As 'children' of the Scandinavian school of system development, we. acknowledge the .... Creating the NETWORKING NEWS online paper (app. 2 hours):.
NETWORKING NEWS – A METHOD FOR ENGAGING CHILDREN ACTIVELY IN DESIGN Peter Nørregaarda, Jonas Andersenb, Christian Dindlerc, Jonas Fritschd, Ole Iversene, Christina Nielsenf Department of Information and Media Studiesabcd Department of Computer Scienceef University of Aarhus ABSTRACT For many years cooperative design was primarily concerned with the development of IT supported systems for professional users. However, the cooperative design approach can embrace other social practices such as children’s everyday life. At a methodological level there is no difference in designing with adults or children. However there is a need for new methods to support communication and collaboration between designers and children. This article proposes a new method for understandings children’s appropriation of new technology in an interactive workshop setting. The method, which we call the Networking News workshop, offers an opportunity to make first hand studies of children’s IT supported social activities in an informal classroom setting. Keywords: Cooperative design, children, mobile technology, pervasive computing, education.
1. INTRODUCTION 30 years ago it was rather controversial to stress the need for user participation in system design. As noted in the dedication to Kristen Nygaard in the book “Computers and democracy – A Scandinavian challenge”: “As early as 1970, Kristen Nygaard had a vision about a new kind of co-operation between researchers, system developers and trade unions. This was a time when the social use of computers was not seriously questioned. If treated at all, the question of computers in relation to democracy at work was shoved to the side and taken up in so called “wild sessions” at conferences. Nygaard had the ideas and energy to change this.” (Bjerknes et al., 1987, p. ix) Today it is widely accepted that designers cannot develop new artefacts without involving the users. Nevertheless, it is still rather controversial to involve children in the process of designing new technology. The resistance relies in part on the fact that cooperative design or the Scandinavian approach originated from the emancipation of blue collar labour within organizations which, at first glance, is a far cry from the social life of children (e.g. Ehn 1988, Kyng & Ehn 1988 and Bødker 1991) (see also Pedersen et. al. 2003 for further discussions). In recent years, numerous methodologies have been posed to include children in design of new technology. As an example of mainstream CHIkids research, Druin (1999) proposes the need for a new methodology by stating that existing methodologies such as cooperative design do not take into account the difficulties in studying the constantly changing interaction between children and technology. “Children do not have a defined task and their activity is open-ended and exploratory as opposed to practitioners’” (Druin, 1999, p. 52) Despite this difference between childrens’ and adults’ use practice, Druin acknowledges the value of studying and collaborating with children to learn from their experience and expectation but argues that existing methodologies “… need to be adapted and changed to suit collaboration with children” (Druin, 1999, p. 52).
However, the cooperative design approach has never claimed to focus only on goal oriented human tasks as the object of study. Bødker, et. al (1987) states that the design of new artefacts embrace the whole use activity and not just goal oriented tasks. This is supported by e.g. Orr (1987), Suchman (1989) and Suchman, Blomberg, Orr & Trigg (1999) who focus on the actual human activities in connection to a defined work task as the object of study and thereby acknowledge even odd or open-ended human activity as relevant to design of new technology (and also serves a testament to the adoption of the cooperative design approach outside of Scandinavia.) Thus, we not only argue that children can and should be involved actively in the design process but that doing so is no different than involving any other user groups in design, and that the cooperative design methodology, despite the original focus on users and their professional work practice, can be used meaningfully for and with children. The concrete methods applied in the design process with children in an educational context may, however, vary greatly from methods employed at a hospital, working with nurses and surgeons (Bardram, Kjær & Nielsen 2003) or at a wastewater treatment plant, working with wastewater operators (Bødker, Graves Petersen & Nielsen 2000), but the common key and pivotal point is to find methods that tie the design process to the everyday lives of the users in a way that makes it relevant to them. In this paper we use cooperative design as foundation to designing with children acknowledging their social practice as point of departure for our design attempts. We propose a particular method, The NETWORKING NEWS workshop as a productive opportunity to get first hand insight into children’s social activities as foundation for designing children’s technology with children. Thus, the workshop is an example of a method that gives us, as researchers and designers of technology, a much needed opportunity for gaining information about at least two critical issues: first, how children act as a community of practice and particularly how they appropriate and approach technology as one; and second, to evaluate the possibilities and limitations of different kinds of technology in a real world setting. The insights gained through the workshop is thus not focused on user interface- or interaction design of the technology but provides us with important implications for design of technology for and with children - implications that are directed both towards the methods we employ in design with children and towards understanding the role of technology in this context. In the following we will present the workshop programme and its progression. Following this, we will give an account of our lessons learned through the three workshop cases using the NETWORKING NEWS framework. First, however, we will briefly describe our research objectives in the NetWorking.Kids project.
2. NETWORKING.KIDS NetWorking.Kids is an ongoing 8 months research project identifying the potentials of using pervasive and mobile technologies as support for education in the Danish school system. We are, in particular, interested in supporting the pupils’ (aged 11-14) ability to collect, produce and present project work and to move out of the classroom in order to use ‘reality’ or real-world environments as a foundation for learning. Our objectives are three-fold: First, we want to understand children’s appropriation of new technology. When we design a new artifact we design conditions for the whole use activity. Hence the new artifact must relate to the existing use practice even though it is transcended when the new technologies eventually are adapted. Second, we want to identify how new technologies fit into the children’s existing ‘web-of-technology’ (as described by Nielsen, 2002). As ‘children’ of the Scandinavian school of system development, we acknowledge the importance of focusing on use practice as the driving force in design of technology rather than the technology itself. However, we put a specific focus on the technology that is already employed to support this use practice, as a natural extension of the cooperative design approach. Third, we want to experiment with the way that children are involved in design collaboration. Children are experts in their everyday life (Iversen, in progress). We must involve
these experts when designing new technology for children. However, the variety of methods applicable for designing with children is rather scattered. In the following paragraphs we will describe the NEWS PORTAL workshop as a fruitful way to explore new design ideas in interaction with children based on the use of already existing technology.
3. THE NETWORKING NEWS WORKSHOP The overall idea of the NETWORKING NEWS workshop is to benefit from ‘real-life’ experiences in the framework provided through the workshop. It is vital to provide a meaningful setting for the children in which they are able to act and explore the technologies in action. The NETWORKING NEWS workshop had two different purposes: • •
To study how children appropriate new technology. To investigate the potentials when introducing the Nokia 7650 in, and especially outside of the classroom.
The Nokia 7650 mobile phone was chosen for the workshop for several reasons. This technology is accessible and ready at hand; its communicative capabilities include taking pictures, recording audio, and sending the material by MMS or e-mail. Furthermore, the mobile phone is a technology already known and widely used by children. By exploring how children appropriate new technology in the context of education, the aim was to investigate the potentials in the different activities and how an ‘out-of-classroom’ project could eventually be changed and improved by different kinds of technology. Furthermore, we wanted to exploit the resources and potentials in the classroom and in the field through an assignment where collaborative aspects were investigated. We agree with Bellamy (1996) who prescribes that education should be based on authentic activities where students collaborate on constructing and sharing certain artefacts, and that educational technology should support such activities. We chose the creation of an online newspaper (Networking News) because it provides a useful and understandable narrative and a constructive metaphor to frame the workshop. In the context of a newspaper production, the children engage in a real world setting to produce their own view of the world. We have conducted the workshop a total of four times on different schools. The classes involved were one 6th grade and two 7th grade classes with children aged 13-14. Two of the schools involved were located within the city, the third in a small community. It is important to emphasise that we do not wish to pursue a pedagogical goal with this method; our purpose is to gain information about how children act and collaborate in a school context, interacting with each other as well as different types of technology and material from a design perspective. How technology supports a grander scheme of learning in pedagogical terms might be investigated through an adaptation of the method but this requires a much larger involvement of participation from the teaching staff and has been outside the scope of our current work. Our aim is, as stated above, to gain an understanding of the social structures the children engage in and the role of technology in this setting with the purpose of being able to design better support for the activities they engage in at school, particularly project work that brings them outside of the classroom. In the following, we will further explicate the framework for conducting the NETWORKING NEWS workshop by presenting the workshop programme. The outline of the workshop programme is schematized in figure 1:
Figure 1: NETWORKING NEWS workshop programme Introduction (app. 15 min.): • Introduction to the Networking.Kids project. • Introduction to the NETWORKING NEWS workshop setup. Presenting the Nokia 7650 (app. 15 min.): A member of the design-team presents the Nokia 7650 regarding: • How to take pictures and record audio • How to send material by MMS and e-mail Editorial meeting (app. 20 min.): • The students are divided in different groups: three journalist groups and one editorial group. • A member of the design team facilitates a brainstorm among the students concerning potential news topics for the NETWORKING NEWS online paper. Creating the NETWORKING NEWS online paper (app. 2 hours): • The journalist groups set out to pursue the stories. • A member of the design team follows each journalist group with a video camera Two members of the design team remain at the premises with the editorial group. One plays the role as editor in chief, while the other is responsible for uploading the material to the online paper. •
The editorial group starts working on the online paper, writing introductory articles, background stories and coordinating the work of the journalist groups.
Plenum presentation/evaluation (app. 30 minutes): • The paper is presented to the entire student group while refreshments are handed out. • The events of the day are evaluated regarding the Nokia 7650 and the NETWORKING NEWS workshop in general 3.1 Introduction Initially, a member of the design team gives an overall introduction to the workshop setup with practical remarks concerning the motive behind the workshop and the role of the design team during the day. Here, the newspaper metaphor is introduced. It is important to stress that the children are the experts and that the point of interest in the workshop is their actions and opinions. 3.2 Presenting the Nokia 7650 After this, a brief introduction to the most basic and necessary information about the Nokia 7650 mobile phones is given. A member of the design team hands out the phones to the children and demonstrates the most fundamental tasks like taking a picture, recording a sound clip, and sending MMS/e-mails. The children are given a few minutes to explore and ask questions. 3.3 Editorial meeting A member of the design team, the editor, elaborates on the theme of the day and the children are divided into the different newspaper groups: editorial staff and 1 – 3 journalist groups. The roles of the different groups are made clear.
After this introduction, the children brainstorm to come up with stories they can write about in the NETWORKING NEWS online paper. It is important that these stories involve interviewing and taking pictures and that they relate to the proximate environment of the workshop setting. Each journalist group decide upon which story or stories to cover in collaboration with the editorial group and the design team. 3.4 Creating the NETWORKING NEWS online paper The most interesting part of the workshop is, of course, when the actual newspaper production is initiated. The journalist groups are sent off to do their field assignments equipped with mobile phones, notepads and other materials while the editorial group remains at the premises through the entire workshop. The editorial group is responsible for receiving stories and assigning new ones when necessary, as they are in charge of the general production of the online newspaper. Every group is joined by a member of the design team carrying a video camera to record the process and the use of technology. A member of the design team is responsible for publishing the different stories on a NETWORKING NEWS web template as the pictures, articles, and interviews arrive from the journalist groups and editorial staff. This leaves the children free to focus on the production of material for the online paper instead of the web layout. The Nokia 7650’s communicative functionality empowers the students with online communication possibilities; if the information sent back from the field is not what the editorial group needs, they can ask for more information, other interviews or pictures, and write more indepth articles, and the reporters can share ideas and potentially new issues for the article with the editorial group on the fly. The editorial group is the chief coordinator in the collaboration. 3.5 Plenum Presentation/Evaluation When the journalist groups return from their assignments, the last material is uploaded and the finished online paper is presented. Each group presents their contribution and elaborates on the experiences of the day. Furthermore the children get a chance to express their opinion about the use of the Nokia 7650. In conclusion, the workshop as a whole is discussed and refreshments are handed out. 3.6 Settings The three workshops we conducted took place on three different schools, and were conducted in the classrooms of the students respectively. The classrooms were in advance set up with a web of technology; projector, portable PC, and a wireless network. The portable PCs were arranged on a central editorial table and set up with network connections. One of the PCs was used to publish the incoming material in the online paper, which was projected onto the wall of the classroom. The editorial staff was located at the central table, as a center of communication and the place where our online newspaper was in continuous progress. 3.7 Documentation and analysis For documentation of the workshop we used a total of 4 video cameras. One stationary camera within the workshop room covered the activities of the editorial group. In some cases members of the design team would pick up these cameras in order to focus on specific situations. The remaining three cameras followed each of the journalist groups. The collected video data was logged and several segments were chosen for further analysis. The segments have later been analyzed using the Interaction Analysis Lab as described by Jordan and Henderson (1995). In addition to the video data, written notes were also used in order to capture and elaborate on the activities of the workshops. The notes were not produced until after the workshop had ended. Each member of the design team produced a document containing a brief description of the
events and various reflections regarding the workshop and it’s relation to the design process in general.
4. CASE: KJELLERUP NETWORKING NEWS The following case describes our third workshop conducted with 7th grade from the Kjellerup School. This case represents the overall structure of all the workshops. We have chosen to describe the workshop from the perspective of the editorial group as well as from one of the journalist groups. In accordance with the programme, we started out with a brief introduction to the Networking News workshop and to the Nokia 7650. The students were divided into groups of four and presented with the overall theme of the workshop. Newspaper props such as press cards and nametags were handed out to support the newspaper metaphor. The general theme of the workshop was decided in collaboration with the students in plenum. A member of the design team supported the brainstorming process where the students came up with ideas for the news site and it was decided that the focus of the paper was to be different perspectives on life in Kjellerup. More specifically, this included stories about ‘being young in Kjellerup’, a story about the local football club, and coverage of what the people of Kjellerup thought about the war in Iraq. After the introduction, the journalist groups were sent off to pursue their stories. 4.1 The view from the editorial group After the introduction, the editorial group gathered around the editorial desk. The group consisted of four students, who had the responsibility for the contents of the NETWORKING NEWS site, and two members of the design team, one who acted as the editor in chief and the other who was in charge of updating the online paper. The first job of the editorial group was to agree upon what kind of material was needed from the journalists in the field. The group had to specify exactly what kind of stories, pictures and interviews they wanted to print in the online paper and then contact the journalist groups in order to coordinate the work. The editor in chief participated in this process, making sure that the proposed tasks were achievable and realistic within the time frame of the workshop. The first journalist group, working with the theme ‘being young in Kjellerup’, was asked to visit some of the places where young people from Kjellerup spend their time. Furthermore, the group was to conduct interviews with fellow students in relation to the general theme. The second journalist group, who was working on a story about the local football club, was to get pictures from the club facilities and interview members of the club. The editorial group also wanted an interview with the local sponsor to frame the story within a wider perspective. For this purpose, they outlined a set of questions acting as a concrete starting point for the interviews in order to keep the stories on track. The final group, who was working with opinions on the war in Iraq, was asked to conduct a wide range of interviews from various people in Kjellerup. This would ensure that the story presented a diverse description of the opinions on the war in Iraq. After deciding upon the tasks of the journalist groups the editorial group contacted the journalists by phone and informed them of their different assignments. The respective journalist groups spent some time finding people to interview and the setting in which to arrange the photos. This meant that the editorial group had some time on their hands before they started receiving material from the field. It was decided to utilize this time by writing background articles regarding the various stories. The editorial group started working on introductory articles describing the nature of the paper and presenting the staff of the editorial group. Using the Nokia 7650 the students took pictures of themselves at work. Along with the introductory articles, this was the first material to be published in the online paper. The paper was projected onto the classroom wall so that the students could follow the progress of their work.
The editorial group working on the stories for the online paper Within 30 minutes the first pictures started coming in via MMS or mail from the journalists in the field. Some of the pictures were directly related to the focus of the articles while others were pictures taken among the journalists. Some of the pictures could immediately be used in connection with the introductory articles while others related to still unfinished stories. The editorial group contacted the journalists in order to obtain elaborative information regarding the received material and based on this, began writing material for the online paper. The pictures were later supplemented by audio interviews conducted by the journalists using the Dictaphone function in the Nokia 7650, which were published with the written articles and pictures. As part of these coordinating tasks, the groups were in frequent contact with each other either by phone, mail or MMS. Often the articles, pictures and interviews were the product of the journalists responding to emerging themes rather than following a stringent plan of action. The journalist groups would typically contact the editorial group if they came up with an idea or simply to receive instructions on what to do. 4.2 The view from a journalist group The following presentation describes the workshop activity from the point of view of one of the journalist groups. This particular group of five reporters was sent to cover the reactions on the war against Iraq in the local community. Their exact assignment was at the outset not defined beyond the coverage of reactions on the war. They set out from the editorial classroom equipped with a mobile phone. As the group walked towards the town square, the children played with the video camera carried by the member of the design team. They posed and recorded each other; one child turned the display of the camera so that he could see himself being recorded. This went on for about three minutes after which they had lost interest in the camera. When the group reached the town square they received a call from the editorial group with instructions regarding a possible angle for the story. The group decided to conduct interviews in some of the locations where the local people would meet during the day: a corner shop on the square and the local supermarket. The reporters decided to take turns conducting the interviews. The employee in the corner shop was contacted and convinced to do the interview. The reporters fumbled with the mobile for a couple of minutes, trying to work out how to record an audio clip for the interview. A call was made to the editorial group for technical support, but no answer was given. Shortly after, the group worked out the problem by themselves. As the interview was conducted one reporter took charge in formulating the questions and operating the mobile, which he held as a real reporter would hold his microphone.
Once the interview was timed out by the telephone’s memory capacity, the reporters politely asked if they could take the employee’s picture. The picture was taken and audio and images were e-mailed back to the editorial group. After the interview, one of the reporters suggested getting a reaction from the owner of the supermarket, and the group went directly to his office. Unfortunately, he was in a meeting and did not have time to be interviewed, so the reporters went out to find one of his employees. A willing butcher was found, an interview recorded, and a picture taken.
The journalists in action – interviewing a butcher and sending the material back to the editorial group Lunchtime had passed, and the possibilities for further interviews were sparse so the reporters returned to the street outside the supermarket. On the way out they received a call from the editorial group who requested an interview with two refugee Afghan pupils at the school. By now three of the five reporters had taken charge. One conducted the interviews and two were communicating with the editorial group. The remaining two reporters simply kept up and gave input to the operation of the phone when needed. The journalists returned to the editorial room where they were briefed about the interviews with the refugee pupils. A teacher helped the students locate the two pupils, as the school was not on recess. The girls were located and an interview recorded and e-mailed. Now more reactions from the town square were needed, so the journalists went back out. Several pedestrians were approached to get the interview, but many were reluctant to have their picture on the Internet. A woman was interviewed, but did not want her picture on the website, so the children refrained from taking her picture and went on to do the interview. A full interview and picture were still needed so the reporters decided to go to a hairdresser across the street to do the interview. As the five children and the researcher holding the video camera entered the shop the two hairdressers looked somewhat surprised, but the reporters convinced one of them to do the interview. The editorial group called for more pictures, but as people on the street were reluctant to be photographed the reporters took random images of the community and e-mailed them. A trashcan was photographed along with children on their way to school. At deadline the reporters returned to the editorial room. On the way back they played with the mobile taking pictures of their feet as they walked, recording each other on audio, and trying to get in contact with the other groups. In general the children were to a high degree innovative in the selection and reporting of the stories. Furthermore, when no obvious stories were available they found it natural to contact the editorial staff in order to receive instructions.
5. LESSONS LEARNED We now return to the two questions we set out to answer through the workshop and try to summarise our experiences with them and the workshop itself as a method for engaging children actively in the design process. Our findings with respect to the dual purpose for the workshop, as formulated in the two questions, are: • Children’s appropriation of technology is determined by social structures and situations. Our hypothesis was that children are more playful and open minded when it comes to new technology. Nevertheless workshop data indicated that the pupils are responding to technology in exactly the same way as grown ups when put into task oriented activities. This observation is described in detail in (Iversen, in progress) • Children are highly critical when using new technology: if the devices fail to work either because of technical difficulties or because the device fails to respond as anticipated (e.g. when interface metaphors fail or information structures become non-transparent), they often reject the device altogether. This stresses the importance of ensuring the highest possible degree of technical stability and on providing a technical setup in which transfer of data between the different devices in the currently applied web-of-technology appears as smooth and seamless as possible. • Children’s use of technology is highly dependent on the assignment at hand. In our first workshop we formed a tech-support group who was asked to familiarise themselves with the Nokia-phones and become resident “expert users” so they could respond to the problems the journalist-groups might encounter. After spending approximately 15 minutes playing with the phones, they lost interest in their assignment and, to some degree, the phones. This stresses that relevant and meaningful assignments are imperative in doing participatory design with children (as well as everybody else). It further emphasizes the point that technology is not interesting per se, but should be studied as part of meaningful activities. • The Nokia 7650’s camera function was easily available and quickly picked up by the children. The telephone also served very well as a communication device between the editorial group and the journalists, both for sending material (email, MMS and SMS) and for coordination between the group at home and the groups in the field (phone and SMS). However, the Dictaphone functionality proved inappropriate for interviews based on two factors: bad sound quality and the length-restriction on audio-clips (1 min pr. Clip) We now turn to an evaluation of the workshop form and implementation, where we see the following advantages with respect to engaging children actively in the design process: • Going on tour with the workshop gave us the opportunity to observe the use of technology in a real-world setting and provided the children with hands-on experience of the technology in their everyday environment. • During all three workshops we experienced the children working through scheduled breaks continuously for more than three hours. We believe that the children became so engaged in the workshop owing to several factors (other than the chance to skip math and play with new technology): that they were taken seriously as participants in the workshop (we started every workshop by emphasising that they were the experts); that they were given a voice in the design process of creating the Networking News site as the primary content-providers; and that they were the guiding force in choosing the subjects to be presented on the Networking News site (workshop 2 and 3). In this context we find it extremely useful to use journalist props (e.g. press cards) to support the newspaper
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metaphor and underline the relevance of the journalist activities both to the children and to the people they interviewed. The ‘on-the-fly’ creation of the Networking News site meant instant feedback to the children: the editorial group could watch it being built as they worked on the different stories and the journalists saw the result of their hard work as soon as they came back from their field trips. At the end of the workshop, the finished news site was available for discussion and admiration (except for workshop 2 where we encountered massive technical problems which made it impossible to transfer the pictures and the sound-clips to the website.) After each workshop, the news site was moved to the Networking.Kids website, making it available after the workshop had ended and enabling the children to show and share their experiences with parents and friends. The workshop may serve as a beacon for the teachers, students and researchers as the activities provide visions of possible future uses of technology in the educational context very early in the design process. Furthermore, following the different groups with video-cameras has provided us with a rich source of research material for further analysis
Through the Networking News workshop we got a good look at how children approach and appropriate technology in a larger context. Instead of focusing on the relation between child and technology, we established a relevant context in which the students could engage in project work supported by different kinds of technology when they became necessary. This was successful because the workshop activities were defined and guided by the children themselves which is a pivotal point in the cooperative design approach: letting the users everyday practise and environment be the guiding force in design. Moreover, we had a chance to evaluate different types of technology for educational purposes. Even though the individual devices were off-the-shelf products and not designed with an educational context in mind, we see a lot of potential in introducing technology to support project work – particularly supporting the children in collecting and producing material in and outside of the classroom. The challenges we now face are: to introduce these devices in complement to the PC’s and other materials and tools already available in schools today; to support integration between the different types of technologies; and to design dedicated applications that support school work better and takes advantage of the different available technologies. We are currently working on a prototype designed for the school context that takes these challenges seriously.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are indebted to the pupils and teachers at Katrinebjerg Skole, Skovvang Skole and at Kjellerup Skole, who willingly joined experiments and helped us expand our conception of technology and learning in a school environment.
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Bødker, S., Nielsen, C. & Petersen, M. G. (2000) Creativity, Cooperation and Interactive Design. In DIS’00 Designing Interactive Systems, New York, 17 – 19 August 2000, ACM Press, pp. 252-262 Bødker, S. (1991). Through the Interface: a Human Activity Approach to User Interface Design. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1991. Bødker, S., Ehn, P., Kyng, M., Kammersgaard, J. & Sundblad, Y. (1987) A utopian experience. On design of powerful computer-based tools for skilled graphic workers. In: Bjerknes G, Ehn P & Kyng M (eds) Computers and democracy - A Scandinavian challenge. Avebury, Aldershot, p 251-278. Druin (ed.) (1999) The design of children's technology. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, 1999. Ehn P. (1988): Work-Oriented Design of Computer Artifacts. Arbetslivscentrum, Stockholm, 1988. Ehn P & Kyng M (1987): The Collective Resource Approach to Systems Design. In: Bjerknes G, Ehn P & Kyng M (eds) Computers and Democracy - A Scandinavian Challenge. Avebury, Aldershot, p 17-57, 1987. Iversen, O. (in progress): Designing with children, PhD dissertation from Department of Computer Science, University of Aarhus, 2003 Jordan, B. and Henderson, A. (1995): Interaction Analysis Lab: Foundations and Practice. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 4(1): 39-103 Nielsen, C. (2002): Designing to Support Mobile Work with Mobile Devices. PhD thesis, Department of Computer Science, Aarhus University, 2002. Orr, Julian (1987): Talking About Machines: An ethnography of a modern job. Palo Alto Research Center, Palo Alto, CA, 1987. Suchman, L. (1989). Plans and situated actions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Suchman, L., Blomberg, J, Orr, J. & Trigg, R. (1999): Reconstructing Technologies as Social Practice. In American Behavioral Scientist, vol. 43, no. 3, nov 1999, pp. 392 – 408, Sage Publications Inc., 1999.
