In: TENHUNEM, J.D., CATARINO, F.M., LANGE, O. & OECHEL, W. (eds.) Plant responses to stress. Functional analysis in Mediterranean ecosystems. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, NATO-ASI Series Ecological Sciences 15: 469-488. MONTENEGRO, G. (1994): The Equitable and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity in Chile. Achieving National Objectives through Regional Collaboration. – In: KRATTIGER, A.F. & LESSER, F. (eds.), Final Round Table Report on Sustainable Use of Biodiversity in
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Latin America and the Caribbean. International Academy of the Environment, Geneva. MONTENEGRO, G. (2000): CHILE, nuestra flora útil. Guía de uso apícola, alimentario, medicinal folclórica, artesanal y ornamental. Colección en Agricultura. Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile. – Abaco Impresores, Santiago, Chile. 267 pp. MONTENEGRO, G. (2005): La Flora Chilena y sus Aplicaciones. – Revista Chile Agricola. 276-277(30): 182183. MONTENEGRO, G. (2006): Training Course on ‘MAPs (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants) Conservation through sustainable harvesting’, Santiago, Chile, 15-17 November, organized by ICS-UNIDO in collaboration with the Red Latinoamericana de Botánica (Código RLB-CP06-06). MONTENEGRO, G. (2007): Natural Composition Based on Chilean Monofloral Honey extract from native vegetable species for bacterial infection control in plants at all. International Patent Customer Number 23599. MONTENEGRO, G., ALJARO, M.E., ÁVILA, G. & MUJICA, A.M. (1988): Las formas de las plantas y su potencial como recursos. – In: FUENTES, E. & PRENAFRETA, S. (eds.), Ecología del paisaje de Chile Central. Estudios sobre sus espacios montañosos. Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile. pp 65-80. MONTENEGRO, G., ALJARO, M.E. & KUMMEROW, J. (1979): Growth dynamics of Chilean matorral shrubs. – Bot. Gazette 140(1): 114-119. MONTENEGRO, G., ARAYA, S., ALJARO, M.E. & ÁVILA, G. (1982): Seasonal Fluctuations of Vegetative Growth in Roots and Shoots of Central Chilean shrubs. – Oecologia 53: 235-237. MONTENEGRO, G., GINNOCCHIO, R., SEGURA, A., KEELEY, J.E. & GÓMEZ, M. (2004): Fire regimes and vegetation responses in two Mediterranean-climate regions. – Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 77: 455-464. MONTENEGRO, G., GÓMEZ, M. DÍAZ, J. & PIZARRO, R. (2008): Aplicación de la Norma Chilena Oficial de denominación de origen botánico de la miel (NCh2981. Of2005) para la caracterización de la producción apícola nacional. – Ciencia e Investigación Agraria 35(2): 181-190. MONTENEGRO, G., GÓMEZ, M. MUJICA, A.M. & TIMMERMANN, B.N. (2003): Theoretical Models for regeneration of Medicinal Plants and their application in sustainable wild-harvesting. – In: LEMONS, J., VICTOR, R. & SCHAFFER, D. (eds.), Conserving Biodiversity in Arid Regions. Best Practices in Developing Nations. Kluwer Academic Publishers, London. 275291. MONTENEGRO, G., GÓMEZ, M. & TIMERMANN, B. (2007): Flora de la Zona Central, Matorrales de identi-
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dad. – Revista Universitaria 93: 14-17. MONTENEGRO, G., KORNFELD, R. & RIOSECO, V. (2009): Secretos de nuestras plantas y otras especies. Cómo usarlas en beneficio de las personas. Ediciones UC, 128 pp. MONTENEGRO, G., PATRICK, G., ECHENIQUE, P., GÓMEZ, M. & TIMMERMANN, B.N. (2001): Mechanisms toward a sustainable use of Chorizanthe vaginata Benth. var. maritime Remy: a medicinal plant from Chile. – Phyton International Journal of Experimental Botany 91-106. MONTENEGRO, G., PIZARRO, R., ÁVILA, G., MUÑOZ, O., MUJICA, A.M. & BAS, F. (2005): Determination of the Botanical Origin and some Chemical Properties of Honeys from the Central Zone of Chile. – Phyton International Journal of Experimental Botany 213-223. MONTENEGRO, G., RODRÍGUEZ, S., VÍO, S., GÓMEZ, M., PIZARRO, R., MUJICA, A.M. & ORTEGA, X. (2010): Investigación científica y tecnológica en productos apícolas. – LOM Ediciones. 243 pp. MONTES, M. & WILKOMIRSKY, T. (1987): Medicina Tradicional Chilena. – Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile. 58pp. MUÑOZ A., CASTAÑEDA, M., BLANCO, K., CÁRDENAS, C., REYES, J., & KOUZNETSOV, V. (2007): Composición y capacidad antioxidante de especies aromáticas y medicinales con alto contenido de timol y carvacrol. – Scientia Et Technica 13(33): 125-128. MUÑOZ, M.R. & FUENTES, E.R. (1989): Does fire induced shrub germination in the Chilean matorral? – Oikos 56: 177-181. MUÑOZ, O., MONTES, M. & WILKOMIRSKY, T. (2001): Plantas medicinales de uso en Chile. Química y farmacología. – Editorial Universitaria. 330pp. PACHECO P., CHIANG, M., MARTICORENA, C. & SILVA, M. (1977): Química de las plantas chilenas usadas en medicina popular. – Universidad de Concepción, 78pp. PARADA, M. (2011): Normas para registro de productos de origen vegetal en Chile. Seminario Desafíos y oportunidades para los productos medicinales de origen vegetal, 3-5 August, 2011. – Instituto de Salud Pública, Proyecto Farmacopea Chilena. Santiago. POLANCO, X. (2011): Fitofármacos: proyecciones y desarrollo. Seminario Desafíos y oportunidades para los productos medicinales de origen vegetal, 3-5 August, 2011. – Instituto de Salud Pública, Proyecto Farmacopea Chilena. Santiago. PROCHILE (2007): Plantas medicinales cada vez más atractivas. – Revista Mundo del Agro. Diario El Mercurio de Valparaíso. Available at: h t t p : / / w w w. p r o c h i l e . c l / v a l p a r a i s o / n o t i c i a s . php?item=00000005938 PROTEGE (2009): MHT Medicamentos Herbarios
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Tradicionales. – Red de Protección Social, Ministerio de Salud, Gobierno de Chile. RUZ, J. (2011): Producción de extractos estandarizados de origen vegetal. Seminario Desafíos y oportunidades para los productos medicinales de origen vegetal, 3-5 August, 2011. – Instituto de Salud Pública, Proyecto Farmacopea Chilena. Santiago. SIMONETTI, J. & MONTENEGRO, G. (1996): Conservación y uso de la biodiversidad de la zona árida y semiárida de Chile. – In: Conservación y uso sostenible de la biodiversidad en zonas áridas y semiáridas de América Latina y el Caribe. FAO, PNUMA. 178 pp. SIMONSEN, H.T., ANDERSEN, A., BERTHELSEN, L., CHRISTENSEN, S.B., GUZMAN, A. & MØLGAARD, P. (2006): Ethnopharmacological evaluation of radal (leaves of Lomatia hirsuta) and isolation of 2-methoxyjuglone. – BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 6(29): 1-4. SQUEO, F., ESTADES, C., BAHAMONDE, N., CAVIERES, L., ROJAS, G., BENOIT, I., PARADA, E., FUENTES, A., AVILES, R., PALMA, A., SOLIS, R., GUERRERO, S., MONTENEGRO, G., & TORRES-MURA, J.C. (2010): Review of the species classification in categories of threat in Chile. – Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 83: 511-529. TIMMERMANN, B. & MONTENEGRO, G. (eds.) (1997): Aspectos ambientales, éticos, ideológicos y políticos en el debate sobre bioprospección y uso de recursos genéticos en Chile. – Noticiero de Biología 5(2): 1-119. VOGEL, H. (2000): Avances del cultivo de especies medicinales nativas de Chile. Seminario Internacional y Rueda de negocios Plantas medicinales: Mercado, cultivo y procesamiento. Marzo 29–32. Fac. Agronomía. – Universidad de Concepción, Chillán, Chile. VOGEL, H., RAZMILIC, I., POLANCO, X. & LETELIER, M.E. (2010): Effect of different provenances and production conditions on antioxidant properties in Buddleja globosa leaves. – Boletín Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas 9 (5): 333-342. WILCKENS, R. (2005): Adaptación de plantas medicinales en la zona centro-sur y sur de Chile: resultados proyecto FIA PI-C-2000-1-A-003. – Universidad de Concepción, Facultad de Agronomía. 162pp.
Gloria Montenegro • Departamento de Ciencias Vegetales, Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile • Av. Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Macul, Santiago, Chile • 3Fondecyt N° 1110808 • email: gmonten@ uc.cl • Sharon Rodríguez • Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile • email:
[email protected]
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Focus on Medicinal Plants in Madagascar Julie Le Bigot This work is part of the pilot project “Madagascar: people, plants, remedies” by the association AVERTEM (Association of Valorization of Ethnopharmacology in tropical and Mediterranean regions, www.avertem.fr). The multidisciplinary team of AVERTEM operates since 2009 in three villages around the coastal rainforest of Tampolo, a protected area located on the east coast of the island (Analanjirofo - clove tree’s forest - region). The three objectives of the association are the knowledge and valorization of the use of medicinal plants, the return of information gathered from local people to improve primary health care and the preservation of local biodiversity. Introduction Considered a “hot spot”, the island of Madagascar is exceptional for its biological diversity. The floristic inventory, which is not yet completed, amounts today to 12,000 to 13,000 vascular plants species. This flora is also remarkable for its very high endemism which is around 90% (GSPM 2011). Madagascar is one of the world priorities in terms of biodiversity conservation.
health centres (Centres de Santé de Base, CSB, mostly practising allopathic medicine) being located at several hours’ walk. Medicinal plants can be used in different ways: by self-medication at home in the family circle or in consultation with a traditional practitioner (called mpitsabo, mpanaody or nentin-drazana, depending on the types of practices they exercise and the components they use to treat). Medicinal plants do not, however, constitute the only therapeutic contribution of traditional practitioners. Medicinal plants, or raokandro (literally meaning “action of collecting plants every day”), carry also a meaning and a therapeutic efficacy, both biological and symbolic, that can evolve according to their packaging, their use and the substances to which they are associated. The herb-remedy can be perceived as the “vehicle of representations, the receptacle of symbols” (BENOIST 1995:53). Traditional medicine also uses animal (including insect) and mineral material.
In recent years, the Malagasy Ministry of Health has wished to restructure the traditional practices in order to improve them. As part of this plan, a service of Pharmacopoeia and Traditional Medicine (Service de la Pharmacopée et de la Médecine Traditionnelle, SPMT) was created. A Malagasy pharmacopoeia including hundreds of species has then been initiated; so far the first of four volumes have been completed. The pharmacopoeia is intended Medicine and medicinal plants in Madagascar to be distributed to CBS in order to facilitate the Biodiversity in Madagascar represents a consider- implementation of what is called integrative mediable genetic diversity, still poorly understood, and cine, in other words, “the official recognition of which has long been used by local populations in traditional medicine and its integration with westparticular for therapeutic purposes. Despite the ern medicine“ (MACFARLANE & ALPERS 2010). introduction of conventional medicine, the use of In 2007 the National Association of traditional so-called traditional medicine and herbal remedies practitioners was created; it was commissioned by is still largely present. WHO (2009) has estimated the Ministry of Health to issue diplomas to tradithat about 70% of the people in Madagascar use tional practitioners recognized as “efficient” and this form of medicine. Several reasons may explain considered legitimate, and to deny access to this this figure: first of all this medicine is ancestral and official title to traditional practitioners considered part of the Malagasy cultural practices and herit“charlatans”. age; secondly, the use of medicinal plants allows for inexpensive treatments in a country where con- We can also observe in Madagascar the developventional medication is costly (in 2005 85% of the ment of Improved Traditional Drugs (Remèdes Malagasy people lived on less than 2 USD per day Traditionels Améliorés, RTA) which notably allow (www.statistiques-mondiales.); and finally, tradi- optimizing component proportions to prevent toxtional medicine is easily accessible and provides a icity. These RTA are in the form of cream, soap, rapid response in a country where health facilities herbal tea, balm, syrup or essential oil. Currently are sometimes very far from villages, some basic the Ministry of Health and its Traditional Medicine
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Department are considering the introduction of low cost RTA in the CSB to improve primary health care. The Malagasy Institute for Applied Research (Institut malgache de recherche appliquée, IMRA) and Homeopharma are the two largest manufacturers of RTA in Madagascar. In addition, many small structures practice also this business. When used locally, the use of medicinal plants does not appear to pose a threat to the sustainability of the resource since the collecting is found to be relatively low. The results of the first investigations on this matter by trainees from AVERTEM show that the plants are gathered mainly in the outskirts of the village and not in the forest. It still could be considered to provide collectors with basic tips to optimize practices (such as not taking all the leaves from the same plant or not taking all the bark from the same tree, etc). In addition, laboratory studies could be initiated and generalized to give traditional practice a sustainable orientation. A case was reported to us about a plant in Madagascar whose roots were usually used as a medicine. However laboratory studies have shown that the leaves contain the same active ingredients as the roots. Thus, the use of underground parts, detrimental to the survival of the specimen was substituted by the leafy parts. In view of all these elements it can be recognized that the practice of collecting medicinal plants in Madagascar shows to a certain degree signs of sustainability.
over 900 tons of plants were exported in 2010, generating foreign exchange earnings of nearly 7.980 million Ariary (one euro equals about 2800 Ariary). This export industry is based on 50 species, of which 33 are from the forest (REPUBLIC OF MADAGASCAR 1995, FIGURE 1). Cinnamomum camphora (in Malagasy ‘the good plant’), Catharanthus roseus, Centella asiatica, Aphloia theaeformis and Drosera madagascariensis are among the species sought after for their active ingredients. Another species, Prunus africana, is causing great concern. This African medicinal tree, over-exploited for its bark, is listed on Appendix 2 of CITES. Pending the results of a study which has just started, its export quota is currently zero.
FIGURE 1. Harvest of Catharanthus roseus roots in south Madagascar. Photo: Author.
Most medicinal plants are exported from Madagascar in raw form, but the island also has aromatic plant resources. The two non-indigenous species Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) and clove (Syzygium aromaticum) make up almost the entirety of essential oil exports, both in quantity and value. These two introduced species are being planted on a large-scale. Madagascan endemics such as Cinnamosma fragrans (mandravasarotra, literally meaning “plant that overcomes the most serious ailments”), Helichrysum gymnocephalum and Ravensara aromatica are also much sought after The export of Medicinal plants from Madagas- by exporters. The latter species has numerous properties (broncho-pulmonary, anti-infective, etc.) and car all its parts are aromatic (its vernacular name haData from the National Institute of Statistics of zomanitra means “aromatic tree”). Madagascar (Institut national de la statistique de Although the cultivation of medicinal plants is Madagascar, http://www.instat.mg/) tell us that developing, most are still widely collected in the Our data does not permit at present to determine to what extent the use of plants at the national level threatens the resources. IMRA and Homeopharma grow crops, but they also collect plants from the wild. Do they have wild plant supply networks? What is the proportion of cultivated plants compared to what is obtained from the wild? All these questions remained unanswered for now. Malagasy medicinal plants are also widely exported as they represent a quality raw material for pharmaceutical industries, including in Europe and North America.
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of charcoal for domestic purposes and wood for building material; mostly illegal logging of high quality timber (e.g., Dalbergia spp., Stephanostegia capuronii and Faucherea glutinosa); and the introduction of cash crops and industrial crops leading to the destruction of woodlands, for example in the case of Sisal (Agave sisalana), a fiber crop grown in the south of the country. Mining and cyclones reaching the east coast of the island are The use of medicinal plants is regulated by a 1987 other causes of forest destruction, and invasive alinterministerial order. Article 3 states that the col- ien species harmful to the fragile island ecosystems lecting of wild plants for commercial purposes are of concern. requires the granting of an “operating regulation In 1990, an Environmental Charter was enacted document”. In principle, the harvest of more than (Law No. 90-033 of 21 October 1990) that “clearly two individual plants, whether for commercial, sci- recognize the links between environmental proentific or other purposes, requires the issue of an tection and economic development” (MONTAGNE authorization from the Ministry of Water and For- & RAMAMONJISOA 2006:15). In 1991 a National ests (Ministère des Eaux et Forêts). In fact, most Environmental Action Plan was launched (Plan small collectors and roadside sellers do not comply National d’Action Environnemental, PNAE, and with this legislation. as part of this the National Agency for Protected The collecting frequency and the amount collected Area Management (Agence nationale de gestion reach, at times, levels of overexploitation. The case des aires protégées, ANGAP) was created. This is known today as Madagascar National Parks, to of P. africana mentioned above is not unique. which the State has entrusted the management of The widespread cultivation of medicinal plants as most protected areas. Up to that time, the State was well as the setting up of quotas and a stricter con- the sole manager throughout the country. In 2003 trol of the amount of material collected and export- the President of the Republic of Madagascar comed could partly solve the overexploitation problem. mitted to triple over five years the size of protected The habitat destruction, in particular in the for- areas in his country. The objective of 6 million hecest environment that undeniably hosts most of the tares has not yet been reached; currently 5 million biodiversity in Madagascar, is another important hectares are under some sort of protection status. threat to the sustainability of the medicinal plant In 1997 Madagascar adopted a new forest policy resources. (Nouvelle Politique Forestière, NPF, decree No. 97-1200 of 2 October 1997) considered “a real Conservation policies in Madagascar modernization of the environmental sector” (MONSince the second half of the 19th century, policy TAGNE & RAMAMONJISOA 2006: 9). In line with makers have endeavoured to put policies in place the principle of decentralization, regions can have to conserve Malagasy forests (MONTAGNE & RAMstructures responsible for environmental manageAMONJISOA, 2006). However, 150 years later the ment, for example Environment and Forest Reforest degradation is still taking place, or has even gional Offices. In recognition of the contribution worsened. The lack of human and financial reof wild environmental resources to people’s livelisources mobilized for the sector is one of the arguhoods, but in opposition to the advice from internaments put forward to justify this failure. Estimates tional conservation NGOs, a conservation program for the assessment of current forest cover vary but has been established in consultation with people range generally between 8 and 10 million hectares. living in and around protected areas. This shift The causes of deforestation and overexploitation from coercive conservation policies based on bans of natural resources are mainly anthropogenic. Ex- and limitations of rights to community based conamples are the slash and burn cultivation, or tavy, servation is considered in line with the Convention used to produce food crops; in some areas, the use on Biological Diversity (CBD), and in particular wild. In 1995, out of the 223 most exported species only 29 were cultivated and 43 were grown at the National Centre for the implementation of pharmaceutical research (Centre national d’application des recherches pharmaceutiques, CNARP) (REPUBLIC OF MADAGASCAR 1995). Our recent enquiries with Malagasy academics have confirmed that this practice of collecting in the wild is still largely widespread.
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its Article 8j recognizing the efficient role of local practices and knowledge in biodiversity conservation. It is a form of regulation combining institutional and customary laws. Specifically, the conservation programs take place as contract-management under the laws 96-025 and 97-017, respectively NPF (Nouvelle Politique Forestière) and Gelose Act of 1997 (Secure Local Management – Gestion locale sécurisée) outside protected areas. The first contracts to the benefit of grassroots communities were signed in 2000. Assisted by environmental mediators, communities must establish a sustainable management plan and according to the law Gelose they are “entitled to certain benefits in the marketing and promotion of renewable resources and their by-products”. To implement the law Gelose, projects have been set up by CIRAD (Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement) and its partners to support local communities’ value-addition to timber and non-timber forest products: construction wood, charcoal, Raffia palm (Raphia spp.) and essential oils. (For more information see www.cogesformada.org and www. gesforcom.eu). In the rural district of Didy (Alaotra mangoro Region) production and marketing of the essential oil from R. aromatica, the aromatic tree mentioned above, was established. A simplified management and working plan was developed to put in place a judicious exploitation of R. aromatica. In addition, a series of technical trainings were provided: teaching of climbing techniques to prevent cutting down trees to collect material; prior identification of chemotypes to ensure the quality of the oil produced; and better control of the distillation process of the essential oil contained in leaves. This collaboration has made it possible to sustainably manage the resource while at the same time enhance the economic value of R. aromatica by producing good quality oil. Further value-added may be possible through certification. The positive results cannot be generalized to all management transfers but Montagne and Ramamonjisoa note that “contracts contribute significantly to improve the environment” (MONTAGNE & RAMAMONJISOA 2006: 21). Continued assessments such as that conducted by RESOLVE (2005), are expected to accurately identify the adjustments needed to improve management transfer and multiply successes.
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A public policy can only be respected if it is meaningful to the people. In this regard, an interesting point came out of an interview with the director of a school of natural resource management from a village in the region of Analanjirofo. In Madagascar, the idea of endless and abundant natural resources is quite widespread, especially among coastal communities in the east. The Malagasy proverb “Tsy mety lany raha ramboarinjagnahary “ meaning “What God has created is never depleted” illustrates this perception. This way of thinking implies that a resource taken from the wild does not need to be replaced. However, the local coordinator of AVERTEM in Madagascar has very recently observed interesting and encouraging initiatives. Awareness of the depletion of natural resources is beginning to emerge and people are starting plantations, including of medicinal plants. Conclusion In Madagascar, the conservation of medicinal plants is important for at least three spheres: health, environmental and economic. More financial and human resources could be released to complete the floristic inventory of Madagascar and the in-situ and ex-situ conservation of threatened species deserves to be continued and accelerated. Meanwhile, research on rural development could be further developed to improve the socio-economic measures to fight against poverty. It is regrettable that public policies, particularly in the environmental field, are not always fully implemented and are at times slow to materialize. But that being said, it is important to remember that Madagascar is currently undergoing a deep crisis. Political and economic problems are causing concern and in this context environmental problems and the challenges they represent are not seen as priorities. To finish, the approach developed by MÉRAL & REQUIER-DESJARDINS (2006) represent a possible solution. They suggest to dwell on “the relevance of a more patrimonial vision in which preservation is seen as the need to protect a legacy bequeathed by past generations to transmit to the future ones as part of their well-being and identity“ (MÉRAL & DESJARDINS 2006). Being then a strong element of identity, conservation of resources could be perceived as essential.
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References BENOIST, J. (1995): La plante-médicament, entre ses usages et ses témoins. – Ecologie humaine VIII(2) : 53-61. GSPM. (2011): Liste rouge des plantes vasculaires endémiques de Madagascar. – IUCN SSC Madagascar Plant Specialist Group. MACFARLANE, J. & ALPERS, M. (2010): National Policy for an Integrated Health System and Local Implementation: the Case of Papua New Guinea and the Nasioi. – Human Organization 69(4): 387-398. MERAL, P. & REQUIER-DESJARDINS, D. (2006) : La gestion durable de l’environnement à Madagascar : enjeux, opportunités et contraintes. – Économie rurale 294-295: 4-8. Available at: http://economierurale.revues.org/index891.html. MINISTERE DES EAUX ET FORETS. (1997): Décret n° 97-2000 portant adoption de la Politique forestière Malagasy du 2 octobre 1997. – Antananarivo, Journal officiel de la République de Madagascar, p. 23242348. MONTAGNE, P. & RAMAMONJISOA, B. (2006) : Politiques forestières à Madagascar entre répression et autonomie des acteurs. – Économie rurale 294-295: 9-26. Available at : http://economierurale.revues.org/ index894.html RESOLVE. (2005): Evaluation et perspectives des transferts de gestion des ressources naturelles dans le cadre du Programme Environnemental 3. – Antananarivo, Rapport final de synthèse, 55p. REPUBLIQUE DE MADAGASCAR. (1987): Arrêté Interministériel n°2915/87 portant conduite de l’exploitation des produits accessoires des forêts du 7 septembre 1987. – Journal officiel de la République de Madagascar, p. 2092-2098. REPUBLIQUE DE MADAGASCAR. (1995): Madagascar: rapport de pays pour la conférence technique internationale de la FAO sur les ressources phytogénétiques (Leipzig,1996). REPUBLIQUE DE MADAGASCAR. (1996): Loi n°96-025 relative à la gestion locale des ressources naturelles renouvelables du 30 septembre 1996.
Medicinal Plants utilisation and conservation in the Small Island States of the SW Indian Ocean with particular emphasis on Mauritius Ameenah Gurib-Fakim Introduction Plants are known to be primary sources of all medicines in the world and continue to provide mankind with new remedies. More than 80% of the world’s population in the world still depend on traditional medicine for their primary health care (WHO 1992). Natural products and their derivatives represent more than 50% of all drugs in clinical use in the world (CRAGG & NEWMAN 2000). Higher plants contribute no less than 25% of the total. Other drugs are derived from animals and microorganisms. Therefore the possibilities for developing new drugs from forest resources should feature in any calculation of their true worth. All the 119 plant-derived drugs used worldwide come from fewer than 90 out of the 250,000 plant species that have been identified (DE SMET 1997) The potential for discovering more new chemical entities is there. The flora of the South West Indian Ocean belongs to one of the global hotspots. To this date only two internationally recognised medicinal plants have emerged from this part of the world – the Madagascan Catharanthus roseus and Centella asiatica. Yet the potential for the discovery of new entities as well as standardised extracts is enormous.
This paper presents the general situation of the medicinal plant resources and their regulation in the Small Islands States of the South-West Indian Julie Le Bigot • AVERTEM, Faculté des sciences Ocean with particular emphasis on Mauritius. pharmaceutiques et biologiques, Département de botanique • 3, rue du professeur Laguesse, 59000 Flora of the Small Island States of the Indian Ocean Lille, France • email:
[email protected] The flora of the Comoros Islands, which are geographically close to the African continent, tends to show greater affinity to that of the continent, whereas the floras of the Seychelles and the Mascarenes (Mauritius, Reunion and Rodrigues) are highly specialised and rich in endemics.
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Flora of the Comoros The entire flora of the Comoros archipelago is estimated to contain some 2.000 species and a close examination reveals a high degree of endemism. Taxa from the Comoros illustrating the affinity to the African flora are for example Alangium salviifolium ssp. salviifolium, Tabernaemontana coffeoides, Saba comoriensis, Combretum coccineum, Cycas comoriensis, Phyllanthus comoriensis, Nuxia congesta, Tambourissa sp., Norhonia sp., Peperomia sp., Piper sp., Mimusops comoriensis, and Weinmannia bojeriana. ADJANOHOUN ET AL. (1982) identified 120 medicinal plants, out of which 2 were endemic to the Comoros: Tambourissa leptophylla and Helichrysum sp.
FIGURE 1. Native forest loss in Mauritius (1773-1997).
Flora of the Mascarenes [Mauritius, Rodrigues (Mru) and Reunion (Fr.)] The Mascarene Islands are made up of three islands, which have never been connected to the continental mainland. The elements making up the indigenous flora have been introduced to the islands via marine currents, trade and cyclonic winds, jet streams and marine and terrestrial birds during emigration. CADET (1977) presented the phytogeographical analysis of the Mascarene Islands and reported that 70% of the phanerogams come from Madagascar and the African continent, 8% are of oriental origin, 12% are of indopacific origin or cosmopolitan, while the remaining 10% are endemics. Phytogeographically, the Mascarenes can be considered an
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entity (ADJANOHOUN ET AL. 1983a, GUEHO 1988). Mauritius has 7 phanerogames, which are endemic, while Reunion Island has 5 and Rodrigues has 3. With respect to the endemic species, Mauritius has around 300 or 60-65% of the indigenous flora, while Rodrigues has around 50 or 55% of its flora. There are 671 species of indigenous flowering plants recorded in Mauritius of which 311 are endemic (Mauritius has 8 endemic plant genera) and 150 are endemic to the Mascarene Archipelago. Seventy-seven of these indigenous species are classified as extinct. Of the extant flowering plants about 35% are classified as threatened as per the IUCN criteria (BACHRAZ & TEZOO 1997). Recent classifications have revealed the following: 141 species are Critically endangered, 55 are Endangered, and 98 are Vulnerable. This recent estimate shows that at least 95 of the 141 Critically Endangered species have less than 50 known adults in the wild (FLORENS 2007). Figure 1 shows the historical development in forest cover on Mauritius. Recent studies of lower plants have shown there to be about 207 taxa consisting of 89 genera of mosses and 59 genera of hepatics (TIXIER and GUEHO 1997). There are about 200 species, subspecies and varieties of pteridophytes of which 13 species are endemic and 40 are extinct. Among the interesting indigenous species in Mauritius we find the following: Diospyros tesselaria, Cassine orientale, Foetidia mauritiana, Stadmania oppositifolia, Terminalia bentzoe, Protium obtusifolium, Eugenia fasciculate, Erythroxylum sideroxyloides, Scutia myrtina amongst others. Rodrigues (Mru.) indigenous flora is also characterised by a high degree of endemism. According to STRAHM (1989), the island has 36-38 taxa of endemic flowering plants but many of the indigenous species have now become extremely rare and are on the verge of extinction. Among them are Zanthoxylum paniculatum, Gouania leguatii, Dombeya acutangula, Hibiscus liliiflorus and Antirhea bifurcata, which have all been reduced to only a few individuals. Among the species, which have been surveyed recently, and considered to be more or less extinct are: Abrotanella rhynhocarpa, Euphorbia daphnoides, Peperomia hirta, Syzygium balfourii amongst others. Reunion Island (Fr.) is the youngest of the is-
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lands of the Mascarenes. The island is entirely volcanic and still has an active volcano claimed to be 500,000 years old. The island is well placed to receive wind-borne seeds and has been colonised partly by exotic plant materials. Nonetheless, the island is still blessed with some interesting indigenous species like Foetidia mauritiana, Securinega durissima, Cossigna pinnata, Cassine orientale amongst others.
(1983a) identified 102 plants out of which 8 were indigenous to the Mascarene region (MAURITIUS & RODRIGUES). During a survey carried out between 1990-1994 (GURIB-FAKIM ET AL. 1995-1997), it was found that reliable information is obtained mostly from persons aged 55 to 70 years, suggesting a gradual erosion of the traditional knowledge. Nonetheless, over 600 plants used medicinally were collected and documented in the course of the study. More than 12% of the plants for which use Flora of the Seychelles was documented are endemic to the South West InThe Seychelles archipelago located to the North dian Ocean. East of Madagascar and discovered in the 17th century, encompass some forty islands and granitic It is also worth pointing out that local inhabitants islets. The flora is a model in itself because of its collect most of the medicinal plants from the forhigh degree of specialisation and its rich diversity ests and that they often are unable to correctly idenof highly endemic species. It has a few taxonomic tify them. Whilst forest collection is not legal, it is curiosities, for example Lodoicea maldivica which difficult for the authorities to control the collection is a unique endemic palm tree with a unique and of plants. Many of the used plants are becoming unusual shape growing in the Valley of May and extremely rare and whilst efforts are being made Praslin. It is the largest seed in the plant kingdom towards their safeguard, for some plants it may be and takes 7 years to ripen and germinate. The tree too little too late. There is always the underlying itself takes 25 years to reach the adult stage and fear that several species may become critically ento produce flowers and seeds. The granitic island dangered due to over-collection. presents a real floristic refuge. The rocks and boul- It is interesting to note that whilst the Mauritian ders making up these islands are among the oldest population is made up of immigrants who have on this planet (650 millions years). The insularity of brought along with them their medicinal plants the surroundings is ancient and the flora and primi- when they landed in Mauritius almost 200 years tive vegetation have evolved in an isolated manner ago, quite a few endemic plants also form part of over hundreds of millions of years. The level of en- the local pharmacopoeia. Among these are: Termidemism has been brought to the fore by the variety nalia bentzoe ssp. bentzoe, Psiadia arguta, Chasand diversity in the flora and fauna. The more im- salia coriacea, Antirhea borbonica, Faujasiopsis portant endemic plant species include Aphloia thei- flexuosa, Carissa xylopicron, Cassine orientale, formis ssp. madagascariensis, Begonia seychel- Crinum mauritianum amongst others. lensis, Campnosperma seychellarum, Canthium seychellarum, Curculigo seychellensis, Diospyros Threats to the propagation of local biodiversity seychellarum, Erythroxylum sechellarum, Gynura With human settlements, many plants have been sechellensis, Mimusops seychellarum, Tarenna introduced intentionally as food crops, ornamensechellensis amongst others. Another floristic cu- tals, forest species and as medicines from many riosity is Medusagyne oppositifolia – the only rep- parts of the world. Others have been introduced inresentative of the Medusagynaceae family, which advertently to the country and have become weeds. had previously been reported extinct (ADJANOHOUN Some had been introduced to control imported ET AL. 1983b). In the course of their survey AD- pests, only to become pests themselves, e.g, LigusJANOHOUN ET AL. (1983b) identified 76 plants out of trum robustum var walkerii. The latter was introwhich 7 are indigenous/endemic to the Seychelles. duced to outcompete the Thorny Bramble (Rubus alceifolius) in forest plantation. Several of the inStatus of medicinal plants utilisation in the Mas- troduced exotic plants, such as Chinese Guava carenes (Psidium cattleianum) and Poivre marron (Schinus The use of Medicinal plants is still relatively com- terebinthifolius) have become naturalised in the namon and growing. In 1983, ADJANOHOUN ET AL. tive forests. Over the years, they have displaced the
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Table 1. Status of medicinal plant utilisation in Mauritius. Botanical names
Family name
Common name
Cons. status1
Use, trade2
Carissa xylopicron Ochrosia borbonica Acanthophoenix Rubra
Apocynaceae Apocynaceae Arecaceae
Bois de ronde Bois de lait Palmiste piquant
EN EN EN
1 1 2
Sarcostemma viminale Tylophora coriaceae Psiadia arguta Senecio lamarkianus Ehretia petiolaris Canarium paniculatum Protium obtusifolium Cassine orientale Grangeria borbonica Harungana madagascariensis Terminalia bentzoe Ipomoea pescaprae Agauria salicifolia Erythroxylum laurifolium Antidesma madagascariensis Phyllanthus lanceolata Phyllanthus phyllyreifolius Aphloia theiformis Foetidia rodriguesensis Lomatophyllum lomatophylloides Bakerella hoyifolia Badula balfouriana Jumellea fragrans Gouania leguatii Antirhea bifurcata Mussaenda arcuata Ramosmania heterophylla Zanthoxylum paniculatum Zanthoxylum heterophyllum
Asclepiadaceae “ Asteraceae “ Boraginaceae Burseraceae “ Celastraceae Chrysobala-naceae Clusiaceae Combretaceae Comvolvulaceae Ericaceae Erythroxylaceae Euphorbiaceae “ “ Flacourtiaceae Lecythidaceae Liliaceae Loranthaceae Myrsinaceae Orchidaceae Rhamnaceae Rubiaceae “ “ Rutaceae Rutaceae
Liane calé Ipeca du pays Baume du l’Ile Plate Bois chevre Bois de pipe Bois colophane Bois colophane batard Bois d’olive Bois buis Bois harangue Bois benjoin Liane batatran Bois cabri Bois ronde Bois queue de rate Bois dilo Bois dilo Bois fandamane Bois puant Ananas marron Bois fier Bois papaye Faham
Allophyllus cobbe Clerodendrum laciniatum Clerodendrum heterophyllum
Sapindaceae Verbenaceae Verbenaceae
Bois de reinnette Bois cabri Bois cabri
Bois goudron Liane cacapoule Café marron Patte poule piquant Bois catafaille
EN EN EN EN VU VU EN VU VU LC EN LC VU EN VU VU VU EN, EW(R) EN EN(R) CR(M) EN(R) CR(M) CR(R) EN VU CR CR EN(M), EW(R) VU VU(R) EN
5 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
LC - Least concern, VU - Vulnerable, EN - Endangered, CR - Critically endangered 1: Sold at local market, 2: Collected, 3: Bark sold, 4: Entire plant sold
1 2
native plants from their habitat through intense camara, Psidium cattleianum, Rubus alceifolia, Licompetition. gustrum robustum, Spathodea campanulata, SyzyAmong the other serious offenders in the Mauritian gium jambos. Among the other potential invasives and Rodriguan forests are: Ardisia crenata, Cin- are Cinnamomum verum, Schinus terebinthifolius, namomum verum, Hiptage benghalensis, Lantana Casuarina equisetifolia, Litsea glutonosa, Sola-
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num mauritianum, Ulex europaeus (KUEFFER ET AL. Park and 4 are in Rodrigues. The Forest and Reserves Act provides protection for designated areas 2004). The regeneration of native species is compromised of state land but is inadequate to safeguard against by exotic seed predators such as rats and monkeys loss of privately owned areas with rich biodiveretc.. These factors impoverish the indigenous veg- sity, as penalties are too weak to be an adequate etation both genetically and in numbers and the net deterrent.
result is that many species are threatened with ex- Nonetheless, the Forest and Reserves Act has been instrumental in the setting up of the Conservation tinction. This has prompted the Mauritian Government to Management Areas (CMAs). The CMAs provide a take measures towards the protection of its native safe haven for rare, endemic plants, such as Termigenetic resources through the creation of a number nalia bentzoe and Zanthoxylum sp., amongst othof protected areas. With funds from the Environ- ers. The CMAs are regularly weeded of invasive ment Investment Programme, the World Bank plants and this makes the environment particularly funded the establishment of the first National Park suitable for slow growing endemics. Collection is in Mauritius along with the setting up of institu- now regulated and this action has led to the safetions like the National Parks and Conservation guard of many of the threatened medicinal plants on the brink of extinction. Services. Existing legislation and framework Mauritius is signatory to 18 international treaties and conventions on the environment and was the first signatory country of the 1992 Rio Convention on Biodiversity. In addition, there are four national laws of relevance to terrestrial biodiversity conservation: The Environment Protection Act (EPA) (1999 and 2002): This Act established the Ministry of Environment as the body responsible for overall coordination of environmental management. Under the EPA, five ministries are assigned the role of enforcement for implementation of environmental policies. The Act covers all aspects relating to EIA procedures. Through the implementation and enforcement of the EPA, operators now have to resort to getting their EIA certificates prior to property development. This has resulted in some biodiversity-rich areas being protected through the non-award of development permits.
In Rodrigues Island, where similar CMAs have been established, rare endemic plants, such as Ramosmania rodriguesensis (Rubiaceae), have been re-introduced after propagation by in vitro technique at the Royal Botanical Gardens in Kew (UK).
The Wildlife and National Parks Act (1993): This is the principal legislation for the protection of flora and fauna, with the Wildlife Regulations of 1998 giving effect to the CITES Convention in Mauritian law. The National Parks and Reserves Regulations made in 1996 lay down the rules regarding activities on reserved land. The Act and its regulations are currently being revised to make them fully compliant with the provisions of CITES. The opportunity is also being taken to increase the legal protection of native biodiversity at the national level.
Whilst the Act makes provision for flora and fauna, there are some short-comings for the plants listed. To this date only rare endemic orchids figure in the list. It means that while one endemic medicinal orchid is listed – Jumellea sp., other rare endemic The Forest and Reserves Act (1983 amended in plants can be exported without problems. A revi2003): This is the principal legislation governing sion of the plant list is planned, where other plants the management of forests resources; it established will be added so as to limit collection and export the power to declare national forests, nature re- where needed. serve, mountain reserves, river reserves and road The Plant Act (1976): This Act has been revised reserves. Sixteen nature reserves have been select- recently to the Plant Protection Bill. A Black List of ed for the purpose of maintaining vegetation cover the worst invasive weeds to be prevented entry into and the provision of ecosystem services. Two of Mauritius has been proposed to help protect native these nature reserves now form part of the National biodiversity. Import of plant species, especially
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horticultural species, has been scrutinised so as to that invasive plants present. The respective governavoid the inadvertent introduction of new invasive ments have been alerted to the conservation actions along with the appropriate policies that need to be plant species. put in place so as to safeguard this genetic resource. Conservation and protection measures Various documents lay down the policy regarding References ADJANOHOUN, E.J., AKE ASSI J., ALI AHMED, L., EYME conservation of terrestrial biodiversity: • The White Paper for a National Conservation Strategy (NCS) (1985). The NCS defines the major objectives for the conservation of natural resources but has been outdated and superseded by Mauritius’ commitments under the CBD and the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP). The NEAP contains a programme on terrestrial biodiversity with a strategic goal to ‘ensure that native Mauritian biodiversity survives, flourishes and retains its genetic diversity and potential for evolutionary development’. • In the field of genetic diversity, priorities have been given to: - Avoid extinction of endangered and threatened species of flora and fauna by providing sound planning for on-site preservation in protected areas as well as off-site protection such as in botanical gardens. - Preserve as wide a genetic diversity as possible of many varieties of plants and animals - Preserve as many habitats as possible - Maintain the existing nature reserves and create new ones - Encourage cooperation with international bodies in the furtherance of biosphere reserves. Among these international organisations are: Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust (UK), Peregrine Fund (USA), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), and Kew Gardens. Conclusion Small Islands States like those of the South West Indian Ocean are blessed with unique vegetation. At the global scale, the flora of the South West Indian Ocean constitutes one of the planet’s hotspot. Many unique specimens of plants are found within and will benefit Science and Medicine as they can potentially provide important leads for the development of new medicine or standardised extracts. This unique flora remains highly vulnerable not only to habitat destruction but also to the threat
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J., GUINKO, J., KAYONGA, A., KEITA, A. & LEBRAS, M. (1982): Contributions aux etudes ethnobotaniques et floristiques aux Comores. – ACCT, Paris, France. ADJANOHOUN, E.J., AKE ASSI J., EYME J., GASSITA, J.N., GOUDOT, E., GUEHO, J., IP, F.S.L., JACKARIA, D., KALACHAND, S.K.K., KEITA, A., KOUDOGBO, B., LANDEAU, D., OWADALLY, A.W. & SOOPRAMANIEN, A. (1983a): Médecine traditionelle et pharmacopée. Contribution aux études ethnobotaniques et floristiques à Maurice (Iles Maurice et Rodrigues). – Agence de Cooperation Culturelle et Techniques. 214pp. ADJANOHOUN, E.J., ABEL, A., AKE ASSI J., BROWN, D., CHETTY, K.S., CHONG-SENG, L., EYME, J., FRIEDMANN, F., GASSITA, J.N., GOUDOTE, E.N., GOVINDEN, P., KEITA, A., KOUDOGBO, B., LAI SAM, G., LANDREAU, D., LIONNET, G. & SOOPRAMANIEN, A. (1983b): Contributions aux etudes ethnobotaniques et floristiques aux Seychelles. – ACCT, Paris, France. BACHRAZ, V. & TEZOO, V. (1997): A review of exsitu conservation activities in Mauritius. In: MUNGROO & BACHRAZ (eds.), Proceedings of the workshop on restoration of highly degraded and threatened native forests in Mauritius. – National Parks and Conservation Services. pp. 12-19. CADET, T. (1977): La végétation de l’Ile dela Réunion: Etude phyto-écologique et phytosociologique: Thèse de Doctorat-ès-Sciences. – Université Aix Marseille III. CRAGG, G.M. & NEWMAN, D.J. (2000): Antineoplastic agents from Natural sources: achievements and future directions. – Expert Opinion on the Investigation of Drugs 9: 2783-2797. DE SMET, P.A.G.M. (1997): The role of plant-derived drugs and herbal medicine in health care. Drugs, 54: 801-840. FLORENS, V. (2007): Indian Ocean Island Plant Specialist Group. Species 47: 16-17. GUEHO, J. (1988): La végétation de l’île Maurice. – Edition de l’Ocean Indien, Mauritius 57pp. GURIB-FAKIM, A., GUEHO, J., SEWRAJ, M.D. & DULLOO, M.E. (1994): Plantes medicinales de l’ile Rodrigues. – Edition de l’Ocean Indien, Mauritius 580pp. GURIB-FAKIM, A., GUEHO, J. & BISSOONDOYAL, M.D. (1995-97): Plantes Medicinales de Maurice (Tomes 1, 2, 3). – Edition de l’Ocean Indien, Mauritius.
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KUEFFER, C., VOS, P., LAVERGNE, C. & MAUREMOOTOO, J. (2004): FAO Report – Forestry Department. Forest & Biosecurity Working Papers. Case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the Western Indian Ocean. Working Paper FBS/41E. – FAO, Rome Italy. STRAHM, W. (1989): Plant Red Data Book for Rodrigues. WWF/ IUCN. – Koeltz Scientific Books, West Germany. TIXIER, P. & GUEHO, J. (1997): Introduction to Mauritian Bryology a check list of mosses and liverworts. – Mauritius Sugar Industry Research Institute, Reduit, Mauritius. WHO. (1992): Analysis of questionnaires on traditional medicine. – World Health Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland.
Ameenah Gurib-Fakim • Centre for Phytotherapy Research, 7th Floor, Cybertower 2, Ebene, Mauritius • email:
[email protected]
Conservation assessment and management planning of medicinal plants in Tanzania
of which is plant-based (MAHUNNAH ET AL. 2003). However, various factors, including limited access to information, knowledge, technology and capital, compromise the ability of the people to derive maximum benefits from these resources. An estimated 80% of the population in Tanzania depend on traditional, often plant based, medicine for health care (WHO 2002); use of medicinal plants is found in both rural and urban areas (GESSLER ET AL. 1995a, AUGUSTINO & GILLAH 2005). Dependence is often found linked with economic and cultural factors so that traditional medicine is mostly used for, and also preferred for, holistic treatments (GESSLER ET AL. 1995b, OBERLÄNDER & ELVERDAN 2000). Attention on medicinal plant dependence is increasing in urban Tanzania (URT 2005) and the need is likely to increase (FOSU 1989), possibly due to the belief that plant remedies are free from undesirable side effects; this trend is increasing (GOOD & KIMANI 1980).
Medicinal plants can be symbolically significant, being held in high cultural esteem. The concept of the ‘medicinal plant’ carries charismatic resonance across many societies, with the potential to be a universal symbol for nature conservation. A potenR.L.A. Mahunnah, S. Augustino, J.N. Otieno tial problem of actively promoting integration of & J. Elia traditional and modern health care in Tanzania is that the medicinal plant resource is feared threatBackground ened in the wild (WHO 2001). Causes are argued Plants are the major ingredients of medicines in to be commercial collection for livelihood security most medical traditions. The total number of plants (CUNNINGHAM 1997) and selective intensive use of used worldwide may be around 40,000-50,000, species for health treatment. representing roughly one-in-six to one-in-ten of all plant species. This represents by far the biggest hu- Threats to Tanzanian medicinal plants man use of individually targeted species (HAMIL- The majority of Tanzanians still depend on biologiTON 2005). cal resources and the limited opportunities for soAfrica is endowed with a rich biodiversity and the cio-economic development continuously put presAfrican flora is estimated to have 40,000 plant spe- sure on these (PADOCH & VAYDA 1983). Tanzanian cies (MAHUNNAH 2002), with over 35,000 species medicinal plants are mainly derived from the wild, in the East Africa region. In Tanzania, about 1,200 and population increase, pastoralist migration, enplant species, out of the total flora of 12,667 spe- ergy requirements and policy neglect are leading to cies, are used in traditional medicines (MAHUN- their overuse and destruction of their habitat (URT NAH 1991, MAHUNNAH & MSHIU 1991, URT 1998). 1998). The use of plants for medicine leads to seMedicinal and aromatic plants are key components lective consumption of specific plant species and of biodiversity, vital for ensuring primary health their disappearance may go unnoticed in otherwise care and livelihoods of the poor in Sub-Saharan relatively intact natural habitats, with consequences Africa and Eastern Africa in particular. Tanzania, for the integrity and functions of ecosystems. For like most African countries, has a high utility of example, recent claims on plant properties by Rev. traditional medicine in primary health care, most Ambilikile Mwasapila of Samunge in Loliondo in
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Tanzania created an increased demand for Carissa BOX 1. Medicinal plant species increasingly marketed spinarum (Mugaringa), that subsequently became locally in Tanzania and internationally threatened by overexploitation. According to information provided by local communities a similar Adansonia digitata, Afzelia quanzensis, Aloe lateritia, A. trend can be observed for species such as Rubia secundiflora, A. volkensii, Artemisia affra, Mondia whitei, Myrsine africana, Piper capensis,, Rauvolfia vometoria, cordifolia, Pavetta crassipes and Crassocepha- Steganotoenia araliacea, Osyris lanceolata, Balanites aelum manii in the Lake Victoria basin. The threat gyptiaca, Prunus africana, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Zanha to plants is increased when plants are marketed in africana, Warburgia salutaris and W. Stulhmanii. urban areas in addition to the rural consumption. Nine medicinal plant species are reported to be of The Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) Global general conservation concern in Tanzania (MAR- Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) provides a SHALL 1998). framework to halt the current and continuing loss Medicinal plants are also harvested for other non of plant diversity. An East Africa Regional Project medicinal uses. Species such as Bombax rhodog- on the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation” was naphalon, Milicia excelsa, Dalbergia melanoxylon, implemented in East Africa to advance the impleOcotea usambarensis, Pterocarpus angolensis, P. mentation of the GSPC in the East African Region, tinctorius, P. rotundifolius are heavily harvested by establishing a baseline for further investment in for timber, most of which is used for construction, biodiversity informatics as key to biodiversity confurniture and production of coffins in town centres. servation and sustainable development in Kenya, Additional pressure is the result of indiscriminate Uganda and Tanzania (NMK 2007). A major activity in the process was to conduct a Conservation Astree cutting for charcoal production. sessment and Management Planning (CAMP) The demand for medicinal plants both for local and workshop in each country. international markets is on the rise (BOX 1). For example, Prunus Africana (used by pharmaceutical The national CAMP workshop was organized in companies to manufacture a drug for treating pros- mid July 2010 with the support of BGCI/JRS East tate cancer) is threatened all over Africa by debark- Africa regional project at Muhimbili University of ing. A total of between 3,200 to 4,900 tons of its Health and Allied Sciences with representatives bark are exported annually from African countries from 12 institutions in Tanzania and 2 from Kenya. The aim of the workshop was to determine the to Europe and USA (CITES 1997). conservation status of medicinal plants used in traLocal trade of medicinal plants is known to occur ditional medicine in Tanzania, based on priorities but information on amounts traded and income derived from traditional knowledge. The purpose generated by the local population is very limit- was to develop appropriate conservation strategies ed, while data on export do not exist (MARSHALL and guidelines for sustainable use. The workshop 1998). STANGELAND ET AL. (2008) noted that while addressed natural resource status assessments for many ethnobotanical studies are available, few priority actions as one of the strategies to solve have focused on harvesting regimes, sustainability the medicinal plants conservation challenges that of harvesting, trade and pharmacological studies. include: approaches for conservation of medicinal Therefore, in order for Tanzania to sustain the sen- plant species and their genetic diversity; developsible utilization of medicinal plants, conservation ment of sustainable harvest systems for wild mehas to be kept as a central research focus. dicinal plants; and achievement of environmentalMedicinal Plants Conservation Assessment and ly-friendly cultivation of medicinal plants. management planning initiatives The extensive national, regional and international trade in traditional medicinal plants emphasizes the global need for the conservation of medicinal plants and the revitalization of the native health traditions of local communities (GELDENHYUS 2005).
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Prioritization of medicinal plants for conservation In realization of the threats facing medicinal plants in Tanzania, the general protocol for CAMP was used for prioritising species for ex-situ conservation, first using ethnobotanical parameters. Ethno-
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botanical practices were scored as 1 or 0 according to whether extraction was considered to have a severe effect on plant diversity or not. The total score for each species was added to the value – index (importance of species based on Red List status) and the legislation-index (adequacy of legislation provisions). The Value-index includes the sum of all the scores associated with Red List status, keystone species, sustainability of use and cultural/ spiritual value. The Legislation-index allows the researcher to evaluate the importance of the species in relation to whether it is adequately protected under the legal provisions (BOX 2). A high index value indicates the need to protect a species; a low index value may be used to rank the species low for conservation but does not necessarily disqualify recommending a species for conservation measures. A high rating for one criterion, such as the Red List status or Sustainability of use, was considered sufficient to list a species for protection under the National Forests Act. The analysis resulted in only 74 priority medicinal plants for possible commercialization. The list of species and the proposed conservation strategies are presented in Table 1.
There is a lack of protection of medicinal plant and traditional medical knowledge. E.g., in Tanzania cultivation and/or domestication of medicinal wild varieties is constrained by the perception embedded in culture, attitudes and awareness that domestication stoops the medicinal potency compared to wild plants. To some, planting of wild varieties is not a priority even if knowledge on propagation exists. Further, commercialization of medicinal plants has been projected as a sustainable means of poverty alleviation, with additional value in terms of biodiversity and conservation purposes. This is still a challenge in Tanzania since there is no regulation and monitoring for medicinal plants and products sold in the local markets. Especially in relation to supply sources and harvesting methods to ensure sustainable use of the resources.
Research Research and training activities for the conservation of medicinal plants have not received adequate support and attention in Tanzania. Various researchers, including RUKANGIRA (2001), have reported rare successful experiences and approaches on conservation of African medicinal plants. FurMedicinal Plants Conservation Challenges thermore, in relation to medicinal plant conserva tion in Tanzania several aspects are still unknown, Policy and legal frameworks The Tanzania government’s political commitment including: (i) the documentation of all major medicinal to promoting traditional medicine is clearly spelled out in the Tanzanian Health Policy of 1996 and the plants, Traditional and Alternative Medicine Policy and (ii) documentation for the medicinal plants that Act of 2000 and 2002, respectively; both recoghave been lost and those that remain in the wild, nize the role of traditional health practices in the (iii) knowledge on how gender issues are propcountry’s health care system (URT 2000, 2002). erly taken into consideration while planning for However, little effort has been done to address conconserving the resources, servation of medicinal plant resources. There has (iv) incorporation of local and traditional knowlbeen poor reinforcement of the existing policy and edge into propagation, sustainable use and conlegal frameworks to conserve and ensure the future servation of medicinal plants, sustainable use of the potential medicinal plants. Support and emphasis on promoting cultivation of (v) identification of cultural practices and beliefs potential identified medicinal plants in the counthat are supportive of the conservation and sustry, both in-situ and ex-situ, have also been poor. tainable use of medicinal plants, and The national forest policy has for a long time been (vi) knowledge on effective agro-ecological biased towards safeguarding tradable timber plant methods for enhancing propagation and cultivaspecies. There is a strong need to harmonize varition of specific medicinal plants. ous sectorial policies and legal frameworks that influence the utilization and conservation of medici- The latter two as proposed by CUNNINGHAM (1997) to ensure sustainable primary health care services nal biodiversity in Tanzania in Africa. Institutions
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TABLE 1. Tanzania priority medicinal plants matrix for immediate conservation. Species Acacia xanthophloea Adansonia digitata
Traded Justification No Narrow distribution Locally Regeneration poor, growth slow No Ecosystem fragile Aerangis flabellifolia Yes Overexploited Afzelia quanzensis No Potential demand Albizia anthelmintica Locally Overexploitation Aloe lateritia Locally Overexploitation Aloe secundiflora Locally Overexploitation Aloe volkensii Locally Overexploitation, limited Artemisia affra ecological range Yes Overexploitation Balanites aegyptiaca No (no Horticultural use, limited Begonia oxyloba need) ecological range No Habitat specificity Berberis holstii Yes1 Bombax rhodognaphalon Overexploited No Overexploited Brachylaena huillensis (hutchinsii) No Habitat specificity Breonadia salicina No Rare Brucea antidysenterica No Diverse uses Cassia abbreviata Yes Overexploited Catha edulis Habitat specificity Clausena anisata Disjunct distribution Commiphora swynnertonii Multiple uses, habitat Cordia ovalis specificity No Narrow distribution Crinum papillosum No Limited distribution Crinum kirkii No Multiple uses Croton dichogamus Multiple uses Cucumis profetarum 1 Yes Milicia excelsa Overexploited Yes High demand Dalbergia melanoxylon No Harvest: uprooting Deinbollia borbonica No Increasingly scarce Entada abyssinica No High demand Entada stuhlmannii No High demand, harvest: Erythrina abbyssinica uprooting Possibly host specific Hydnora abbyssinica (Acacia xanthophloea) No Host specific Hydnora africana No Harvest: debarking Kigelia africana No Limited distribution, Millettia puguensis habitat loss No High demand Monanthotaxis trichocarpa Yes High demand Mondia whitei Locally High demand Myrsine africana Yes High demand1 Ocotea usambarensis
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Recommendations Use in agro- forestry systems, amenity Include in dryland plantations In-situ conservation of supporting trees Legislation, in- & ex-situ conservation Use in agroforestry Legislation, in- & ex-situ conservation Education of farmers Legislation, in- & ex-situ conservation Large commercial plantations Emphasize planting in home gardens Consider as bio-indicator of climate change in forests In-situ conservation In-situ conservation National legislation National legislation required National legislation required Promote ex-situ cultivation Legislation, stricter in-situ conservation Legislation, in-situ conservation Estimate market value In-situ conservation Domestication, sustainable harvesting Domestication Domestication Domestication, legislation enforcement In- & ex-situ conservation Use biotechnology in propagation Sensitization: plant in home gardens Ex-situ conservation Emphasis on on farm planting
Domestication Try planting in other ecological regions Effort to collect more data Emphasize ex-situ conservation Enforce policy
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TABLE 1. Continued, Tanzania priority medicinal plants matrix for immediate conservation Species Osyris lanceolata Pericopsis angolensis Piper capensis Polyalthia stuhlmanii Prunus africana
Traded Yes No Locally No Yes (bark) No Pseudospondias microcarpa Yes1 Pterocarpus angolensis Yes1 Pterocarpus tinctorius Yes1 Pterocarpus rotundifolius No Myrsine melanophloes (Rapanea melanophloeos) Yes Rauvolfia vometoria
Justification High demand High demand High demand Multiple treatments High demand, multiple uses Less distribution High demand High demand Multiple uses Available in low densities
High demand, multiple uses No Multiple treatments, uses Rhamnus prinoides No Available in low densities Rhamnus staddo No Available in low densities Ritchiea capparoides No Climber dependent on Rubia cordifolia high canopy vegetation No Endemic to coastal areas Sansevieria bagamoyensis No High demand, mode of Shirakiopsis ellipticum harvesting (Syn:Sapium ellipticum) Yes Multiple uses (wine sold) Sclerocarya birrea ssp. caffra No Available in low densities Scutia myrtina Locally Rare Steganotoenia araliacea No Endemic to coastal areas Stephanostema sternocarpum Yes Multiple uses (fruits) Tamarindus indica No Restricted distribution Tarenna littoralis No Demand: pesticidal effect Tephrosia vogelii No Limited distribution Toddaliopsis sansibarensis Yes Multiple uses (seeds sold) Trichilia emetica Yes Multiple uses (fruits sold) Vangueria infausta Vepris glomerata Warburgia stulhmanii Warburgia salutaris Ximenia caffra Xylopia arenaria Zanha golungensis Zanha africana Zanthoxylum chalybeum
Root used in medicine Yes Restricted distribution Yes Restricted distribution Yes Multiple uses No Coastal endemic No Key stone species, multiple uses Locally Multiple uses Locally High demand, over-exploited in locality
Community involvement/IK holders There is little involvement of community/indigenous knowledge holders in collaboration with research institutions and other stakeholders to con-
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Recommendations Commercial plantations, harvest ban Sensitize, ex-situ conservation In-situ conservation On farm & in-situ conservation, enforce policy In-situ and ex-situ conservation In- & ex-situ conservation, law enforcement In- & ex-situ conservation, law enforcement In-situ and ex-situ conservation
On-farm, in-situ conservation, policy enforcement Domestication On farm planting Domestication
Large scale domestication Domestication Need national legislation On-farm conservation To be prioritized for diversity assessment Incorporated in agroforestry schemes Potential: medicines, oil for soap and cosmetics Ex-situ may solve competition with wild fructivorous Education on sustainable harvesting Domestication, national legislation and policy Cultivation Discourage the use for fuel Trial in different ecological regions
Domestication
serve the potential identified medicinal plants in Tanzania. There are no guidelines that take into account the Intellectual Property Rights, Access and Benefit Sharing issues, and this constrains the free sharing of biological information required for de-
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veloping sustainable use of medicinal plants; fears species of Tanzania, especially those which are alof bio-piracy especially limits the involvement of ready under threat, require conservation measures traditional medical practitioners in conservation to ensure their future sustainability. initiatives. References AUGUSTINO, S. & GILLAH, P.R. (2005): Medicinal plants Advocacy and awareness in urban districts of Tanzania: plants, gender roles and In Tanzania, little effort seems to have been disustainable use. – International Forestry Review 7: rected towards increasing the awareness and ad44-58. vocacy on sustainable use of medicinal plants to CITES. (1997): Newsletter for the African region. Rethe public, policy-makers, researchers, traditional port from the plants committee, Article 9. health practitioners and end users through mass CUNNINGHAM, A.B. (1997): An Africa-wide overview of media, tailored radio/television programmes, flyers medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health and other educational materials. Another challenge care. – In: BODEKER, G., BHAT, K.K.S, BURLEY, J., & VANTOMME, P. (Eds.): Medicinal plants for forest conhas been for the two national health care systems servation and heath care. Non-Wood Forest Products to find a way to complement rather then compete 11. FAO, Rome, Italy. pp. 116-129. with each other. As for national strategies and policies, various studies (MILLEDGE & KAALE 2004) have pointed out that the majority of local communities and even government employees involved in trade of flora from coastal forests are not aware of the exising legal instruments. For example, the Forest Act No. 14 of 2002 provides regulations on the trade of flora and fauna: Part VI provides details on permits and licenses, Part VII provides details on trade in forest products, while Part XI provides details on offences and penalties. The Plant Protection Act No. 13 of 1997 provides the basis for regulation of plants and plant protection substances and the protection of the natural environment against plant protection substances. Concerted efforts are therefore required to raise community awareness on legal instruments related to sustainable forest management and trade in flora, including the medicinal plants, for poverty eradication and improvement of community livelihoods. Conclusion The present article presents the medicinal plant conservation assessment and management planning initiatives in Tanzania. Seventy-two priority medicinal plants for possible commercialization and the conservation strategies are identified. The medicinal plants conservation challenges are discussed; these include policy, legal and institutional frameworks, capacity building, community involvement, research, climate change, and educational and awareness gaps with regard to conservation strategies and sustainable use of medicinal plants in Tanzania. The prioritized medicinal plant
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FOSU, G.B. (1989): Access to health care in urban areas of developing societies. – Journal of Health and Social Behaviour 30: 398-411. GOOD, C.M. & KIMANI, V. N. (1980): Urban traditional medicine: A Nairobi case study. – East African Medical Journal 57: 301-316. GELDENHUYS, C.J. (2005): Sustainable harvesting methods for medicinal plants: a research and development framework. – Paper for Methodology Workshop on Medicinal plants and Traditional medicine, 5-7 December, 2005. IDRC/ESARO, Nairobi, Kenya. GESSLER, M.C., MSUYA, D.E., NKUNYA, M.H.H., SCHAR, A., HEINRICH, M. & TANNER, M. (1995a): Traditional healers in Tanzania: the perception of malaria and its causes – Journal of Ethnopharmacology 48:119-130. GESSLER, M.C., MSUYA, D.E., NKUNYA, M.H.H., SCHAR, A., HEINRICH, M. & TANNER, M. (1995b): Traditional healers in Tanzania: the treatment of malaria with plant remedies. – Journal of Ethnopharmacology 48: 131-144. HAMILTON, A.C. (2005): The Ecohealth approach, with a special focus on medicinal plants. Paper presented at the Methodology workshop on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine, 5-7 December 2005. IDRC/ ESARO, Nairobi, Kenya. HAMILTON, A.C. (2004): Medicinal plants, conservation and livelihoods. – Biodiversity and Conservation 13: 1477-1517. MAHUNNAH, R.L.A., UISO, F.C., MOSHI, M.J., MBWAMBO, Z.H., KAPINGU, M.C. (2006): The wealth of medicinal plants of eastern Tanzania. – In: MITAWA G.M. ET AL. (Eds.), Plant genetic resources and biotechnology in Tanzania; Part II: Policy, conservation and utilization. Peramiho Printing Press. pp 543 - 553. MAHUNNAH, R.L.A. (2002): Ethnobotany and conservation of medicinal plants in Africa: the way forward
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in the next decade. – In: ADENIJI, K.O. (ed.), 2001 2010: OAU decade For African traditional medicine. OAU/STRC, Lagos. pp. 70-80. MAHUNNAH, R.L.A. (1991): Utilization and conservation status of medicinal plants in Tanzania. – In: SHAO, F.M., MAGINGO, F.S.S., MINJAS, A.N., BITANYI, H.F. & MAHUNNAH, R.L.A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the workshop on plant genetic resources and biotechnology held at Arusha, Tanzania, January 16-20, 1990. Benedict Publications Ndanda, Peramiho, Tanzania. pp. 280-289. MAHUNNAH, R.L.A. & MSHIU, E.N. (1991): Ethnobotany and conservation of medicinal plants. – In: MSHIGENI, K.E., NKUNYA, M.H.H., FUPI, V., MAHUNNAH, R.L.A. & MSHIU, E.N. (Eds.), Proceedings of an international conference of experts from developing countries on traditional medicinal plants. Dar es Salaam University Press, Tanzania. pp. 83-86. MARSHALL, N.T. (1998): Searching for a cure: conservation of medicinal wildlife resources in East and Southern Africa. – TRAFFIC-International, Cambridge, UK. MILLEDGE, S.A.H. & KAALE, B.K. (2004): Bridging the gap: linking timber trade with infrastructure development and poverty eradication efforts in southern Tanzania. – TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. NMK (2007): The East African project on the global strategy for plant conservation funded by the JRS Biodiversity Foundation. OBERLÄNDER, L. & ELVERDAN, B. (2000): Malaria in the United Republic of Tanzania: cultural considerations and health-seeking behaviour. – Bulletin of the World Health Organization 78: 1352–1357. PADOCH, C. & VAYDA, A.P. (1983): Patterns of resource use and human settlement in tropical forests. – Tropical rain forest ecosystems, structure and functions 1: 301-313. RUKANGIRA, E. (2001): The African herbal industry: constraints and challenges. – In: Proceedings of the natural products and cosmeceutcals 2001 conference. Erboristeria, Domani. pp 179-184. STANGELAND, T., TABUTI, J.R.S. & LYE, K.A. (2008): The influence of light and temperature on the germination of two Ugandan medicinal trees. – African Journal of Ecology, 46: 565-571. URT (2002) The traditional and alternative medicines Act, 2002. – The Government Printer, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. URT (2000) The national traditional and birth attendants implementation policy guidelines. – Ministry of Health, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. URT (1998): Tanzania country study on biological biodiversity. UNEP, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
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WHO (2001): Legal status of traditional medicine and complementary/alternative medicine: a worldwide review. World Health Organisation, Geneva. WHO (2002). WHO traditional medicine strategy 2002– 2005. World Health Organisation, Geneva. WHO (2005). Global atlas of traditional, complementary and alternative medicine. Text volume. – WHO, Centre for Health Development, Kobe, Japan.
R.L.A. Mahunnah & J.N. Otieno • Muhimbili Univesity College of Health and Allied Sciences, Institute of Traditional Medicine • P.O.Box 65001, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania S. Augustino • Sokoine University of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry and Nature Conservation, Department of Wood Utilization • P.O.Box 3014, Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania • email:
[email protected] J. Elia • National Herbarium of Tanzania, Tropical Pesticides Research Institute • P.O. Box 3024, Arusha, Tanzania
Community based conservation of ethno-medicinal plants by tribal people of Orissa state, India. Saujanendra Swain & Nihar Parida An ex-situ ethno-medicinal garden named Biju Patnaik Medicinal Plants Garden and Research Centre is established in 5 ha land donated by the government of Orissa; it is located in Jeypore city of Koraput district, Orissa state, India. This Garden consists of nine tribal gardens devoted to nine major tribal groups of the region: Bhatra, Bhumia, Bonda, Gadaba, Gond, Kandha, Koya, Paroja and Saora. Each tribal garden is being planted, maintained and managed by the traditional healthcare practitioners and traditional birth attendants of the respective tribal communities. A total of 347 medicinal plants used in the traditional healthcare systems of the nine tribes of the region are conserved in this garden (109 trees, 91 shrubs, 39 climbers, 102 herbs and 6 others - orchids, grasses, ferns etc). The garden serves as a repository of genetic stock of the undivided Koraput district and as a living gene bank for the tribal people; it has immense utility for the present and future generations.
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1,200 medicinal plant species are available in the forests of this area. Some of the endemic medicinal plant species available are used for curing common diseases like fever, cold, pyorrhea, gastrointestinal disorders, skin diseases, malarial fever, etc. But certain plant species with specific traits are used for setting fractured bones, curing asthma, jaundice, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. And many specific plant species have anti-helminthes, anti-inflammatory and anti-fertility properties for curing several diseases (BOX 1). The tribal populations residing in the region have their own local physicians/healers who have outstanding knowledge on the plant speFIGURE 1. Distribution of dominant tribes in Jeypore cies used for traditional healing. They have been tract of Orissa, India. in the practice of preserving a rich heritage of information on medicinal plants and their manageIntroduction In every ethnic group a culturally patterned tradi- ment. They have both the know-how and do-how tional health care system exists. In rural commu- for preparing the medicine and its application. This nities health care is the first and foremost line of local healing system is a part of the Indian tradidefense and the WHO has recognized the contribu- tional medicinal system. The tribal populations are tion of traditional health care in tribal communi- poor but their endowment of bioresources is rich. ties. It is very essential to have a proper documen- Very little research has been done so far on the vast tation and conservation both in-situ & ex-situ of medicinal plant resources in the Koraput region, medicinal plants and to know their potential for the particularly in the areas of conservation, sustainimprovement of health and hygiene through an eco ability, value addition and equitable sharing of benefits from the medicinal plant heritage. friendly system (AMBASTA 1986). Despite the increasing use of medicinal plants in primary health care in addition to allopathic drugs, their future is being threatened in relation to their conservation, sustainable use and benefit sharing. Several important species are in danger of extinction due to growing trade demands for new plant-based therapeutic products and biopharmaceuticals. Such concerns have stimulated action in chronicling and conserving medicinal plants and sharing of benefits with the indigenous tribes as a token of acknowledgment for their contribution to the final product (JAIN 1971). In this context the undivided Koraput district of Orissa state merits special mention as it is known for its richness of medicinal flora and as it is a treasure of useful plant resources. Tribal communities living in this region have been conserving and utilizing these resources, including medicinal plants. Gradual depletion of the forest cover in the area is slowly eroding the indigenous/traditional knowledge associated with the medicinal plants (CHAUDHURI ET AL. 1985). It is estimated that more than
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BOX 1. Medicinal plants commonly used among tribal people in Orissa, India. Fever
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook. f. and Thoms
Cold
Ocimum sanctum L.
Pyorrhoea
Jatropha gossypifolia L.
Gastrointestinal disorder Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Skin diseases Azadirachta indica A. Juss Malaria fever Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Fractured bones
Cissus quandraangula L
Asthma
Justicia adhatoda L.
Jaundice
Lawsonia inermis L.
Rheumatoid arthritis
Paederia foetida L.
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The ethno-medicinal garden TABLE 1. The nine tribes, their population and the Realizing this M.S. Swaminathan Research Foun- number of medicinal plants used by them. dation, Chennai, India established a Research and Population District No. of mediciDevelopment Centre in Jeypore city of Koraput Tribe (2001 census) nal plants used district in Orissa state, primarily to undertake inBhatra 375,845 Nawarangpur 81 tensive and integrated studies on medicinal and Bhumia 103,537 Koraput 69 aromatic plants, their conservation, sustainable and Bonda 9,378 Malkangiri 55 value-added use, and equitable sharing of benefits. 782,104 Koraput 83 The center has been dedicated to the various tribal Gadaba Gond 72,982 Nawarangpur 67 communities, residing in the area, and more spe1,395,643 Koraput & 124 cifically to the nine predominant tribes who have Kandha Rayagada been custodians of the plant genetic resources since Koya 122,535 Malkangiri 48 time immemorial. The centre has been working Paroja 317,301 Koraput 74 with the different tribal communities residing in Saora 473,233 Rayagada 59 the region to document their traditional knowledge 3,652,558 4 districts 660 on medicinal and other useful plants since 1997- 9 tribes 98, to protect and safeguard the traditional knowlnine different tribal groups were found in the area, edge for potential future benefit sharing. out of the total 62 in Orissa state. Their population Area and people varies from 10,000 to 0.4 million. Out of the total Koraput district is situated in the South-eastern re- 29 tribes 9 tribes were selected for further detailed gion of Orissa and is located between 170 50’and study on their plant used for primary healthcare. 200 3’north latitude, and 81027’ and 840 1’ east The THPs and TBAs of the tribes were contacted, longitudes (FIGURE 1). Administratively, the old and their traditional knowledge on use of medicinal Koraput district is now divided into 4 districts plants for primary healthcare was systematically namely Koraput, Malkangiri, Nabarangpur and documented. Information on 660 ethno-medicinal Rayagada. The total geographical area of the dis- plant species was documented. It was observed that trict is 0.84 million ha. The different areas in this nearly 50% of the plants are common to all nine zone are situated at altitudes of 150-1,000 meters tribes, but that the same plant may be used to treat above sea level. A major portion of the tribal habi- different diseases. During the survey 87 ethno-metat is hilly and forested; the hill slopes are highly dicinal plants were found to be endangered as they eroded and of low fertility, they are over-grazed are harvested from the wild in unsustainable ways. and represent the symbol of poverty. The district Nearly 10% of the medicinal species reported to is home to a large number of different tribal com- be used are not found in the wild or they are on munities: approximately 29 tribes forming 54.30% the verge of extinction. Details of the nine tribes and the number of medicinal plants used by them of the total population of the district. are presented in Table 1. TABLE 2 presents the 12 The traditional health care practitioners most commonly used medicinal plants. Most of the tribal villages have their own traditionAfter analyzing the facts and figures from the al health care practitioners (THPs) who are known above survey, it was decided to establish a tribeas Disari in the local language. Women work as trawise traditional healers association to address the ditional birth attendants (TBAs) called Gurumayi. issues onorganized traditional healthcare pracThey have specialized knowledge on childbirth tice, conservation and use of medicinal plant, and and related herbal medicines. Each and every commonitoring of the medicinal plant biodiversity. Till munity/tribe has their own Desari and Gurumayi. to date associations were established for the nine tribes by involving around 764 THPs and TBAs. Genesis of the ethno-medicinal Garden During the year 2006, a study was carried out by Just after the formation of association, a process M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation to map was carried out to prioritize the ethno-medicinal the distribution of tribes in the Koraput. Twenty- plants that need immediate attention for ex situ
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conservation in consultation with the members of the association. Nine tribal ethno-medicinal conservation gardens With the generous support of 5 ha of land from the Government of Orissa, the ex-situ conservation garden was established at Jeypore city of Koraput district in April 2007. The garden was named after the former Chief Minister of Orissa. The garden was established for ex-situ genetic conservation of ethno-medicinal plants used by major tribes of this region under a project mode with the financial support from Department of Biotechnology, Government of India. The Garden was devoted to the above mentioned nine major tribal groups of the region and the actual garden is located in nine acres (1 acre is 4047 m2) of land. One acre of land was allocated to each of the tribes for conservation and cultivation of plants they use for their primary health care needs (FIGURE 2). The THPs and TBAs from each of the tribes collected ethno-medicinal plants from their respective areas and planted them in their garden. Each of the nine tribal ethno-medicinal plant gardens is being maintained by the THPs and TBAs of the respective community. Each garden has more than 50-60 plant species, representing herbs, shrubs, creepers/climbers and trees used in the primary healthcare practice of the tribe. The gardens are rounded in shape and the plants are planted without any order so it looks like a forest. The entire garden has nine circles for nine tribes. Each garden has a big signboard with a photo of the tribe and demographic and cultural information a=bout the tribe. Each plant species has a label depicting the local name of the plant, the botanical name, family, habit, parts used, and diseases for which the plant is used. At the centre of these nine gardens there is a traditional tribal hut with thatched roof that serves as a meeting place for the THPs and TBAs. The management of the garden was carried out by female and male healthcare practitioners democratically selected from the communities. Every month the nominated members from the traditional healers association (from each of the nine tribal communities) monitor the health of garden and add new plants to the garden. Ethno-medicinal plant diversity Apart from the above 9 ethno-medicinal plant gar
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TABLE 2. Tvelwe medicinal plants commonly used by tribal people in Orissa state, India. Local name BhuinNimba Brudhadaraka Brahmi Thalakudi
Botanical Name
Family
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) wall.ex.Nees Argyreia nervosa (Burn.f.)Boj Bacopa monnieri (L.) penn. Centella asiatica (L.) Urban Coleus ambonicus Lour.
Acanthaceae
Rukuna – Hatapocha Basanga Justicia adhatoda L. Patragaja Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers Podina Mentha spicata L. Tulasi Occimum sanctum L. Pasaruni Peaderia foetida L. Pipali Piper longum Guluchi Tinospora cordifolia (Wild) Hook.f.& Toms
Convolvulaceae Scrophulariaceae Apiaceae Lamiaceae Acanthaceae Crassulaceae Labiatae Lamiaceae Rubiaceae Piperaceae Menispermaceae
dens, the garden also has one RET (rare, endangered, threatened) ethno-medicinal plant garden having 24 RET ethno-medicinal plant species of the region. Additionally, a model of a Home Herbal Garden and a Women’s Medicinal Plant Garden representing the plant species used in the traditional system of women healthcare were established inside the garden. One Spice garden was established to conserve the wild and cultivated spices of the region. One Introduced Plants Garden of the region was developed to demonstrate the plants that have been introduced in the region. One Forest Food Garden with plants yielding food for the tribal people, including wild edible tubers, has been developed inside the garden. One artificial sacred groove was established, where plants used by the tribes for religious purposes were planted and conserved. A few portions of the garden are devoted to propagation of ethno-medicinal plants in great demand through establishment of two large shade-net houses and three ultraviolet stabilized poly houses. This caters to the needs of tribal people for ethno-medicinal plants. Demonstrations on cultivation of 24 commercially exploited medicinal plants were laid down inside the garden. Continuous training and
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FIGURE 2. The tribal ethno-medicinal gardens. Photo: S. Swain.
ditional healthcare knowledge & conservation of capacity building programs on conservation and the rare genetic base of ethno-medicinal plants for use of ethno-medicinal plants were conducted for centuries. The authors are thankful to the Departthe tribal youths, THPs, TBAs and volunteers. ment of Biotechnology (Government of India) for Three booklets and two posters were developed, supporting the conservation activities of the tribal both in English and local language, to create aware- people. Thanks to the Government of Orissa state ness on conservation of ethno-medicinal plants. for their concern towards conservation of the wonThe garden also organizes campaigns on herbal derful tribal treasures of medicinal plants and asremedies against malaria through preparation and sociated traditional knowledge. We pay out deep administration of herbal formulation to the tribal sense of gratitude to Dr. Ajay Parida, Executive people. The garden facilitates information sharing Director & Dr. K.U. K . Nampoothiri, Director of on ethno-medicinal plants between different tribal MSSRF for his periodic motivation & guidance. groups through periodic exchange visits, meetings References and informal discussions. Conclusion Broadly Biju Patnaik Medicinal Plants Garden and Research Centre is a conservation centre which provides a living gene bank for the tribal families and gives them a sense of ownership. A participatory knowledge management system is slowly evolving which fosters genetic, trade and legal literacy. The center has the mandate of helping the nine tribal communities to protect their intellectual property rights under the provisions of the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act and the Biodiversity Act (2002). It is envisioned that this initiative will help to convert plant resources into economic wealth on an ecologically sustainable basis, and to overcome the prevailing dichotomy of the poverty of the people and the prosperity of Nature thereby leading to an era of biohappiness. Acknowledgement The paper is being dedicated to the tribal people of Koraput district for their selfless sharing of tra-
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AMBASTA, S.P. (1986): The useful plants of India. – Publications and information, Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi. CHAUDHURI, H.N. Rai, PAL, D.C. & TARAFDAR, C.R. (1985): Less known uses of some plants from the tribal areas of Orissa. –Bull. Bot. Surv. India 17: 132-136. JAIN, S.K. (1971): Some magico-religious beliefs about plants among Adibasis of Orissa. – Adibasi, 12:39-40.
Additional literature ANONYMOUS (1948-76): Wealth of India. Raw Materials 11. – CSIR, New Delhi. BRAHMAM, M. & DUTTA, P.K. (1981): Ethnobotanical studies in Orissa. In: JAIN, S.K. (ed.), Glimpses of Indian ethnobotany. – Oxford and IBH publishing Co., New Delhi. pp. 232-244. BRAHMAM, M. & SAXENA, H.O. (1990): Ethnobotany of Gandhamardan hills – some noteworthy folk-medicinal uses. – Ethnobotany 2: 71-79. DAS, P.K. & KANT, R. (1998): Ethnobotanical studies of the tribal belt of Koraput (Orissa). Bull. medicoethno. – Bot. Res. 9(3&4):123-128. DAS, P.K. & MISHRA, M.K. (1987): Some medicinal plants used by the tribal of Deomali and adjacent ar-
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En el caso de la conservación de las plantas medicinales, es a partir de 1985 que diversas organizaciones (OMS, UICN, WWF) se están refiriendo al tema, y que han formulado e impulsado distintas estrategias y acciones conjuntas para determinar cuál es el estado de estas plantas. Estos lineamientos están plasmados en el documento “Directrices sobre conservación de plantas medicinales” (OMS, UICN, WWF 1993). Uno de los resultados concretos es la recientemente creada Comisión para la Conservación de las Plantas Medicinales (1994). Esta ha sido una iniciativa de la UICN, apoyada por investigadores vinculados con distintas etapas Saujanendra Swain & Nihar Parida • M. S. Swadel proceso de conservación y desarrollo de las minathan Resaerch Foundation • Regional Centre: plantas medicinales en el mundo. Phulbad, Umuri P.O, Jeypore -764 002, Koraput District, Odisha state, India • e-mail: saujanen- La conservación desde la óptica de un análisis
[email protected] integrado A pesar del gran interés demostrado a nivel internacional e interinstitucional, se ha especulado mucho con respecto a las plantas medicinales y con Estado de la conservación de las ya que su utilización es antigua y es parte plantas TRAMIL incluidas en la razón, de una dinámica cultural compleja por la relación Farmacopea Vegetal Caribeña existente entre las plantas medicinales y el ser humano. Sonia Lagos, Xinia Robles & Rafael Ángel El análisis sobre el estado de la conservación, no Ocampo Sánchez solo debe abordarse desde la óptica biológica sino que debe incorporarse el enfoque cultural, para ser Antecedentes más consecuente con la realidad y para entender la Ante la responsabilidad que representa la extinción dinámica en que están inmersas las plantas mediciy uso sostenible de los recursos naturales, muchas nales. personas y organizaciones han integrado sus esfuerzos a nivel mundial en la promulgación de políti- Los esfuerzos técnicos para determinar el estado cas y directrices, dirigidas hacia la conservación de de la conservación de los recursos naturales se han dirigido especialmente hacia los recursos nativos la fauna y la flora. de una región, área, paisaje o continente. Esta sitEs precisamente bajo el amparo de la Unión Mun- uación es razonable, en tanto que, cuando los redial para la Naturaleza (UICN), una de las organ- cursos naturales silvestres son objeto de comercio izaciones que mayores esfuerzos ha realizado en indiscriminado están en peligro de extinción. este sentido, que se elaboró el tratado internacional o convención denominado CITES en 1973, el cual En el caso de la conservación de las plantas meinvolucra aproximadamente 132 países del mundo dicinales existe un elemento muy importante, que que están dispuestos a asumir el compromiso de está vinculado con la “cultura de las plantas medicregular un uso inadecuado. Los países de Cen- inales”. Hay un interés particular del ser humano troamérica y el Caribe también han firmado esta de llevar consigo los recursos naturales (tomar una convención, demostrando su interés por asumir el parte de la planta y luego establecerla en un nuevo ambiente) de importancia para su salud. Por esta compromiso y cumplirlo. razón plantas de origen africano como la MomorSe han creado varios instrumentos de apoyo a este dica charantia, poseen una distribución muy amconvenio, establecido para alcanzar objetivos es- plia en el Caribe y Centroamérica. En este sentido pecíficos a nivel global y abarcando distintas áreas. el origen de los recursos naturales posee un peso eas of Koraput District, Orissa. – Indian J.For. 10(4): 301-303. GIRACH, R.D. ET AL. (1998): Medico ethnobotany of Sundargarh, Orissa. – India. Phar. Biology 36(1):20. SATAPATHY, K.B. & PANDA, P.C. (1992): Medicinal uses of some plants among the tribals of Sundargarh Disrict, Orissa. – J. Econ. Tax. Bot. Addl. Ser. 10: 241249. SAXENA, H.O. & BRAHMAM, M. (1996): The flora of Orissa (4 Vols.). SAXENA, H.O. and DUTTA, P.K. (1975). Studies on the ethnobotany of Orissa. – Bull. Bot. v. India, 17(1-4): 124-131.
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CITES y las acciones que promueven las organizaciones interesadas en esta problemática. Veamos El uso y aprovechamiento de las plantas medici- en detalle algunos elementos que inducen al cuesnales, constituye no solo un sincretismo cultural tionamiento planteado. (al involucrar diversos grupos humanos), sino que El Convenio sobre el Comercio Internacional de ha promovido el intercambio de recursos naturales Especies Amenazadas de la Fauna y la Flora Silútiles entre las regiones del mundo. Es por este vestres (CITES), es una iniciativa que funciona con motivo que en América existen diversas plantas base en sus cuatro apéndices. Establece diferentes medicinales de uso popular que tienen diferentes restricciones de comercio para las especies inscriorígenes; caso contrario sucede con las orquídeas tas en sus Apéndices y permite el comercio sola(Orchidaceae) que generalmente son nativas y por mente cuando una autoridad gubernamental comlo tanto las acciones de conservación deben ajus- petente emite una autorización conforme al modelo de permiso del Apéndice IV. tarse a esta condición. fundamental para la definición del estado de la conservación.
La presencia de plantas medicinales en Centroamérica y el Caribe es la conjugación de diversos orígenes geográficos del mundo. Hierbas como el zacate de limón (Cymbopogon citratus) o el árbol de limón (Citrus aurantifolia) son recursos exóticos de amplia distribución y uso en la región. Precisamente, las plantas medicinales que se encuentran en la Farmacopea Caribeña (GERMOSENROBINEAU 1996) son una excelente representación de esta situación. El acercamiento a la Farmacopea Caribeña, para determinar el estado de la conservación de sus plantas, debe involucrar criterios diferentes de los ya definidos para los recursos en su estado natural, deben ampliarse con el propósito de lograr establecer una realidad más consecuente con la dinámica del aprovechamiento y uso de las plantas medicinales. Para elaborar este documento partimos con el objetivo de analizar el estado actual de conservación de las plantas medicinales que están en la Farmacopea Caribeña. Para definir la vulnerabilidad se requirió aplicar una serie de criterios tanto biológicos como culturales, con el propósito de esclarecer con una base objetiva el cambio, no tan evidente en algunos casos, en la abundancia de las plantas medicinales. Esperamos que este análisis conlleve a definir nuevas estrategias que contribuyan a la permanencia y uso sostenible de estas especies en beneficio de la salud popular de la comunidad Caribeña, en particular, y del mundo en general.
CITES es una herramienta clara en cuanto a las categorías definidas, tiene un mandato internacional y enfatiza en las plantas silvestres que son objeto de comercio. En la práctica el problema sigue siendo la capacidad técnica establecida en los países, para discernir cuáles recursos son objeto de comercio y, en algunos casos, cuáles son los criterios que deben aplicarse para saber si un recurso entra o no en determinada categoría. Por ejemplo, la palma areca o múltiple (Chrysalidocarpus lutescens) es una palma ornamental originaria de la Isla de Madagascar. Esta es la palma de mayor comercio en el mundo y por ende su distribución geográfica se ha ampliado. El problema con esta especie radica en que las autoridades de CITES de Costa Rica, solicitan un trámite para la exportación de esta palma que ha sido introducida y cultivada en el país. Este trámite no es necesario en estas condiciones; lo es en su país de origen donde la especie silvestre está en peligro de extinción y el comercio debe regularse. Otro ejemplo lo constituye la rana venenosa (Dendrobates pumila y D. auratus), de la cual no se tienen estudios detallados sobre su comportamiento en algunos de los países centroamericanos (ambas investigadas actualmente por su actividad farmacológica), y sin embargo no se restringe su exportación. En este caso es evidente que si los países cuentan con el recurso silvestre, están en la obligación de tener la información técnica adecuada que respalde la toma de decisiones en cuanto al uso sostenible y comercial de la especie, así como de la categoría a la que se debe asignar y los criterios por los cuales se asignó.
Ante la disyuntiva de la conservación Cuando se toca el tema de la conservación de los recursos naturales y la preocupación por su estado, aparece la disyuntiva sobre el papel que juega Estos ejemplos nos indican que existe un dilema
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relacionado con el estado de las especies que son exóticas de una región y la aplicación de los Apéndices de CITES, así como ausencia de conocimiento científico sobre la dinámica de poblaciones que son objeto de comercio y que su extracción continua podría conducir a la desaparición dentro su ambiente natural. Criterios científicos como garantía de objetividad Hasta ahora, distintos criterios se han utilizado para definir cuándo una especie (independientemente del aprovechamiento o interés comercial) está o no en peligro de extinción. Probablemente, la UICN ha sido la organización que por más tiempo ha estado vinculada con el tema, y por esto su madurez al plantear la necesidad de ser objetivos en el proceso de clasificación. Recientemente esta organización acaba de establecer una serie de categorías, que constituyen el método más acertado para brindar insumos para la toma de decisiones en cuanto a los recursos naturales se refiere. Estas categorías representan el marco teórico global de una situación hipotética, que aunque importante desde la óptica científica debe analizarse considerando la capacidad real de la región biogeográfica del Caribe y Centroamérica. Las categorías de CITES representan un marco teórico global de una situación hipotética, que aunque importante desde la óptica científica, deben analizarse tomando en consideración la base existente, la capacidad real y las características biogeográficas y culturales a las que corresponde el sitio. Además es importante señalar que por la misma riqueza en biodiversidad, de las regiones tropicales, se hace casi imposible documentarla totalmente. Solo en Centroamérica (sin incluir el Caribe), se han reportado aproximadamente mil especies medicinales. Esta situación es muy diferente en regiones templadas, no solo con respecto a la biodiversidad sino también en cuanto a las condiciones socioeconómicas, de capacidad técnica y tecnológica.
gional del Caribe y Centroamérica. La aplicación de estos criterios retroalimenta los apéndices de CITES y conlleva a establecer las listas rojas no por país (límites políticos) sino por regiones biogeográficas, respetando situaciones de endemismo propias de áreas específicas. A la luz de esta realidad, diversos organismos internacionales están promoviendo acciones de domesticación de plantas medicinales, como un esfuerzo orientado hacia la conservación y aprovechamiento de las especies. Por esta razón es de suma importancia ser consecuentes con la realidad y la necesidad de conservar nuestros recursos naturales, así como contar con criterios aplicables y adaptados a nuestras condiciones. Para evaluar el estado de la conservación de las plantas medicinales de la Farmacopea Caribeña se establecieron criterios para realizar un análisis objetivo, consecuente con la realidad y, finalmente, poder clasificar las plantas medicinales en las categorías adecuadas. Criterios para su determinación Existe en la actualidad una gran preocupación por la conservación y aprovechamiento de las plantas medicinales. Esta situación no solamente se refleja en el ámbito propiamente ambientalista (en época reciente se circunscribía exclusivamente a este ámbito) sino que ha alcanzado a personas de otras disciplinas que anteriormente no se sentían involucradas de alguna manera con el desarrollo de los recursos naturales; se ha reconocido que la conservación de la biodiversidad es de interés común de toda la humanidad. Es precisamente el CITES que dio la voz de alerta, al regular el comercio ilegal de las especies amenazadas en diferentes grados. A partir de este momento, y cada vez con mayor vehemencia, se escuchan más intervenciones sobre la necesidad de determinar el estado de la conservación de los recursos naturales.
Hay que recordar que CITES nace como una respuesta, con enfoque conservacionista, hacia un problema de uso inadecuado como lo es el comEs precisamente con criterios uniformes y cientí- ercio ilegal de recursos naturales (principalmente ficamente fundamentados, que se pueden agilizar fauna), producto de las acciones de extractivismo. acciones de conservación y desarrollo con aquellas Conforme a transcurrido el tiempo se han incorespecies de interés sociocultural en el ámbito re- porado grandes grupos taxonómicos vegetales, por
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ejemplo Cycadales y Orchidaceae, y recientemente la categoría de plantas medicinales. Esta última, no responde a un grupo biológico-taxonómico, sino a una categoría de uso que representa una cantidad apreciable de especies, familias, estructuras, ambientes, orígenes e intereses (conservacionistas, productivos y políticos). Los grupos de presión también han aumentado, no solamente en cantidad sino en diversidad cultural y de enfoques, y van desde investigadores, científicos, profesionales, empresarios hasta el público en general. Estas circunstancias nos brindan elementos importantes para tener un enfoque holístico que conlleve a la identificación de soluciones, acordes con el equilibrio deseado entre la conservación de los recursos naturales y su explotación racional en beneficio de los países productores, que son los dueños de los recursos con actividad terapéutica. La definición sobre el estado de la conservación es más compleja que una simple consulta a un profesional experto en un tema específico. Este análisis debe abordarse desde la perspectiva interdisciplinaria. Por esta razón, y con el propósito de analizar cuál es el estado de la conservación de las plantas de la “Farmacopea Vegetal Caribeña”, se determinaron algunos criterios que responden la realidad actual en materia de conservación y desarrollo de las plantas medicinales (Box 1). El orden de los criterios no corresponde a ningún nivel de priorización, cada uno cumple una función y el resultado de la suma de criterios es el indicador del estado de la conservación. Criterios para evaluar el estado de la conservación de las plantas medicinales incluidas en la Farmacopea Vegetal Caribeña.
BOX 1. Estado de conservación de las especies de la Farmacopea Caribeña 1. Estructura morfológica – biológica ESTRUCTURA Hierbas Arbol Arbustos Liana Palmas
PORCENTAJE 46 28 18 7 1
2. Origen De las plantas que están en la Farmacopea Caribeña 60% son especies nativas de América, el 40% restante son plantas introducidas al Caribe desde otros continentes del mundo. 3. Otras categorías de uso Aunque el total de plantas es utilizado como recurso terapeútico, es importante señalar que 77% de las plantas tienen otros usos. 4. Estado del recurso Se ha mencionado que cuando se hace referencia al estado de la conservación de los recursos naturales se hace referencia a plantas silvestres. Por esta razón al analizar el estado del recurso se observa que 50% son plantas que se cultivan con diferentes niveles e intensidades. Sólo 37% son plantas silvestres, que de acuerdo con el órgano cosechado y la intensidad de uso, así como el estado biológico de la planta, podría presentar indicios de vulnerabilidad. El 13% de las plantas es una mezcla de un estado incipiente de cultivo con poblaciones silvestres. 5. Grado de amenaza Al hacer el análisis final para determinar el grado de amenaza que tienen estas plantas se encontró que 84% no tienen amenazas, 13% son vulnerables y 3% no cuenta con datos suficientes para ubicarlas en una determinada categoría. Los datos detallados de cada una de las especies que se consideraron para el análisis se puede obtener de los autores.
que se encuentran en los bosques se están comercializando a nivel local e internacional y el pro Este criterio de identificación taxonómica debe ser ducto que se cosecha es la raíz. Este conjunto de prioritario, por que para clasificar el recurso y darle criterios hacen que la planta se considere como el seguimiento adecuado debe tenerse definido cuál vulnerable y se ubique en la categoría II de CITES; es el nombre científico y las sinonimias que le corsin embargo el problema es definir cuál o cuáles responden. A pesar de su importancia, la situación son las especies vulnerables. al respecto aún debe mejorarse en la región. Muchas plantas carecen de información taxonómi- 2. Categorías de uso y germoplasma ca fidedigna, tal es el caso de las especies del gén- Cuando se hace referencia a la biodiversidad vegero Smilax cuya información es hasta el momento etal útil, es claro que muchas especies poseen bastante confusa e incierta. Las especies silvestres diferentes usos para los humanos. Las plantas se 1. Identificación taxonómica
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han categorizado de acuerdo con estos usos. La inclusión de alguna especie dentro de una categoría de especial importancia para la sociedad, le brinda a la planta mayor seguridad en su conservación. Por ejemplo, la okra (Abelmonchus esculentus) además de ser medicinal es alimenticia (hortaliza). Esta situación ha inducido a los especialistas en mejoramiento genético a crear bancos de germoplasma a partir de colectas de material silvestre y a impulsar acciones para su conservación.
fica de un recurso natural se amplíe, en principio se disminuye el riesgo de entrar en las diversas categorías de amenaza o conservación. El endemismo se considera como sinónimo de autóctono, indígena (FONT 1977) y nativo. Como antónimos se mencionan exótico e introducido.
Por ejemplo, el árbol Peltogyne purpurea Pittier (nazareno), utilizado para aserrío, es nativo de Costa Rica y Panamá. En Costa Rica se distribuye únicamente en la vertiente Pacífica. Por su limitaEn general la existencia de bancos de germoplasma da distribución, lo valioso de la madera y su conserepresenta un mecanismo para la conservación ex cuente sobreexplotación es una especie amnazada. situ de la especie. Es importante señalar que las plantas medicinales son para los investigadores en Contrariamente tenemos el ejemplo del árbol Simejoramiento genético, especies no convencion- marouba glauca (aceituno), de uso medicinal y ales (o sea especies que no han entrado a la cadena para aserrío. Posee una distribución amplia en de comercialización “oficial” de mejoramiento, América Tropical y subtropical. Todavía no está producción y comercialización). Bajo la categoría amenazada. de no convencionales también se incluyen las plan- Es evidente que el origen y la distribución de una tas nativas de los trópicos y subtrópicos, por esta especie están vinculados estrechamente con su razón una planta que es nativa es, en consecuencia, conservación. A mayor distribución biogeográfica vulnerable. menor vulnerabilidad. Recientemente, se ha empezado a considerar la con- 4. Estructura morfológica - biológica servación in situ como una alternativa viable para Son las formas biológicas, denominadas en térmiconservar los recursos naturales en su medio amnos vulgares como árbol, arbusto, hierba, liana y biente. El CATIE está realizando investigaciones palma. De estas formas de vida se utilizan y comercon dos importantes especies medicinales, Quasia cializan diversos órganos (hojas, flores, raíz, corteamara y Smilax chiriquensis en Tamalanca, Costa za, etc.) que conducen en mayor o menor grado a Rica. Bougainvillea SA (empresa costarricense, la vulnerabilidad de una especie. Por ejemplo, el véase el artículo sobre Quassia amara en este volúaprovechamiento de tubérculos de poblaciones silmen) está realizando actividades de conservación vestres de Dracontium pone en mayor peligro la y desarrollo con Dracontium gigas y Arrabaidea especie que el aprovechamiento de sus hojas. chica, en ambos casos se está promoviendo la conEn general la tendencia que se manifiesta con reservación in situ (bancos de germoplasma). specto al concepto de especies medicinales es que 3. Origen y distribución geográfica son principalmente plantas arvenses. Igualmente, El origen es una condición propia de cada especie, diversas publicaciones se refieren a la categoría de género o familia. Responde a características am- plantas medicinales como “hierbas medicinales”. bientales generales o específicas. Una nueva espeEs evidente que la mayoría de las plantas introducicie puede sobrevivir si compite en un plano igual das a América son hierbas de porte pequeño. Cuano de ventaja con las poblaciones con que convive, do se realizan investigaciones etnofarmacológicas o bien por encontrarse en un ambiente favorable o con grupos nativos en América, nos damos cuenta aislado (este aislamiento puede ser ecológico, geque se amplía la gama de recursos y también de ográfico o genético) o porque tiene la protección estructuras. Así, se puede encontrar árboles, arbusdel ser humano. tos, lianas y palmas, además de hierbas. En este contexto, el endemismo constituye el facEl tipo de estructura morfológica – biológica posee tor limitante para la conservación de una especie un peso importante en la determinación del estado o género en su ambiente natural dentro de un país, de la conservación, relacionado con los aspectos región o isla. Conforme la distribución biogeográ-
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biológicos de cada especie (abundancia, ciclo de vida, volumen de semilla, etc). 5. Propagación El factor de propagación es un elemento básico en la conservación y cultivo de las plantas, y los recursos naturales con actividad terapéutica no constituyen la excepción. Esta característica da lugar para evaluar y seleccionar el mejor método de propagación.
c. Agricultura avanzada: caracterizada por tecnologías que impulsan su desarrollo y modernización. Recientemente el CATIE inició investigaciones sobre recursos de la biodiversidad vegetal útil, incluyendo las plantas medicinales. Estas investigaciones están orientadas hacia el manejo de poblaciones silvestres en el sistema bosque.
De esta manera es común que especies medicinales En este sentido, es importante señalar que las plan- de origen exótico sean objeto de cultivo comercial tas medicinales que se establecen en huertos y jar- en su región de origen, y en Centroamérica y el dines se han propagado con métodos empíricos y Caribe se cultiven en jardines con propósitos orque son acciones anteriores al desarrollo de inves- namentales como sucede con Zingiber purpureum, otras se encuentran espontáneas en sitios ruderales tigaciones sobre domesticación. (orillas de caminos) como sucede con Plantago La facilidad de reproducción así como poder utili- major. zar diversos métodos de propagación, representan para la especie una forma de garantizar su conser- De igual forma ocurre con especies nativas, que debido al interés se toman del medio natural y se vación. establecen en medios disturbados como huertos; en 6. Estado del recurso este caso lo que existe es “protección a la especie” Este indicador es básico para determinar el grado o sea nos ubicamos en la etapa de selección de made amenaza de una especie y está vinculado di- teriales silvestres. rectamente con el origen biogeográfico. Por estas razones la categoría cultivada y silvestre En el caso de los recursos naturales medicinales no en algunos casos no es tan transparente. es tan fácil determinar este indicador como lo es Los resultados de la aplicación de los criterios con el maíz (Zea mays), por su trayectoria histórica planteados anteriormente a las plantas incluidas en cultural en América. Con respecto al estado de la Farmacopea Caribeña se encuentran en el Box 1. las plantas medicinales la información es escasa. Como ejemplo se puede citar la ipecacuana (Psyco- Literatura citada tria ipecacuanha), que es posiblemente la especie FONT Q, P. (1977): Diccionario de botánica. – Editorial Labor, Barcelona. medicinal más importante en América Central por su comercio internacional y sin embargo aún no GERMOSEN-ROBINEAU, L. (ed.). (1996): Farmacopea vegetal caribeña. – TRAMIL, Santo Domingo. 360p. existe claridad sobre su estado, a pesar de acciones OMS/UICN/WWF. 1993. Directrices sobre conserdispersas de cultivo en países centroamericanos y a vación de plantas medicinales. – UICN, Gland. 55p. su presencia silvestre en áreas boscosas. Sonia Lagos • PLATS, Universidad Nacional Según LEÓN (1968), esta situación se debe a que del estado silvestre al cultivado (proceso de domes- Autónoma de Honduras • email: slagos09@gmail. com ticación) existen tres etapas básicas, que conducen al manejo de poblaciones de plantas:
a. Selección de materiales silvestres: se inició en el neolítico con la aparición de la agricultura, pero en los pueblos indígenas actuales establecidos en el trópico se desarrolla una actividad importante de selección. b. Agricultura incipiente: el hombre establece en el campo semillas que recoge del bosque y las mantiene por propagación vegetativa o sexual.
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BOX 2. TRAMIL TRAMIL es un programa de investigación aplicada a la medicina popular del Caribe. Su misión es validar científicamente los usos tradicionales de plantas medicinales para la atención primaria de salud. Sus investigaciones etnofarmacológicas se han extendido hacia prácticamente todos los territorios que tocan el mar Caribe, a través de la realización de encuestas utilizando una metodología uniforme. http://www.tramil.net/
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FairWild in the South Caucasus Heiko Schindler & Bryony Morgan Introduction The Caucasus is a geopolitical region between Europe and Asia, well known for its diversity in cultures, languages and a high diversity of fauna and flora. The South Caucasus comprises Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan, as well as parts of Turkey and Iran, and is also called Transcaucasia. North Caucasus or Ciscaucasia, comprises the Russian Republics north of the Great Caucasus mountain range as well as some regions of Georgia and Azerbaijan. Despite their great wealth, the fragile ecosystems of the Caucasus are threatened by over-exploitation of their natural resources. The main threats include over-grazing of the alpine meadows, poaching and logging as well as the construction of pipelines, roads, dams and urbanisation. The wild plant resources are especially threatened by nonsustainable harvesting methods. Driving the overexploitation are the prevailing economic, political and institutional settings, which mostly affect rural populations. The main resource users of wild plants, collectors from villages and small towns, often have only little economic alternative but to exploit natural resources above their regeneration capacity. To date, none of the countries of the Caucasus have managed to realize the socio- economic potential of a sustainable use of biodiversity products. There is a lack of comprehension, by both the private sector and the responsible government institutions, that the economic use of biodiversity can pose a threat to nature, especially in and around protected areas. The uncontrolled pressure on the natural resources of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia is especially high and accelerates the destruction of the economic base of large parts of the rural population. The combination of poverty, high levels of energy and raw material consumption, rapid economic growth and a neoliberal economic policy combined with corruption aggravate these negative effects.
strategy for the protection of biodiversity in the South Caucasus. The economic use of wild plant resources has been practiced for centuries, but destructive harvest practices were historically common. The economic benefits of collecting wild plant resources are often small, and the collection activities are seen as seasonal work for old people. The low esteem and small economic benefits from wild collection activities encourages rapid destructive harvesting practices. Sustainable use of wild plant diversity Through its Caucasus Initiative, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) is actively supporting the South Caucasus region with a wide range of activities, partly implemented by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ, former GTZ). From 2008 until 2016, GIZ is implementing a project on “Sustainable management of the biodiversity, South Caucasus”, which has developed activities in various sectors such as hunting and forestry, but also monitoring of biodiversity and sustainable use of wild plant diversity (GTZ 2011). From March 2010 to May 2011 the Institute for Marketecology (IMO) was assigned by GIZ to implement a project on facilitating value chains from sustainably collected wild plant resources in Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. IMO is one of the first and most experienced international bodies for the inspection, certification and quality assurance of sustainably produced products and has been active in the field of organic certification world-wide for more than 20 years. Today, IMO is a department of the Bio-Foundation, Switzerland and is based at Weinfelden, Switzerland. Based on the criteria, principles and indicators of the FairWild Standard Version 2.0 (FAIRWILD 2010 a,b), IMO developed a series of activities in cooperation with collectors of wild plants, intermediate traders, processors and exporters. The activities also involved consultants and local certification bodies, as well as the competent authorities of the three participating countries.
The FairWild Standard provides a management tool to put sustainable collection of plants harvested from the wild into practice, and also to manThe facilitation of sustainable but economically age the people - collectors, workers and others inviable use of plant diversity is one element of a volved in the value chains. It introduces fair trade
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principles for products marketed with the FairWild brand and logo. It unifies the International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP) Version 1.0 (IUCN & MPSG 2007), and the FairWild Standards Version 1 (MEINSHAUSEN ET AL. 2006). The purpose of the FairWild Standard is to “ensure the continued use and long-term survival of wild species and populations in their habitats, while respecting the traditions and cultures, and supporting the livelihoods of all stakeholders, in particular collectors and workers” (FAIRWILD 2010a).
During the whole project the concept of “training of trainers” was pursued by establishing a network of national experts, such as consultants and inspectors, with the requirements of FairWild. IMO was also assigned to facilitate the development of national standards for wild collected plant products, and to liaise with participating governments. The strategy of upgrading value chains through implementation of the FairWild Standard was determined by simultaneously implemented approaches. One approach was to enhance the desirability of the final products through labelling certified ingredients with the FairWild logo. Another approach was to upgrade the processes of collection and manufacturing through the improvement of harvesting and processing practices, good management and quality awareness.
The IMO activities were targeted towards improving the quality and sustainability of harvested wild plant products, and facilitating existing and new value chains for these products. Knowledge transfer was established through a series of trainings, workshops and seminars and through providing Plants and value chains were carefully selected, guidance manuals to the different target groups taking into account the commitment of stakehold(FIGURE 1, 2). ers to the project, the complexity of each value chain, its transparency, the accessibility of the collection region and market demand. Value chains of plants listed in TABLE 1 were selected for certification. Project results The work with various stakeholders in the wild collection sector has shown that, although challenging, implementation of the FairWild Standard in the South Caucasus was possible and also welcomed. All participating collectors and companies received training in various issues such as sustainFIGURE 1. Workshop with collectors in Georgia. able wild collection, the fair trade system, quality Photo: H. Schindler. criteria for wild collected raw and processed plant material, and the FairWild certification system. Project implementation In its initial phase, the project identified the rele- Thirty-four companies dealing with wild collection vant stakeholders in the wild collection sector of in the Caucasus were trained in at least one of the the three countries. Members of rural communities afore mentioned aspects. Altogether 340 collectors who depend on the income from wild collection from 17 collection companies were trained in suswere targeted, as well as the first or second buyers tainable wild collection. of wild collected plants - the collection companies. Selected companies were inspected during the secIn its second phase, collectors and collection com- ond half of 2010 and certification results are now panies were helped to implement FairWild Prin- available for all companies. As result, 12 out of 13 ciples. The quality and traceability systems of the inspected companies could receive the FairWild production and processing steps were scrutinized Certificate for their harvest 2010, and 16 different for improvement. In parallel, IMO facilitated the wild collected plants species could be certified. process of finding buyers for the selected value The support and development of value chains has chains. resulted in the establishment of several relations
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TABLE 1. Origin and parts used of plants selected for certification. Country of origin Armenia
Plant scientific name Juglans regia Picea orientalis Pinus sylvestris
Pinus kochiana
Azerbaijan
Georgia
Rosa canina Cornus mas
Common name & plant part Walnut, young fruit with pericarp Oriental spruce, tree cones Scotch pine cones, buds and needles Pine cones, buds and needles Rose, hip Cornelian cherry, fruit Hawthorn, berries
Crataegus pentagyna Prunus cerasifera Cherry plum, fruit Rubus fruticosus Blackberry, fruit agg. Stinging nettle, Urtica dioica leaf Normann fir, Abies nordmanseeds niana Sweet Chestnut, Castanea sativa Marroni Humulus lupulus Hop, strobile Hypericum perfo- St. John’s Wort, herb ratum Mentha longifolia Horse Mint, leaf Oregano, leaf and Origanum vulflower gare Vaccinium arctos- Caucasian bilberry, fruit taphylos
cine, teas and cosmetics (Thyme, Mint, Hawthorn, Hypericum etc) • Wild vegetables (Staphylea pinnata, Asparagus officinalis and other wild vegetables, mushrooms etc.) • Wild plants for horticulture (Normann Fir seeds, Snowdrop bulbs etc) Wild fruits and nuts from the first group are produced annually and in large quantities, thus the likeliness of over-harvesting these resources is low. On the other hand, collectors do not value the resources very highly because of low prices paid per kg. Collectors also perceive wild fruits and nuts as ubiquitous. As a result of this perception, the damage to a single plant does not seem to matter since there are so many harvestable plants left, and care during the harvest is not a priority. The collector trainings focused on correct harvesting techniques, the quality of harvested goods, personal hygiene and appropriate processing activities such as correct cleaning, drying and cutting.
between interested producers and importers from FIGURE 2. Children of Bilberry collectors in Georgia. Europe. The programme as well as the participat- Photo: H. Schindler. ing companies were presented to the visitors of Biofach (February 2010 and 2011 in Nuremberg, Plants from the MAP group have a much wider Germany) and to Ecology Fair (May 2011, Izmir, scope of harvested plant parts (leaves, seed, fruit, roots or even the whole plant). Destructive harvest Turkey). methods are common, such as ripping out perenniRegarding the sustainability of wild collection, al herbs and shrubs with their roots if only leaves or experiences have shown that wild collected plants flowers are needed. Regeneration periods and maxfrom the South Caucasus can be grouped into four imum harvestable quantities need to be well dedifferent groups: fined and the collection instructions need to be • Wild fruits/ nuts for human consumption (Core- thoroughly implemented by collectors, since polian Cherry, Wild Plum, Wild Apple and Pear, tentially many more mistakes can be made by collectors than in the fruit/nut group. Various MAP Bilberries, Walnut, Hazelnut etc) species or their close relatives are listed on Nation• Medicinal / aromatic plants (MAP) for medi- al Red Lists. Thus, the risk of unsustainable collec-
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tion is much higher than for the wild fruit and nut group. The training activities focused on the correct botanical identification of targeted plants as well as defining concrete criteria for sustainable wild collection, plus correct processing activities. Wild vegetables are very traditional products of the South Caucasus, and collectors have long experience with their collection. They are mainly harvested for home consumption and for national markets, thus there are few or no written quality standards available. In terms of risk of unsustainable wild collection, the same conclusions as for the MAP group can be drawn. Since none of the selected value chains focused on wild vegetables for home consumption or national markets, no trainings were developed specifically for this group. However, relevant issues were covered within the generic training material delivered. Wild plants for horticultural use have a potentially very high risk of non-sustainable collection practices because of the large extent of collection due to high prices and market demands. The collection and trade of some economically important geophytes are regulated through international agreements, e.g. Snowdrops are regulated through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
Feedback from participants Participating wild collection companies have stressed that the focus of activities needs to concentrate more strongly on linkages to international markets. Producer companies often do not have the capacity or have not seen the possibility in the past to contact potential international buyer companies. The main barriers from the sellers’ side are ignorance of how international markets work, and lack of knowledge or inflexibility in relation to quality requirements of the herbal industry. Potential buyer companies of importing countries said that prices for the raw materials have to match quality requirements; this is often a problem. Problematic or even adverse export conditions potentially also impede the development of new business links; this pushes up the prices for traded commodities. Also, potential buyers were reluctant to get involved in new business activities in the Caucasus because they could not fully judge the reliability of potential suppliers in terms of constant quantities at the same quality level.
Collectors’ feedback was positive throughout. Many collectors were surprised but also pleased that somebody from “outside” was interested in their activities and economic situation. The training reached not only the active collectors but also a young generation of potential future collectors. It Quality criteria and risks in collection and is important to maintain active groups of collectors processing and to recruit new collectors to maintain a supply On the collector level, the mixing of wild collected of high quality wild collected raw materials. Implants with the same species harvested from gar- plementing the FairWild principles gives additiondens, fields or plantations has shown to be of high al incentives for collectors if they are guaranteed risk, especially for fruits and nuts which are often good social and economic conditions. cultivated. The risk of contamination of cultivated species through pesticides, herbicides and other Feedback on the fair trade component of the Fairagro-chemical substances as well as contamina- Wild Standard indicated that most of the particition through animal faeces and dust is comparably pants were confronted with the fair trade concept higher than in wild resources. Also a big risk at the for the first time. Their opinion was that the Caucollector level is harvesting the wrong plant. Close casus region is not yet fully prepared for the implerelatives of the targeted plant, or even toxic plants, mentation of a fair trade certification system. It can be concluded that most participants did not fully can accidentally be harvested. understand the general concept of fair trade. During processing and storage, the most common mistakes are insufficient and incorrect drying, Participants recommended a step-wise approach to cleaning and contamination (Box 1). In the food introducing the FairWild Standard in the South industry, quality problems can occur through cross- Caucasus, with the principal focus initially on the contamination due to processing equipment which sustainable management of wild collected plants. was not properly cleaned after processing other Understanding and implementation of the social and fair trade aspects of the FairWild Standard raw materials.
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BOX 1. Processing and storage challenges Insufficient drying Moisture content too high. The danger of microbiological contamination (aflatoxins, mould etc) increases. Incorrect drying Sun-drying or too slow drying alters the colour and quality of, e.g., leaves or flowers. Too quick drying with artificial heat can adversively affect the product quality. Incorrect cleaning Processed products contain foreign bodies such as stones or other plants and plant parts. Contamination Through pests such as mice and insects, either already during collection or during processing and storage. Storage Crushing of stored materials due to inadequate packing or stacking.
could then be built more gradually. The uptake of the FairWild Standard in national processes other than certification was targeted, but co-operation with the competent authorities of participating countries was difficult as interest and understanding of the importance of the topic is low. Under the “Sustainable management of biodiversity in the South Caucasus” project, GIZ continues to work at the policy level in order to facilitate the introduction of regulatory guidance for sustainable use of natural resources. Feedback from national experts has shown that a lot of knowledge can be provided by specialists from the Caucasus itself, especially regarding the management of wild plants. National experts are needed for the correct identification of the targeted plants, as well as confirmation of sustainable harvest limits and monitoring activities. National experts can also effectively contribute to improving the quality of raw and processed materials through giving input on processing efficiency.
the experience of the first 15 months of implementation, IMO strongly recommends continuing to work with the collectors and processing/exporting companies. Further activities need to put a much stronger focus on the marketing aspects for certified products, with activities in the following fields: • A marketing study is needed to investigate the potential of wild collected products for different markets and industries, such as the food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. • Meetings should be organised where producers and processors from the countries of origin can meet their potential buyers from food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical companies. The meetings should take place both in the countries of origin and the countries of import of wild collected plant products. • Lead companies should be invited to participate in international trade fairs such as Biofach in Nurnberg, Germany and Anaheim Natural Products Expo West in the US. Also fairs with a more regional character such as the Ecologj fair in Izmir, Turkey can be of major importance. • The responsible quality managers and decision makers of Caucasian companies should be invited to visit the processing sites of potential buyers, in order to understand the required traceability and quality criteria. Vice versa, potential buyers should be invited to visit the collection and processing sites of Caucasian companies. • In order to achieve results in the long term, continuous FairWild certification needs to be facilitated by supporting lead companies with certification costs. Companies should also be supported to gain organic certification, in order to open up the organic market segment for them in addition to the access to the fair trade market segment provided by FairWild certification.
Recommendations It is not an easy endeavour to raise low income economic activities using simple technologies to an advanced level. Considerable time is needed to change the understanding of quality and sustaina- Future Perspectives bility both at the collector and processor levels, and The initial experiences of implementing the Fairmore time is needed to implement changes. After Wild Standard in the Caucasus demonstrated the
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plants (ISSC-MAP). Version 1.0. BfNSkripten 195, Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Bonn, Germany. 36pp. MEINSHAUSEN, F., WINKLER, S., BÄCHI, R., STAUBLI, F. & DÜRBECK, K. (2006): FairWild Standards, Version 1 (11/2006). FairWild Foundation, Weinfelden, Switzerland.
Heiko Schindler • Institute for Marketecology (IMO) • Weststr. 51, CH - 8570 Weinfelden, Switzerland • email:
[email protected] • Switzerland www. imo.ch • Bryony Morgan • FairWild Foundation Secretariat c/o TRAFFIC International • 219a Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DL • email:
[email protected]
FIGURE 3. Bilberry collection areas. Photo: H. Schindler.
positive impact that such standards, and implementation pathways including certification, can have. However, the importance of continued support and of linking activities such as certification into the broader context of sustainable development cannot be underestimated. IMO will continue to support FairWild certified companies by linking interested parties with producer companies, and is aiming at continuation of the activities in the Caucasus. Projects of similar scope, however, can only be realized if external funding is provided, since at present most of the participating companies do not have the necessary financial capacities to substantially invest into sustainable management practices on their own. Most participating companies stressed that they are willing to improve the current management system if they could sell their produce to new markets and buyers, and if they would receive a price premium.
Update World Health Organization Consultation on Conservation Guidelines for Medicinal Plants Danna J. Leaman, with background notes provided by WHO
A years-long process to revise Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants, first published by WHO, IUCN, and WWF in 1993, has taken a significant step towards completion with an expert consultation held in Toyama, Japan, 15-18 October, 2011. The consultation was organized by the WHO programme on Traditional Medicine, Department for Health System Governance and Service Delivery and the Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, and was hosted and financed by the Toyama Prefectural Government. Revised text was endorsed by IUCN, WWF, and TRAFFIC in References 2008. However, a formal expert consultation was FAIRWILD. (2010a): FairWild Standard: Version 2.0. – required for WHO’s endorsement of the final reFairWild Foundation, Weinfelden, Switzerland. vised text. FAIRWILD. (2010b): FairWild Standard Version 2.0., Performance Indicators, FairWild Foundation, Switzerland. GTZ (2011): BMZ Caucasus Initiative. GTZ homepage, accessed on 11.08.2011. URL http://www.gtz.de/en/ weltweit/europa-kaukasus-zentralasien/2829.htm IUCN & MPSG (2007): International standard for sustainable wild collection of medicinal and aromatic
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The Guidelines revision process was last updated in this newsletter in the “Chair’s Note”, volume 13, 1 December 2007. International actions to address concerns regarding unsustainable harvest of medicinal plants were initiated by WHO, IUCN, and WWF in 1988 with
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FIGURE 1. More than 60 experts made intensive discussions in Toyama, Japan, and reached the conclusion. Photo: K. Kanari.
the convening of the International Consultation on Conservation of Medicinal Plants in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Outcomes of this consultation included the “Chiang Mai Declaration”, calling for action to “save the plants that save lives”, the proceedings of the meeting published in 1991, and the publication of the first edition of the Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants in 1993. Since their original publication, the Guidelines have provided an agenda for national level policy and action to increase knowledge and conservation of medicinal plants, including through actions to protect these resources in their natural habitats, to conserve their genetic diversity in botanic gardens and gene banks, and to bring commercially important and threatened species into cultivation. In May 2003, representatives of the original three partner institutions – WHO, IUCN and WWF – with the addition of a fourth partner, TRAFFIC – met in Oxford, in the United Kingdom, and agreed to update these Guidelines to incorporate more recent policies and approaches relevant to conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants. The revised edition has been prepared with broad global consultation and responds to significant changes and advances that have occurred in conservation thinking over the past two decades. The updated Guidelines will take into account conservation commitments such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and support health initiatives such as WHO’s Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002-2005 and Medicines Strategy 2008-2013, the latter including access to and rational use of medicinal plants as two of its central objectives.
consultation, drawn from a broad range of institutions and agencies involved in various research and policy activities concerning medicinal plants, including: university faculties of pharmacy, pharmacognosy, and traditional medicine; centres of research on traditional and complementary medicine, botany, and materia medica; government ministries of health and agriculture; other intergovernmental agencies (FAO); and the co-author organizations IUCN, WWF, and TRAFFIC. Many of the participating experts are members of WHO’s Advisory Panel on Traditional Medicine and WHO Collaborating Centres for Traditional Medicine. The Guidelines will now undergo further revisions based on the Toyama consultation, and will be released following endorsement of the four co-author organizations. In May 2008, the World Health Assembly adopted a resolution on public health, innovation, and intellectual property (WHA.61.21). Traditional medicine is identified as a “quick-start” programme to implement this resolution within WHO’s Global Strategy and Plan of Action , aiming to support research and development and to promote standard-setting for traditional medicine in developing countries. The revised Guidelines will support the efforts of WHO member countries and partners to conserve medicinal plants as an important resource for human health.
FIGURE 2. Dr. Andrew Rodrigues introduced the contributions of IUCN to the Guidelines in the expert consultation in Tokoyama, Japan. Photo: K. Kanari.
More than 60 invited experts participated in the
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Notices of publication Helle O. Larsen The list includes publications from 2011 as well as older material not previously listed here. ADNAN, M. & HOLSCHER, D. (2011): Medicinal plants in old-growth, degraded and re-growth forests of NW Pakistan. – Forest Ecology and Management 261 (11): 2105-2114. AL-QURAN, S. (2011): Conservation of medicinal plants in Ajlun woodland/Jordan – Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 5 (24): 5857- 5862. Alves, R.R.N. & Rosa, I.M.L. (2005): Why study the use of animal products in traditional medicines?. - Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 1: 5. AREMU, A.O., CHEESMAN, L., FINNIE, J.F. & VAN STADEN, J. (2011): Mondia whitei (Apocynaceae): A review of its biological activities, conservation strategies and economic potential. – South African Journal of Botany 77 (4): 960-971. Baniya, A. (2010): FairWild implementation in a high risk species (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora). – WWF Nepal, Kathmandu. 18p. BHUTYA, R.K. (2011): Ayurvedic medicinal plants of India, Vol. 2. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. 298p. BIRHANE, E., AYNEKULU, E., MEKURIA, W. & ENDALE, D. (2011): Management, use and ecology of medicinal plants in the degraded dry lands of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. – Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 5 (3): 309-318. Uddin, S.B. (sd): Medicinal plants of Bangladesh. Database. – http://www.mpbd.info/ Brendler, T., Eloff, J.N., Gurib-Fakim, A. & Phillips, L.D. (eds.) (2010): African Herbal Pharmacopoeia. – Graphic Press, Mauritius. 289p. BRINCKMANN, J. (2011): Reproducible Efficacy and Safety Depend on Reproducible Quality: Matching the Various Quality Standards that have been Established for Botanical Ingredients with their Intended Uses in Cosmetics, Dietary Supplements, Foods, and Medicines. – HerbalGram 91: 40-55. BRUSCHI, P., MORGANTI, M., MANCINI, M. & SIGNORINI, M.A. (2011): Traditional healers and laypeople: A qualitative and quantitative approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda (Mozambique) – Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2): 543-563.
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BUCHER, S.F., Ghorbani, A., Langenberger, G., Küppers, M., & Sauerborn, J. (2011): Asparagus spp. in traditional Chinese medicine: wild collection and its sustainability. – TRAFFIC Bulletin 23 (2): 61-61. BUTOLA, J. (2011): Post-cultivation evaluation of germplasm in Himalayan threatened medicinal herbs: Implication for ex-cultivation and conservation. – National Academy Science Letters-India 34 (1-2): 49-58. Compton, J. & Ishihara, A. (2005): PC15 Inf. 6. The use and trade of Agarwood in Japan. Prepared for the CITES secretariat. TRAFFIC. Available at: http://www.cites.org/common/com/PC/15/X-PC1506-Inf.pdf. CORDELL, G.F. (2011): Sustainable medicines and global health care. – Planta Medica 77 (11): 11291138. DE ALBUQUERQUE, U.P., SOLDATI, G.T., SIEBER, S.S., RAMOS, M.A., DE SA, J.C. & DE SOUZA, L.C. (2011): The use of plants in the medical system of the Fulni-(o)over-cap people (NE Brazil): a perspective on age and gender. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 133 (2): 866-873. Dharani, N., Rukunga, G., Yenesew, A., Mbora, A., Mwaura, L., Dawson, I. & Jamnadass, R. (2010): Common antimalarial trees and shrubs of East Africa. A description of species and a guide to cultivation and conservation through use. – ICRAF, Nairobi. 96 pp. Available at: http://www.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/publications/PDFS/B16781. PDF. DHARMADASA, R.M., HETTIARACHCHI, P.L. & PREMAKUMARA, G.A.S. (2011): Geographical distribution and conservation of a rare medicinal plant Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Theob. (Meliaceae) in Sri Lanka. – Bangladesh Journal of Plant Taxonomy 18 (1): 39-49. Duke, J.A. (ed.) (2009): Duke’s handbook of medicinal plants of Latin America. – CRC Press, Boca Raton. 901p. EL MANSOURI, L., ENNABILI, A. & BOUSTA, D. (2011): Socioeconomic interest and valorization of medicinal plants from the Rissani oasis (SE of Morocco). – Boletin Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Plantas Medicinales y Aromaticas 10 (1): 30-45. ENGELS, G. & BRINCKMANN, J. (2011): Bacopa. – HerbalGram 91: 1-4. ENGELS, G. & BRINCKMANN, J. (2011): Dragon’s blood. – HerbalGram 92: 1-4. ENGELS, G. & BRINCKMANN, J. (2011): Gupta kola. – HerbalGram 90: 1-4.
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FIFANOU, V.G., OUSMANE, C., GAUTHIER, B. & BRICE, S. (2011): Traditional agroforestry systems and biodiversity conservation in Benin (West Africa). – Agroforestry Systems 82 (1): 1-13. FIGUEIREDO, E., PAIVA, J., STEVART, T., OLIVEIRA, F. & SMITH, G.F. (2011): Annotated catalogue of the flowering plants of Sao Tome and Principe. – Bothalia 41 (1): 41-82. FOSTER, S. (2011): A Brief History of Adulteration of Herbs, Spices, and Botanical Drugs. – HerbalGram92: 42-57. GAIKWAD, J., WILSON, P.D. & RANGANATHAN, S. (2011): Ecological niche modeling of customary medicinal plant species used by Australian Aborigines to identify species-rich and culturally valuable areas for conservation. – Ecological Modelling 222 (18): 3437-3443. GANDOLFO, E.S. & HANAZAKI, N. (2011): Ethnobotany and urbanization: knowledge and use of restinga plants by the native community of Distrito do Campeche (Florianopolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil). –Acta Botanica Brasilica 25 (1): 168-177. GILANI, S.A., FUJII, Y., KIKUCHI, A., SHINWARI, Z.K. & WATANABE, K.N. (2011): Ecological consequences, genetic and chemical variations in fragmented populations of a medicinal plant, Justicia adhatoda and implications for its conservation. – Pakistan Journal of Botany 43: 29-37. GRACE, O.M. (2011): Current perspectives on the economic botany of the genus Aloe L. (Xanthorrhoeaceae). – South African Journal of Botany 77 (4): 980-987. GUO, H.B., LIANG, Z.S. & ZHANG, Y.J. (2011): Onfarm conservation of genetic diversity for endangered medicinal plants. – Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 5 (24): 5667-5670. HAMEED, M., ASHRAF, M., AL-QURIANY, F., NAWAZ, T., AHMAD, M.S.A., YOUNIS, A. & NAZ, N. (2011): Medicinal flora of the Cholistan desert: a review. – Pakistan Journal of Botany 43: 39-50. HARRIS, E.S.J., CAO, S.G., LITTLEFIELD, B.A., CRAYCROFT, J.A., SCHOLTEN, R., KAPTCHUK, T., FU, Y.L., WANG, W.Q., LIU, Y., CHEN, H.B.A., ZHAO, Z.Z., CLARDY, J. WOOLF, A.D. & EISENBERG, D.M. (2011): Heavy metal and pesticide content in commonly prescribed individual raw Chinese herbal medicines. – Science of the Total Environment 409 (20): 4297-4305. Hayashi, H., Hattori, S., Inoue, K., Sarsenbaev, K., Ito, M. & Honda, G. (2003): Field survey of Glycyrrhiza plants in Central Asia (1). Characterization of G. uralensis, G. glabra and the putative
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The Medicinal Plant Specialist Group is chaired by Danna J. Leamann • 98 Russel Avenue • Ottawa, Ontario K1N 7X1 • Canada • Tel. +1/61/235-7213 • Fax +1/61/235-9622 • E-mail: djl@ green-world.org.
Medicinal Plant Conservation
Contributions for the next issue of are very welcome, please refer to format requirements on the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group homepage http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/about_ssc/specialist_groups/directory_ specialist_groups/directory_sg_plants/ssc_medicinalplant_home/ssc_medicinalplant_newsletter/
Medicinal Plant Conservation is edited by Helle O. Larsen • University of Copenhagen • Rolighedsvej 23 • 1958 Frederiksberg C • Denmark • email:
[email protected]
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