Neurolinguistic programming and altered states

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involved the use of visualisation techniques and language associated with representational systems as identified within neuro-linguistic programming. (NLP).
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NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING

Neuro-linguistic programming and altered states: encouraging preparation for learning in the classroom for students with special educational needs Voldis Kudliskis

In seeking to identify the processes associated with the immediate engagement of learning for students with mild special educational needs, this study examined the responses of an extraction group (n = 7) of 11- to 13-year-old students who participated in a number of lessons in which the opening episode involved the use of visualisation techniques and language associated with representational systems as identified within neuro-linguistic programming (NLP). Students endeavoured to alter their negative state to a positive state via this intervention. The study, by Voldis Kudliskis of South Dartmoor Community College, was of a naturalistic research design, and the students’ experiences were explored by means of formal interviews, semistructured interviews, questionnaires and observations. The implications for altering state through techniques associated with NLP are described and evaluated in terms of student comments. The case is made for the process of altering state as a strategy to empower students to engage with their learning from the outset of the lesson. Key words: neuro-linguistic programming, visualisation, altered states, engagement in learning, special educational needs.

The quest to find the best methods to address students’ special educational needs has driven theory, research and practice especially since the publication of the Warnock Report in 1978. One focus has been consideration of the use of child-centred learning activities. Proponents argue that the child should be at the centre of the learning process; for example, Holland (2010) indicates that child-centred interventions can improve challenging behaviour that may be demonstrated, in the classroom, by some students with special educational needs. Another focus has been related to teacher engagement. Since the 1997 Green Paper Excellence for all Children, successive governments have made a firm commitment to the entitlement to high quality education for all students with special educational needs. This is being achieved by building upon the capacity of both teachers and © 2013 The Author. British Journal of Special Education © 2013 NASEN DOI: 10.1111/1467-8578.12020

schools to support children with a range of special educational needs and has raised the achievement of these students (DfES, 2004). Indeed, it has been argued that engagement is the best single predictor of successful learning for children with learning disabilities (Carpenter, Rose, Rawson & Egerton, 2011). It is the contention of this article that specific aspects of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) can be incorporated into and complement child-centred learning activities and make a positive contribution to teacher engagement by providing increased capacity. As noted by Kudliskis and Burden (2009), evidence-based techniques such as NLP can help teachers and students overcome individual barriers to learning. Introduction The daily routine for secondary school students, and indeed teachers, can frequently involve movement from one classroom to another, on a number of occasions, throughout the school day as schools and colleges endeavour to ‘room’ classes. This movement between lessons can lead to ‘excitability’ and a situation where students can find it difficult to settle as they prepare to engage with the lesson in hand. We noted, during informal observations of behaviour, that students often took several minutes to settle down to work at the start of a lesson, particularly after lunch. The reasons for this are various and beyond the scope of this article; however, we were keen to investigate a possible solution to this initial lack of engagement as the settling down process in all lessons, particularly after lunch, can be challenging for teachers as they endeavour to ensure that students settle quickly and are attentive in preparation for learning. This study corresponds with a current interest in ‘learning to learn’ and in the emotional readiness of learners to learn. Such practice has developed and been recognised internationally through the work of advocates such as Carol Dweck and Guy Claxton; and nationally through the previous government’s introduction of Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL) in the UK. Moreover, in the context of classroom learning, the purpose of this study was to examine whether a specific strategy would bring ‘calmness’, a purposeful readiness, to the learning environment, thus

enabling students to engage with their learning more quickly and efficiently. The intent was to explore the value of a strategy in which students would be encouraged to enter the classroom and engage with the contents of the lesson in the right ‘state’ of mind, and in a manner conducive to their learning. It was decided to focus on a specific form of intervention associated with the ‘psychological’ concept of neurolinguistic programming (NLP). One of the key concepts associated with NLP is that of ‘state’, or ‘altering states’. In short, this involves the implementation of strategies, initially on the part of the teacher, and later independently by the student, to modify the students state of mind, so that they can move very quickly from a negative state (not ready to learn) to a positive state (ready to learn).

An overview of aspects of NLP NLP is explained as an explicit and powerful model of human experience and communication (Bandler & Grinder, 1975) and it has been defined as ‘the art of communication excellence’ (Tosey & Mathieson, 2006), and the ‘study of the structure of subjective experience’ (Dilts et al., 1990). NLP is a motivational device which, among other things, permits the rewiring of certain cognitive processes, thus permitting the development of a positive sense of self (Kudliskis & Burden, 2009). Bandler and Grinder (1975) first introduced the concept of NLP and drew their inspiration from identifying the factors associated with excellence and successful behaviour rather than the production of abstract psychological theories. Bandler and Grinder believed that if these factors could be identified then such factors could be modelled by other individuals to enable them to be more successful in their lives. Key to NLP is the appreciation and understanding that each individual has available to them a number of different ways of representing experiences of the world. In particular, individuals draw upon five recognised senses (sense modalities) for making contact with the world and reality. We have preferred modes for perceiving and understanding the social and natural world; these modalities are visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, olfactory and gustatory (VAKOG) (Bandler & Grinder, 1975; Grinder & Bandler, 1976). It is suggested that each individual tends to favour one or two of these modalities and these can be identified within the language selected and used by that individual. However, as Revell and Norman (1999) note, this does not mean that we should label individuals by their preferred sense. Individuals should develop knowledge and understanding of the VAKOG classification, be aware of their specific strengths and concentrate on developing the senses they use less readily. Some, such as Lucas (2005), denounce the concept of VAKOG, suggesting instead that other explanations of learning preferences or style may be more valid. Indeed, Coffield, Moseley and Ecclestone (2004) have condemned the notion of pigeon-holing individuals’ learning preferences grounded in narrow categories. Nonetheless, the five sense modalities identified by Bandler and Grinder (1975) do appear to have

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an impact on our learning and in our contact with the world and reality. Our perceptions of the world and our reality are then reflected in our ‘state’ of mind; in short, we may perceive our world and our reality positively and have a positive state of mind, or we may perceive our world and our reality negatively and have a negative state of mind. However, in some cases negative reality can be a product of faulty cognitions (see Beck, 1991) – the notion that what we perceive to be ‘true’ is often a product of inaccurate perceptions or misconstrued feedback, leading to the reinforcement of the negative ‘state’ of mind. Proponents of NLP suggest that it is possible to introduce strategies that enable the individual to move from negative states to positive (desired) states. While literature in the academic arena is still sparse, recent publications such as that by Wake (2008) have provided a comprehensive appraisal of NLP and have sought to reposition NLP as a field appropriate for serious academic study. In the context of education the CfBT Education Trust published a research paper that examined ways in which NLP could provide teachers with practical ways to improve their interpersonal skills and be used effectively with individual children. Through the analysis of 24 case studies linked to a professional development programme associated with the Teacher Learning Academy (TLA), this research noted the way in which applications of NLP had been positively received by teachers. The researchers do not claim that NLP works per se, but they do believe there is sufficient evidence for further study (Carey, Churches, Hutchinson, Jones & Tosey, 2009). However, it should be noted that NLP has been criticised in reviews of research by scientists such as Diamantopoulus, Wooley and Spann (2008), Heap (1998) and Singer and Lalich (1996). These various reviews argue that key elements associated with NLP, such as eye-movements, primary representational systems and predicates, are scientifically questionable, demonstrate poor validity and reliability, and are ineffective. More general criticisms are proposed by commentators such as Beyerstein (2001) and Rosen (1997), who refer, respectively, to NLP as ‘pseudoscience’ or ‘psychobabble’; and they also question the validity and scientific rigour of the claims made by the proponents of this concept. Such criticisms are refuted by NLP proponents such as Carey et al. (2009) and Churches and West-Burnham (2008), who argue, among other things, that methodological problems and a lack of understanding of NLP by some researchers have led to misinformed outcomes. This ongoing debate does not mean that the underlying principles do not work for those who utilise NLP as an aid to enhance educational performance (see Jacobson, 1986; Grinder, 1991; Kudliskis, 2011); simply because something cannot be scientifically supported does not mean that it does not exist, nor does it mean that it does not work. However, the academic community has shown limited interest in NLP and there appears to be little evidence of this concept

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becoming a formal theory; nonetheless, Tosey and Mathieson (2003) express their ‘hope of understanding of NLP and its potential for education through scholarly enquiry’. It is clear that the use of NLP in educational contexts is still relatively new, and currently there is still only limited formal evidence of the ways in which techniques associated with how NLP can have an impact on learners in the classroom (Millrood, 2004). However, Churches and Terry (2007) explain that NLP is ‘constantly evolving and has done over the past 30 years’, and that university-accredited programmes and formalised Masters level qualifications are available at several universities in the UK. Altered states Whenever we do anything, particularly if we want to do it well, we need to be in the right ‘state’ of mind. Being in the right state of mind is important in achieving anything. The right state of mind is not about being in a ‘happy’, ‘bad’ or ‘sad’ state of mind (each of these states may be appropriate at a given time for achieving a particular outcome); however, it is important to be in the right state of mind to achieve the best results (Jennings & Philips, 2000). Effective individuals are good at choosing states, mastering those states, moving between them, and exploiting their potential (Pliskin, 2001). The state of mind of an individual is affected, in general, by three factors; the neurological state, the physical state and the emotional state. These sub-states can have a positive or negative influence on the state of mind more generally, depending on how the individual feels at a given point. While we attribute feelings, more typically, to our emotional state, our neurological state and physical state also influence our feelings (Wake, 2008). If the state of mind is in a negative mode it can be modified by changing the physiology of experience and changing the focus of attention of the experience. An individual has basic physiological needs that must be met, such as the need for sleep or light. If these needs are met, the individual will perform well; if not, the individual is likely to underperform. Therefore, in a learning context, an open, airy and stimulating environment is conducive to good learning; whereas a cramped, darkened and uninspiring environment (classroom) will inhibit learning. Also, the emotional state, or focus of attention needs, of the individual must be met and this is achieved by ensuring positivity. Again, drawing upon a learning context, individuals are more likely to perform well when they are vibrant, happy and full of energy, compared to when they are tired, apathetic and feeling a little ‘down’. The former engenders a feel-good factor, whereas the latter is associated with a sense of disempowerment (Jennings & Philips, 2000). The key to successful learning and positive performance for students with special educational needs is the channelling of vibrant, happy energy into their work in a constructive manner over the whole of the lesson. Proponents of NLP affirm that it is possible to manage these states once individuals are aware of them, a concept referred to as ‘state control’. State control is the act of choosing deliberately to construct and inhabit a particular state in a 88

given context with the intention of achieving a chosen outcome in that context. It should be noted that movement from one state to another is not through resolution via conflict, but through simple changing from one state to another (Andreas & Andreas, 2000). States can be managed by utilising four steps: (i) understanding (what components help to construct particular states within the individual); (ii) awareness (the individual possesses the ability to understand the state that they are in at any given time); (iii) alteration (the individual possesses the ability to alter a state at will); (iv) utilisation (the individual applies an appropriate use of timing – being in the right state of mind at the right time). (Jennings & Philips, 2000) Implicit in the above steps is the notion of moving from a present state to a desired (positive) state. The thoughts and the feelings in the desired state will be different from those in the present state; therefore, an individual must be motivated to change to the desired state. They must seek something that is really wanted; the individual must be committed to the outcome and believe the goal is achievable and worthwhile (O’Connor & Lages, 2004). Moreover, it is beneficial when setting outcomes to ensure that a ‘bridge’ is put in place to enable the individual to traverse from present state to desired state and achieve the desired outcome (Timpany, 2006). An outcome does not occur as a one-stage transition; it is often the product of a number of transition stages. While the meeting of physiological needs can contribute to movement to the desired state, other emotional and psychological needs must also be met. NLP practitioners suggest that there are a number of resources, or techniques of change, such as affirmations and visualisation that can be used to enable individuals to achieve well-formed outcomes, modify internal maps and beliefs (see Kudliskis, 2008) and in turn lead to achieving a desired state. In relation to learning it can be seen that the notion of moving from a present state to a desired state is beneficial. If a student believes that they ‘cannot learn’ in whatever subject or in whatever context, over time it will become harder for both the student and the teacher to challenge the current state and enable movement to the desired state. With this in mind it was decided that, for this study, a visualisation technique would be utilised to examine change of state. Visualisation can be likened to harnessing the imagination and creating visible representations of objects. In NLP images are considered to be one of the primary building blocks of an individual’s model of the world. Visualisations are often used to define desired dreams, visions and outcomes (see Dilts, 1990). The basis for this decision was grounded in the researcher’s professional perceptions that students with general special educational needs are frequently creative and have substantial imagination that is not

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always accessed by some conventional teaching methods. A visualisation activity may, it was anticipated, provide a movement from a present negative state to a desired positive state while also stimulating a creative engagement with learning. The use of a NLP visualisation technique coupled with ‘sleight of mouth’ communication strategies (see Dilts, 2006) is different from a typical ‘ice-breaker’ or initial focusing activity. Visualisation, in this context, seeks to calm students and effectively prepare them for their learning; sleight of mouth is a persuasion skill, a vehicle for the reframing of beliefs. The study Proponents of NLP such as O’Connor and Lages (2004) and O’Connor and Seymour (2003) see NLP as a highly effective motivational tool, and we felt there could be a place for the application of aspects of this concept in education, especially given that some of the early work relating to NLP in specific educational contexts appeared fruitful (see Jacobson, 1986; Grinder, 1991). We speculated that the teaching and learning of NLP strategies associated with moving from a present negative state and to a desired positive state may enable learners, both young and old, to engage with their learning more efficiently, effectively and promptly. With this in mind, Kate, a higher level teaching assistant (HLTA) with an interest in educational action research, conducted an action research study over a period of six months at the college where we teach. We initially explored the principles and presuppositions of NLP and then the value of specific strategies and techniques when applied in an educational context. The aim of this exploratory, interpretivist action research study was to explore systematically, with participants, the notion of state and the possible benefits of applying specific NLP strategies to engender a positive state at the beginning of lessons that occur specifically after lunch. In short, this study endeavoured to discover whether the underlying principles associated with creating a positive state through the implementation of aspects of NLP could benefit learning for students in a specific Key Stage 3 context (the first age-specific stage in the British secondary education system), and to provide in-depth detail and understanding of students’ perceptions in a very particular learning environment (see Burton & Barlett, 2005). Research method This was a reflective action research study set within a rural community college. Action research involves practitioners, such as teachers and teaching assistants, in systematic enquiries in order to improve practice (Koshy, Koshy & Waterman, 2011). Such research is conducted ‘on the job’ and provides practitioners with opportunities systematically to explore issues that are important to them in their specific work context. Whitehead (1985) argues that ‘educational action research is an educational way of understanding education’. The purpose of such enquiry is to initiate change in specific contexts (Parkin, 2009). The strength of action research lies in its ability to help generate solutions to practical problems in specific work-based situations (Meyer,

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2000). A full explanation of action research methodology is beyond the remit of this article; however, the seminal work of Carr and Kemmis (1986) provides a valuable starting point. It should be noted that action research does have its detractors; for example, Berg and Eikeland (2008) note that those involved in action research can be influenced by the state of themselves and their institutions; that all observations are ‘filtered’, ‘framed’ and ‘coloured’ in the context of the researcher; and that the ‘same cause’ may produce different reactions in different individuals. The more recent work of Cohen, Mannion and Morrison (2011) provides readers with an opportunity to assess action research against a range of research methods that can be used in educational contexts. This specific study is a multi-voiced, single-site, interpretivist study, and was created to capture the experiences and perceptions of the intervention for those taking part. The sample used was an opportunity sample of students with ‘mild’ special educational needs who were extracted from English lessons on a regular basis to provide them with additional support with these lessons. Children with mild special educational needs (learning difficulties) are those who ‘develop at a slower rate than other children . . . they may have difficulty in forming concepts . . . and in putting their thoughts or ideas into words’ (see NCSE, 2011). The sample consisted of seven Year 7 students aged either 11 or 12 who, with the agreement of their parents, participated as unpaid volunteers over a period of six weeks (one half of a term). Pseudonyms have been used to ensure the anonymity of students. The chosen sampling method does, indirectly, introduce a degree of bias in that the students who participated were those who were extracted from their English lessons. This could lead to both students and Kate displaying demand characteristics; however, all those engaged with and participating in the study were asked to be honest in the way they conducted themselves. It was anticipated that the relationship between the students and Kate would serve to reduce any issues regarding poor communication or miscommunication of ideas during the study. Finally, it was necessary to be aware of the ‘Halo Effect’; a phenomenon originally identified by Thorndike (1920) in which estimates of traits in the same person can be very highly and evenly correlated. Kate could be inclined to make her judgements and evaluations about student responses to the intervention grounded in the Halo Effect. Such behaviour by teachers has been noted in educational research by Foster and Ysseldyke (1976). Kate was asked to be honest, open and transparent in the way she reported her findings. This study received ethical approval from the ethics committee of the college; the committee comprises the headteacher, the SENCo and the Research Coordinator. This exploratory study was conducted through the use of both quantitative and qualitative research tools using a naturalistic research design, due to the nature of the enquiry. This permitted the use of informal, semi-structured interviews, questionnaires and observation. This specific research

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process enabled the production of descriptions and collection of student perceptions relating to their experiences of the intervention. The intervention and subsequent data collection took place at the same time and at the same place each week; in an English extraction lesson, on a Thursday afternoon, directly after lunch. Observations were conducted and written up soon afterwards; anecdotal evidence was also recorded as this is a useful method for recording unanticipated behaviour (see McKernan, 1996, 2008). Semi-structured interviews were conducted; however, these were kept informal so as to ensure, as best we could, that the students felt relaxed and thereby provided more open and honest responses. Questionnaires were also used as part of this research process. Questions were semi-structured and constructed using simple language, providing tick-box options for responses with an option to expand upon the questions if required. The questionnaire was limited to three questions, pertinent to the research. This was necessary due to the nature of the students’ literacy difficulties; they needed to be able to access the questions without asking for help. While the questions from the questionnaire could have been added to the semi-structured interviews, we felt it was important to empower the students and provide them with an opportunity to reflect and report their views at a personal level and thus reduce possible interviewer bias or demand characteristics. We endeavoured to ensure impartiality and adopted a regime of systematic data analysis; this involved utilising a work colleague, with a research background in sociology, as a ‘critical friend’ to review our analysis of data. This pluralist research methodology sought to provide the necessary ‘checks and balances’ essential in rigorous research (see Cohen et al., 2011). It should be noted that the statistical representation of data was only conducted with the use of descriptive statistics. No statistical tests of difference or association were used. At the beginning of the research process, the first phase, each student’s behaviour was observed at the beginning of the lesson and each student was timed to ascertain exactly how long each took to settle down and be ready to learn. The students were observed over a two-week period and observational data focusing on behaviour particularly at the start of the lesson, and how this impacted upon learning during the lesson, were collected and recorded. These observations were conducted during the lessons on Thursdays as this was traditionally a problematic lesson, especially when compared to behaviour in the lessons on Mondays and Wednesdays. After the two-week period of observation, Kate moved to the second phase in which lessons were then started with a short period of relaxation. Students were asked to put their heads on the desk, close their eyes, and breathe deeply. Students were encouraged to breathe in through their nose, and out through their mouth. Once students were complying with this instruction they were taken on a ‘guided walk’ using visualisation. A guided walk involves the leader of the activ90

Table 1: A ‘biographical’ description of students Student Matt

Ellis Lewis Robert Peter Holly James

Description of educational background and needs An 11-year-old male with Asperger syndrome. He has a Statement of special educational needs. He is academically weak. An 11-year-old male with severe dyslexia and behavioural problems. A 12-year-old male with epilepsy and dyslexia. He is academically weak. A 12-year-old male with dyslexia and learning difficulties. An 11-year-old male with severe dyslexia and specific learning difficulties. A 12-year-old female with non-specific learning and behavioural difficulties. A 12-year-old male on the autistic spectrum and with learning difficulties.

ity, in this case the teacher, describing a walk in a specific location – for example, walking through a grassy meadow – while the students visualise the location using their imagination. Great care was taken to ensure that the (scripted) description would provide cues that would appeal to each of the representational systems; this process is referred to, in NLP terms, as sleight of mouth (see Dilts, 2006). Each walk was to and through a different location and environment on each occasion. This technique was used in an attempt to alter the state of mind, in preparation for learning. The time taken to settle and observed behaviours were noted. After a third week of experiencing guided walks students were asked to complete the questionnaire designed to ascertain whether they felt this specific strategy helped them to be better prepared to start learning. The students were also interviewed to explore their views and experience of this new format for opening a lesson and these data were used for comparison with responses provided in the questionnaires. Table 1 provides a brief ‘biographical’ description of each student that participated in this research. It should be noted that this was not conceived as a positivist experimental study, so no attempt was made to construct a control group. Outcomes The mean time taken to settle before the intervention began was calculated during the initial two-week observational phase of the research. It can be seen that Ellis and Holly were taking, on average, eight minutes to settle; Robert seven minutes to settle; James and Matt were also taking a significant amount of time to settle, some six minutes on average; Lewis and Peter settled almost immediately, typically within one or two minutes (see Figure 1). The behaviour of each child was also recorded on an observation schedule and it was noted that a range of varied behaviours were exhibited. For example, Peter always went straight to his table to settle down and work; whereas Matt was very excitable and this was demonstrated through Matt making howling noises and acting as a distraction to other members of the group.

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Time in minutes

Figure 1: Average time taken to settle before and after the intervention 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Before intervention After intervention

Matt

Ellis

Lewis Robert

Peter

Holly

James

Child

After the intervention the mean time taken to settle was calculated and it was noticed that this time had reduced substantially in the majority of cases (see Figure 1). Notably, Holly, Ellis and Robert had settled, on average, five minutes more quickly than prior to the intervention; James and Matt had also settled more quickly, reducing their average ‘settling’ time by four minutes. Peter’s behaviour remained constant throughout; he usually settled down straight away upon entering the classroom. Lewis, however, did not show signs of settling any quicker; in fact, his behaviour, on occasions, appeared to deteriorate throughout the period of the research. However, it is worth noting that during the very last session of the intervention a dramatic change occurred; Lewis only took two minutes to settle down which was significantly quicker than the five-minute average that had been his typical response rate. The students were then interviewed and asked to complete the questionnaire that explored their perceptions of the guided walk as an intervention designed to help them settle and concentrate on their learning. During the interview Holly stated: ‘After the guided walk I felt ready to work because I had had some time to calm down. I could see where we were going on our walk. When you said we were going down a path, I could see the trees above me. It gave me time to relax.’ Peter supported this view, stating: ‘I like the guided walks because it makes you feel relaxed. I can see where we’re going because I had a good mind. I had a calm time.’ Ellis noted how the guided walks helped him to: ‘Calm down a bit. [Altering my state] helps me to do my work because some days I am more “hyper” than others. Other teachers should do it.’ It was noted that by the third week of the intervention students were anticipating that the start of the lesson would have a guided walk. Ellis asked at the beginning of the

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lesson at the point of the third week of the intervention: ‘Are we going to that thing today Miss?’ Similarly, in an unsolicited comment, Peter entered the classroom and asked if they were: ‘going to do that thing again’; he continued that he ‘hoped so as it helps me do my work.’ It was clear that this question related to the desire to conduct the activity rather than withdraw from it. Holly also stopped Kate one day at lunchtime to ask if the lesson was going to start with a guided walk; again the indication was that this activity was perceived positively and was being embraced as a learning strategy. However, at one point Matt indicated that he found the guided walk intervention ‘boring’ as did Lewis; both appeared to find it very hard to co-operate and participate in this form of intervention. Nonetheless, by the last intervention-led lesson all of the students, except Lewis, settled at their desk, complied with instructions, completed learning tasks more efficiently and were more engaged with their learning. The data indicated that all of the students, except Lewis and Peter, took a lot less time to settle after the research intervention began. This would suggest that the particular techniques associated with NLP, such as visualisation (guided walks) and the specific use of language directed to resonate with the various representational systems, were shown to be helpful in this small-scale study. The aim of changing students’ state of mind from a negative state to a positive state, in which they are better prepared for learning, was achieved in a majority of cases in this study. The observational notes indicated that in the opening phase of the research many of the students exhibited excitable behaviour before the lesson began. However, after the use of visualisation as an intervention, the majority of students who had been excitable in the Thursday lessons beforehand settled after the visualisation activity, complied with instructions and worked well for the rest of these lessons. The observed behaviour before the second session of the opening phase of the study indicated that the students settled a little quicker than normal; with the exception of Lewis, who was very agitated after witnessing a fight. He was unable to comply with any instructions and distracted

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the other students; he was very restless throughout the lesson. At the start of the second phase of the research, the Thursday of the third week, the students were excitable on entering the classroom but settled a short time after the intervention. All of them, except Lewis, then worked well for the remainder of the lesson. By the end of the second phase, the last Thursday of the study, all of the students entered the classroom and calmly engaged with the visualisation intervention and thereafter entered into a calm state of readiness to work immediately. It should be noted that Lewis still took two minutes to settle; however, compared to his behaviour in previous lessons, this was an improvement. Discussion This is an interpretivist, action research study conducted with a small opportunity sample and with no reference to a control group. The findings are interesting in that they suggest that visualisation interventions to change a state of mind from a negative state to a positive state can help with learning, particularly when working with students with mild special educational needs and in relatively small groups reflecting a similarity to those in this study. The outcome suggests that where a strategy such as a guided walk is utilised in the classroom, a desired state can be achieved. In this study, achieving a desired state quickly led to students complying with instructions and completing class-based tasks and activities quickly and effectively. It could be that the desired state was achieved due to tonality, in that visualisation interventions such as guided walks require a change in voice tone to initiate the process and it could be this that leads to state change. However, Holly stated that, ‘After the guided walk I felt ready to work because I had had some time to calm down’; similarly Peter spoke of the guided walk as making him ‘feel relaxed’. This suggests it is the visualisation of the guided walk that is responsible for state change rather than voice tonality. The intervention did produce a reduction in the time taken to settle by the majority of students in the lesson. The guided walks enabled students to exclude distractions. In the context of the study this permitted levels of concentration to increase and it appeared, in the majority of cases, to reduce possible experiences of anxiety and the development of increased self-esteem leading to enhanced performance in the classroom. This suggests the rewiring of certain cognitive processes that leads to a positive sense of self (see Kudliskis & Burden, 2009), which, in turn, leads to more positive engagement with learning. While it is not possible to state categorically that this is the case, these observations provide a basis for further research into possible correlations between visualisation, increased concentration and enhanced self-esteem in educational contexts. It is unclear why Lewis was the only student unable to participate fully with the intervention. When he was interviewed he referred to the intervention as ‘boring’; however, 92

the results for the other students indicate the intervention improved their ability to settle down in readiness for learning. It would have been helpful to explore Lewis’s perceptions further and identify exactly what he felt was ‘boring’; or indeed to explore whether the term ‘boring’ was semantic code for a deeper-seated issue that could not be unearthed within the time-frame of the study. However, this specific response may reflect a more generally accepted notion that some young people with special educational needs struggle with the ability to concentrate when required in lessons, even when creative interventions are utilised, and this may explain why Lewis failed to respond to the intervention like the others did. Evidence from this study indicates that aspects of NLP associated with altered states can offer a strategy to learners to enable them to better prepare for learning upon entry to the classroom. NLP when applied effectively by the teacher (and indirectly by the student) can be seen as a vehicle that can aid learning. NLP, as a ‘psychological’ approach, can merge into both external interaction processes and internal psychological processes. In this respect, NLP has a great deal in common with psychological approaches currently in favour, such as self-regulated learning (Dinsmore, Alexander & Longhlin, 2008) and growth mindset (Dweck, 2006). This action research study has permitted the professional to engage with research-in-practice and research-on-practice. The impact of this research was profound for us both. In particular, elements of Kate’s professional practice have been influenced by the outcomes of this research. Kate tends to use guided walks and visualisation techniques when working with all her classes. She has become far more aware of her state and endeavours to ‘calibrate’ her state so that she is better prepared, psychologically, when working with students. Private conversations with students during those ‘spare moments’ in a lesson are frequently used to help students examine and better understand their state. Such conversations generate a positive, empathic work ethic in the classroom, even with those students who may find the situation and the constraint of a formalised education structure and environment challenging. This study has uncovered the experiences and perceptions of a specific group of participants in a study of learning and preparation for classroom-based learning tasks and activities. The findings of this small-scale study do not profess to be irrefutable; however, what this study does, as Golby (1994) suggests for this type of research, is make it possible to understand the particular; that is, in this case, the particular experiences of the students (and teacher-researcher) when implementing visualisation techniques such as guided walks. Moreover, this study reflects Elliot’s (1978) vision of educational research as ‘reflection related to diagnosis’ by providing the participants and the researcher with an understanding of the specific internal beliefs and social interactions in which aspects of NLP were utilised in a Key Stage 3 learning context. Finally, this research reflects a fundamental point proposed by Yin (1989) that interpretivist

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research processes focus on analytical generalisation rather than statistical generalisation that is often associated with positivism. This interpretivist study utilises analytical generalisation (the exploration and understanding of individual experience through the use of words) as a way of interpreting and understanding the perceptions and experiences of participants (the students) in relation to the issue under investigation, in this case the implementation of an NLP strategy, visualisation through guided walks, in education. The participants were students and they may have been more receptive to this concept in that they were working with their teacher as researcher. Furthermore, the findings may reflect unintentional demand characteristics of the researcher or, indeed, subject effects on behalf of the students. Although in the case of demand characteristics the researcher endeavoured to be systematic in the research process, in the case of the participants, all were asked to be honest and truthful about their personal experiences.

walk, can alter state for the positive and benefit those in education, both for learners with mild special educational needs and for teachers. Negative states can have a profound negative impact on both learning and the learning environment. The creation of a positive state can help generate a learning environment in which students with mild special educational needs and the teacher can better engage in the activity of learning. We are frequently provided with cues from students about their states: ‘Sir, I really feel hyper today’; or ‘Miss, Freddie’s irritating me and I’m getting upset.’ Similarly teachers may comment: ‘I’m really anxious about my observation later on today’; or ‘I’m not sure what to do about this group, they’re so difficult to teach.’ Cues such as these indicate the state of the individual and with sleight of mouth techniques it is possible to generate positive change in states of mind.

While our research took the form of a small-scale exploratory interpretivist action research study, the evidence contained herein leads to some brief, tentative conclusions about the usefulness of understanding states in an educational context. Considering state and engaging with activities associated with NLP and visualisation, such as a guided

A plethora of material relating to the application of NLP, in a range of contexts from life improvement, to business, to education, abounds. However, by comparison, the availability of rigorous, peer-reviewed research material relating to NLP, in various contexts, particularly in an educational context, is relatively limited. It is our contention that the type of evidence that we have provided here can help stimulate discussion between teachers, and between teachers and students with special educational needs, about ‘states’ of mind and the learning process. While our research study is smallscale, evidence in the form of observations, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews suggests that visualisation techniques and the concept of altering state associated with NLP can lead to behaviours that are more conducive to teaching and to learning. Undoubtedly, further research into this specific phenomenon is required and links to concepts such as learned optimism, self-efficacy and self-regulated learning are evident. We feel that NLP provides educationalists, teachers and students with an interesting window on the world of education and, indirectly, on learning and educational theory.

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Conclusion and reflections Currently there is a limited theoretical underpinning framework in relation to NLP; that which does exist is predominantly grounded in ‘soft’ research evidence. Specific research into the NLP concepts of visualisation and representation systems is also limited, although the concept of changing state is a central tenet in NLP philosophy. We elected to examine and research these aspects of NLP, not as proponents, nor as opponents, but more as critical observers endeavouring to understand whether specific aspects of NLP do positively contribute to educational success. This article reflects our desire critically to examine the value of NLP in a specific special educational needs context.

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Address for correspondence: Dr Voldis Kudliskis Post-16 Provision Coordinator South Dartmoor Community College Ashburton Devon TQ12 7EW UK Email: [email protected] Article submitted: December 2011 Accepted for publication: April 2013

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