Music in German Silent Cinema: Reception in the Film

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Journal of Film Music 7.2 (2014) https://doi.org/10.1558/jfm.30971

ISSN (print) 1087-7142 ISSN (online) 1758-860X

ARTICLE

Music in German Silent Cinema: Reception in the Film Trade Press 1907–1925 CAROLIN BEINROTH Justus-Liebig-University Giessen [email protected]

CLAUDIA BULLERJAHN Justus-Liebig-University Giessen [email protected] Abstract: Whereas sounds in American early cinema have been examined by Rick Altman for his ground-breaking book Silent Film Sounds, published in 2004, the musical components of German early cinema remain largely unexamined. Previous research on silent film sound in Germany primarily relied on the contemporary music press and neglected the film press, even though the latter offers much evidence on the topic. Thus, for the first author’s master’s thesis two of Germany’s most important film trade presses were examined: Der Kinematograph and Die LichtBildBühne with the supplement Das Kino-Orchester. As a result, previously unknown facts about the use of music in German silent cinema were discovered, which will be described in this article. The aim of this article is to shed light on German silent film sound practices and to compare them to those prevailing in the USA. Keywords: silent film; early cinema; film sounds; Germany; film trade press

1. Introduction

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conclusion3 that systematic discussion of music for German silent films did not start before 1920. Having analyzed German film magazines,4 this assumption proved to be false. It can now be said that, even though the 1920s were the heyday of writing on silent film music, a discussion of music in German silent

1 For more details, see section 2 below. 2 Exceptions are Michael Wedel, “Von der Kino-Musik zur Filmmusik: Julius Urgiß und die Anfänge der Diskussion über Film und Musik in Deutschland,” Kieler Beiträge zur Filmmusikforschung 8 (2012): 272-86; and Maria Fuchs, “Kunst oder Nichtkunst: Zur Kritik der Musik für den Stummfilm im Deutschland der 1920er Jahre,” in Anklaenge 2015.

Musikkritik. Historische Zugänge und Systematische Perspektiven, ed. Fritz Trümpi and Simon Obert, 111-31 (Vienna: Mille Tre Verlag, 2015). Their work primarily deals with the 1920s. 3 The music press expresses only the views of musicians while the film trade press offers insights into opinions of industry, cinema owners, and the public. 4 This paper is based on the first author’s master’s thesis called: Musik für den Stummfilm: Eine Untersuchung anhand ihrer zeitgenössischen Rezeption in deutschen Film- und Musikfachzeitschriften [Music for Silent Movies: An Investigation of its Contemporary Reception Based on German Music and Film Magazines] which was supervised by the second author.

erman silent film music has already been the subject of numerous scholarly investigations.1 As part of these investigations, contemporary discourse from the silent era has been a focus of interest. Yet thus far there has been one fundamental omission from this discourse, in that previous research has relied primarily on the music press while neglecting the film press.2 This has led to the

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cinema had already commenced by 1907, twelve years earlier than previously assumed. The different approaches to music in German silent cinema as chronicled by the film press from 1907 through 1925 have now been examined. Where possible, a tentative comparison with musical practices in American silent cinema will be made. Not only is the film press a unique source of information about exhibition practices, but it also offers valuable insights into efforts towards improving film music, which began as early as 1907. While the formative influence of composer-theorists such as Giuseppe Becce and Hans Erdmann have already been thoroughly investigated,5 the film press has not yet been examined with regard to its influence on the development of film music. The monograph Silent Film Sound6 by film sound historian-theorist Rick Altman has partly inspired the following work. While music to silent films in the USA7 has been the subject of numerous scholarly investigations since the 1940s,8 Altman’s study is unique in that it is based on extensive research of primary sources. For that reason, his work presents some of the most comprehensive historical documentation of both music to silent films as well as music in silent cinema not directly related to films (ballyhoo music, musical interludes). The study of music in silent cinema that is not directly related to films can offer very important clues about the cinema owners’ approach to music and the instrumentation, as well as the various tasks of cinema musicians.

5 See Michael Beiche, “Musik und Film im Deutschen Musikjournalismus der 1920er Jahre,” Archiv für Musikwissenschaft 63, no. 2 (2006): 94119; or Irene Comisso, “Theory and Practice in Erdmann’s/Becce’s/ Brav’s Allgemeines Handbuch der Film-Musik (1927),” Journal of Film Music 5 (2012): 93-100; as well as Maria Fuchs, “‘The Hermeneutic Framing of Film Illustration Practice’: The Allgemeines Handbuch der Film-Musik in the Context of Historico-musicological Traditions,” in The Sounds of Silent Films: New Perspectives on History, Theory and Practice, ed. Claus Tieber and Anna Katharina Windisch, 156-71 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014). 6 Rick Altman, Silent Film Sound (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004). 7 For a detailed list of publications relating to silent film music, see Claus Tieber, Anna Katharina Windisch, and Hans J. Wulff, “Stummfilmmusik,” Medienwissenschaft/Hamburg: Berichte und Papiere 149 (2013), accessed January 22, 2017, http://berichte.derwulff.de/0149_13.pdf. 8 As early as 1949, Joseph H. North studied the early years of the motion picture and discussed the role of music in cinema. See Joseph H. North, The Early Development of the Motion Picture (1887–1909) (PhD thesis, Cornell University, 1949; repr. New York: Arno Press, 1973). The first scholarly publication especially on music in American silent cinema is Charles M. Berg, An Investigation of the Motives for and Realization of Music to Accompany the American Silent Film, 1896–1927 (PhD thesis, University of Iowa; New York: Arno Press, 1976). An even earlier contribution to the field was made by George W. Beynon in 1921 but his book can primarily be seen as a guidebook for musicians and not as a scholarly work. George W. Beynon, Musical Presentation of Motion Pictures (New York/Boston: G. Schirmer, 1921).

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2. History of research on music in German silent cinema On account of the two world wars, scholarly research into German silent film accompaniment only began towards the end of the Second World War.9 In 1944 for his PhD thesis Konrad Ottenheym10 recounted the development of music to films up to the introduction of the sound film. In the following years several scholars contributed to the topic. Herbert Birett published Stummfilm-Musik,11 a reference list of notes, books, and articles related to silent film, and a monograph, Lichtspiele,12 in which he presents different aspects of the silent cinema, including musical accompaniment. Ulrich Rügner,13 Ulrich Siebert,14 Rainer Fabich,15 and Janina Müller and Tobias Plebuch16 analyzed original scores by Giuseppe Becce, Hans Erdmann, Josef Weiss, Gottfried Huppertz, and Edmund Meisel, among others. Karl Heinz Dettke17 investigated the use of the organ and other instruments in silent cinema. Anno Mungen focuses on the earliest attempts to combine pictures and music in his book BilderMusik,18 which presents 9 Albeit published in English translation, German musician and film journalist Kurt London authored one of the first monographs on film music in which he reviewed silent film accompaniment practice in Europe, although he did not differentiate between country-specific exhibition practices. Film Music: A Summary of the Characteristic Features of its History, Aesthetics, Techniques; and its Possible Developments (London: Faber & Faber, 1934). In recent years, several scholars including Annette Davison, Julie Brown, Anna Windisch, and Claus Tieber have started to investigate national or even regional differences in musical practices in silent cinema. Based on this research, it can be assumed that music in silent cinema, especially during its first years, varied from country to country. Another point that supports this assumption is that the performance venues of silent films varied from country to country: hence the predominant music of a certain performance venue might have had an influence on the music chosen for picture accompaniment. Therefore, it seems reasonable to assume that music in early silent cinema varied from country to country. (In Britain, for example, films were screened, among others places, in churches and music halls, and in Germany, by contrast, in variety theatres and public houses.) However, more careful study of primary sources will be needed to substantiate this point. 10 Konrad Ottenheym, Film und Musik bis zur Einführung des Tonfilms: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der Filmmusik (PhD thesis, Friedrich-Wilhelm Universität zu Berlin, 1944). It remains unpublished to this day. 11 Herbert Birett, Stummfilm-Musik: Materialsammlung (Berlin: Deutsche Kinemathek, 1970). 12 Herbert Birett, Lichtspiele: Der Kino in Deutschland bis 1914 (München: Q-Verlag, 1994). 13 Ulrich Rügner, Filmmusik in Deutschland zwischen 1924 und 1934 (Hildesheim: Olms, 1988). 14 Ulrich Eberhard Siebert, Filmmusik in Theorie und Praxis: Eine Untersuchung der 20er und frühen 30er Jahren anhand des Werkes von Hans Erdmann (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1990). 15 Rainer Fabich, Musik für den Stummfilm: Analysierende Beschreibungen originaler Stummfilmkompositionen (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1993). 16 Janina Müller and Tobias Plebuch, “Toward a Prehistory of Film Music: Hans Erdmann’s Score for Nosferatu and the Idea of Modular Form,” Journal of Film Music 6, no. 1 (2013): 31-48. 17 Karl Heinz Dettke, Kinoorgeln und Kinomusik in Deutschland (Stuttgart/ Weimar: J. B. Metzler Verlag, 1995). 18 Anno Mungen, “BilderMusik”: Panoramen, Tableaux Vivants und Lichtbilder als multimediale Darstellungsformen in Theater- und Musikaufführungen vom 19. bis zum frühen 20. Jahrhundert (Remscheid: Gardez!Verlag, 2006).

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the history of tableaux vivants, dioramas, moving panoramas, and different exhibition practices. There are also important articles in journals and anthologies: Claudia Bullerjahn has devoted three articles to original scores for silents,19 musical practices in silent films in the USA and Germany,20 and the reconstruction of silent film music in Germany.21 Carolin Beinroth22 wrote an article about the music archive of the Deutsches Filminstitut (DIF), its silent film music-related collections and their historical and contemporary utilization. Michael Wedel investigated devices for the synchronization of sound and film23 and the discourse of journalist Julian Urgiß on music and film.24 Michael Beiche focused on the reception of silent film music by the music press of the 1920s.25 Maria Fuchs26 investigated the film trade press, music press, and daily press discourse about silent film music, 1919–28.27

3. The reception of silent film music by the film trade press According to Birett,28 170 film-related magazines were published before 1920 in the German-speaking world. Music, which became part of film exhibition early on, was also a focus of discussion in the press. Most active were the magazines Der Kinematograph and Die LichtBildBühne (LLB). The importance afforded to music becomes apparent in the number of articles devoted to the subject: Der Kinematograph published 19 Claudia Bullerjahn, “Von der Kinomusik zur Filmmusik: StummfilmOriginalkompositionen der zwanziger Jahre,” in Musik der zwanziger Jahre, ed. Werner Keil, 281-316 (Hildesheim: Olms, 1996). 20 Claudia Bullerjahn, “Musik zum Stummfilm: Von den ersten Anfängen einer Kinomusik zu heutigen Versuchen der Stummfilmillustration,” in Das Handbuch der Filmmusik. Geschichte–Ästhetik–Funktionalität, ed. Josef Kloppenburg, 25-85 (Laaber: Laaber, 2012). 21 Claudia Bullerjahn, “Zwischen Patina und High-Tech: Zur Problematik der Rekonstruktion von Stummfilm Originalkompositionen der 1920er Jahre,” in Ton-Spuren aus der Alten Welt: Europäische Filmmusik bis 1945, ed. Ivana Rentsch and Arne Stollberg, 66-90 (München: edition text + kritik, 2013). 22 Carolin Beinroth, “Between Practice and Theory: Silent Film Sound and the Music Archive,” in Today`s Sounds for Yesterday`s Films, ed. K. J. Donnelly and Ann-Kristin Wallengren, 29-45 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016). 23 Michael Wedel, “Messter‘s ‘Silent’ Heirs: Sync. Systems of the German Music Film 1914–1929,” Film History 11, no. 4 (1999), 464-76. Silent music films are also a topic in the monograph by Oliver Huck, Das musikalische Drama im “Stummfilm”: Oper, Tonbild und Musik im Film d’Art (Hildesheim: Olms, 2012). 24 Wedel, Von der Kino-Musik zur Filmmusik, 272-86. 25 Beiche, Musik und Film im Deutschen Musikjournalismus der 1920er Jahre, 94-119. 26 Fuchs, “Kunst oder Nichtkunst,” 111-31. 27 Francesco Finocchiaro also contributed to this research with the Lise Meitner project Neue Musik und deutschsprachiges Kino: 1913–1933 (University of Vienna, 2013–15): Francesco Finocchiaro, Musical Modernism and German Cinema from 1913 to 1933 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, forthcoming). 28 Herbert Birett, “Über 170 Filmzeitschriften bis 1920,” Quellen zur Filmgeschichte und einiges anderes, accessed January 22, 2017, http://www. kinematographie.de/BIS20.HTM

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93 music-related articles, 18 of which in 1907. In 1909 the same magazine began a column entitled “Aus dem Reich der Töne,”29 which appeared at least once a week. In 1913 the supplement Kinomusik- und Varietés30 (renamed Musikalische Rundschau in 1923) was established, and in 1917 the so-called “FilmmusikFührer” appeared. The LBB published two articles on music in 1911 and a further 58 up to 1933. The LBB also published its own “Filmmusik-Führer,” starting in 1919, and in 1926 it introduced a column called “Die musikalische Ecke,” dealing exclusively with music. In April 1925 an additional series of publications, a supplement of the LBB dedicated to film music and edited by Leopold Schmidl, first appeared under the name Das Kino-Orchester (changing its name in 1929 to Film und Ton); it subsequently appeared every second week.31 Each issue featured comments on new developments, reviews of musical performances at movie premieres, and suggestions for illustrations (on “illustration,” see below). Most articles were written by Leopold (“Poldi”) Schmidl32 and Julian Urgiß, or by the public, cinema owners, or musicians. The discourse featured a variety of issues, ranging from minor topics such as modulation to the role of music in general. As will be seen in what follows, the topics most frequently discussed were different musical accompaniment methods, the instrumentation, and the various roles that the music assumes.

3.1 Methods of musical accompaniment A critical discussion of accompaniment constitutes a large part of contemporary silent film music criticism. Depending on the instrumentation, talent, and willingness of musicians and theater owners alike, the accompaniment methods varied greatly. The three predominant methods were improvisation, illustration, and original scores.

29 These articles dealt with musical accompaniment methods, instrumentation, synchronization systems, and Tonbilder. 30 This supplement featured reviews of film showings and their musical accompaniment. 31 In addition, newspapers dealing exclusively with film music were published in the 1920s: for example, Film-Ton-Kunst, initiated by Giuseppe Becce. 32 Schmidl was a music theorist and biographer; his first article for Der Kinematograph, “Lichtbild und Begleitmusik,” was published in 1910. Previous research cites 1911 not only as the year of Schmidl’s first publication in Der Kinematograph but also as the year in which Der Kinematograph first mentioned music in cinema (see for example Fuchs, “Kunst oder Nichtkunst,” 112). This is probably because Seidler, who published a list of film music sources in the contemporary press, stated that Der Kinematograph published the first music-related article in 1911 even though its first edition of 1907 had a music-related article. See Walther Seidler, ed., Stummfilmmusik gestern und heute: Beiträge und Interviews anläßlich eines Symposiums im Kino Arsenal am 9. Juni 1979 in Berlin (Berlin: Verlag Volker Spiess, 1979), 106.

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Improvisation During the early years, improvisation, usually by a pianist, was the predominant method of picture accompaniment. In the press, the term “improvisation” mostly refers to the process of spontaneously inventing new musical melodies, harmonies, or short motifs.33 Being able to improvise was regarded as the most important skill for a cinema pianist in the years up to 1910. “The main criterion for a good pianist remains the ability to improvise at an expert level [. . .]—if feasible performing a free improvisation, oriented to known but suitable themes—which can persist before the judgment seat of art.”34 According to Schmidl, the difficulty facing improvising pianists was that they had to subordinate their ideas to the subject of the picture. As Schmidl describes it, to improvise on command stands in contrast to the nature of improvisation. As a solution to this dilemma he proposes that the pianists prearrange leitmotifs and assign them to a movie’s protagonists. As the movie plays, the pianist can then improvise on these motifs.35 Even though improvisation was very popular in Germany up to the end of the silent era, in 1909 objections started to appear in the film press. Improvisations were often found lacking in ideas with the musicians offering no new directions.36 By 1914 the criticism had become more serious and pianists were encouraged to order sheet music.37 It is my duty to draw attention to the fact that the Naturmusiker38 has become outdated. [. . .]. Send for overtures, phantasies, character pieces and potpourris [. . .]. A well-played piece from paper whose content halfway fits the atmosphere of the movies has a greater impact than a half-hour improvisation on the Magic Fire motif in C major.39

33 Sometimes featuring short pre-existing motifs. 34 “Die Hauptbedingung für einen guten Kinopianisten ist und bleibt die Begabung kunstgerecht phantasieren zu können, d. h. schnell und sicher – wennmöglich [sic] an bekannte, aber passende Themata anlehnend – eine freie Improvisation darbieten zu können, die vor dem Richterstuhl der Kunst zu bestehen vermag” (Der Kinematograph 116 [1909]). 35 Der Kinematograph 183 (1910). 36 Der Kinematograph 137 (1909). 37 Schmidl even goes as far as to make it the main condition for the employment of a pianist that he owns a collection of sheet music (Der Kinematograph 367 [1914]). 38 Literally translated: “natural musician.” The author apparently means a musician who improvises by ear. 39 “Es ist meine Pflicht, [. . .] darauf aufmerksam zu machen, dass der Naturmusiker im Lichtbildtheater sich überlebt hat. [. . .] Lassen sie sich Ouvertüren, Phantasien, Charakterstücke und Potpourris kommen [. . .]. Ein gut vom Blatt gespieltes kleines Stück, dessen Inhalt mit der Stimmung im Film nur halbwegs übereinstimmt, hat mehr Wirkung als die halbstündige Variation des Feuerzaubermotivs in der Tonart C-Dur [. . .]” (Der Kinematograph 367 [1914]).

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The increasing criticism of improvisation was also a result of the arrival of longer movies with more complex contents which, in the eyes of the film press, demanded a more sophisticated accompaniment. Illustration The most common method of musical accompaniment for films was that of illustration or compilation. In the absence of a film score or suggestions for illustrations, most musicians played whatever they regarded as appropriate for a certain scene. The music therefore depended completely on the repertoire and knowledge of the musician.40 The material frequently used41 was classical music or opera pieces.42 The selected pieces were played one after the other, sometimes with modulation but mostly without. This proved to be a major focus of critique from the press, who recognized the importance of modulation43 between two pieces as a means of evoking the impression of a continuous movie. In movie theaters with an orchestra in residence, the Kapellmeister, or conductor, had to develop a compilation for every new film. With the film industry showing no interest in this, the responsibility for compilation remained in the hands of the conductors until the end of the 1920s. Conductors, especially those in rural areas, were struggling with several challenges, the biggest of which being that they could not watch the films before the showing and therefore had to develop a compilation by relying on so-called “censorship cards” (Zensurkarten).44 “Only thanks to the skill of the conductors is the censorship card concert, which is called film music, acceptable,” it was stated.45 The situation was different in the capital Berlin. Here, much attention was paid to the music for a film premiere, and the conductors46 were supplied with tools for support.47 With the emergence of larger cinemas and professional orchestras, illustration strategies were also professionalized. As Ottenheym48 40 Altman, Silent Film Sound, 220. 41 In the USA popular songs were more predominant. 42 LBB 19 (1911)/Der Kinematograph 255 (1911). 43 Reflections about modulation date back as far as Richard Wagner, who wrote extensively about modulation as an art of transition (Kunst des Übergangs). 44 Zensurkarten were created by the German board of film censorship. They mostly featured the titles of the scenes or a short plot synopsis. 45 “Nur allein der Geschicklichkeit der Kapellmeister ist zu danken, wenn das Zensurkarten-Konzert, das man Filmmusik zu nennen pflegt, einigermaßen annehmbar verläuft” (LBB 67 [1926]). 46 For information on the role of the Kapellmeister in German silent cinema, see Das Kino-Orchester 16 (1925). 47 In the premiere theaters, there were often consoles through which the conductor could communicate with the projectionist while the film was screening should the pace of the movie need to be slowed down to match the pace of the orchestra; see Seidler, Stummfilmmusik gestern und heute, 46. 48 Ottenheym, Film und Musik bis zur Einführung des Tonfilms, 55.

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points out, various publishing companies now recognized this as a new source of revenue and started to publish collections of music for films.49 In Berlin, conductors who lacked the financial means to buy these scores could, from 1926, borrow sheet music from a lending library for film music.50 Although illustration was very popular in Germany, authors such as Schmidl described the stringing-together of known musical pieces as pointless, since “the pictures have an ongoing story and are not separate episodes.”51 Another target for criticism with regard to illustration was that some pianists played songs: mostly so-called Schlager52—that is, popular songs— because their lyrics fit one (mostly minor) part of a picture; in doing this, they made an ironic comment on the picture: One film showed a minor slip-up [. . .]: at a table where nine people were supposed to be seated, there were only eight chairs. As a result one lady had no place to sit until a cast member had retrieved a chair from behind the set. The pianist believed the appropriate song for this scene was “Ist denn kein Stuhl da?” [“Is there not another chair here?”]53

Discussion about Schlager was widespread during the second half of the 1920s. Most critics complained about their use because they were often used to accentuate parts of the picture that were not crucial to the narrative. Another point of criticism on the subject of illustrations was that the music was not subordinated to the pictures. The following comment exemplifies this:54 To blame for the neglect of film music, which pays hardly any concern to the nature of the film, is the 49 This development can also be seen in the film trade press where the number of advertisements by publishing companies increased from 1919 onwards. The publishing company Heinrichshofen’s Verlag even initiated a film music composition competition in 1925. The participants were asked to compose pieces that fitted certain emotional episodes such as “thunderstorm,” “love,” and “war.” The pieces composed by the winners were published in a collection which today is preserved in the DIF’s archive. 50 Das Kino-Orchester 15 (1926). 51 A critical discussion of illustration by music theorists can be found in Wedel, Von der Kino-Musik zur Filmmusik, 272-86. 52 Literally translated, Schlager means “hit” (song). It can be described as a simple pop song dealing with subjects such as love, melancholy, nostalgia, and fantasy. Schlager appeared in many films from the 1920s to the 1950s. 53 “Ein Film wies einen an und für sich geringfügigen Regiefehler auf, den das Publikum wohl kaum bemerkt haben dürfte. Um eine Tafel, an der 9 Personen Platz nehmen sollten, standen nur 8 Stühle und eine Dame findet daher momentan keinen Platz, bis jemand der Mitwirkenden ihr eine Sitzgelegenheit von hinter der Kulisse herbeiholt. Der Klavierspieler findet dazu das Lied für passend: ‘Ist denn kein Stuhl da?’” (LBB 21 [1912]). 54 Corresponding statements appeared in the American press: “End the number when the scene ends for which you are playing that number. When the action calls for a different kind of music, that is the time to change; don’t wait until you reach the end of the piece first” (Moving Picture World 18 [1913]).

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misplaced conscientiousness of the musician. He does not have the courage to change a selected piece of music before he arrives at the last bar, and he almost feels as if he is committing a musical crime if someone expects him not to accompany some scenes at all.55

Original scores Music composed especially for films was already in demand in Germany by 1909 and remained one of the predominant requests of the trade press for many years. Max Olitzki wrote that dramatists and poets already had contributed to the cinema and that now it was time for composers to work for the cinema as well.56 Original scores were seen as a means of improving the reputation of a movie theater and of elevating the film medium to the status of a Gesamtkunstwerk, a “total work of art.” Even though the importance of composed music was acknowledged early on, it took years for this idea to gain wider acceptance. As described by the film press, the industry regarded only a few movies as worthy of a suitable original score and largely produced films without music. The film industry did not regard itself as responsible57 for film music and doubted that music would lead to increased sales.58 Nonetheless, from 1918, a change can be observed, with the film industry beginning to grasp the potential of film music. All the same, only ambitious full-length feature films were supplied with especially composed music. The first German movies with a dedicated original score were Der Student von Prag (1913) and Die Wittenberger Nachtigall (1913).59 According to the film press, the film industry did commission music for these films. A criticism was voiced, however, by Poldi Schmidl that the commissioning was done only after the film was shot: the composers were not involved in the “making of process” and the music and the film therefore neither complemented nor enhanced one another.60 55 “Schuld an der Vernachlässigung der Filmmusik, die sich so wenig um das Wesen des Films kümmert, ist das unselige Pflichtgefühl des Musikers. Er hat nicht den Mut, ein gewähltes Musikstück zu wechseln, bevor er beim letzten Takte anlangte, und er hat geradezu das Gefühl eines musikalischen Verbrechens, wenn man ihm zumuten würde, er solle manche Szenen überhaupt nicht begleiten” (Der Kinematograph 485 [1916]). 56 Der Kinematograph 137 (1909). 57 Der Kinematograph 700 (1920). 58 LBB 2 (1919). 59 However, the first Bioscope presentations by Max Skladanowsky at Berlin’s Wintergarten theater in 1895 were accompanied by fifteen pieces of music, about half of which appear to have been original compositions for this special presentation of very short films. See Martin Miller Marks, Music and the Silent Film: Contexts and Case Studies, 1895–1924 (New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 31-48. 60 Der Kinematograph 739 (1921).

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3.2 Instrumentation in the Silent Cinema Another focus of discussion in the film press was instrumentation. It can be said that, generally, before 1905 mechanical instruments were used to accompany pictures. From 1908 pianists were increasingly employed until 1910 when orchestras took over. It is important to bear in mind that, in many prosperous theaters in the cities, the transition to orchestras took place earlier, while many theater owners in rural areas61 could not afford an orchestra, and the piano thus remained dominant there until the 1920s. In Germany as well as in other countries, films were first screened as part of traveling shows. Here the predominant instrument was the phonograph cylinder or a mechanical instrument. This remained popular in all film performance venues until the 1920s, the phonograph cylinder later being replaced by the gramophone. Over the course of several reform movements starting in 1907, music was seen as a means of improving the reputation of a movie theater. In this context, mechanical music as part of the sonic background of a fairground cinema was regarded as inappropriate for storefront cinemas: On the screen, comical scenes between a dog and a policeman [. . .] can be seen, and to this, the strongly melancholic music of Chopin’s Marche funèbre can be heard. [. . .] where is the entrepreneur who would be willing to sacrifice his beloved organ in favor of the public’s aesthetic sensitivity? This fairground atmosphere has to vanish from cinemas.62

This comment shows the aspirations of many storefront cinema owners to distance themselves from the fairground cinemas. The first efforts to elevate the reputation of films, which were until then regarded as entertainment for people of the lower classes, were under way.63 An additional criticism about using mechanical instruments went like this: “Sometimes, the musical monster stops playing in the middle of a showing because the music roll has finished. At a leisurely pace, the doorman walks towards the thing and with a rasping sound rewinds the clockwork.”64 61 The study of contemporary daily newspapers might give some insights into differences in accompaniment between rural areas and cities. 62 “Auf der Leinwand spielen sich die drolligen Vorgänge zwischen Hund und Polizei [. . .] ab, und dazu ertönt [. . .] wehmutstiefe Musik des Chopinschen Trauermarsches. [. . .] wo ist der Unternehmer, der seine liebe teure Orgel dem ästhetischen Empfinden der Zuhörer opfern möchte? Dieses sehr Jahrmarktmäßige muss aus den Veranstaltungen verschwinden” (Der Kinematograph 19 [1907]). 63 Siebert, Filmmusik in Theorie und Praxis, 26. 64 “Manches Mal bleibt das musikalische Ungeheuer mitten in der Vorführung stehen, seine Rolle ist eben abgespielt. Gemächlichen Schrittes geht der Türsteher an das Ding heran und windet das Uhrwerk schnarrend

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The advertisement section of Der Kinematograph also points to the decline of mechanical instruments: in 1908, 62 ads for mechanical instruments were published and 41 pianists offered their services, whereas in 1910 only 27 manufacturers of mechanical instruments advertised their instruments while 230 pianists touted their credentials. This development is also mirrored in a report by the Leipziger Handelskammer from 1909 which stated that the demand for orchestrions had drastically declined compared to previous years.65 Nonetheless, some cinema owners preferred mechanical music for financial66 and practical reasons.67 And, because many musicians were drafted for military service, mechanical instruments became popular again during the First World War.68 “Especially now, the gramophone is even more important, because it has to replace the missing musicians, and also its performance is without doubt preferable to that of any pianist pressing the keys of an out-of-tune piano.”69 According to most of the literature, the period from 1908 to 1910 was the era of the cinema pianist. In the film press, as early as 1907 an author was asking for piano accompaniment for films.70 The explosive growth of the popularity of the piano can also be traced by looking at the advertisements in Der Kinematograph: in 1907 only four advertisements from and for pianists were published, a number that increased rapidly in the following years: 41 ads in 1908, 48 in 1909, and 230 in 1910. The number continued to increase, reaching 667 in 1913. Most of the pianists also played the reed organ,71 which was used to emphasize sentimental scenes.72 Because of the stereotypical use of the reed organ, the audience already knew that when the pianist turned from the piano towards the organ a sentimental scene was on its way.73 “Attention, Fritze! There will be a death

wieder auf” (Der Kinematograph 19 [1907]). 65 Der Kinematograph 123 (1909). 66 Cinema owners had to pay a full-time piano player up to 800 German marks a month and also had to buy the sheet music (Der Kinematograph 655 [1919]). 67 Due to the comparatively low wages, cinema musicians often went on strike and were therefore not seen as reliable, especially in comparison with mechanical instruments (Der Kinematograph 655 [1919]). 68 Der Kinematograph 531 (1917). 69 “Gerade jetzt gelangt das Grammophon zu noch erhöhter Bedeutung, denn es ist berufen, die fehlenden Musiker zu ersetzen, wie ja überhaupt seine Darbietungen unzweifelhaft […] einem Tastenschläger auf einem womöglich […] verstimmten Kasten vorzuziehen sind” (LBB 24 [1915]). 70 Der Kinematograph 14 (1907). 71 Of the 230 pianists who advertised their talents in Der Kinematograph in 1910, 113 also played the harmonium. In the USA, it was more common that a so-called trap-drummer accompanied the pianist (see Altman, Silent Film Sound, 236-40). 72 Der Kinematograph 255 (1911). 73 Dettke, Kinoorgeln und Kinomusik in Deutschland, 34.

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soon; they are already playing the harmonium!”74 an author in Der Kinematograph comments. As discussed above, orchestras were introduced in the more prosperous theaters around 1909. The most common ensemble was a trio or quartet consisting of combinations of violins, piano, cello, and reed organ. In the premier theaters in Berlin, orchestras could consist of up to 75 musicians.75 The employment of an orchestra was seen as a way of interesting more sophisticated people in the cinema and, as such, the higher personnel costs were acceptable.76 Another integral part of the German cinema was the theater organ.77

3.3 Efforts to standardize music Due to the film industry’s lack of involvement, the film press saw itself as responsible for the improvement of the quality of film music. By 1908 Der Kinematograph had already acknowledged not only the importance of film music but also the relevance of “fitting music.”78 According to a writer for Der Kinematograph: “The importance of an appropriate music should not be underestimated by any theater owner,”79 and “I believe that the majority of theater owners still do not understand the importance of fitting musical accompaniment to the pictures. They hold the incorrect view that the audience is satisfied if there is any music at all, whether fitting or not.”80 “Fitting music” was defined as music that emphasizes the overall atmosphere, rather than just one aspect of a picture. Various examples of this kind of accompaniment are given in the trade press: As soon as the picture shows the moon, the pianist starts associatively playing “Guter Mond, du gehst so stille” [“Dear moon, you go so quietly”] [. . .]. On the screen, the hero’s life is in jeopardy [. . .] but this does 74 “Achtung, Fritze! ’s jibt jleich ’ne Leiche; se spielen schon ’s Harmonium! [sic]” (Der Kinematograph 450 [1915]). 75 According to Dettke, even in 1929 only 1% of cinemas employed a large orchestra. As Dettke explains, the impression that large orchestras predominated in 1920s German silent cinema is due to the fact that daily newspapers mostly wrote about film premieres in bigger cities where orchestras of up to 70 members were common (Dettke, Kinoorgeln und Kinomusik in Deutschland, 38). 76 Der Kinematograph 255 (1911). 77 For a detailed account of the organ in German cinema, see Dettke, Kinoorgeln und Kinomusik in Deutschland. The use of theater organs is also discussed in detail in the press, but space does not allow us to cover those discussions here. 78 In the USA, such concerns did not surface until two years later (Altman, Silent Film Sound, 206-208). 79 “Die Bedeutung einer trefflichen Musik darf also kein Kinobesitzer verkennen” (Der Kinematograph 99 [1908]). 80 “Ich finde, dass die Mehrzahl der Kinobesitzer noch viel zu wenig Wert auf die musikalische Begleitung der Bilder legt. Sie vertreten die falsche Ansicht, dass das Publikum schon zufrieden sei, wenn Musik überhaupt da ist” (Der Kinematograph 99 [1908]).

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not concern the musician: In the picture, the moon can be seen, therefore a song about the moon is played.81

These statements about “fitting” or “not fitting” music soon became more specific. The first concrete suggestions were genre-specific: popular songs were proposed for comedies and military music for war movies.82 Especially in the years 1913–14, the period before the First World War, several suggestions for war movies were published.83 In 1916, Schmidl published his first recommendations for a specific film. After the premiere of the fairy-tale film Rübezahls Hochzeit, he published a list of the pieces to be performed with the explanation: “If in the whole German Empire there were only thirty theaters whose conductors [. . .] could master such music for films, then this would mean a huge progress for film music.”84 In the same year an advertisement announced the first “Filmmusik-Führer” (see Figure 1). All in all, 21 installments of “Filmmusik-Führer” were published in Der Kinematograph in 1917–19.85 The “Filmmusik-Führer” provided the subtitles for a film and a short description of the acts paired with the suggested musical piece for each. Advice on the tempo was also offered, and sometimes it was suggested that only pieces from one composer should be used in order to guarantee a homogeneous film-music experience. Most pieces mentioned were of a classical or romantic nature, but also operatic pieces or Schlager are named (see Figure 2). A short preliminary report in 1917 confirms that the “Filmmusik-Führer”86 were very well received by readers and musicians and, as a consequence, the film industry slowly began to distribute “FilmmusikSzenarios” with the films. In the following years,

81 “Sobald am Bilde der Mond erscheint, gelangt der Pianist durch eine sehr naheliegende [sic] Ideenassoziation sofort auf den Gedanken: “Guter Mond, du gehst so stille . . .” [. . .]. Der Held auf dem Bilde schwebt in Todesgefahr [. . .], das rührt den Musiker nicht. Am Bilde erschien der Mond, also wird der Mond besungen” (Der Kinematograph 183 [1910]). 82 LBB 19 (1911). 83 These suggestions also referred to sounds that should be produced (Der Kinematograph 411 [1914]). The increasing production of war movies can also be traced through an increase in advertisements for march music. 84 “Wenn aber im ganzen Deutschen Reiche nur dreissig [sic] Lichtspielhäuser sind, deren Kapellmeister [. . .] solche Filmmusik bewältigen, dann liesse [sic] sich ein grosser [sic] Fortschritt in der Filmmusik erzielen” (Der Kinematograph 521/522 [1916]). 85 LLB published 29 “Filmmusik-Führer,” starting in 1919. 86 The so-called “suggestions” put together by Sinn for the American film press are comparable to the German “Filmmusik-Führer.” The “suggestions” were already in print in 1909. The American film industry also started to distribute so-called “cue sheets” starting in 1910, which offered a list with titles of musical pieces and cued them to brief descriptions of film action (Altman, Silent Film Sound, 346-54).

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Figure 1: This advertisement, published in 1916, announces the launch of the socalled “Filmmusik-Führer” starting with the first publication of the New Year’s issue of Der Kinematograph.*

“Starting with the first number of next year’s issues an expansion will be published. Following the advice of several well-known theater Kapellmeister [conductors], we will publish the ‘Filmmusik-Führer’ periodically, as important information for motion picture theaters. By publishing this ‘Filmmusik-Führer,’ we hope to make art cinema also musically valuable and homogeneous. The first ‘Filmmusik-Führer’ will be for the Drama Trillby, arranged by conductor Alex Schirmann from Berlin.”

it is said, the big film companies began to employ musicians to put together illustration scores.87 Except for the “Filmmusik-Szenarios,” which were published from 1917, according to Der Kinematograph there were no similar aids published by the German film industry. With the development of longer films and the rise of larger cinema theaters, exhibition strategies changed. There were efforts to educate the audience and to transform the cinema from a place of social congregation to a place dedicated to viewing. This transformation was intended to attract more people of the wealthier classes and to establish the cinema as a respected alternative to opera and concerts. As a means of winning over the new target audience, the press recommended the use of more classical music and inveighed against mechanical music (see section 3.2). During a time in which there was no standard method for musical accompaniment of films, the “Filmmusik-Führer” and “suggestions” served as the only point of orientation for many. How far these “Filmmusik-Führer” were actually used by musicians cannot be said, but there is evidence in the form of letters by conductors, musicians, and audiences alike that provide evidence that “Filmmusik-Führer” did indeed play an important role in German cinema. In the following years, besides the efforts of the press, musicians and music theorists also contributed to the standardization of film music. In Germany Giuseppe Becce played a significant role. In 1919 he published the six-volume Kinotheken consisting of 82 short pieces of music for various moods, and in 1927 the Allgemeine Handbuch der Film-Musik,88 which featured 3,000 incipits of musical pieces for different film scenes. Several other approaches to the use of music to films were developed in the film press: for example, the appeal of title songs. It was suggested in an article that a song featured in a movie should be made publicly known89 before the movie’s premiere, thereby increasing the public’s interest and leading to more customers. The far-sighted author of this article thereby expressed a marketing idea that was later to see frequent use, for example for the movie High Noon (1952) and its Academy Award-winning title song “Do Not Forsake Me (Oh My Darling),” music by Dimitri Tiomkin and lyrics by Ned Washington.

87 Der Kinematograph 563 (1917). 88 Giuseppe Becce, Hans Erdmann, and Ludwig Brav, Allgemeines Handbuch der Film-Musik (Berlin/Leipzig: Schlesinger, 1927). 89 By distributing advertisement cards with the song’s lyrics and with the help of nearby restaurant owners, who were encouraged to play the song constantly (Der Kinematograph 618 [1918]).

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Figure 2: Example of a “Filmmusik-Führer,” arranged by conductor Alex Schirmann for the movie Tyrannenherrschaft (1916), a movie about the history of Poland. In the text, the order in which the specific music pieces should be played during each act is stated. At the end of the first act, an organ solo should be simulated by a reed organ.

Text in brackets at the bottom of first column: “With regard to the national tone of the movie, the chosen hymns and national songs should be played at the indicated moments. To enhance the effectiveness of these pieces, which should be played before the military parades, it is advisable to add a trumpet to the orchestra.”

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4. Different roles of music in German and American early silent cinema In German silent cinema, music assumed various functions. Not only was music performed to accompany the pictures, it was also used to attract customers. In addition, music played live or mechanically was illustrated by short films (Tonbilder) (see section 4.2). Music could also be heard as an accompaniment for advertisements90 or in form of overtures.91

4.1 Ballyhoo music or music to attract visitors In the USA, so-called “ballyhoo music”92 was played by nickelodeon owners as a means of attracting customers and differentiating themselves from other nickelodeons.93 In the German press, ballyhoo music was not discussed as frequently94 as in the USA. This might suggest that it was not as common in Germany. Nonetheless, it seems that, during the itinerant exhibition era, many traveling showmen put a mechanical instrument in front of their venue to attract customers.95 However, this procedure was not common during the storefront theater era. In the years 1907–1909 it is often mentioned that music is played in front of musical instrument or phonograph stores to attract customers,96 but few articles suggest that this kind of music was played in front of movie theaters. In an article from 1908 it is explained that the purpose of musical accompaniment to the picture is not only to entertain the people inside but also to attract passers-by. Other articles support this, describing that ballyhoo was played in Germany from the inside, whereas in the US it was played outside 90 The musical accompaniment of advertisements, which was equally liked by cinema owners as well as companies who advertised in the cinema, was primarily discussed in the magazine Kino-Orchester from 1928 onwards. For reasons of space, these discussions are not presented here. The tradition of accompanying advertisements continued until the early years of the sound film. An example can be seen when studying the estate of the Weltspiegel Cinema Mettmann which is stored in the DIF. Here the music store owner Jakob Jörgensen engaged an accordion player who played a solo while the advertisement for his store was screened (Deutsches Filminstitut, Frankfurt am Main/Archiv Kino Weltspiegel, Mettmann). 91 For a detailed account of the musical overture in silent cinema, see Dettke, Kinoorgeln und Kinomusik, 212-17. In the press, musical overtures are discussed, but as yet there is no detailed scholarly reflection of these discussions. 92 Blatant advertising, often used by market traders to win customers. 93 For more information, see Altman, Silent Film Sound, 120-31. 94 According to Altman, ballyhoo music was widely debated in the American press. 95 This can be seen in photos of the performance venues of traveling film exhibitors. 96 Der Kinematograph 163 (1910).

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the nickelodeon.97 In Germany, ballyhoo music, which was often played by mechanical instruments, was condemned early on by critics because the use of these devices was seen as part of circus and fair culture. Attempts to separate the storefront cinema from its fair and traveling counterparts started very early in Germany, and the use of mechanical instruments stood, as already described, in opposition to the efforts to establish the storefront cinema as a place of pleasure for the Bildungsbürgertum (“middle-class intellectuals”). Restrictions against ballyhoo had been published as early as 1907. Even though such laws applied primarily to shop owners, it is reasonable to assume that storefront theaters were also targeted. As such, any development of ballyhoo music was nipped in the bud.

4.2 Tonbilder Literally translated, the term Tonbilder98 means “sound pictures.” During the silent film era there were many experiments with synchronization devices to combine opera sequences with silent films, one of them being Tonbilder, which were films of three to four minutes. In contrast to the American “illustrated songs,” Tonbilder were films of a performance on stage or a popular opera scene. Simultaneous with the screening of the film, a phonograph played the song that was being performed in the picture. The most important difference between illustrated songs and Tonbilder is that Tonbilder for the most part had no narrative. Also, since Tonbilder normally showed a part of an opera rather than a popular song, they did not invite the audience to sing along. The first Tonbild was shown by Oskar Messter’s Apollo-Theater in Berlin, in 1903,99 and ultimately they were shown in approximately 500 storefront theaters. From 1907, specific Tonbild theaters appeared, such as the one in Frankfurt am Main, which showed only Tonbilder. Other non-specialized theaters also included Tonbilder in their programs, alternating with moving pictures. At the height of the Tonbild era, new Tonbilder were produced weekly. Although they were very popular with audiences and for a short time also with the critics, the film trade press were disparaging 97 Der Kinematograph 55 (1908). 98 The American equivalent to the Tonbilder were illustrated songs. The term “illustrated song” refers to popular songs accompanied by appropriate lantern slides. In most cases, a pianist played the songs and the audience was invited to join in the chorus (Altman, Silent Film Sound, 182-93). 99 The Tonbilder industry was dominated by Messter, but from 1907 other firms, such as Deutsche Mutoskop & Biograph, developed their own synchronization devices (see Wedel, “Messter’s ‘Silent’ Heirs,” 473).

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about Tonbilder that featured Schlager. Tonbilder were supposed to educate the audience by expanding their song and opera knowledge, not just entertain.100 These lines of criticism are of a piece with the previously mentioned drive to establish moving picture theaters as an educational institution for the wealthy classes. Tonbilder production ceased in 1913–14,101 around the same time the illustrated songs lost their appeal in the USA.102 The demise of the Tonbilder is connected with the appearance of longer films with narrative content, but there were also increasing problems with the sound amplification, since for some storefront theaters, the volume (decibel level) capacity of the devices in use was not sufficiently high. In addition, there were many problems with synchronization and, finally, the high cost of Tonbilder production made them no longer profitable.

4.3 Silent film screenings and silence As explained above, musical accompaniment, varied as it was, became the norm for silent film showings. Reasons behind the particular combinations of film and music, ranging from historical to practical, have been thoroughly investigated by a number of authors and will not be reviewed here.103 Still, as the review of film magazines has shown, in some cases films were shown in silence. Moving pictures were first shown as a new sensation at local fairs or in traveling theaters. Here, they were sometimes accompanied by another new technical device, the phonograph cylinder, but it was also common to present these two new devices separately. One advertisement for a fair in Emden demonstrates this: “This device [the cinematograph] [. . .] shows Des Zaren Ankunft in Paris [. . .]. In addition to this, the performance of the modern phonograph is shown through some pleasing samples.”104 Nevertheless, another article shows that music had already been used to accompany a film: Current showings of living pictures are performed in the Schützenhof. Among others, Der Einzug des Zaren in Paris, Eine Liebesscence and Spielende Kinder will 100 Der Kinematograph 147 (1909). 101 Wedel, “Messter’s ‘Silent’ Heirs,” 465. 102 For more details, see Altman, Silent Film Sound, 191. 103 See for example London, Film Music, 33-80; Roger Manvell and John Huntley, The Technique of Film Music (London/New York: Focal Press, 1975), 15-30; Claudia Gorbman, Unheard Melodies: Narrative Film Music (London: BFI, 1987), 31-52; Kathryn M. Kalinak, Settling the Score. Music and the Classical Hollywood Film (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 40-65; and in particular Bullerjahn, “Musik zum Stummfilm,” 31-36. 104 “Der Apparat [. . .] zeigt z.B. des Zaren Ankuft [sic!] in Paris [. . .]. Außerdem werden die Leistungen des modernen Phonographen in sehr hübschen Proben gezeigt” (Leerer Anzeigenblatt 39 [1897]).

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be played. Also, the musical accompaniment will be provided by a phonograph.105

As suggested by comments in the film trade press, as well as contemporary witnesses, in the Ladenkino, or storefront theater, movies were also sometimes shown in silence, with music only playing during the intermissions: “In the beginning only the intermissions were illustrated by music [. . .]. As an exception, also the main movie of the evening [. . .] was shown with accompanying music.”106 Another writer in the Der Kinematograph demands that the piano should not only be played during the intermission but also while the movies are shown: “It [the piano] has something to say not only during the intermissions, but also to the silent pictures.”107 Schmidl states in an article from 1910, “Many theater owners prefer it if the music is only played during the intermission, because they cannot find any pianists who are able to accompany the pictures in an appropriate way.”108 The contemporary journalist and writer Kurt Tucholsky described his cinematic experiences in 1913 thus: The films were displayed “monotonously clattering along, without music; it was eerie and not very pleasant.”109 A similar experience was described by the contemporary witness Friedrich Sieburg: “While the ‘prince of thieves’ escaped by car from his followers during the fourth act, the musicians of the small orchestra [. . .] decided to have their dinner.”110 Summarizing the above, it can be said that in some theaters films were, for different reasons, shown in silence. It would require more careful investigation of primary material to determine whether this phenomenon was more widespread than is generally assumed.

105 “Im Schützenhofe finden gegenwärtig Vorstellungen der lebenden Photographie (Kinematograph) statt. U.a. wird ‘Der Einzug des Zaren in Paris’, ‘Eine Liebesscene’, ‘spielende Kinder’ etc. dargestellt. Die Musik dazu wird durch einen ebenfalls aufgestellten Phonographen wiedergegeben” (Ostfriesische Nachrichten, Aurich 15 [1897]). 106 “Anfangs wurden nur die Pausen musikalisch illustriert [. . .]. Ausnahmsweise rollte sich der Hauptschlager des Abends [. . .] unter musikalischer Assistenz ab” (LBB 12 [1913]). 107 “Dasselbe [Das Klavier] hat nicht nur in den Pausen der Vorstellung etwas zu sagen, sondern es hat auch zu den stummen Bildern eine beredte [sic] Sprach zu führen” (Der Kinematograph 14 [1907]). 108 “Aus diesem Grunde ziehen es viele Unternehmer vor, die Musik nur in den Zwischenpausen ertönen zu lassen, weil sich selten ein Pianist findet, der den Anforderungen eines Bildbegleiters auch wirklich entspricht” (Der Kinematograph 183 [1910]). 109 “eintönig klappernd, ohne Musik; das war unheimlich und nicht sehr angenehm.” Quoted in Fritz Güttinger, “Wenn die Musik fehlt,” in Der Stummfilm im Zitat der Zeit, ed. Fritz Güttinger (Frankfurt am Main: Dt. Filmmuseum, 1984), 172-75. 110 “Während der ‘Fürst der Diebe’ im vierten Akt im Auto seinen Verfolgern entbrauste, entschlossen sich die Musiker des kleinen Orchesters [. . .], plötzlich Abendbrot zu essen.” Quoted in Güttinger, “Wenn die Musik fehlt,” 174.

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5. Summary The German film trade press discusses several aspects of music in early German silent cinema. Most of these discussions deal with the instrumentation in silent cinema, different accompaniment methods, and the various roles of music in cinema. In the absence of any other factors, music to films was left to its own devices for a long time. Only with the development of longer films and the wish to improve the prestige of the film medium and the theater venue did an interest in the music increase. As described above, the aim of the German film press was to standardize accompaniment practices in theaters throughout the country and thereby increase the quality of music. Starting in 1908 with vague comments about how the music should fit the pictures, and culminating in the detailed “Filmmusik-Führer,” the film press sought to influence the daily operations of movie theaters and offered advice on a subject that was ignored elsewhere. The film trade press thus took on a very

important role in developing a model for musical film accompaniment during a time in which the film industry did not acknowledge the value music could have for films. This article seeks to provide an overview of the contemporary discourse of music in German silent cinema and can be seen as a starting point for more fundamental investigations of the field. Aspects of music in silent cinema that would benefit from more investigations of the film press are, for example, the accompaniment of advertisements, the development of music in rural areas, and the role of music to films shown in Varietétheater. The sources that form the basis for this article focus mainly on storefront theaters. The contemporary trade press of the Varietétheater has not yet been analyzed. In addition, there are also numerous contemporary trade press magazines111 and daily papers that have not yet been examined, but which could offer more valuable information, not only on local musical practices but also on exchange between countries.

111 For example, Der Artist and Der Komet.

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Bibliography Secondary literature Altman, Rick. Silent film sound. 2004. New York: Columbia University Press. Becce, Giuseppe, Hans Erdmann, and Ludwig Brav. 1927. Allgemeines Handbuch der Film-Musik. Berlin/ Leipzig: Schlesinger. Beiche, Michael. 2006. Musik und Film im Deutschen Musikjournalismus der 1920er Jahre. Archiv für Musikwissenschaft 63, no. 2: 94-119. Beinroth, Carolin. 2016. Between practice and theory: Silent film sound and the music archive. In Today’s sounds for yesterday’s films, ed. K. J. Donnelly and Ann-Kristin Wallengren, 29-45. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Berg, Charles M. 1976. An Investigation of the motives for and realization of music to accompany the American silent film, 1896–1927. PhD thesis, University of Iowa. New York: Arno Press. Beynon, George W. 1921. Musical presentation of motion pictures. New York/Boston: G. Schirmer. Birett, Herbert. 1970. Stummfilm-Musik. Materialsammlung. Berlin: Deutsche Kinemathek. ———. 1994. Lichtspiele: Der Kino in Deutschland bis 1914. München: Q-Verlag. ———. n.d. Über 170 Filmzeitschriften bis 1920. Quellen zur Filmgeschichte und einiges anderes. Accessed January 22, 2017. http://www.kinematographie.de/BIS20.HTM Bullerjahn, Claudia. 1996. Von der Kinomusik zur Filmmusik: Stummfilm-Originalkompositionen der zwanziger Jahre. In Musik der zwanziger Jahre, ed. Werner Keil, 281-316. Hildesheim: Olms. ———. 2012. Musik zum Stummfilm: Von den ersten Anfängen einer Kinomusik zu heutigen Versuchen der Stummfilmillustration. In Das Handbuch der Filmmusik. Geschichte–Ästhetik–Funktionalität, ed. Josef Kloppenburg, 25-85. Laaber: Laaber. ———. 2013. Zwischen Patina und High-Tech. Zur Problematik der Rekonstruktion von StummfilmOriginalkompositionen der 1920er Jahre. In Ton-Spuren aus der Alten Welt. Europäische Filmmusik bis 1945, ed. Ivana Rentsch and Arne Stollberg, 66-90. München: edition text + kritik. Comisso, Irene. 2012. Theory and practice in Erdmann’s/Becce’s/Brav’s Allgemeines Handbuch der FilmMusik (1927). Journal of Film Music 5: 93-100. Dettke, Karl Heinz. 1995. Kinoorgeln und Kinomusik in Deutschland. Stuttgart/Weimar: J. B. Metzler Verlag. Fabich, Rainer. 1993. Musik für den Stummfilm. Analysierende Beschreibung originaler Stummfilmkompositionen. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Finocchiaro, Francesco. Forthcoming. Musical modernism and German cinema from 1913 to 1933. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Fuchs, Maria. 2014. “The hermeneutic framing of film illustration practice”: The Allgemeines Handbuch der Film-Musik in the context of historico-musicological traditions. In The sounds of silent films: New perspectives on history, theory and practice, ed. Claus Tieber and Anna Katharina Windisch, 156-71. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ———. 2015. Kunst oder Nichtkunst: Zur Kritik der Musik für den Stummfilm im Deutschland der 1920er Jahre. In Anklaenge 2015: Musikkritik. Historische Zugänge und Systematische Perspektiven, ed. © The International Film Music Society 2018.

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Fritz Trümpi and Simon Obert, 111-31. Vienna: Mille Tre Verlag. Gorbman, Claudia. 1987. Unheard melodies: Narrative film music. London: BFI. Güttinger, Fritz. 1984. Wenn die Musik fehlt. In Der Stummfilm im Zitat der Zeit, 172-75. Frankfurt am Main: Deutsches Filmmuseum. Huck, Oliver. 2012. Das musikalische Drama im “Stummfilm”: Oper, Tonbild und Musik im Film d’Art. Hildesheim: Olms. Kalinak, Kathryn M. 1992. Settling the score: Music and the classical Hollywood film. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. London, Kurt. 1934. Film music: A summary of the characteristic features of its history, aesthetics, techniques; and its possible developments. London: Faber & Faber. Manvell, Roger, and John Huntley. 1975. The technique of film music. Revised and enlarged by Richard Arnell and Peter Day. London/New York: Focal Press. Marks, Martin Miller. 1997. Music and the silent film: Contexts and case studies, 1895–1924. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press. Müller, Janina, and Tobias Plebuch. 2013. Toward a prehistory of film music: Hans Erdmann’s score for Nosferatu and the idea of modular form. Journal of Film Music 6, no. 1: 31-48. Mungen, Anno. 2006. “BilderMusik”: Panoramen, Tableaux Vivants und Lichtbilder als multimediale Darstellungsformen in Theater- und Musikaufführungen vom 19. bis zum frühen 20. Jahrhundert. Remscheid: Gardez!Verlag. North, Joseph H. 1973. The early development of the motion picture (1887–1909). PhD thesis, Cornell University, 1949. Repr. New York: Arno Press. Ottenheym, Konrad. 1944. Film und Musik bis zur Einführung des Tonfilms: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der Filmmusik. PhD thesis, Friedrich-Wilhelm Universität zu Berlin. Rügner, Ulrich. 1988. Filmmusik in Deutschland zwischen 1924 und 1934. Hildesheim: Olms. Seidler, Walther, ed. 1979. Stummfilmmusik gestern und heute: Beiträge und Interviews anläßlich eines Symposiums im Kino Arsenal am 9. Juni 1979 in Berlin. Berlin: Verlag Volker Spiess. Siebert, Ulrich Eberhard. 1990. Filmmusik in Theorie und Praxis: Eine Untersuchung der 20er und frühen 30er Jahren anhand des Werkes von Hans Erdmann. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Tieber, Claus, and Anna Katharina Windisch, eds. 2014. The sounds of silent films: New perspectives on history, theory and practice. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ———, Anna Katharina Windisch, and Hans J. Wulff. 2013. Stummfilmmusik. Medienwissenschaft/ Hamburg: Berichte und Papiere 149. Accessed January 22, 2017. http://berichte.derwulff.de/0149_13. pdf Wedel, Michael. 1999. Messter’s “silent” heirs: Sync. systems of the German Music film 1914–1929. Film History 11, no. 4: 464-76. ———. 2012. Von der Kino-Musik zur Filmmusik: Julius Urgiß und die Anfänge der Diskussion über Film und Musik in Deutschland. Kieler Beiträge zur Filmmusikforschung 8: 272-86.

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MUSIC IN GERMAN SILENT CINEMA

Primary sources Der Kinematograph 1907 (no. 14). Das Klavier im Kinematographentheater 1907 (no. 19). Zukunftsmusik 1907 (no. 37). Aus der Praxis. Frankfurt am Main. Tonbild-Theater 1908 (no. 55). Aus der Praxis. Kino-Musik 1908 (no. 99). Die Musik zum lebenden Bilde 1909 (no. 116). Aus dem Leserkreis. Kino-Pianisten 1909 (no. 123). Aus dem Reiche der Töne. Notizen. Aus dem Leipziger Handelsbericht für 1908 1909 (no. 137). Aus dem Reich der Töne. Musik im Kinotheater 1909 (no. 147). Aus dem Reich der Töne. Das Tonbildtheater eine Volksoper 1910 (no. 163). Reklame-Phonograph und Polizei 1910 (no. 183). Lichtbild und Begleitmusik 1911 (no. 255). Kinomusik 1914 (no. 367). Kinomusik/Kinovariétés 1914 (no. 411). Kriegsecho in der Kinomusik 1915 (no. 450). Stimmung im Kinematographen Theater 1916 (no. 485). Eine neue Richtung in der Filmbegleitmusik 1916 (nos. 521/522). Musterbeispiele für die Musik zum Film 1917 (no. 531). Die Kinos und die Musikwerke-Gesellschaft während und nach dem Kriege 1917 (no. 563). Ein filmmusikalischer Erfolg 1918 (no. 618). Das Filmlied als Reklamefaktor 1919 (no. 655). Die Bedeutung der Musikwerke für den Kinobetrieb 1920 (no. 700). Ein Ausweg aus der Misere der Filmmusik 1921 (no. 739). Filmmusikprobleme und filmmusikalischer Fortschritt Das Kino-Orchester 1925 (no. 16). Filmmusikalische Dichter und ihre Kollegen 1926 (no. 15) Die erste Leihbibliothek für Filmmusik Die LichtBildBühne (LLB) 1911 (no. 19). Der Kino-Pianist 1912 (no. 21). Die Musik im Kino 1913 (no. 12). Das Kino-Orchester 1915 (no. 24). Musikschwierigkeiten im Kino. Das Grammophon als Ersatz 1919 (no. 2). Die Kinomusik 1926 (no. 67). Importierte Filmmusik Leerer Anzeigenblatt 1897 (no. 39). title unknown Moving Picture World July–September 1913 (vol. 17). January-March 1916 (vol. 27); December 1913 (vol. 18) Ostfriesische Nachrichten, Aurich 1897 (no. 15). title unknown

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