Modern Engine Technology

Modern Engine Technology from A to Z

Richard van Basshuysen Fred Schäfer

SIEMENS

VDO

IAV - Engineering Expertise for the Entire Vehicle

Richard van Basshuysen/Fred Schäfer

Modern Engine Technology from A to Z

SAE International™ Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA Copyright © 2007 SAE International

eISBN: 978-0-7680-4451-5

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE. For permission and licensing requests contact: SAE Permissions 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001-USA Email: [email protected] Tel: 724-772-4028 Fax: 724-772-4891

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lexikon Motorentechnik English. Modern engine technology : from A to Z / Richard van Basshuysen and Fred Schäfer, editors, p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-7680-1705-2 1. Internal combustion engines–Dictionaries. 2. Internal combustion engines—Encyclopedias. I. Van Basshuysen, Richard, 1932– . II. Schäfer, Fred, 1948– . III. Title. TJ785.L4913 2007 629.25--dc22

2006100615

SAE 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) Tel: 724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-1615 Email: [email protected] Copyright © 2007 SAE International ISBN 978-0-7680-1705-2 SAE Order No. R-373 Printed in China Translated from the German language edition: Lexicon Motorentechnik: Der Verbrennungsmotor von A-Z by Richard van Basshuysen and Fred Schäfer Copyright © Friedr.Vieweg & Sohn Verlag/GWV Fachverlage GmbH, Wiesbaden, Germany, 2004

Richard van Basshuysen Fred Schäfer Modern Engine Technology from A to Z

Other SAE titles of interest:

Internal Combustion Engine Handbook– Basics, Components, Systems, and Perspectives By Richard van Basshuysen and Fred Schäfer (Order No. R-345)

Introduction to Engine Valvetrains By Yushu Wang (Order No. R-339)

Vehicular Engine Design By Kevin L. Hoag (Order No. R-369)

For more information or to order a book, contact SAE at 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001; phone (724) 776-4970; fax (724) 776-0790; e-mail [email protected]; Web site http://store.sae.org.

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Foreword Modern Engine Technology from A to Z is a reference work with about 4500 keywords covering all aspects of the combustion engine. It is derived from "Shell-Lexikon Verbrennungsmotor" (Shell Lexicon of the Combustion Engine), which appeared in the form of 90 supplements to issues of ATZ (Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift; Journal of Automotive Engineering) and MTZ (Motortechnische Zeitschrift; Journal of Engine Engineering) over a period of eight years, with the generous support of Deutsche Shell AG. The lexicon was thoroughly revised, updated, and expanded to reach its present form. The entire lexicon project was made possible by technical and material assistance provided by Siemens VDO Automotive AG. No one author could possibly provide an in-depth view of so many special areas–nearly one hundred authors contributed to the exhaustive presentation of the subject matter. We would like to extend our thanks to everyone involved. The text for keywords that do not appear in the List of Subjects and Authors was written by the publishers. The explosion of engineering insights and detailed knowledge engendered by more than one hundred years of development of the combustion engine reflects the wide variety of engineering demands met, the many structural components involved, and the intricacies of their interactions. The technological essentials of the combustion engine and its peripheral modules are covered in the approximately 1100 pages and 1700 illustrations of this volume. Using a detailed system of cross-references, readers are directed to the keyword entries of subentries by arrows (for example: Piston dimensions Piston ~Dimensions). This positions each keyword within its relevant context, reflecting the reality that the keywords are by no means isolated terms, but rather derive much of their significance from their relevance within the whole picture. In addition to accepting the challenge of presenting the current state of the art of engine development, the publishers took particular pains to present theory and practice in a balanced ratio. This was made possible mainly by contributions from so many top-grade experts from industry and science. With their help, a reference work has been created that we hope will be as useful in the contexts of theory and research as in everyday practice. This book is intended, above all, for specialists in the automotive, engine, petroleum, and supporting industries, be they scientists or practitioners, and to serve as a study guide and reference for students. It also can provide useful advice and information to patent lawyers, automotive salespeople, official bodies, journalists, and interested laypersons. Despite the efforts of everyone involved, it is unavoidable in a volume of this scope that keywords may have been left out entirely or may have been given insufficient coverage. We are therefore well aware that the book could be improved and would appreciate any ideas and information that serve this purpose.

Richard van Basshuysen Fred Schäfer Bad Wimpfen/Hamm, April 2006

v

About the Editors Dr.-Ing. E.h. Richard van Basshuysen, VDI, was born in Bingen/Rhein, Germany, in 1932. Following an apprenticeship and then qualification as an automobile mechanic, he studied at the Technical University of Braunschweig/Wolfenbüttel from 1953 to 1955, graduating as a mechanical engineer. In 1982, he earned his university degree of engineering. From 1955 to 1965, he held a position in engineering sciences with Mineralölgesellschaft Aral AG/BP in Germany. In 1965, van Basshuysen joined NSU AG, where he directed the experimental unit working on engine and transmission development, including development of the Wankel engine, and rose to the position of vice director of experimental automotive engineering. In this position, he contributed to the development of a number of vehicles, including the Prinz 4, NSU 1000 and 1200, RO 80 and K 70. In 1969, NSU was taken over by what is now Audi AG, at which he assumed the post of director of development for luxury vehicles and director of engine and transmission development; he also was elected by the managerial employees to a seat on the supervisory board of Audi AG. His most significant development was the first passenger-car diesel engine with detoxified emissions, direct injection, and turbocharging, which van Basshuysen established in the face of considerable opposition in his own company within the VW Group. This engine featured a 20% reduction in fuel consumption, compared with its prechamber engine predecessor, coupled with high power output and torque levels, which established its preeminence worldwide. In Europe, the market share for this type of engine has grown from about 12% in 1989 to more than 50% in 2007. Subsequent to his corporate career, van Basshuysen founded an engineering office in 1992, which he still manages. His efforts now are dedicated to publishing the internationally recognized scientific and engineering journals ATZ (Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift; Journal of Automotive Engineering), and MTZ (Motortechnische Zeitschrift; Journal of Engine Engineering), performing consulting work for international automakers, providing engineering services, and writing and publishing scientific and engineering books, most of which have been translated into English. All told, he is the author or contributing author of more than 50 publications. His editorials have appeared regularly in ATZ and MTZ for more than 15 years. Prof. Dr.-Ing. Fred Schäfer was born in 1948 in Neuwied am Rhein, Germany. Following an apprenticeship in mechanical engineering, he continued studying in that field at the State School of Engineering at Koblenz. He went on to complete studies at the University of Kaiserslautern, Institute for Engines and Machines, earning the degree of Dipl.-Ing. His doctoral thesis was "Studies of the Reaction Kinetics of Hydrogen/Methanol Combustion in the Otto Engine." Schäfer's career then took him to Audi AG in Neckarsulm, Germany, to fill the position of assistant head of development. During his ten years with the company, other positions held included manager of the experimental engine group, followed by his tenure as director of the engine design department. In 1990, Schäfer was appointed professor for engines and machines at what was then the Technical University of Iserlohn, now part of the Technical University of Southern Westfalia in Iserlohn, where he directed the laboratory for combustion engines and flow machines. He is an active member of many university bodies, including the University Senate. In his current position as vice dean of theory and research, he is a member of the steering committee for the mechanical engineering faculty. Schäfer is also active in the field of research and development of engine technology, both in a self-employed capacity and in cooperation with the company mpa-engineering. With Richard van Basshuysen, he published the journal supplement "Shell-Lexikon Verbrennungsmotor" (Shell Lexicon of the Combustion Engine) from 1996 to 2003, which appeared in book form in 2004 under the title Lexikon Motorentechnik (Lexicon of Engine Technology). Schäfer has been a member of the VDI (Association of German Engineers) and of the Society of Automotive Engineers for many years.

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Information for Users This lexicon contains keywords followed, where relevant, by subentries extending to as many as four subievels, each sublevel indicated by a tilde (~). The keywords are in blue, semi-bold letters in a larger font size to make them easier to find. The first sublevel headings are also in blue, but in the text size. Terms are arranged using the word-by-word system, where alphabetizing continues up to the end of the first word (hyphenated compounds count as one word). When the first word is the same as another entry, the second word is considered, and so on. Composite terms (e.g., "Variable valve control") are listed according to the alphabetic position of the adjective (first word). In some cases, a clarifying term follows the keyword, separated from it by a comma (e.g., "Cylinder charge, volumetric efficiency."

vii

List of Subjects and Authors Actuators

Dipl.-Ing. Schahier El-Garrahi Dipl.-Ing. Stefan Klöckner Dipl.-Ing. Jörg Ohlenburger Dipl.-Ing. Axel Tuschik

Air cycling valve

Dipl.-Ing. Kay Brodesser Dr.-Ing. Alfred Elsäßer

Air intake system

Matthias Alex Dr.-Ing. Olaf Weber

Balancing of masses

Dipl.-Ing. Klaus Hirschfelder Dipl.-Ing. Helmut Schönfeld

Bearings

Dr.-Ing. Eckhart Schopf

Calculations

Dr. Peter Nefischer

Camshaft

Dipl.-Ing. Norbert Gatzka

Carburetor

Dr. Dietrich Großmann

Catalytic converter

Dipl.-Ing. Michael Jäger

Chain drive

Dr. Peter Bauer

Charge movement

Dipl.-Ing. Götz Tippelmann

Combustion process, diesel/gasoline engine

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Günter P. Merker

Commercial vehicle crankcase

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stefan Zima

Commercial vehicle cylinders/liners


Commercial vehicle cylinder head


Connecting rod

Dipl.-Ing. Achim Voges

Coolant

Dipl.-Ing. Ladislaus Meszaros

Coolant pump

Peter Amm Franz Pawellek

Cooling circuit

Dipl.-Ing. Klaus Daniel

Control/gas transfer


viii

List of Subjects and Authors Crankcase

Dipl.-Ing. Günter Helsper Dipl.-Ing. Karl B. Langlois

Crankcase ventilation systems

Dr.-Ing. Stephan Wild

Crankshaft

Dipl.-Ing. Hans-Jürgen Narcis Dipl.-Ing. Jochen Schmidt

Cylinder head

Dr. Ralf Marquard Prof. Dr.-Ing. Fred Schäfer

Engine~Historic engines


Engine~Racing engines

Dipl.-Kaufm. Roland Schedel

Engine acoustics

Prof. Dr. Hartmut Bathelt Dr.-Ing. Hans-Walter Wodtke

Engine bolts

Dipl.-Ing. Siegfried Jende Dipl.-Ing. Hermann Köhler

Engine concepts


Engine damage


Electronic/mechanical engine and transmission control

Dipl.-Ing. Gerwin Höreth Dipl.-Ing. Rainer Riecke Dipl.-Ing. Karl Smirra Dipl.-Ing. Christian Weinzierl

Exhaust gas analysis equipment

Dipl.-Ing. Mathias Goldhahn Prof. Dr.-Ing. Fred Schäfer

Filter

Dipl.-Ing. Markus Kolczyk Dipl.-Ing. Jochen Reyinger Dr.-Ing. Pius Trautmann Dr.-Ing. Olaf Weber

Fuel consumption

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Rudolf Flierl

Fuel, diesel engine

Dr. Herbert Krumm Wolfgang Lange Klaus Reders Dr. Andrea Schütze

Fuel, gasoline engine

Dr. Herbert Krumm Wolfgang Lange Klaus Reders Dr. Andrea Schütze

Heat accumulator

Dr. Olaf Schatz ix

List of Subjects and Authors Heat exchanger

Dr. Dragi Antonijevic Dr. Peter Diehl

Ignition system, diesel/gasoline engine

Dr. Thomas Heinze

Injection functions

Dipl.-Ing. Achim Koch Dipl.-Ing. Frank Lohrenz

Injection functions~Diesel engine

Dr. Wolfgang Oestreicher

Injection functions~Gasoline engine

Dr. Erwin Achleitner Dipl.-Ing. Jörg Neugärtner

Injection system~Diesel engine

Dipl.-Ing. Wolfgang Bloching Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Grossner Dipl.-Ing. Steffen Jung Prof. Dr.-Ing. Helmut Tschöke

Injection system~Gasoline engine

Dr. Erwin Achleitner Dipl.-Ing. Johannes Deichmann Dr. Franz Finzenhagen Dipl.-Ing. Bernhard Schmitt Dipl.-Ing. Ralph Schröder

Injection systems~Diesel engine

Dipl.-Ing. Wolfgang Bloching

Injection systems~Gasoline engine

Dr. Erwin Achleitner Dipl.-Ing. Bernhard Schmitt

Injection valves~Diesel engine

Dr. Erwin Achleitner Dipl.-Ing. Wolfgang Bloching Prof. Dr.-Ing. Helmut Tschöke

Injection valves~Gasoline engine

Dr. Erwin Achleitner Dipl.-Ing. Bernhard Schmitt

Intake system

Dr.-Ing. Alfred Elsäßer

Lubrication

Dr. Josef Affenzeller

Mixture formation

Univ.-Prof. Dr. techn. Dipl.-Ing. Hans Peter Lenz

Oil

Peter Busse Eric Froböse Dr. Helmut Leonhardt Jan Miller Hans Dieter Müller Volker Null

Oil circulation

Dipl.-Ing. Klaus Daniel

Particles (Particulates)

Dipl.-Ing. Andreas C. R. Mayer

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List of Subjects and Authors Performance characteristic maps

Dipl.-Ing. Bernd Haake Dr. Peter Wolters

Piston

Dr. Manfred Röhrle

Piston ring

Dipl.-Ing. Frank Münchow Dr. Jochem Neuhäuser

Pollutant after-treatment

Dipl.-Ing. Frank Terres

Radiator

Dipl.-Ing. Jürgen Eitel Dr. Wolfgang Kramer

Sealing systems

Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Klaus Bendl Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Armin Diez Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Eberhard Griesinger Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Uwe Georg Klump Dipl.-Ing. (TU) Wilhelm Kullen

Sensors

Dr. Anton Grabmaier Dipl.-Ing. Manfred Glehr

Software

Dipl.-Ing. Stefan Weber

Spark plug

Dr. Thomas Heinze

Starter

Carsten Bohnenkamp Dirk Schulte Dipl.-Ing. Peter Skotzek

Torsional vibrations

Dipl.-Ing. Bernd Jörg

Two-stroke engine

Dr.-Ing. Uwe Meinig

Variable valve control

Dr. Peter Heuser

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List of Authors Achleitner, Erwin, Dr.

Siemens VDO Automotive, Regensburg www.siemensvdo.de

Affenzeller, Josef, Dr.

AVL List GmbH, A-Graz www.avl.com

Alex, Matthias

Mann + Hummel GmbH, Ludwigsburg www.mann-hummel.com

Amm, Peter

Geräte- und Pumpenbau GmbH, Dr. Eugen Schmidt, Merbelsrod www.gpm-merbelsrod.de

Antonijevic, Dragi, Dr.

Visteon Technologie Zentrum, Kerpen www.visteon.com

Bathelt, Hartmut, Prof. Dr.

Akustikzentrum GmbH, Lenting www.akustikzentrum.de

Bauer, Peter, Dr.

IWIS ketten, Joh. Winkelhofer & Söhne GmbH & Co KG, München www.iwis.de

Bendl, Klaus, Dipl.-Ing. (FH)

Elring Klinger AG, Dettingen/Erms www.elringklinger.de

Bloching, Wolfgang, Dipl.-Ing.


Bohnenkamp, Carsten


Brodesser, Kay, Dipl.-Ing.

MAHLE Filtersysteme GmbH, Stuttgart www.mahle.com

Busse, Peter

Deutsche Shell GmbH, Shell Global Solutions (Deutschland), PAE-Labor, Hamburg www.deutsche-shell.de

Daniel, Klaus, Dipl.-Ing.

APL Automobil-Prüftechnik Landau GmbH, Landau www.apl-landau.de

Deichmann, Johannes, Dipl.-Ing.


Diehl, Peter, Dr.

Visteon Technologie Zentrum, Kerpen www.visteon.com

Diez, Armin, Dipl.-Ing. (FH)


xii

List of Authors Eitel, Jürgen, Dipl.-Ing.

Behr GmbH & Co. KG, Stuttgart www.behrgroup.com

El-Garrahi, Schahier, Dipl.-Ing.


Elsäßer, Alfred, Dr.-Ing.

MAHLE Filtersysteme GmbH, Stuttgart www.mahle.com

Finzenhagen, Franz, Dr.


Flierl, Rudolf, Prof. Dr.-Ing.

Universität Kaiserslautern, Lehrstuhl Verbrennungskraftmaschinen, Kaiserslautern www.uni-kl.de

Froböse, Eric


Gatzka, Norbert, Dipl.-Ing.

retired from Dr. Schrick GmbH, Remscheid www.drschrick.de

Glehr, Manfred, Dipl.-Ing.


Goldhahn, Mathias, Dipl.-Ing.

Vaihingen-Enz

Grabmaier, Anton, Dr.


Griesinger, Eberhard, Dipl.-Ing. (FH)


Großmann, Dietrich, Dr.

retired from Pierburg GmbH, Neuss www.kolbenschmidt.de

Grossner, Thomas, Dipl.-Ing.


Haake, Bernd, Dipl.-Ing.

FEV Motorentechnik GmbH, Aachen www.fev.com

Heinze, Thomas, Dr.

AES Automotive Engineering Services, Finnentrop

Helsper, Günter, Dipl.-Ing.

F Porsche AG, Weissach www.porsche.de

Heuser, Peter, Dr.

Meta Motoren- und Energie-Technik GmbH, Herzogenrath www.metagmbh.de

Hirschfelder, Klaus, Dipl.-Ing.

BMW AG, München www.bmw.de xiii

List of Authors Höreth, Gerwin, Dipl.-Ing.


Jäger, Michael, Dipl.-Ing.

Emitec GmbH, Lohmar www.emitec.com

Jende, Siegfried, Dipl.-Ing.

TEXTRON Peiner Umformtechnik GmbH, Peine www.textron.de

Jörg, Bernd, Dipl.-Ing.

Vibracoustic GmbH & Co. KG., Neuenburg www.vibracoustic.de

Jung, Steffen, Dipl.-Ing.


Klöckner, Stefan, Dipl.-Ing.


Klump, Uwe Georg, Dipl.-Ing. (FH)


Koch, Achim, Dipl.-Ing.


Köhler, Hermann, Dipl.-Ing.

KAMAX-Werke Rudolf Kellermann GmbH & Co KG, Homberg/Ohm www.kamax.de

Kolczyk, Markus, Dipl.-Ing.


Kramer, Wolfgang, Dr.

Behr GmbH & Co. KG, Stuttgart www.behrgroup.com

Krumm, Herbert, Dr.


Kullen, Wilhelm, Dipl.-Ing. (TU)


Lange, Wolfgang


Langlois, Karl B., Dipl.-Ing.

F Porsche AG, Weissach www.porsche.de

Lenz, Hans Peter, Univ.Prof. Dr. techn. Dipl.-Ing.

Institut für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen und Kraftfahrzeugbau der TU Wien, A-Wien www.tuwien.ac.at

Leonhardt, Helmut, Dr.


xiv

List of Authors Lohrenz, Frank, Dipl.-Ing.


Marquard, Ralf, Dr.

MAN B&W Diesel AG, Augsburg www.manbw.com

Mayer, Andreas C. R., Dipl.-Ing.

TTM Technik Thermische Maschinen, CH-Niederrohrdorf

Meinig, Uwe, Dr.-Ing.

Hengst GmbH & Co.KG, Münster www.hengst.de

Merker, Günter, P., Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil.

Institut für Technische Verbrennung, Universität Hannover, Hannover www.uni-hannover.de

Meszaros, Ladislaus, Dipl.-Ing.

BASF Aktiengesellschaft, Ludwigshafen www.basf.de

Miller, Jan


Müller, Hans Dieter


Münchow, Frank, Dipl.-Ing.

Federal Mogul Burscheid GmbH (formerly Goetze AG), Burscheid www.federal-mogul.com

Narcis, Hans-Jürgen, Dipl.-Ing.

Maschinenfabrik Alfing Kessler GmbH, Aalen www.alfing.de

Nefischer, Peter, Dr.

BMW Motoren GmbH, A-Steyr www.bmw-werk-steyr.at

Neugärtner, Jörg, Dipl.-Ing.


Neuhäuser, Jochem, Dr.

Federal Mogul Burscheid GmbH (formerly Goetze AG), Burscheid www.federal-mogul.com

Null, Volker


Oestreicher, Wolfgang, Dr.


Ohlenburger, Jörg, Dipl.-Ing.

Siemens VDO Automotive, Regensburg www.siemensvdo.de xv

List of Authors Pawellek, Franz

Geräte- und Pumpenbau GmbH, Dr. Eugen Schmidt, Merbelsrod www.gpm-merbelsrod.de

Reders, Klaus


Reyinger, Jochen, Dipl.-Ing.


Riecke, Rainer, Dipl.-Ing.


Röhrle, Manfred, Dr.

RÖ-CONSULT, Ostfildern

Schäfer, Fred, Prof. Dr.-Ing.

FH Südwestfalen, Iserlohn www.fh-swf.de

Schatz, Olaf, Dr.

Schatz Thermo Engineering, Kröppen-Pirmasens

Schedel, Roland, Dipl.-Kaufm.

TEXT-COM, Taunusstein www.text-com.de

Schmidt, Jochen, Dipl.-Ing.

Maschinenfabrik Alfing KesslerGmbH, Aalen www.alfing.de

Schmitt, Bernhard, Dipl.-Ing.


Schönfeld, Helmut, Dipl.-Ing.

retired from Schenck RoTec GmbH, Darmstadt

Schopf, Eckhart, Dr.-Ing.

Federal-Mogul Wiesbaden GmbH & Co. KG, Wiesbaden www.federal-mogul.com

Schröder, Ralph, Dipl.-Ing.


Schulte, Dirk


Schütze, Andrea, Dr.


Skotzek, Peter, Dipl.-Ing.


Smirra, Karl, Dipl.-Ing.


xvi

List of Authors Terres, Frank, Dipl.-Ing.

Tenneco Automotive Heinrich Gillet GmbH & Co KG, Edenkoben www.tenneco.com

Tippelmann, Götz, Dipl.-Ing.

Drallmesstechnik GmbH, Neuenstadt

Trautmann, Pius, Dr.-Ing.


Tschöke, Helmut, Prof. Dr.-Ing.

Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg, Magdeburg www.uni-magdeburg.de/imko

Tuschik, Axel, Dipl.-Ing.


van Basshuysen, Richard, Dr.-Ing. E.h.

Publisher, Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift and Motortechnische Zeitschrift, Bad Wimpfen

Voges, Achim, Dipl.-Ing.

Mahle GmbH, Stuttgart www.mahle.com

Weber, Olaf, Dr.-Ing.


Weber, Stefan, Dipl.-Ing.


Weinzierl, Christian, Dipl.-Ing.


Wild, Stephan, Dr.-Ing.


Wodtke, Hans-Walter, Dr.-Ing.

AFT Atlas Fahrzeugtechnik GmbH, Werdohl www.aft-werdohl.de

Wolters, Peter, Dr.

FEV Motorentechnik GmbH, Aachen www.fev.com

Zima, Stefan, Prof. Dr.-Ing.

FH Gießen-Friedberg, FB Maschinenbau, Friedberg www.fh-giessen-friedberg.de

xvii

List of Abbreviations ACEA

Association des Constructeurs Européens d'Automobiles; Association of European Automobile Manufacturers

API

American Petroleum Institute

ATIEL

Association Technique de l'Industrie Européenne des Lubrifiants; Association of the European Lubricant Industry

AVL

private company that develops powertrain systems for internal combustion engines, as well as instrumentation and test systems

ATZ

Automobiltechnische Fachzeitschrift; Journal of Automotive Engineering

BDC

bottom dead center (of piston travel)

bhp

measurement of engine power: BHP = torque (ft/lbs) x rpm/5252

BUWAL

Bundesamt für Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft; Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape

°CA

degrees crank angle

CARB

California Air Resources Board

CDI

capacitor discharge ignition, a high-voltage capacitor ignition system.

CEC

Coordinating European Council for the development of performance tests for lubricants and engine fuels

CFD

Computational flow dynamics

CCMC

Comité des Constructeurs d'Automobiles du Marché Commun (predecessor of ACEA)

DI

direct injection

DIN

Deutsches Institut für Normung; German Institute for Standardization

DEF

UK military specifications (Ministry of Defense)

ECE

Economic Commission for Europe

EEA

European Environment Agency

EEC

European Economic Community

xviii

List of Abbreviations EGR

exhaust g a s recirculation

EU4, EU5

European Union standards 4 and 5

FID

flame ionization detector

FW

Forschungsvereinigung Verbrennungskraftmaschinen; Research Association for Combustion Engines

IDI

indirect injection

IEC

International Electrotechnical Commission

ILSAC

International Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee

ISO

a network of the national standards institutes of 157 countries, and the world's largest developer of standards

JASO

Japan Automobile Standards Organization

LEV

low-emissions vehicle

LEV2

CARB low-emissions vehicle standards

MIL

US military specification

MTZ

Motortechnische

OBD

on-board diagnostics

OSEK

Offene Systeme und deren Schnittstellen für die Elektronik im Kraftfahrzeug [open systems and the correponding interfaces for automotive electronics]; German standards committee

SAE

Society of Automotive Engineers (US)

TDC

top dead center (of piston travel)

TÜV

Technischer Überwachungsverein; Technical Inspection Association (Germany), an independent product testing and standards organization

ULEV

ultra-low-emissions vehicle

VDI

Verein Deutscher Ingenieure; Association of German Engineers

ZEV

zero-emissions vehicle

ZVDI

Zentralverband Deutscher Ingenieure; Association of German Engineers

Zeitschrift; Journal of Engine Engineering

xix