Nutritional composition, functional and pasting ...

Received: 3 December 2015

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Revised: 27 May 2016

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Accepted: 14 June 2016

DOI 10.1111/jfpp.13150

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Nutritional composition, functional and pasting properties of wheat, mushroom, and high quality cassava composite flour Oluwakemi F. Ekunseitan1 | Adewale O. Obadina1 | Olajide P. Sobukola1 | Adebukunola M. Omemu2 | Mojisola O. Adegunwa2 | Olatundun E. Kajihausa1 | Abdul-Rasaq A. Adebowale1 | Silifat A. Sanni3 | Lateef O. Sanni1 | Tomlins Keith4 1

Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria 2

Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria 3

Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria 4 Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Kent, UK

Correspondence A.O. Obadina, Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Nigeria. Fax: 234-8058879249. Email: [email protected]

Abstract Utilization of cheap and readily available staple food products such as high quality cassava flour (HQCF) in substituting more expensive wheat flour is increasing. Mushroom addition can be use to enhance the nutritional value of such food products. Wheat, mushroom, and HQCFs were blended together in 11 different proportions with 100% wheat flour as control. The nutritional and functional qualities of the composite flour samples were determined. Data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance and means separated using Duncan multiple range test. There were significant (p < 0.05) differences in the functional properties, chemical and mineral composition of the composite flour samples. Significant (p < 0.05) differences were also observed in the pasting profile of the composite flours. Peak, breakdown and trough viscosities increased with increasing HQCF inclusion while the amino acid profile of the flour blends showed significant (p < 0.05) difference. Lysine content increased with increasing mushroom inclusion and the dominant fatty acid found was linoleic acid.

Practical applications Use of HQCF for baking application is an emerging nontraditional use of cassava in Nigeria. It is intended to be used as raw material in the food and beverage industry for the manufacture of various ready to eat snack foods and bread. To improve the nutritional properties of the composite flour (wheat with HQCF), an underutilized but readily available protein-rich food commodity (mushroom) was added. The effects of mushroom addition on the nutritional composition, pasting and functional properties of the composite flour were determined. KEYWORDS

composite flour, functional properties, HQCF, mushroom, nutritional properties, wheat flour

1 | INTRODUCTION

agro-business, which would encourage farmers to grow more of those crops found suitable.

Composite flour is a mixture of flours from tubers rich in starch (e.g.,

High quality cassava flour (HQCF) is unfermented cassava flour

cassava, yam, sweet potato) and/or protein-rich flours (e.g., soy, pea-

produced from wholesome freshly harvested cassava (10–12 months

nut) and/or cereals (e.g., maize, rice, millet, buckwheat) with or without

after planting). It is smooth, odourless, white or creamy flour, bland

wheat flour (Adeyemi & Ogazi, 1985). The alternative to wheat flour

with no gluten. Use of HQCF for baking and confectioneries is an

from local sources has become an increasingly important objective of

emerging nontraditional use of cassava in Nigeria. HQCF has enormous

the Food and Agricultural Organization policy. Efforts were directed on

potentials to be used as raw material in the food and beverage industry

steps to identify those non wheat sources that could be used in food

for the manufacture of various ready to eat snack foods and bread.

products thereby saving foreign exchange by reducing wheat importa-

Introduction of HQCF into bread production was as a result of

tion. Also, the use of composite flour is a means of developing local

increased demand for wheat, high price and unfavourable exchange

J Food Process Preserv 2016; 1-8

wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfpp

C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. V

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and hence the need for processing and increased utilization. However, no effort has been made in determining the effect of mushroom inclusion in wheat flour and HQCF composite. This study was undertaken to investigate the nutritive and functionality of composite flour obtained from wheat, mushroom, and HQCF composites.

2 | MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 | Materials Wheat flour was procured from Kuto market in Abeokuta, Ogun state, Nigeria. HQCF was obtained from Thai Farm International, Ososa, Ogun State, Nigeria. Fresh mushroom (P. ostreatus) was obtained from a commercial mushroom farm at Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria.

2.2 | Mushroom Flour Processing The fresh mushroom obtained was pretreated with 1% potassium metabisulfate for 30 min and dried in a cabinet drier (LEEC, Ltd., Serial No. 3114, Nottingham, UK) at 608C for 8 h using modified method of Flow chart for the production of mushroom flour (Parab et al., 2012 modified)

FIGURE 1

rates in developing countries; however, it is now gradually gaining pop-

Parab et al. (2012). It was then pulverized, sieved, and stored in polyethylene bag until further analysis. The flow chart for mushroom flour processing is shown in Figure 1.

ularity in the Sub-Saharan region. It was initially developed at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria as an alternative to imported wheat flour (Falade & Akingbala, 2008). Mushrooms belong to the fungi kingdom and are being used for food and medicinal purposes since decades (Bilal, Bodha, & Wani, 2010). Due

2.3 | Preparation of Composite Flour Composite flour samples were prepared with varying quantities of wheat, mushroom, and HQCF as shown in Table 1. The flour samples (wheat, mushroom, and HQCF) were weighed and mixed using kitchen

to its attractive taste, aroma, and nutritional value, edible mushrooms are valuable components of the human diet (Vetter, 2003). According to Oliveira Silver, Gmes da Costa, and Clemente (2002), Pleurotu ostreatus

T A B LE 1

Percentage combinations of the composite flour

S/N

Product code

WF

HQCF

MF

1

W100

100

0

0

2

W90-C5-M5

90

5

5

3

W90-C10

90

10

0

4

W90-M10

90

0

10

5

W80-C10-M10

80

10

10

6

W80-C15-M5

80

15

5

vulnerable population in developing countries. The protein present in

7

W80-C5-M15

80

5

15

mushrooms are in forms that are easily digestible and of better quality

8

W70-C20-M10

70

20

10

than many legumes sources such as soybeans, peanut, and protein yield-

9

W70-C10-M20

70

10

20

ing vegetable foods (Chang & Mshigeni, 2001). The protein value of

10

W60-C20-M20

60

20

20

mushrooms is twice as much as those present in asparagus and potatoes,

11

W60-C30-M10

60

30

10

four times as that of tomatoes and carrot and six times as that of oranges

12

W60-C10-M30

60

10

30

(Jiskani, 2001). On a dry weight basis, mushrooms normally contain 19–

Where: W100 5 100% wheat, W90-C5-M5 5 90% wheat, 5% HQCF, 5% mushroom flour, W90-C105 90% wheat, 10% HQCF, W90-M10 5 90% wheat, 10% mushroom flour, W80-C10-M10 5 80% wheat, 10%HQCF, 10% mushroom, W80-C15-M5 5 80% wheat, 15% HQCF, 5% mushroom flour, W80-C5-M15 5 80% wheat, 5% HQCF, 15% mushroom flour, W70C20-M10 5 70% wheat, 20% HQCF, 10% mushroom flour, W70-C10M20 5 70% wheat, 10% HQCF, 20% mushroom flour, W60-C20M20 5 60% wheat, 20% HQCF, 20% mushroom flour, W60-C30M10 5 60% wheat, 30% HQCF, 10% mushroom flour, W60-C10M30 5 60% wheat, 10% HQCF, 30% mushroom flour. WF, wheat flour; HQCF, high quality cassava flour; MF, mushroom flour.

mushroom specifically has excellent flavor and taste. It has an enormous potential, as it can be cultivated on a wide range of substrate. Due to its documented probiotic properties and high nutritive value, P. ostreatus has been recommended in many countries as an addition to human daily diet (Bernas et al., 2006). Dunkwal, Jood, and Sing (2007) reported that due to the rich protein and fat contents of Oyster mushroom powder, it could be incorporated into various recipes for improving the nutritional status of

35% proteins as compared with 7.3% in rice, 12.7% in wheat, 38.1% in soybean, and 9.4% in corn (Bano, Shasirekha, & Rajarathan, 1993). It also contains all the essential amino acids required by an adult. In developing countries where protein malnutrition has taken epidemic proportions, Food and Agricultural Organization has recommended mushroom consumption to solve the problem of malnutrition (Sohi, 1988). The high rate at which mushroom deteriorates is a major challenge to mushroom growers, this is not an exception for forest mushrooms,

EKUNSEITAN

T A B LE 2

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Chemical composition (%) of wheat–mushroom–HQCF

Sample

Moisture

Ash

Fat

Crude fiber

Protein

Carbohydrate

TTA

W100

13.22a 6 0.15

0.77gh 6 0.02

1.29e 6 0.02

1.56g 6 0.05

12.47c 6 0.03

70.69e 6 0.09

0.91j 6 0.02

5.82g 6 0.01

W90-C5-M5

11.88 6 0.25

1.05 6 0.09

2.76 6 0.01

1.46 6 0.03

12.59 6 0.03

70.26 6 0.38

2.19 6 0.04

5.96bc 6 0.01

W90-C10

13.00 6 0.15

0.78 6 0.03

1.09 6 0.03

0.74 6 0.04

11.68 6 0.01

72.71 6 0.04

0.98 6 0.02

5.87f 6 0.01

W90-M10

11.02e 6 0.08

1.40e 6 0.13

2.30b 6 0.02

2.01d 6 0.01

13.40b 6 0.02

69.86g 6 0.08

3.09f 6 0.04

5.98a 6 0.00

W80-C10-M10

11.58 6 0.85

1.43 6 0.07

1.25 6 0.07

0.98 6 0.01

12.25 6 0.01

72.51 6 0.19

3.10 6 0.09

5.94cd 6 0.01

W80-C15-M5

12.77 6 0.15

0.71 6 0.08

1.28 6 0.05

1.47 6 0.03

11.16 6 0.20

72.60 6 0.20

1.98 6 0.04

5.95c 6 0.00

W80-C5-M15

10.07g 6 0.65

1.63d 6 0.04

1.47d 6 0.03

1.93e 6 0.03

13.32c 6 0.07

71.60d 6 0.04

3.52d 6 0.00

5.96bc 6 0.01

W70-C20-M10

11.13 6 0.12

0.70 6 0.13

1.30 6 0.06

1.25 6 0.03

12.15 6 0.10

73.46 6 0.40

2.78 6 0.09

5.93d 6 0.01

W70-C10-M20

10.61f 6 0.09

1.90c 6 0.01

1.45d 6 0.04

2.19c 6 0.02

13.47b 6 0.03

70.38f6 0.07

4.10c 6 0.04

5.96bc 6 0.00

W60-C20-M20

10.68 6 0.24

2.53 6 0.08

1.31 0.02

2.51 6 0.02

11.56 6 0.19

71.39 6 0.11

4.22 6 0.02

5.92d 6 0.02

W60-C30-M10

11.73 6 0.07

0.84 6 0.02

1.08 6 0.04

1.68 6 0.04

10.75 6 0.01

73.91 6 0.12

3.27 6 0.11

5.88e 6 0.02

W60-C10-M30

10.06g 6 0.55

2.85a 6 0.01

1.55c 6 0.05

2.76a 6 0.05

14.22a 6 0.03

68.54h 6 0.04

6.64a 6 0.02

5.97ab 6 0.01

c

a

d b

e

f

c

f

gh

e

gh

gh

b g

a f

e e

e

d f

h k

j

h

i

b f

c

e

c f

d

e g

f

c

c c

b

d a

pH h j

f i

g

b e

Note: Mean values with different superscripts within the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05). Where: W100 5 100% wheat, W90-C5-M5 5 90% wheat, 5% HQCF, 5% mushroom flour, W90-C105 90% wheat, 10% HQCF, W90-M10 5 90% wheat, 10% mushroom flour, W80-C10-M10 5 80% wheat, 10%HQCF, 10% mushroom, W80-C15-M5 5 80% wheat, 15% HQCF, 5% mushroom flour, W80-C5M15 5 80% wheat, 5% HQCF, 15% mushroom flour, W70-C20-M10 5 70% wheat, 20% HQCF, 10% mushroom flour, W70-C10-M20 5 70% wheat, 10% HQCF, 20% mushroom flour, W60-C20-M20 5 60% wheat, 20% HQCF, 20% mushroom flour, W60-C30-M10 5 60% wheat, 30% HQCF, 10% mushroom flour, W60-C10-M30 5 60% wheat, 10% HQCF, 30% mushroom flour.

size mixer for 5 min and samples were taken for flour analysis. All anal-

determined using the method described by Nwosu, Onuegbu, Kabuo,

ysis was carried out in triplicates.

and Okeke (2010) with slight modifications. Wettability was carried out using the method described by Okezie and Bello (1998). The method

2.4 | Analyses on the Wheat, Cassava, and Mushroom Composite Flour 2.4.1 | Chemical and Nutritional Composition

of Nwosu et al. (2010) was used to determine oil absorption capacity. Least gelation concentration was determined according to the method described by Coffman and Garcia (1977). Pasting properties of the flour was determined using Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA TECMASTER, Perten

For proximate (moisture, fat, ash, protein, crude fiber) and mineral (cal-

Instrument, Kungens Kurva, Sweden) as described by Sanni et al.

cium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, iron) components of the flour,

(2004).

standard analytical methods of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2000) were used and total carbohydrate was calculated by difference. Fatty acid compositions of the blends were analyzed using gas– liquid chromatography (with Omega-Wax Capillary Supelco, USA). The lipid classes were separated by thin layer chromatography on silica gel G 60 (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany), using n-hexane/ethyl ether/acetic

2.4.3 | Statistical Analysis of Results All data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS; version 21). Significant means were separated using Duncan’s multiple comparison test at 5% level of probability.

acid (73/25/2/v/v/v) as developing solvent. Amino acid compositions of the sample were measured on hydrolysates using amino acid analyzer (Sykam-S7130) based on high performance liquid chromatography

3 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

techniques. Sample hydrolysates were prepared following the method of (Glew et al., 2005). The amino acids composition was calculated from the areas of standards obtained from the integrator and expressed as percentage of the total protein

Table 2 shows the chemical composition of the wheat-mushroomHQCF composite flour. There was significant p < 0.05 differences in the chemical composition of the composite flour samples. The moisture content of the flour samples ranged from 13.22 for 100% wheat to

2.4.2 | Functional Properties of the Flour Blends

10.06% for sample W60-C10-M30. These values meet the FAO (1992)

Bulk density of the sample was determined using the method described

specification of not more than 12–14% moisture in flour blends. The

by Akpapunarn and Markakis (1981). Water absorption capacity of the

ash content ranged from 2.85% for W60-C10-M30 to 0.70% for sample

sample was determined using the method described by Bencham

W70-C20-M10. The ash content of the flour samples increased with

(1977). The water absorption capacity was expressed as volume of

increasing mushroom inclusion. This in agreement with the findings of

water absorbed per gram of flour. The solubility index of the flour

Buight (2002), which reported that mushroom are rich in mineral ele-

blend was determined using the method described earlier by Singh,

ments. As the protein content increased with increased inclusion of

Raina, Bawas, and Saxena (2005). Dispersibility was determined by the

mushroom so does total carbohydrate despite the inclusion of HQCF,

method described by Kulkarni and Ingle (1991). Foaming capacity was

which is high in carbohydrates.

4

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Fatty acid composition (MG/G) of wheat–mushroom–HQCF

Samples

Lauric acid

Palmitic acid

Stearic/oleic (18:0, 18:1)

Linoleic acid (18:2)

Linolenic acid (18:3)

W100

0.21c 6 0.02

5.22abcd 6 0.02

8.91a 6 0.01

5.94abc 6 0.02

0.82bc 6 0.03

W90-C5-M5

0.16 6 0.02

8.94 6 0.05

5.96 6 0.03

0.91a 6 0.04

W90-C10

c

6 0.01

5.23

abc

0.17 6 0.04

5.22

abcd

W90-M10

0.26a 6 0.01

5.16d 6 0.01

W80-C10-M10

0.27 6 0.01

5.22

abcd

W80-C15-M5

0.26 6 0.04

W80-C5-M15

ab

8.86 6 0.01

5.89

8.94a 6 0.05

5.89bc 6 0.04

0.83bc 6 0.04

8.91 6 0.04

5.86 6 0.04

0.86ab 6 0.04

5.25 6 0.02

8.92 6 0.03

5.86 6 0.01

0.82bc 6 0.03

0.26a 6 0.02

5.19abcd 6 0.04

8.94a 6 0.05

5.93abc 6 0.04

0.77c 6 0.04

W70-C20-M10

0.27 6 0.02

5.24 6 0.04

8.87 6 0.04

5.79 6 0.02

0.84abc 6 0.01

W70-C10-M20

0.23ab 6 0.04

5.16d 6 0.03

8.73b 6 0.04

5.87cd 6 0.05

0.88ab 6 0.02

W60-C20-M20

0.23 6 0.04

5.18

bcd

W60-C30-M10

0.21 6 0.01

5.24 6 0.03

W60-C10-M30

0.26a 6 0.01

5.17cd 6 0.03

c

a a

a

ab bc

6 0.04

a

6 0.02

a

a

6 0.02

ab

a

a

abc

6 0.02

cd

a

cd

a

d

8.73 6 0.01

0.85ab 6 0.04

5.93

abc

6 0.04

0.86ab 6 0.01

8.73 6 0.03

5.89

abc

6 0.06

0.87ab 6 0.03

8.75b 6 0.03

5.97a 6 0.01

b b

0.85ab 6 0.03

Note: Mean values with different superscripts within the same column are significantly different (P < 0.05). Where: W100 5 100% wheat, W90-C5-M5 5 90% wheat, 5% HQCF, 5% mushroom flour, W90-C105 90% wheat, 10% HQCF, W90-M10 5 90% wheat, 10% mushroom flour, W80-C10-M10 5 80% wheat, 10%HQCF, 10% mushroom, W80-C15-M5 5 80% wheat, 15% HQCF, 5% mushroom flour, W80-C5M15 5 80% wheat, 5% HQCF, 15% mushroom flour, W70-C20-M10 5 70% wheat, 20% HQCF, 10% mushroom flour, W70-C10-M20 5 70% wheat, 10% HQCF, 20% mushroom flour, W60-C20-M20 5 60% wheat, 20% HQCF, 20% mushroom flour, W60-C30-M10 5 60% wheat, 30% HQCF, 10% mushroom flour, W60-C10-M30 5 60% wheat, 10% HQCF, 30% mushroom flour.

The results for fatty acid composition of the composite flours are

sample W90-C10. The total value of essential amino acid ranged from

presented in Table 3. The result showed that significant (p < 0.05) dif-

2.57 g/100 g for sample W90-M10 to 1.72 g/100 g for sample W90-

ference existed in the fatty acid content of the flour blends. Polyunsa-

C10. Significant p < 0.05 differences existed in all the essential amino

turated fatty acids; linolenic acid and linoleic acid in the flour samples

acid of the different flour blends.

ranged from 0.91 mg/g for sample W90-C5-M5 to 0.77 mg/g for sample

The mineral compositions of the composite flour samples are pre-

W80-C5-M15 and 5.97 mg/g for W60-C10-M30 to 5.79 mg/g for sample

sented in Table 5. Values for calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium,

W70-C20-M10, respectively. For the saturated fatty acid that was deter-

and phosphorus ranged from 3.38 to 1.62, 4.45 to 2.15, 56.02 to

mined, the values ranged from 0.27 to 0.16 mg/g, 5.25 to 5.16 mg/g,

12.36, 4.68 to 2.46, and 9.43 to 5.29 mg/100 g, respectively. Results

and 8.94 to 8.73 mg/g for lauric acid, palmitic acid, and stearic with

obtained in this study showed that calcium content increased with

oleic acid, respectively. The high linoleic acid found in the flour blends

increasing mushroom flour inclusion but decreased as HQCF inclusion

is a desirable characteristic as high polyunsaturated fatty acids levels in

increased. This may be attributed to high calcium content in mushroom

diets has been observed to be desirable because of its health benefits

as reported by Stamets (2003). Similar trend was observed in the mag-

(Zwarts et al., 1999). High value of linoleic acid recorded in sample

nesium and potassium content of the flour blends, respectively. How-

with the highest inclusion of mushroom confirms the report of Barros

ever, no specific trend was observed in the sodium and phosphorus

et al. (2007) which reported that the dominant fatty acids in mushroom

content. The values obtained for the different minerals are higher than

were linoleic acid and oleic acid.

those obtained for soy plantain flour as reported by Abioye, Ade-

The amino acid composition of protein hydroxylates from wheat

Omowaye, Babarinde, and Adesigbin (2011) and this may be attributed

and the flour blends indicated the presence of 16 amino acids as

to the increased ash content in the flour blends due to mushroom

shown in Table 4. The predominant amino acid in the flour blend was

inclusion.

glutamic acid (2.66–1.84 g/100 g for samples W90-M10 and W90-C10,

Functional properties of the composite flours determine the food

respectively) while the least was tryptophan (0.08–0.03 g/100 g for

application and end use of such materials for other applications. Table

samples W60-C10-M30 and W90-C10, respectively). It was also observed

6 shows the functional properties of the wheat-HQCF-mushroom

that mushroom inclusion in the flour blends resulted in increasing levels

composite flours. The values of the bulk density in this study ranged

of aspartic acid, lysine, and tryptophan. Kent and Evers (1994) reported

from 0.71 to 0.82 g/cm3. The bulk density is usually influenced by the

that lysine is one of the limiting amino acids in wheat, however, Sadler

structure of starch polymers and loose structure of the starch polymer

(2003) reported that mushroom proteins are exceptionally rich in lysine

could result in low bulk density (Plaami, 1997). It is a very important

which are lacking in most cereal foods. This may explain why lysine

factor considered in determining packaging requirements, raw material

content of the flour blends increased as the level of mushroom inclu-

handling, and application in wet processing in food industry (Ajanaku,

sion increased in the present study. Total nonessential amino acids

Edobor-Osoh, & Nwinyi. 2012). The differences in the chemical com-

ranged from 3.78 g/100 g for sample W90-M10 to 2.69 g/100 for sam-

position of the individual flours blended together may explain the dif-

ple W90-C10. For conditionally essential amino acids, total values

ference in values obtained for their bulk density. Wettability measures

ranged from 2.23 g/100 g for sample W90-M10 to 1.51 g/100 g for

in seconds the ease of dispersing flour samples in water and samples

1

0.26bcd 6 0.00

0.22f 6 0.01

3.28

IV

Total

0.25 6 0.01

0.90b 6 0.03

0.23 6 0.01

0.90b 6 0.06

1.84

VII

VIII

Total

1.51

2.23

0.74c 6 0.06 1.08a 6 0.06

a

0.20 6 0.00 0.29 6 0.01 e

a

0.35ab 6 0.01

3.78

0.33 6 0.00 0.51 6 0.00 e

0.23f 6 0.00

2.69

0.19g 6 0.01 0.27bc 6 0.02

a

1.84 6 0.18 2.66 6 0.16 e

0.17 6 0.00

6 0.00

cd

bcd

0.27

0.60b 6 0.00

0.46 6 0.01

0.04cd 6 0.00

0.15 6 0.01

0.24 6 0.01

0.55cd 6 0.04

0.45 6 0.04

0.04cd 6 0.00

2.12

XII

XIII

XIV

XV

XVI

Total

0.53 6 0.02 a

0.67a 6 0.01

1.72

2.57

0.03d 6 0.00 0.05bc 6 0.01

0.35 6 0.01 f

0.45f 6 0.02

ab

0.20 6 0.01 0.29 6 0.00 g

cd

0.12 6 0.00 0.17 6 0.01 g

0.25h 6 0.01 0.37a 6 0.01

a

0.20 6 0.00 0.30 6 0.00 d

6 0.03

1.96

0.94b 6 0.03

b

0.26 6 0.01

0.45

abc

0.30cd 6 0.01

3.32

0.24def 6 0.01

2.34 6 0.01 bc

0.42cde 6 0.01

0.37bc 6 0.02

8

2.34 6 0.12 bc

2.07

0.93b 6 0.03

0.29 6 0.01 a

6 0.01

1.89

0.87b 6 0.03

0.25 6 0.01 bc

abc

0.32bc 6 0.01

3.40

0.49 6 0.00 0.45 bc

0.36a 6 0.01

3.61

0.29ab 6 0.01 0.25cde 6 0.01

2.44 6 0.01 b

0.47ab 6 0.00 0.44bcd 6 0.01

0.41a 6 0.00

7

6 0.02

1.77

0.75c 6 0.04

bc

0.25 6 0.01

0.44

abc

0.31cd 6 0.02

3.03

0.26cd 6 0.01

2.01 6 0.04 de

0.40efg 6 0.02

0.37b 6 0.00

9 0.34cd 6 0.01

11

1.95

0.86b 6 0.06

0.26 6 0.00 b

0.48 6 0.02 bc

0.35ab 6 0.02

3.41

0.31a 6 0.02

2.24 6 0.06 bc

1.58

2.14

0.05cd 6 0.01

0.44 6 0.03 cd

0.55cd 6 0.02

0.24 6 0.01 ef

0.14 6 0.01 fg

0.29fg 6 0.01

0.28 6 0.04 a

6 0.02

2.29

0.07ab 6 0.01

0.46

bcd

0.59bc 6 0.03

0.26 6 0.01 de

0.15 6 0.00 ef

0.33cd 6 0.01

0.27 6 0.01 ab

6 0.00

0.27 6 0.01 cd

2.52

2.28

0.04cd 6 0.00 0.05cd 6 0.01

cd

0.50 6 0.01 0.44 6 0.01 ab

0.64ab 6 0.01 0.59bc 6 0.01

0.30 6 0.01 a

cd

0.34bc 6 0.02

0.26

abc

0.19 6 0.00 0.17 6 0.01 ab

0.37a 6 0.01

0.30 6 0.01 a

6 0.01

2.17

0.05bc 6 0.01

0.43 6 0.04 cd

0.54cde 6 0.03

0.25 6 0.01 de

0.18 6 0.01 bc

0.31def 6 0.01

0.26

abc

2.41

0.04cd 6 0.00

0.44 6 0.01 cd

1.93

0.04cd 6 0.01

0.37 6 0.01 ef

0.50e 6 0.01

f

0.16 6 0.01 de

0.28g 6 0.00

0.23 6 0.01 cd

6 0.01 0.22 6 0.00 0.62ab 6 0.01

0.29

abc

0.19 6 0.01 bc

0.36ab 6 0.01

0.30 6 0.01 a

0.31cd 6 0.01

3.01

0.28bc 6 0.01

1.91e 6 0.01

0.38fg 6 0.01

0.44a 6 0.01

12

2.23

0.08a 6 0.01

0.41de 6 0.02

0.54de 6 0.02

0.26de 6 0.01

0.21a 6 0.01

0.32cde 6 0.01

0.27ab 6 0.01

0.14cde 6 0.01

1.68

0.69c 6 0.01

0.25bc 6 0.01

6 0.00 0.42bcd 6 0.02 0.72c 6 0.00

e

0.21d 6 0.01

0.38

cde

0.27e 6 0.01

2.93

0.23ef 6 0.01

2.00 6 0.05 de

0.45abc 6 0.00 0.36gh 6 0.00

0.41a 6 0.02

10

0.15bcde 6 0.02 0.16abcd 6 0.00 0.18ab 6 0.01 0.16abcd 6 0.00 0.15bcde 6 0.01 0.17abc 6 0.02 0.13de 6 0.00

1.75

0.88b 6 0.04

0.25 6 0.02 bc

0.34 6 0.11 de

0.28de 6 0.02

3.03

0.22f 6 0.01

2.14 6 0.06 cd

0.38fg 6 0.01

0.32de 6 0.00

6

Note: Mean values with different superscripts within the same row are significantly different (p < 0.05). Where: 1 5 100% wheat, 2 5 90% wheat, 5% HQCF, 5% mushroom flour, 35 90% wheat, 10% HQCF, 4 5 90% wheat, 10% mushroom flour, 5 5 80% wheat, 10%HQCF, 10% mushroom, 6 5 80% wheat, 15% HQCF, 5% mushroom flour, 7 5 80% wheat, 5% HQCF, 15% mushroom flour, 8 5 70% wheat, 20% HQCF, 10% mushroom flour, 9 5 70% wheat, 10% HQCF, 20% mushroom flour, 10 5 60% wheat, 20% HQCF, 20% mushroom flour, 11 5 60% wheat, 30% HQCF, 10% mushroom flour, 12 5 60% wheat, 10% HQCF, 30% mushroom flour. I, aspartic acid; II, serine; III, glutamic acid; IV, alanine; V, glycine; VI, arginine; VII, prolamine; VIII, tyrosine; IX, histidine; X, threonine; XI, valine; XII, lysine; XIII, isoleucine; XIV, leucine; XV, phenylalanine; XVI, tryptophan.

cd

ef

ef

2.30

0.33cd 6 0.00

0.30efg 6 0.02

XI

bc

0.27 6 0.01

6 0.02

ab

0.24

bcd

5

0.36bc 6 0.02 0.29e 6 0.01

4

0.33h 6 0.01 0.49a 6 0.01

0.26f 6 0.01

3

0.15bcde 6 0.02 0.16abcd 6 0.03 0.12e 6 0.01 0.19a 6 0.00

bc

X

IX

Essential amino acids

cd

1.91

6 0.04

0.45

0.42 6 0.03

VI

abc

0.31cd 6 0.03

bc

0.29cde 6 0.01

V

Conditionally essential amino acids

3.40

2.35 6 0.02

2.35 6 0.14

III

bc

0.42cde 6 0.03

0.41def 6 0.04

II

bc

0.37bc 6 0.01

0.30e 6 0.014

I

2

Amino acid composition of the composite flour (G/100G)

Nonessential amino acids

Sample

T A B LE 4

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6

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T A B LE 5

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ET AL.

Mineral composition of the composite flour

Samples

Ca (mg/100 g)

Mg (mg/100 g)

K (mg/100 g)

Na (mg/100 g)

p (mg/100 g)

W100

17.80f 6 0.10

25.59j 6 0.03

123.62l 6 0.05

26.01h 6 0.11

52.92j 6 0.11

W90-C5-M5

20.11 6 0.03

e

33.18 6 0.04

h

223.57 6 0.04

35.69 6 0.39

84.12d 6 0.29

W90-C10

17.31 6 0.07

28.26 6 0.07

d

348.06 6 0.06

34.43 6 0.10

52.91j 6 0.10

W90-M10

29.98b 6 0.27

32.39f 6 0.17

349.38c 6 0.14

46.78a 6 0.15

72.27e 6 0.15

W80-C10-M10

20.08 6 0.07

30.28 6 0.14

e

312.60 6 0.12

26.55 6 0.30

67.04f 6 0.30

W80-C15-M5

16.32 6 0.11

40.76 6 0.25

320.43 6 0.03

b

45.50 6 0.22

57.54i 6 0.22

W80-C5-M15

17.54g 6 0.08

29.97h 6 0.08

207.6i 6 0.06

22.67j 6 0.09

83.91d 6 0.08

j

e g

i

e

g

h

b

b

e f

g

W70-C20-M10

17.84 6 0.06

25.2 6 0.07

199.28 6 0.22

24.82 6 0.17

64.44 6 0.17

W70-C10-M20

23.53 6 0.21

40.05c 6 0.35

231.39f 6 0.20

42.82c 6 0.09

94.29b 6 0.09

W60-C20-M20

25.54c 6 0.14

37.11d 6 0.00

228.27g 6 0.35

35.78de 6 0.33

92.12c 6 0.33

W60-C30-M10

16.21 6 0.14

21.52 6 0.05

k

183.13 6 0.11

24.65 6 0.17

61.74i 6 0.16

W60-C10-M30

33.83a6 0.13

44.51a 6 0.01

353.32a 6 0.07

35.97d 6 0.45

109.66a 6 0.44

f

k

h

l

i

i


with the low wettability dissolves faster. The values of wettability

capacity values ranged from 67.70 to 79.45%. It is a function of the lip-

obtained in this study are comparable to those obtained by Ubbor and

ophilic nature of flour constituents. Increase in oil absorption capacity

Akobundu (2009) for wheat–cassava–water melon seed composites.

may also be attributed to the presence of more hydrophobic proteins

The values of wettability and water binding capacity ranged from

which showed superior binding of lipids (Kinsella, 1976) and this could

18.53 to 36.50 min and 84.29 to 121.04%, respectively. Highest value

explain the reason why samples with mushroom which is rich in protein

of wettability was recorded in sample W60-C10-M30 and the least in

had higher values of oil absorption capacity. There was significant

sample W90-C0-M10 while highest value for water binding capacity was

p < 0.05 differences between the flour samples in all the functional

recorded in sample W60-C10-M30 and the least in sample W90-C10-M0.

properties measured.

Absorption of oil by food gives oil flavor and soft texture thereby

Pasting profile of flour is one of the most important properties

improving mouth feel and flavor is also retained. Oil absorption

influencing the quality and aesthetic consideration of food in that it

T A B LE 6

Functional properties of wheat-HQCF-mushroom flour

Test

BD (%)

FC (%)

Wettability (s)

WBC (%)

LGC (%)

OAC (%)

Dispersibility (%)

W100

0.76b 6 0.03

20.25c 6 0.45

35.33a 6 1.06

85.09hi 6 3.88

3.00 6 0.00

73.80bcde 6 2.60

72.00a 6 0.20

W90-C5-M5

0.81 6 0.04

15.15 6 0.85

27.00 6 0.56

gh

87.25 6 0.53

3.00 6 0.00

W90-C10

0.80 6 0.02

e

13.37 6 0.90

28.17 6 0.55

84.29 6 0.36

W90-M10

0.76b 6 0.00

21.50bc 6 0.7

18.53f 6 0.98

W80-C10-M10

0.76 6 0.03

21.90 6 0.70

cd

W80-C15-M5

0.80 6 0.03

W80-C5-M15

72.60

cde

6 7.5

71.67a 6 0.29

3.00 6 0.00

70.90

def

6 1.00

72.00a 6 0

91.85f 6 0.81

3.00 6 0.00

71.40cdef 6 01.7

69.83b 6 0.29

25.13 6 0.90

94.12 6 0.12

3.00 6 0.00

67.70 6 0.50

69.1bc 6 0.29

22.60 6 0.30

22.67 6 0.15

87.52 6 0.64

3.00 6 0.00

71.95

6 0.75

71.33a 6 0.58

0.82a 6 0.02

24.85a 6 0.75

24.07de 6 0.55

96.46d 6 0.06

3.00 6 0.00

75.65abcd 6 1.75

68.83c 6 0.29

W70-C20-M10

0.76 6 0.03

25.40 6 1.35

26.80 6 1.68

97.84 6 0.4

3.00 6 0.00

75.12

abcde

W70-C10-M20

0.71c 6 0.01

25.25a 6 1.15

29.00b 6 0.36

103.76c 6 0.64

3.00 6 0.00

76.05abc 6 0.15

66.83e 6 0.29

W60-C20-M20

0.75 6 0.01

24.30 6 0.70

27.23 6 2.28

b

112.00 6 1.04

2.00 6 0.00

79.45 6 0.85

65.50f 6 0.5

W60-C30-M10

0.74 6 0.02

21.20 6 0.10

cd

25.10 6 1.23

c

102.36 6 0.52

2.00 6 0.00

70.50 6 0.30

67.83d 6 0.29

W60-C10-M30

0.76b 6 0.01

25.40a 6 1.30

36.50a 6 2.35

121.04a 6 1.28

2.00 6 0.00

77.65ab 6 1.65

62.17g 6 0.76

a a

b a

b

b b

d

b b

a

a

bc

bc b

e

bc

bc

i

e g

d

f

cdef

6 0.67

a f

69.00c 6 0.50

Note: Mean values with different superscripts within the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05). Where: W100 5 100% wheat, W90-C5-M5 5 90% wheat, 5% HQCF, 5% mushroom flour, W90-C105 90% wheat, 10% HQCF, W90-M10 5 90% wheat, 10% mushroom flour, W80-C10-M10 5 80% wheat, 10%HQCF, 10% mushroom, W80-C15-M5 5 80% wheat, 15% HQCF, 5% mushroom flour, W80-C5M15 5 80% wheat, 5% HQCF, 15% mushroom flour, W70-C20-M10 5 70% wheat, 20% HQCF, 10% mushroom flour, W70-C10-M20 5 70% wheat, 10% HQCF, 20% mushroom flour, W60-C20-M20 5 60% wheat, 20% HQCF, 20% mushroom flour, W60-C30-M10 5 60% wheat, 30% HQCF, 10% mushroom flour, W60-C10-M30 5 60% wheat, 10% HQCF, 30% mushroom flour. BD, bulk density; FC, foam capacity; WBC, water binding capacity; LGC, least gelation capacity; OAC, oil absorption capacity.

EKUNSEITAN

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ET AL.

7

Pasting characteristics of wheat-HQCF-mushroom flour

Parameter

Peak (RVU)

Trough (RVU)

Breakdown (RVU)

Final visc (RVU)

Setback (RVU)

Peak time (min)

Pasting temp (8C)

W800

93.77bc 6 0.70

61.81bc 6 2.59

31.97cd 6 1.93

132.97ab 6 2.87

71.16a 6 4.94

5.87cd 6 0.17

88.58a 6 0.92

W90-C5-M5

87.36 6 0.12

59.11 6 0.20

ef

28.25 6 0.08

bc

112.02 6 2.12

52.91 6 1.91

6.20 6 0.06

90.77a 6 1.22

W90-C10

a

106.94 6 4.17

67.77 6 4.83

39.16 6 1.42

ab

135.17 6 3.81

67.38 6 3.07

6.00

6 0.17

80.45a 6 0.90

W90-M10

72.33fg 6 1.51

45.61de 6 0.58

26.72f 6 1.02

99.72bcd 6 2.58

54.11c 6 2.28

5.71def 6 0.10

90.43a 6 0.85

W80-C10-M10

de

82.16 6 3.16

51.56 6 3.25

30.61 6 0.09

6 0.19

89.86a 6 0.46

W80-C15-M5

96.91 6 1.94

62.27

abc

W80-C5-M15

75.08efg 6 16.1

W70-C20-M10

bc

cd

c

ab

a

c

b

a

abc

103.77

bcd

6 3.60

52.22 6 0.56

5.84

34.63 6 0.67

117.61

abc

6 1.66

55.33 6 0.65

6.11 6 0.03

79.66bc 6 0.53

47.05de 6 11.5

28.02ef 6 4.81

92.50cd 6 12.2

45.44d 6 2.14

5.95bc 6 0.15

88.07a 6 7.82

95.75 6 0.65

60.28 6 0.29

35.47 6 0.91

108.17 6 0.84

47.88 6 1.04

6.02

W70-C10-M20

68.33g 6 0.60

41.97e 6 0.55

26.36f 6 0.99

80.88cd 6 0.74

38.91e 6 0.30

5.62ef 6 0.10

W60-C20-M20

de

80.52 f 6 1.13

49.92 6 2.24

de

30.61 6 1.22

86.42 6 2.67

36.50 6 0.46

W60-C30-M10

109.8 6 2.58

69.11 6 2.54

40.69 6 0.04

152.22 6 66.0

W60-C10-M30

56.08h 6 2.16

35.00f 6 1.16

21.08g 6 1.00

67.50d 6 0.25

b

a

d

6 1.78

c

d a

de bc

b

a

bc

cd

a

c c

d

cde ab

abc

6 0.13

78.83bc 6 1.18 90.73a 6 1.26

5.80

cde

6 0.13

78.55bc 6 0.47

45.02 6 0.87

5.83

cde

6 0.03

75.83c 6 0.05

32.50f 6 0.91

5.57f 6 0.03

e e

90.80a 6 1.30


affects the texture, digestibility and end use of starch-based food com-

cates higher water binding capacity, higher gelatinization tendency, and

modities (Onweluzo & Nnamuchi, 2009; Ajanaku et al., 2012). Results

lower swelling properties of starch-based flour due to high degree of

of pasting characteristics of the composite flours are shown in Table 7.

association between starch granules (Adebowale et al., 2008, Adebo-

There are significant p < 0.05 differences in the pasting properties of

wale, Adegoke, Sanni, Adegunwa, & Fetuga, 2012).

the composite flours. The value for peak viscosity ranged from 56.08 to 109.83 RVU. Peak viscosity is an indication of the ability of starchbased food to swell freely before their physical breakdown (Sanni, Adebowale, & Tafa, 2006; Adebowale, Sanni, & Onitilo, 2008). High peak viscosity indicates high starch content and this could explain why sample with the highest inclusion of HQCF had the highest peak viscosity and that with the highest inclusion of mushroom flour had the least. It was also observed that as the quantity of HQCF inclusion increased, the peak viscosity increased. This result is comparable with those reported for millet-wheat composite flour by Adegunwa, Ganiyu, Bakare, and Adebowale (2014). Trough viscosity ranged between 69.11 and 35.00 RVU. The Trough measures the ability of paste to withstand

4 | CONCLUSION From the result obtained in this study, it can be concluded that mushroom and HQCF substitution in wheat flour up to 30% will still meet the quality requirement of 100% wheat flour which can be used for the production of various snack food products in terms of nutrient requirement and functionality. The substitution of mushroom and HQCF in wheat-based confectionaries would greatly enhance the utilization of these crops in developing countries where they have not been optimally utilized.

breakdown during cooling. It is the minimum viscosity value in the constant temperature phase of the RVA pasting profile. In this study, the value for trough increased with increase in HQCF substitution. The breakdown and final viscosities ranged from 21.08 to 40.69 and 67.50 to 152.22 RVU, respectively. The setback viscosity ranged from 32.50 to 71.17 RVU while peak time ranged between 5.57 and 6.20 min. The result obtained from this study indicates the control sample (W100) had the highest setback viscosities. Apart from the con-

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors acknowledge the financial support of Improving the livelihoods of smallholder cassava farmers through better access to growth markets (CassavaGMarkets) Project with funding provided by the European Commission Food Security Thematic Programme (FSTP) Component 1 – Research and Technology.

trol sample, sample W90-C10 with 10% inclusion of HQCF may be more shelf stable compared with other sample since the value obtained

R EF ER E N CE S

for setback was higher compared with other samples. The peak time is

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