Natural antioxidants - Emerald Insight

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Natural antioxidants: sources, extraction and application in food systems Maryam Sardarodiyan and Ali Mohamadi Sani Young Researchers and Elite Club, Quchan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Quchan, Iran

Natural antioxidants

363 Received 10 January 2016 Revised 25 January 2016 Accepted 25 January 2016

Abstract Purpose – The study aims to describe the main classes of antioxidants existing in fruit, beverages, vegetables and herbs and the different extraction and application of antioxidants in food. Oxidative degradation of lipids, especially induced by reactive oxygen species, leads to quality deterioration of foods and cosmetics and could have harmful effects on health. A major challenge is to develop tools to assess the antioxidant capacity and real efficacy of these molecules. Recently, many review papers regarding antioxidants from different sources and different extraction and quantification procedures have been published. However, none of them has all the information regarding antioxidants (sources, extraction and application in food). Design/methodology/approach – This paper tries to take a different perspective on antioxidants for the new researcher involved in this field. Findings – Antioxidants from fruit, vegetables and beverages play an important role in human health, for example, preventing cancer and cardiovascular diseases and lowering the incidence of different diseases. A number of plant products act as scavengers of free radical species and so have been classified as antioxidants. Antioxidants are an important group of food additives that have the ability to protect against detrimental change of oxidizable nutrients and consequently they extend shelf-life of foods. Research limitations/implications – Most of the antioxidants present in foods are phenolic and polyphenolic compounds, but their efficacy in food for the prevention of oxidation or in the body for dealing with oxidative stress and its consequences depends on different factors. Originality/value – This study collected the last finding in the field of sources and applications of natural antioxidants. Keywords Lipid oxidation, Natural antioxidants, Free radical, Oxidation Paper type General review

1. Introduction Lipid oxidation is a major cause for food quality deterioration and generation of off odours and off flavours, decreasing shelf-life, altering texture and colour, and decreasing the nutritional value of food (Akram et al., 2012). Numerous methods have been developed to control the rate and extent of lipid oxidation in foods, but the addition of antioxidants is most effective. Antioxidants have become an indispensible group of food additives mainly because of their unique properties of extending the shelf-life of food products without any adverse effect on their sensory or nutritional qualities. Historically, gum guaiac was the first antioxidant approved for the stabilization of animal fats, especially lard in the 1930s (Alam et al., 2012). Antioxidants for use in food system is inexpensive, nontoxic and effective at low concentrations; highly stable and

Nutrition & Food Science Vol. 46 No. 3, 2016 pp. 363-373 © Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0034-6659 DOI 10.1108/NFS-01-2016-0005

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capable of surviving processing; have no odour, taste or colour of their own; easy to incorporate; and have a good solubility in the product (Alamed et al., 2009). Antioxidants found in food are a heterogeneous category of molecules (Amakura et al., 2012). Antioxidants are compounds or systems that can safely interact with free radicals and terminate the chain reaction before vital molecules are damaged. They can use several mechanisms (Asimi et al., 2013): • scavenging species that initiate peroxidation; • chelating metal ions so that they are unable to generate reactive species or decompose peroxides; • quenching *O2 – preventing formation of peroxides; • breaking the auto-oxidative chain reaction; and/or • reducing localized O2 concentrations. Antioxidants like vitamin C and E, carotenoids and phenolics (stilbenes, phenolic acids such as benzoic and hydroxybenzoic acids, cinnamic and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives and flavonoids – flavonols, flavones, flavanones, flavanols, flavones and anthocyanidins as the aglycones of anthocyanins, presenting a flavylium or 2-phenylchromenylium ion skeleton) are presently considered to be the main exogenous antioxidants. Clinical studies proved that a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes and omega-3 fatty acids could work as preventative agents regarding disease occurrence (Ballards et al., 2010). The aim of this study is to describe: the main classes of antioxidants existing in fruit, beverages, vegetables and herbs and the different extraction and application of antioxidants in food. 2. Mechanism of action of antioxidants Antioxidants can act at different steps of the oxidative radical process, and this can be described by taking into account the lipid peroxidation in cell membranes or foodstuffs, which implies the successive steps of initiation, propagation and chain termination (Basak and Candan, 2010). Detailed descriptions of the steps which are part of the radical sequence, especially focused on initiation and propagation, revealed that lipid oxidation in cell membranes can be promoted by exogenous physical and chemical factors, such as air pollution, smoking, UV-light, ionization radiation, endogenous enzyme systems (NADPH oxidase, xanthine oxidase, uncoupled nitric oxide synthase and cytochrome P450) and the electron transport chain in mitochondria (Basak and Candan, 2010). A general schematic pathway for the autoxidation of polyunsaturated lipids is shown in Figure 1. Antioxidants act at different levels in the oxidative sequence involving lipid molecules. They may decrease oxygen concentration, intercept singlet oxygen (1O2), prevent first-chain initiation by scavenging initial radicals such as hydroxyl radicals, bind metal ion catalysts, decompose primary products of oxidation to non-radical species and break chain reaction to prevent continued hydrogen abstraction from substrates (Bontempo et al., 2013). However, the collective and concise data on the role of antioxidants in human diseases will be better and most appropriate one to know the exact role of antioxidants in all kinds of human diseases (Figure 2).


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Figure 1. General scheme for autoxidation of lipids containing polyunsaturated fatty acids (RH) and their consequences

3. Plants as a potential source of antioxidants In view of increasing risk factors of human to various deadly diseases, there has been a global trend towards the use of natural substance present in medicinal plants and dietary plants as therapeutic antioxidants (Table I). Antioxidant activity, antioxidant efficacy or efficiency of spices and herbs can be determined by using several analytical methods. The most frequently used analytical tests are 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing antioxidant power, oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), total phenolics content, 2,2=-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS), cupric reducing antioxidant capacity, total radical-trapping antioxidant parameter, Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity and others. An important review paper by Schaich et al. (2015) on the critical evaluation of ABTS, DPPH and ORAC assays was based on conceptual and technical issues that limit the use and compromise validity of these assays. They recommended discontinuing the use of ABTS and DPPH radicals for measuring radical quenching and redirecting them instead to distinguishing electron transfer reaction mechanisms (Castañeda-Ovando et al., 2009). Figure 3 shows the DPPH radical scavenging ability of the spice/herb extracts, with clove having the highest and fennel the lowest value based on the study conducted by Pandey et al. (2014), Chakraborty and Das (2010). 4. Extraction The extraction yield of antioxidant compounds from plant material is influenced mainly by the conditions under which the process of liquid–solid extraction is carried out. As each plant material has unique properties in terms of structure and composition, the behaviour of the resulting material–solvent system is unpredictable when they are combined with solvents (Morata et al., 2014).

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Figure 2. Antioxidants/ oxidative stress and health diseases

4.1 Extraction with solvents Solvent extraction is a separation operation which applies a solvent to extract/separate a desired component (the solute) from solid food. The separation factor for solvent extraction is the chemical equilibrium of the component between solid and solvent phases and the driving force for solvent extraction is the concentration difference of the component between the two phases. In principle, an ideal solvent should have the following desirable features: • it should have a high capacity for the solute being separated into it; • it should be selective, dissolving the specific component to a large extent while having a minimum capacity for the other components; • it should be chemically stable (no irreversible reactions with contacting components); • it should be regenerable; and • it should have low viscosity for easy pumping and transportation.

Serial no.

Name of plants

Common English name

Family

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Aegle marmelos Allium cepa Aloe vera Azadirachta Bacopa monniera Beta vulgaris Camellia sinensis Cinnamomum tamala Curcuma longa Cuscuta reflexa Daucus carota Eucalyptus camaldulensis Lavandula angustifolia Murraya koenigii Plantago asiatica Salvia officinalis Santalum album

Bengal quince Onion Indian aloe Neem Brahmi Beet root Green tea Tejpat Turmeric Akashabela Carrot River red gum Lavender Curry tree Chinese plantain Common sage Sandalwood

Rutaceae Amaryllidaceae Xanthorrhoeaceae Meliaceae Plantaginaceae Amaranthaceae Theaceae Lauraceae Zingiberaceae Convolvulaceae Apiaceae Myrtaceae Lamiaceae Rutaceae Plantaginaceae Lamiaceae Santalaceae

18

Solanum nigrum

19

Solanum

20

Terminalia

Black nightshade Tuberosum Potato Bellarica Behda

Plant part used

Reference 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 18 23 24 25 26 27 28

Solanaceae

Fruit pulp Bulb Leaf Leaf Leaf Root Green tea Tejpat Turmeric Stem Root Leaf Aerial parts Leaf Seed Aerial parts Heartwood, bark Leaf

Solanaceae

Tuber

30

Combretaceae

Fruit

31

29


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Table I. Some of the plants commonly used as the potential source of antioxidants

Its polarity is manifested by a permanent electric dipole in their molecules, as its atoms have differing electronegativities. When nonpolar liquids are placed in an electric field, only the electrons in its atoms respond to the external electric forces, resulting in some atomic polarization. Anthocyanins are polar molecules; thus, the most common efficient

Figure 3. DPPH radical scavenging activities of hot water extracts of spices/herbs

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solvents used in the extractions are aqueous mixtures of acetone, methanol and ethanol (Nanditha and Prabhasankar, 2009). Among the most common methods are those which use acidified methanol or ethanol as extraction solvents (Pandey et al., 2014). The acid in the solvents acts to rupture cell membranes and to release anthocyanins; however, this harsh chemical treatment may break down the innate anthocyanin structure. It is therefore important to acidify the solvents with organic acids (formic or acetic acid) rather than mineral acids such as 0.1 per cent HCl (Rababah et al., 2011). Do et al. (2014) observed that in the case of phenol extraction from Limnophila aromatica, the yields of extraction with various solvents decreased in the following order: 50 per cent aqueous acetone ⬎ 50 per cent aqueous ethanol ⬎ 75 per cent aqueous methanol ⬎ 50 per cent aqueous ethanol ⬎ 75 per cent aqueous ethanol ⬎ 100 per cent methanol ⬎ water ⬎ 100 per cent ethanol ⬎100 per cent acetone. It can be seen that the extraction yield of pure methanol is higher than that of pure ethanol and pure acetone. This shows that the extraction yield increases with increasing polarity of the solvent used in extraction. The results obtained indicate that increasing the water concentration in the solvent enhances extraction yield. The combined use of water and organic solvent may facilitate the extraction of chemicals that are soluble in water and/or organic solvent. The extraction of anthocyanins from red cabbage with 1 per cent (v/v) HCl in methanol is better than the extraction with acidified ethanol (50 per cent, v/v) (Rajan et al., 2011; Rajendran et al., 2014). Rababah et al. (2011) prepared extracts from green tea leaves by mixing the powdered sample with water (1:10) and boiled for 10 min. After vacuum filtration, the filtrate was then frozen to ⫺20°C and freeze dried (at ⬍100 mTorr vacuum) to obtain the dry extract (Sadus, 2012). M. oleifera leaf extracts were prepared from dry leaves (Said et al., 2015). The dried leaves were powdered, sieved (No. 20) and extracted (100 g) successively with 600 mL of water in a Soxhlet extractor for 18-20 h. The extract was concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure and controlled temperature (40-50°C) (Said et al., 2015). Do et al. (2013) used water and various concentrations (50, 75 and 100 per cent) of methanol, ethanol and acetone in water as solvent for the preparation of extract from Limnophila aromatic. The extract obtained by 100 per cent ethanol showed the highest total antioxidant activity. The same extract also exhibited the highest phenolic content (40.5 mg gallic acid equivalent/g of defatted sample). The highest extraction yield was obtained by using 50 per cent aqueous acetone. The combined use of water and organic solvent may facilitate the extraction of chemicals that are soluble in water and/or organic solvent. This may be the reason why yields of aqueous methanol, ethanol and acetone extracts are higher than yields of water, methanol, ethanol and acetone extracts (Samaranayaka and Li-Chan, 2008). 4.2 Extraction with supercritical fluids Extraction with supercritical fluids (SCFs) has become increasingly popular in biomaterial processing. Unlike normal solvent extraction, supercritical fluid extractions use fluids in their supercritical states. SCFs exhibit desirable transport properties that enhance their adaptability as solvents for extraction processes. The extraction efficiency of polar compounds with CO2 can be improved by the addition of small quantities of polar organic solvents used as modifiers. CO2 is non-toxic, non-flammable and requires a minimum amount of solvent (5-10 ml). Extraction is faster (10-60 min),

selective, requires no additional clean-up and can be carried out with small amounts of sample (Samaranayaka and Li-Chan, 2011).


4.3 Microwave-assisted extraction Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) has become very popular in the last decade because of the reduction of extraction time and solvent used. This technique involves extraction with controlled pressure and temperature. The use of closed vessels shortens the extraction time and increases the extraction efficiency. This method has been applied for the extraction of phenolic compounds from plant material (Saneja et al., 2009; Saritha et al., 2010). MAE can be used with or without the addition of any solvent.

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4.4 High hydrostatic pressure The use of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) improves mass transfer rates increasing cell permeability and increasing secondary metabolite diffusion according to changes in phase transitions (Schaich et al., 2015). HHP was applied in the case of anthocyanin extraction from grapes (Shahidi, 2015), polyphones and anthocyanins from red fruits (Shahidi and Ambigaipalan, 2015) and anthocyanins from grape skins (Shyamala and Jamuna, 2010). 5. Functional ingredients to control oxidative deterioration of food Protein hydrolysates and peptide fractions can be added as functional ingredients in food systems to reduce oxidative changes during storage. Several studies reported that the antioxidative activity of protein hydrolysates and isolated peptides prepared from sources like egg yolk, hike skin gelatin, marine blue mussel, tuna back bone and Pacific hake fish fillet, is superior to that of ␣-tocopherol and, in some cases, similar or higher in activity to that of commonly used synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene (Tsubaki et al., 2010)[48]. Antioxidants play a vital role in both food systems and in the human body to reduce oxidative processes. In food systems, retarding lipid peroxidation and formation of secondary lipid peroxidation product can be prevented by the use of nutritional antioxidants thereby helping to maintain flavour, texture and the colour of the food product during storage. Also antioxidants are helpful in reducing protein oxidation, as well as the interaction of lipid-derived carbonyls with proteins leads to an alteration of protein function (Tuberoso et al., 2013). 6. Antioxidant peptides in food systems Some peptides with antioxidant activity occur naturally in food. Both glutathione (␥-Glu-Cys-Gly) and carnosine (␤-alanyl-L-histidine) are antioxidants that are naturally present in muscle tissues. They have been found to scavenge hydroxyl radicals and quench singlet oxygen and inhibit lipid peroxidation (Vijikumar et al., 2011). Cai et al. (2015) showed that peptides isolated from protein hydrolysate of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) skin also effectively inhibited the peroxidation in linoleic acid model system (Willett, 2006). Many marine peptides are available. However, before their utilization as functional food ingredients, compatibility with different food matrices, gastrointestinal stability, bioavailability and long-term stability need to be studied.

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7. Conclusion Recent research carried out in the field of natural antioxidants increases knowledge about naturally healthy compounds that are available in food. This will permit the increase of their use instead of resorting to artificial drugs. Their use in food products will increase quality and added value. New methodologies of extraction, purification, identification and quantification of antioxidants using eco-friendly techniques need to be developed to improve the extraction yields. References Akram, S., Amir, R.M., Nadeem, M., Sattar, M.U. and Faiz, F. (2012), “Antioxidant potential of black tea (Camellia sinensis L.) e a review”, Pakistan Journal of Food Science, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 128-132. Alam, M.N., Wahed, T.B., Sultana, F., Ahmed, J. and Hsasn, M. (2012), “In vitro antioxidant potential of the methanoloic extract of Bacopa monnieri L”, Turkish Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 285-292. Alamed, J., Chaiyasit, W., McClements, D.J. and Decker, E.A. (2009), “Relationship between free radical scavenging and antioxidant activity in foods”, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 57 No. 7, 2969-2976. Amakura, Y., Yoshimura, A., Yoshimura, M. and Yoshida, T. (2012), “Isolation and characterization of phenolic antioxidants from Plantago Herb”, Molecules, Vol. 17 No. 5, pp. 5459-5466. Asimi, O.A., Sahu, N.P. and Pal, A.K. (2013), “Antioxidant capacity of crude water and ethylacetate extracts of some Indian species and their antimicrobial activity against Vibrio vulnificus and Micrococcus luteus”, Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, Vol. 7 No. 26, pp. 1907-1915. Ballards, T.S., Mallikarjunan, P., Zhou, K. and O’Keefe, S. (2010), “Microwave-assisted extraction of phenolic antioxidant compounds from peanut skins”, Food Chemistry, Vol. 120 No. 4, pp. 1185-1192. Basak, S.S. and Candan, F. (2010), “Chemical composition and In vitro antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh essential oil”, Journal of the Iranian Chemical Society, Vol. 79 No. 1, pp. 216-226. Bontempo, P., Carafa, V., Grassi, R., Basile, A., Tenore, G.C., Formisano, C., Rigano, D. and Altucci, L. (2013), “Antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-proliferative activities of Solanum tuberosum L. var. Vitelotte”, Food and Chemical Toxicology, Vol. 55, pp. 304-312. Boulekbache-Makhlouf, L., Medouni, L., Medouni-Adrar, S., Arkoub, L. and Madani, K. (2013), “Effect of solvents extraction on phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the byproduct of eggplant”, Industrial Crops and Products, Vol. 49, pp. 668-674. Cai, L., Wu, X., Zhang, Y., Li, X., Ma, S. and Li, J. (2015), “Purification and characterization of three antioxidant peptides from protein hydrolysate of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) skin”, Journal of Functional Foods, Vol. 16, pp. 234-242. Castañeda-Ovando, A., de Lourdes Pacheco-Hernández, M., Páez-Hernández, M.E., Rodríguez, J.A. and Galán-Vidal, C.A. (2009), “Chemical studies of anthocyanins: a review”, Food Chemistry, Vol. 113 No. 4, pp. 859-871. Chakraborty, U. and Das, H. (2010), “Antidiabetic and antioxidant activities of Cinnamomum tamala leaf extracts in Stz-treated diabetic rats”, Global Journal of Biotechnology & Biochemistry, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 12-18.

Do, Q.D., Angkawijaya, A.E., Tran-Nguyen, P.L., Huynh, L.H., Soetaredjo, F.E., Ismadji, S. and Ju, Y.H. (2013), “Effect of extraction solvent on total phenol content, total flavonoids content, and antioxidant activity of Limnophila aromatic”, Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2013.11.001 Do, Q.D., Angkawijaya, A.E., Tran-Nguyen, P.L., Huynh, L.H., Soetaredjo, F.E., Ismadji, S. and Ju, Y.H. (2014), “Effect of extraction solvent on total phenol content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity of Limnophila aromatic”, Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 296-302. Morata, A., Loira, I., Vejarano, R., Bañuelos, M.A., Sanz, P.D., Otero, L. and Suárez-Lepe, J.A. (2014), “Grape processing by high hydrostatic pressure: effect on microbial populations, phenol extraction and wine quality”, Food and Bioprocess Technology, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 277-286. Nanditha, B. and Prabhasankar, P. (2009), “Antioxidants in bakery products: a review”, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, Vol. 49 No. 1, pp. 1-27. Pandey, K.H., Mahalingan, K., Sharma, S., Lamsal, R. and Amritha, V. (2014), “Antioxidant properties of various fruits, herbs, spices and vegetable: a review”, World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 1101-1109. Rababah, T.M., Ereifej, K.I., Alhamad, M.N., Al-Qudah, K.M., Rousan, L.M., Al-Mahasneh, M.A., Al-u’datt, M.H. and Yang, W. (2011), “Effects of green tea and grape seed and TBHQ on physicochemical properties of Baladi goat meats”, International Journal of Food Properties, Vol. 14 No. 6, pp. 1208-1216. Rajan, S., Gokila, M., Jency, P., Brindha, P., Sujatha, R.K. (2011), “Antioxidant and phytochemical properties of Aegle marmelos fruit pulp”, International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 3 No. 2, 65-70. Rajendran, R., Nandakumar, N., Rengarajan, T., Palaniswami, R., Gnanadhas, E.N., Lakshminarasaiah, U., Gopas, J. and Nishigaki, I. (2014), “Antioxidants and human diseases”, Clinica Chimica Acta, Vol. 436, pp. 332-347. Sadus, R.J. (2012), High Pressure Phase Behaviour of Multicomponent Fluid Mixtures. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Said, A.B., Guinot, C., Ruiz, J.C., Charton, F., Dole, P., Joly, C. and Yvan, C. (2015), “Purification of post-consumer polyolefins via supercritical CO 2 extraction for the recycling in food contact applications”, The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, Vol. 98, pp. 25-32. Samaranayaka, A.G.P. and Li-Chan, E.C.Y. (2008), “Autolysisassisted production of fish protein hydrolysates with antioxidant properties from Pacific hake (Merluccius productus)”, Food Chemistry, Vol. 107 No. 2, pp. 768-776. Samaranayaka, A.G.P. and Li-Chan, E.C.Y. (2011), “Food-derived peptidic antioxidants: a review of their production, assessment, and potential applications”, Journal of Functional Foods, Vol. 3 No. 4, pp. 229-254. Saneja, A., Kaushik, P., Kaushik, D., Kumar, S. and Kumar, D. (2009), “Antioxidant, analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of Santalum album Linn”, Planta Medica, Vol. 75, p. 102. Saritha, V., Anilakumar, K.R. and Khanum, F. (2010), “Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Aloe vera gel extracts”, International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological Archive, Vol. 1 No. 4, pp. 376-384. Schaich, K.M., Tian, X. and Xie, J. (2015), “Hurdles and pitfalls in measuring antioxidant efficacy: a critical evaluation of ABTS, DPPH, and ORAC assays”, Journal of Functional Foods, Vol. 14, pp. 111-125.


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Shahidi, F. (2015), “Antioxidants: principles and applications”, Handbook of Antioxidants for Food Preservation, Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, pp. 1-14. Shahidi, F. and Ambigaipalan, P. (2015), “Phenolics and polyphenolics in foods, beverages and spices: antioxidant activity and health effects: a review”, Journal of Functional Foods, Vol 18, pp. 757-1200. Shyamala, B.N. and Jamuna, P. (2010), “Nutritional content and antioxidant properties of pulp waste from D carota and B vulgaris”, Malaysian Journal Nutrition, Vol. 16 No. 3, pp. 397-408. Tsubaki, S., Sakamoto, M. and Azuma, J. (2010), “Microwave-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from tea residues under autohydrolytic conditions”, Food Chemistry, Vol. 123 No. 4, pp. 1255-1258. Tuberoso, C.I.G., Boban, M., Bifulco, E., Budimir, D. and Pirisi, F.M. (2013), “Antioxidant capacity and vasodilatory properties of Mediterranean food: the case of Cannonau wine, myrtle berries liqueur and strawberry-tree honey”, Food Chemistry, Vol. 140 No. 4, pp. 686-691. Vijikumar, S., Ramanathan, K. and Devi, B.P. (2011), “Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. – a wonderful miracle plant in ethnomedicine”, Indian Journal of Natural Sciences, Vol. 11 No. 9, pp. 676-683. Willett, W.C. (2006), “The Mediterranean diet: science and practice”, Public Health Nutrition, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 105-110. Further reading Chandrasekhar, J., Madhusudhan, M.C. and Raqhavarao, K.S.M.S. (2012), “Extraction of anthocyanins from red cabbage and purification using adsorption”, Food and Bioproducts Processing, Vol. 90 No. 4, pp. 615-623. Choi, H.Y. (2009), “Antioxidant activity of Curcuma Longa, L., novel foodstuff”, Molecular & Cellular Toxicology, Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 237-242. Corrales, M., García, A.F., Butz, P. and Tauscher, B. (2009), “Extraction of anthocyanins from grape skins assisted by high hydrostatic pressure”, Journal of Food Engineering, Vol. 90 No. 4, pp. 415-421. Danh, L.T., Han, L.N., Triet, N.D.A., Zhao, J., Mammucari, R. and Foster, N. (2012), “Comparison of chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia L.) essential oils extracted by supercritical CO2, hexane and hydrodistillation”, Food and Bioprocess Technology, Vol. 6 No. 12, pp. 3481-3489, available at: http://dx.doi. org/10.1007/s.11947-012-1026-Z Das, A.K., Rajkumar, V., Verma, A.K. and Swarup, D. (2012), “Moringa oleifera leaves extract: a natural antioxidant for retarding lipid peroxidation in cooked goat meat patties”, International Journal of Food Science and Technology, Vol. 47 No. 3, pp. 585-591. Deka, H., Das, S., Lahan, J.P. and Yadav, R.N.S. (2013), “In-vitro free radical scavenging, antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Of Assam”, Advanced Life Sciences, Vol. 3 No. 1, pp. 1-4. Elias, R.J., Kellerby, S.S., Decker, E.A. (2008), “Antioxidant activity of proteins and peptides”, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, Vol. 48 No. 5, pp. 430-441. Ferrari, G., Maresca, P. and Ciccarone, R. (2011), “The effects of high hydrostatic pressure on the polyphenols and anthocyanins in red fruit products”, Procedia Food Science, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 847-853. González-Montelongo, R., Lobo, M.G. and González, M. (2010), “The effect of extraction temperature, time and number of steps on the antioxidant capacity of methanolic banana peel extracts”, Separation and Purification Technology, Vol. 71 No. 3, pp. 347-355.

Gul, M.Z., Attuluri, V., Qureshic, I.A., Ghazia, I.A. (2012), “Antioxidant and aglucosidase inhibitory activities of Murraya koenigii leaf extracts”, Pharmacognosy Journal, Vol. 32 No. 4, pp. 65-72. Guleria, S., Tiku, A.K., Rana, S. (2010), “Antioxidant activity of acetone extract/fractions of Terminalia bellerica Roxb. Fruit”, Indian Journal of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Vol. 47 No. 2, pp. 110-116. Hamrouni-Sellami, I., Rahali, F.Z., Rebey, I.B., Bourgou, S., Limam, F., Marzouk, B. (2012), “Total phenolics, flavonoids and antioxidant activity of Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) plants as affected by different drying methods”, Food and Bioprocess Technology, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 806-817, available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s.11947-012-0877-7 Jayachitra, A. and Krithiga, N. (2012), “Study on antioxidant property in selected medicinal plant extracts”, International Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Vol. 2 No. 3, pp. 495-500. Kiokias, S., Varzakas, T. and Oreopoulou, V. (2008), “In vitro activity of vitamins, flavanoids, and natural phenolic antioxidants against the oxidative deterioration of oil-based systems”, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, Vol. 48 No. 1, pp. 78-93. Mantawy, M.M., Aly, H.F., Zayed, N. and Fahmy, Z.H. (2012), “Antioxidant and schistosomicidal effect of Allium sativum and Allium cepa against Schistosoma mansoni different stages”, European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, Vol. 16 No. 3, pp. 69-80. Yin, H., Xu, L. and Porter, N.A. (2011), “Free radical lipid peroxidation: mechanisms and analysis”, Chemical Reviews, Vol. 111 No. 10, pp. 5944-5972. Corresponding author Ali Mohamadi Sani can be contacted at: [email protected]

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