Numerical Simulation of Groundwater Flow in the Chateauguay River ...

Numerical Simulation of Groundwater Flow in the Chateauguay River Aquifers Marc-André Lavigne, Miroslav Nastev, and René Lefebvre

Abstract: The Chateauguay River watershed extends over northeastern New York State (USA) and southwestern Quebec (Canada). Fractured sedimentary rocks of the St. Lawrence Platform host the regional aquifers. Quaternary sediments of variable thickness of up to 45 m overlie the bedrock. The geometric mean hydraulic conductivity of the bedrock aquifers obtained from 548 field measurements is 5.1 × 10-5 m/s with a standard deviation of 0.7 of the logarithms. The modelled area extends from the foothills of the Adirondacks to the St. Lawrence River and covers 2,850 km2. The numerical groundwater flow model was developed using the finite element simulator FEFLOW. The model has 13 layers with layer thicknesses ranging from 5 m for the top layer to 75 m for the bottom layer. The average thickness of the numerical model is 655 m, for a total volume of 1,868 km3. The St. Lawrence River is considered as a specified head boundary; the base and other lateral limits are considered as noflow boundaries, whereas a head and conductivity-dependent boundary is specified along major streams and wetlands. Spatial recharge rate is applied as a specified flux across the top of the model and was fixed during calibration to reduce model uncertainty. Groundwater withdrawal of 34 Mm3/yr is assigned using sinks for major wells and as a uniform negative flux across the top of the model to account for domestic and other diffuse uses. Calibration was carried out against 153 hydraulic head measurements, with horizontal hydraulic conductivity and vertical anisotropy used as calibration parameters. The regional groundwater flow amounts to 268 Mm3/yr: 12.7% is withdrawn for domestic purposes; aquifer contribution to streams and wetlands is 176 Mm3/yr, and 55 Mm3/yr is discharged to the St. Lawrence River. Groundwater flow appears to be controlled by the sub-horizontal bedding planes contributing to relatively high vertical anisotropy. Résumé : Le bassin versant de la rivière Châteauguay couvre une partie du nord-ouest de l’état de New York (USA) et du sud-ouest de la province de Québec. L’aquifère régional est présent dans les unités sédimentaires fracturées de la Plateforme du Saint-Laurent. Des sédiments quaternaires d’épaisseur variable, pouvant atteindre 45 m, recouvrent le roc. La conductivité hydraulique moyenne de l’aquifère rocheux, obtenue à partir de 548 mesures de terrain, est de 5,1 × 10-5 m/s avec un écart type de 0,7 des logarithmes. La région modélisée s’étend du piedmont des Adirondacks jusqu’au fleuve Saint-Laurent et couvre 2850 km2. Le modèle d’écoulement numérique a été développé avec le simulateur d’éléments finis Marc-André Lavigne1, Miroslav Nastev2, and René Lefebvre3 AECOM Canada Ltd., 2251 2nd Avenue, Whitehorse, Northwest Territories, Y1A 5W1 Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Quebec, Quebec G1K 9A9 3 Institut national de la recherche scientifique, Centre Eau Terre Environnement, Québec G1K 9A9 1

2

Submitted April 2010; accepted July 2010. Written comments on this paper will be accepted until June 2011. Canadian Water Resources Journal Vol. 35(4): 469–486 (2010) Revue canadienne des ressources hydriques

© 2010 Canadian Water Resources Association © Her Majesty in Right of Canada

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Canadian Water Resources Journal/Revue canadienne des ressources hydriques

FeFlow. Le modèle comprend 13 couches, dont l’épaisseur varie de 5 m au sommet à 75 m à la base. L’épaisseur moyenne du modèle numérique est de 655 m pour un volume total de 1898 km3. Le fleuve Saint-Laurent est considéré comme une limite à charge constante, la base du modèle ainsi que la plupart des limites latérales sont considérées comme des limites à flux nul, alors que des limites à charge et à conductivité définies sont spécifiées le long des cours d’eaux et des milieux humides principaux. Une recharge spatialement distribuée a été appliquée en tant que flux spécifique au sommet du modèle et est considérée fixe afin de réduire les incertitudes du modèle. Les prélèvements d’eau souterraine sont de 34 Mm3/a et ont été assignés à la fois en tant que puits pour les prélèvements majeurs et en tant que flux négatif appliqué au sommet du modèle pour les usages domestiques et autres usages diffus. Le calage du modèle a été basé sur 153 mesures de charge hydraulique. La conductivité hydraulique horizontale ainsi que l’anisotropie verticale sont des paramètres de calage. L’écoulement souterrain est de 268 Mm3/a dont 12.7% sont soutirés pour les usages domestiques. La contribution de l’aquifère au flux des cours d’eau et aux milieux humides est de 176 Mm3/a alors que 55 Mm3/a alimentent directement le fleuve Saint-Laurent. L’écoulement des eaux souterraines semble contrôlé par la présence de fractures de litage horizontales causant une anisotropie verticale élevée.

Introduction The Chateauguay River watershed extends over northeastern New York State (USA) and southwestern Quebec (Canada). In Quebec, it is a relatively densely populated area with more than 215,000 inhabitants. Approximately 117,000 inhabitants rely on groundwater for their daily needs; 41% obtain their water supply from private wells. Most of the wells are completed within the sedimentary rock units that host the regional aquifer. Intensive agriculture in the central part of the basin and industrial activities to the

north threaten the groundwater resource. Recently, several bottling companies have requested a permit to commercialize groundwater, which has initiated a regional debate over the status of groundwater (Dagenais and Nastev, 2005; Dagenais, 2010). Previous work in the area includes a preliminary definition of the hydraulic properties of the bedrock aquifers and an inventory of major groundwater users (McCormack, 1981). The former Mercier Lagoons were extensively studied over the last 30 years to define the context for dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) contamination and to determine its extent (Poulin, 1977; Foratek International Inc., 1982; 1984; Groupe de Recherche et Environnement et GéoIngénierie (GREGI), 1993; Biogénie, 1995; Golder Associés Ltée, 1995). Various hydraulic tests were conducted as part of exploration for municipal supply wells or bottling wells, providing useful insight on the hydraulic properties, water levels and well yields (Envir’Eau Puits, 1998; 2003; Tecsult, 2003). The need for increased knowledge and understanding of the groundwater resource for its sustainable management led the Ministère du Développement durable, de l’Environnement et des Parcs du Québec (MDDEP) and Natural Resources Canada to initiate a joint hydrogeological assessment of the Chateauguay River watershed (Lamontagne and Nastev, 2010). This paper describes the methodology used to define the hydraulic properties of the regional aquifer units, build and calibrate a numerical model to simulate regional groundwater flow, and estimate the components of the global water budget. The numerical model was intended to improve the understanding of the regional groundwater flow dynamics and to provide a practical tool for sustainable management on the regional scale, which is discussed in a companion paper (Lavigne et al., 2010). The methodology used in the development of the numerical model involved the following steps: collection of existing data, conceptualization of the groundwater flow, fieldwork to complete the dataset on the hydraulic properties, exchange of data with simultaneous companion studies (documented in this issue), revision of the inventory of the major groundwater users (Rutherford, 2005), and finally, building and calibration of the numerical model using the finite element simulator FeFlow (Diersch, 1998a; 1998b).


Lavigne, Nastev, and Lefebvre

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Study Area

Explanation :

Montreal

Havelock Breccia Paleozoic rocks Lorraine Gr. (Nicolet Fm.) Trenton Gr. (Tétreauville Fm.) Trenton Gr. (St. Michel Mb.) Chazy Gr. (Laval Fm.) Beekmantown Gr. (Theresa Fm.) Beekmantown Gr. (Beauharnois Fm.) Potsdam Gr. (Cairnside Fm.) Potsdam Gr. (Covey Hill Fm.)

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The study area covers 2,850 km2 extending from the Adirondack foothills to the St. Lawrence River (Figure 1). It includes most of the Chateauguay River watershed, as well as the La Guerre and St. Louis River watersheds to the west, and the La Tortue River and l’Acadie River watersheds to the east. The bedrock surface attains an elevation of 1,200 metres above sea

nce River

level (masl) to the south and decreases to approximately 18 masl on the shore of the St. Lawrence River. In the central part of the study area, Covey Hill represents the most important morphological feature with an elevation of more than 330 masl. The Chateauguay River originates at the Lower and Upper Chateaugay Lakes in the Adirondacks. Major tributaries are, from west to east, the Trout River, aux Outardes River, and des Anglais River.

ay

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watershed limit

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Figure 1. Study area with bedrock geology (geology after Globensky, 1987; Isachsen and Fisher, 1970).


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Geology

Regional Groundwater Flow

The stratigraphic framework and structural geology of the study area are presented in Figure 1. These are based primarily on studies conducted by Clark (1966), Wiesnet and Clark (1967), Globensky (1987), and Isachsen and Fisher (1970), and are discussed in detail by Lavigne et al. (2010). The bedrock consists of the sedimentary sequences of the Cambro-Ordovician St. Lawrence Platform. The sedimentary rocks overlie the uneven surface of the Precambrian rocks, which is considered as the lower limit of the groundwater flow domain. At the base of the sedimentary sequence are the Potsdam sandstones, overlain by Beekmantown dolostone and Ordovician Limestone. The Potsdam sandstones consist of the lower Covey Hill and upper Cairnside (Clark, 1966; Globensky, 1987). The Covey Hill Formation is composed mainly of conglomeratic sandstone. The upper Cairnside Formation consists of homogeneous quartz sandstone. The thickness of the Covey Hill Formation ranges from 200 to 500 m, whereas the average thickness of the Cairnside Formation, estimated from exposed field sections and cores, is more uniform and is approximately 100 m thick. The dolostones of the Beekmantown Group consist of the lower Theresa Formation, mainly quartz sandstone gradually transforming into dolomitic sandstone, and the upper Beauharnois Formation, which consists of massive to laminated dolostones. Their combined thickness ranges from 50 to 100 m. The Ordovician limestones are found only in the northeastern part of the study area. The Laval Formation is the predominant unit with a thickness of approximately 100 m (Globensky, 1987). This unit is characterized by wide vertical and horizontal facies variations. The regional sedimentary rock aquifers are overlain by unconsolidated Quaternary sediments (Tremblay et al., 2010). The thickness of these deposits can be as great as 45 m along the Chateauguay River. Glacial till constitutes the basal unit and is ubiquitous across the study area. In several locations, fluvio-glacial deposits incise through the till layer and are in direct hydraulic contact with the bedrock, e.g., Mercier esker. At lower elevations (5 m (Table 2). A lower hydraulic conductivity value of 1 × 10-12 m/s was assumed for the mesh elements in layers 10 to 13, which represent the Precambrian rocks, as suggested by Freeze and Cherry (1979). All conductivities were assigned as uniform in the horizontal direction (i.e., isotropic). In the vertical direction, an initial anisotropy (Kh/Kv) was set at 10. The vertical anisotropy was set to 2.5 for grid elements representing the fluvio-glacial deposits. For the Precambrian basement, the horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivities were set equal. Calibration

The numerical model was calibrated against 153 measured groundwater levels. A simple trial and error method was used under a steady state flow regime. Throughout the calibration process, the spatially distributed recharge rate and the imposed boundary conditions remained constant, limiting the degrees of freedom of the model. Horizontal hydraulic conductivity and vertical anisotropy were both used as calibration parameters. The calibrated horizontal hydraulic conductivities are given in Table 2. These are very close to the initial values and the geometric mean values discussed earlier, suggesting that the field data are representative of the regional hydraulic properties. Such coherent behaviour of the hydraulic conductivity at local and regional scales contrasts with other groundwater modelling studies where an up-scaling of the hydraulic properties was needed in order to calibrate the regional flow models (Rovey and Cherkauer, 1995; Sánchez-Vila et al., 1996; Schultze-Makuch and Cherkauer, 1998; Schultze-Makuch et al., 1999; Martinez-Landa and Carrera, 2005). However, to reproduce the observed high hydraulic gradients combined with relatively shallow hydraulic heads and relatively high horizontal hydraulic conductivities, the calibrated vertical anisotropy was increased significantly to more than four orders of magnitude in Covey Hill sandstone. Such high anisotropy values are consistent with observations from previous hydrogeological studies, which identified that the groundwater flow on Covey Hill is sustained mainly through sub-horizontal, laterally extensive fractures. The respective horizontal © 2010 Canadian Water Resources Association © Her Majesty in Right of Canada

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Table 2. Initial and calibrated horizontal hydraulic conductivity (Kh) and vertical anisotropy (Kh/Kv) for corresponding bedrock formations and model layers. Unit

Initial Kh Values

Initial Vertical Anisotropy

(m/s)

(Kh/Kv)

Values (m/s)

(Kh/Kv)

Layer 1 All bedrock units Fluvio-glacial sediments

5×10-5 2.2×10-4

10 2.5

5.0×10-5 2.2×10-4

50 24

Layers 2-9 Covey Hill Cairnside Theresa Beauharnois Laval

2.3×10-5 2.3×10-5 2.3×10-5 2.3×10-5 2.3×10-5

10 10 10 10 10

1.0×10-5 3.0×10-5 5.0×10-5 2.0×10-5 2.1×10-5

15000 1000 10 10 30

Layers 10-13 Cairnside Theresa Beauharnois Laval Precambrian basement

2.3×10 2.3×10-5 2.3×10-5 2.3×10-5 1×10-12

10 10 10 10 10 1

3.0×10-5 5.0×10-5 2.0×10-5 2.1×10-5 1.0×10-12

1000 10 10 30 1

-5

hydraulic connectivity is very good, but in a vertical direction it is very poor, such that each of the waterbearing bedding planes can be considered as a separate planar two-dimensional aquifer unit (Nastev et al., 2008). Figure 5 presents the 153 measured heads against the simulated heads. Dashed lines represent the ±10 m deviation from the ideal 1:1 calibration line. The calibration residuals were obtained as the difference between measured and simulated groundwater levels. The average residual of –1.04 m indicates that the model tends to slightly overestimate the groundwater levels. The computed root mean square (RMS) error of 8.2 m and the absolute error of 5.7 m are in the range of the precision of the digital elevation model (±5 m). Considering that the hydraulic heads vary over about 300 m, the errors remain mostly below ±5% of the range (15 m). The spatial distribution of the residuals is shown in Figure 6. Measured water levels located at elevations lower than 90 masl are generally well reproduced by the model. However, major discrepancies are encountered at higher elevations, >90 masl. The simulated high hydraulic gradients tend to underestimate target data

Calibrated Kh Calibrated Vertical Anisotropy

on Covey Hill and overestimate water levels at the base of Covey Hill.

Model Results Groundwater Flow

Groundwater generally flows in a northward direction (Figure 7a). Local variations can also be observed in response to topography-induced gradients and/ or discharge to surface waters. On Covey Hill, groundwater flows radially outward. The steep hydraulic gradients show abrupt changes of the potentiometric surface, indicating an important recharge area (Figure 7b). North of Covey Hill, the shallow water table indicates that this zone of suboutcropping to outcropping bedrock results in another recharge area. The influence of Huntingdon Hill, located on the western side of the study area, is also defined as a major recharge area. Cross-section A-A’, which generally follows a flow line, illustrates the vertical 2D groundwater flow from Covey Hill to the St. Lawrence River (Figure 7b). As © 2010 Canadian Water Resources Association © Her Majesty in Right of Canada


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Figure 5. Relationship between observed and simulated heads at the 153 reference points. Solid line represents the 1:1 and dashed lines represent a deviation of ± 10 m. Inset shows a histogram of head residuals.

Figure 6. Spatial distribution of residuals, Quebec portion of the watershed.


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discussed, recharge occurs primarily in the vicinity of Covey Hill where the groundwater flow direction is predominantly vertical. Groundwater flow becomes progressively horizontal further downstream and discharge occurs in both the Chateauguay and St. Lawrence Rivers, as indicated by the sub-vertical equipotential lines. The cross-section supports the conceptual groundwater flow model shown in Figure 2. Groundwater Discharge

Simulated discharge to surface waters given in Table 3 compares reasonably well with baseflows estimated from historical hydrograph records located at the mouth of des Anglais and Chateauguay Rivers (Croteau et al., 2010). The ratios of baseflow to streamflow indicate that approximately half of the baseflow stream flux is sustained by groundwater from the regional aquifers. The remaining 50% may be attributed to perched aquifers and/or to rapid subsurface drainage of surface waters that infiltrate the ground without reaching the regional aquifers. Water Budget

Figure 8 shows a schematic cross-section of the annual global water budget obtained from the steady-state simulation. The groundwater budget components are detailed in Table 4. Regional groundwater flow in the study area amounts to 268 Mm3/yr. The major input to groundwater flow is direct recharge, which accounts for 91.4% (245 Mm3/yr). The remaining 8.6% (23 Mm3/yr) enters the groundwater flow system through induced recharge near the Chateauguay Table 3. Average streamflow and baseflow contribution obtained from hydrographs for the Chateauguay and des Anglais Rivers, and simulated aquifer discharge that should correspond to baseflow. Average River

Station ID Streamflow Baseflow Discharge

Chateauguay 02OA054 des Anglais 02OA059

Estimated Simulated

Mm3/yr

Mm3/yr

Mm3/yr

1200 300

243 58

119 31

municipal wells and as underflow at the Beauharnois hydroelectric dam. The dam creates an upstream lake that causes infiltration of surface waters into the aquifers. A volume of 176 Mm3/yr (65.7%) is drained to streams and wetlands. Approximately 55 Mm3/yr (20.5%) discharges to the St. Lawrence River, which is the major drainage boundary. The total groundwater use (as diffuse and specified wells) represents 12.7% (34 Mm3/yr) of the annual flow. Finally, underflow leaving the eastern part of the model domain accounts for 3 Mm3/yr (1.1%) and represents the groundwater drained by the imposed head boundaries that simulate the truncated watersheds of the l’Acadie and La Tortue Rivers.

Conclusion A numerical model was developed to simulate regional groundwater flow in the Chateauguay River watershed. The model represents an important step towards understanding the groundwater flow dynamics at a regional scale, and provides the necessary input for future groundwater management strategies within the watershed. The regional aquifer units consist of fractured Paleozoic sedimentary rocks with occasional fluvioglacial sediments over top. Analysis of the hydraulic properties suggests that groundwater flow, which is controlled by sub-horizontal bedding planes, is more important at shallow depths. The geometric mean horizontal hydraulic conductivity for the shallow wells, i.e., those 5 m. This can be attributed to a greater occurrence of fractures near the bedrock surface. Drawdown responses during pumping tests follow mainly a Theis response for single porosity media, indicating that the aquifers are highly fractured. A porous medium approach was thus applied for the construction of the numerical groundwater flow model at the regional scale. The finite element simulator FeFlow was used for the simulations. The numerical model consists of 13 layers, with increasing thicknesses from 5 to 75 m. The average thickness of the model was 655 m for a total volume of 1,868 km3. Model calibration was achieved using horizontal hydraulic conductivity values that are close to the geometric mean values for © 2010 Canadian Water Resources Association © Her Majesty in Right of Canada

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A’ 250 200

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150

25 125

100

80

60

50

45

40

35

30

Vertical exaggeration: 25X

Figure 7. a) Simulated potentiometric surface of the top layer, and b) crosssection representing simulated hydraulic heads.


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Figure 8. Global water budget. Budget components in Mm3/yr.

Table 4. Simulated groundwater budget.

Input

Output

Input

Output

Mm3/yr

Mm3/yr

(%)

(%)

Recharge Induced recharge Withdrawal (specific wells) Withdrawal (diffuse) Discharge to intermediate streams Discharge to St. Lawrence River Underflow Total regional flow

each aquifer unit. Spatially distributed groundwater recharge, estimated by Croteau et al. (2010), was not varied during model calibration in order to constrain the variability of the model results. The only other calibration parameter was the vertical anisotropy, which required relatively high values for calibration; one (dolostone and limestone) to more than four orders of magnitude (Covey Hill sandstone). Such high anisotropy is consistent with observations from earlier studies, which suggest that flow in Covey Hill sandstone occurs mainly through sub-horizontal, laterally extensive fractures. The numerical modelling results thus corroborate the suspected poor vertical connectivity between these planar two-dimensional aquifer units. Numerical simulations were carried out under saturated and steady-state flow conditions. The global

245 23

268

19 15 176 55 3 268

91.4% 8.6%

100.0%

7.1% 5.6% 65.7% 20.5% 1.1% 100.0%

water budget indicates that regional groundwater flow within the study area amounts to 268 Mm3/yr. Areal recharge is the major input to the regional aquifers at 245 Mm3/yr (91.4% of total flow), whereas the 23 Mm3/yr (8.6%) enters the aquifer via induced river bank recharge. A volume of approximately 234 Mm3/ yr (87.3%) discharges to surface waters through streams and wetlands, and to the St. Lawrence River as the regional drainage zone. Groundwater withdrawal for industrial, agricultural and domestic purposes accounts for 34 Mm3/yr (12.7%). In the companion paper by Lavigne et al. (2010) the numerical model is used to simulate different stress and climate scenarios to assess the sustainability of groundwater resources in the Chateauguay River watershed.



Acknowledgements This work was jointly supported by the Ministère du Développement durable, de l’Environnement et des Parcs du Québec, the Geological Survey of Canada, and l’Institut national de la recherche scientifique, Centre Eau Terre Environnement (INRS-ETE). The authors acknowledge Anne Croteau and Daniel Blanchette from INRS-ETE for their useful contributions and discussions. Support from a NSERC Discovery grant to René Lefebvre is also acknowledged.

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