Order now!

Dear Contributor: You have successfully opened PDF page proofs of your article. Please take a moment to review these instructions: Print your article or review it online, whichever is more convenient. Check carefully for typographical errors and misspellings. (Rewrites or revisions are not accepted.) Respond to any queries from the copyeditor, summarized in the attached Word document and highlighted in the proof margin (via AQ or AU). If a “poor art quality” notice appears, provide a replacement graphic saved at a higher resolution (300 dpi for photos; 900 dpi for drawings or graphs). Note that the art quality in your PDF proofs does not reflect final print quality. Also check the Article Information Sheet. This is a summary of important information about you and your coauthors to be used in the journal itself, on our website, and in advertising and promotional materials. Summarize required correction to your article and the Article Information Sheet in an email. Cite the line number and explain the required correction in one or two sentences. Some examples: Line 17: Should read “In light of recent developments,” Line 19: Add comma after “specimen,”. Lines 127, 129, 131-132: Spelling should be “contraindications.” Happens 4 times. Line 216: Reference cited should be 26. AQ 1: Okay as edited. Attach any replacement graphics, and send to [email protected] by the required due date. Be sure to reference the number(s) of the line(s) to be corrected or the Author Query number; If you have questions or need assistance with the correction process, please contact [email protected]. And please take advantage of the exclusive prepublication offer to all Dekker authors: Order your article reprints now to receive a special prepublication discount and 25 FREE reprints when you order 50 or more. This offer is only available through the link below. Thank you for being a Dekker Author. Sincerely, Journals Editorial Dept., Marcel Dekker, Inc. [email protected] Fax: +44-1493-442230

Order now!

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

[169–184]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[Page No. 169]

Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part B (PFC)

120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH Part B—Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes Vol. B39, No. 1, pp. 169–183, 2004

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Integrated Waste Management through Producers and Consumers Education: Composting of Vegetable Crop Residues for Reuse in Cultivation

12 13

K. Maniadakis,1 K. Lasaridi,2 Y. Manios,3 M. Kyriacou,3 and T. Manios1,*

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

1

School of Agricultural Technology, Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Heraklion, Greece 2 Department of Geography and 3 Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Harokopio University of Athens, Kalithea, Athens

22 23 24

ABSTRACT

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

As part of the design of an integrated waste management scheme through the use of the PRECEDE/PROCEED model in the area of Crete, data concerning the applicability of composting in various agricultural wastes was considered as necessary. Vegetable residues from tomato, cucumber, eggplant, and pepper crops were collected, shredded and composted either alone or with the use of olive press cake, olive tree leaves, and branches and vine branches as bulking agents. Seven random combinations—mixtures of the above materials were composted using windrows, where additional four similar windrows were made up by approximately 10 m3 of the above mentioned vegetable crop residues. All windrows were turned four times during the eight weeks thermophylic phase, with the help of a mechanical turner. A large number of physiochemical parameters were monitored in the raw materials, at the end of the thermophylic phase and at the end of the maturation phase. The temperature which was monitored daily, recorded the

39 40 41 42

*Correspondence: T. Manios, School of Agricultural Technology, Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Heraklion 71500, Greece; E-mail: [email protected].

43 44 45 46 47

169 DOI: 10.1081/PFC-120027447 Copyright & 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

0360-1234 (Print); 1532-4109 (Online) www.dekker.com

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[169–184]

[Page No. 170]


120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

170 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55

Maniadakis et al. highest values (above 55 C) in the windrows where bulking agents were used. All raw vegetable crop residues and their mixtures presented increased electrical conductivity values (above 5 mS/cm and up to 9.7 mS/cm) resulting to end products with respectively high EC values (above 3 mS/cm and up to 15 mS/cm) probably due to the presence of large amounts of soil, rich in fertilisers, attached to the roots of the plants. There was no detection of any remains of the 13 pesticides for which all 11 composts were tested for. The accuracy of the results was tested through a recovery test of the pesticides in mature compost, resulting to acceptable recovery values.

56 57 58

Key Words: PRECEDE; Pesticides.

PROCEED;

Vegetable;

Residues;

Composting;

59 60 61 62

INTRODUCTION

63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94

The work presented here is part of a larger ambitious research, realising the links between producer, production, consumer, and environment and is aiming to develop the appropriate conditions in order to achieve integrated waste management, an essential step towards sustainable development. In the overall study scientist from different fields are involved putting their strengths and expertise together to pilot test the PRECEDE/PROCEED model in the area of Crete in order to create the appropriate conditions and finally achieve this new management regime, incorporated in to the sustainable development planning of the local authorities. The term PRECEDE is derived from the Predisposing Reinforcing and Enable Constructs for Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation where PROCEED stands for Policy, Regulatory and Organizational Constructs in Educational and Environmental Development.[1] Based on this model the evaluation comes first. That means that prior to the implementation of any health and environmental education programme or the development of any environmental policy we need to assess first the current conditions regarding both the food chain and the waist treatment. In the overall study a wider assessment of the current conditions regarding knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and practices regarding health and environment of both local producers and consumers were assessed. Additionally other parameters such as the amount of waist, cost, and legal issues (labelling etc.), were assessed in order to be able to propose a cost effective alternative solution for the waist management within the PRECEDE/PROCEED model. In the island of Crete, in the south end of Greece, vegetables are cultivated in more than 5000 hectares of which about 2000 hectares are greenhouses.[2] In both geographical and financial terms vegetables are the third most important crop, after olive trees and viticulture. Most outdoor and greenhouse crops abound in flat areas on the south coast of the island, where climate conditions are more suite to the production of out-of-season vegetables (in late autumn, winter, and early spring). According to Blasi et al.[3] the residues of tomato crop in Italy, was about 13 t/ ha, on a wet basis. For Crete, Petsas and Linardakis,[4] reported that the wet weight of cucumber crop residues, without the fruit, was 2.87 kg per plant, for a growth period of 100 days during spring and summer where in fall and winter this amount

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

[169–184]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[Page No. 171]


120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

Composting of Vegetable Crop Residues for Reuse in Cultivation 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127

171

was reduced in 1.70 kg of residues per plant.[5] Finally Petsas and Tsikalas,[6] reported that the wet weight of residues from the tomato crop, without the fruit, was 5.34 kg for a 200 days greenhouse cultivation, during winter, spring, and summer. Combining the above values and the average number of plants per hectare, which is 15,000 to 20,000, vegetable crop residues in Crete are estimated to exceed the 100,000 t in an annually bases. These residues are inappropriate for silage because of pesticide remains, which means that their consumption could allow these hazardous organic compounds to enter the food chain.[7] As a result, vegetable crop residues are either disposed of in landfills, in spite of the EU Landfill Directive 99/31 or burnt on site, resulting in other environmental problems in addition to a serious fire hazard for nearby forests and other cultivation. Alternative management methods, are required, which would allow the dispose of the vegetable crop residues in a environmentally friendly and financially wise way. Cheuk et al.,[8] reported that the vegetable greenhouse industry in British Columbia is a high profile segment of the agricultural landscape. Many people across Canada and the United States, especially in the West, are familiar with tomatoes, peppers, and other products grown in British Columbia greenhouses. Crop residuals from vegetable greenhouses are currently handled with different methods, including various types of composting, land application, and landfilling. According to the British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fishery,[9] from all the above methods composting has been identified as the preferred organic wastes management method. Technoeconomical studies for the applicability of composting in Crete suggested that it can only be successful and viable if; (a) the quality of the end product is acceptable, mainly through the absence of pesticides, (b) provide motivation to the producers to participate in such a project and to reuse the produced compost in their cultivation, and (c) encouraging the consumers to buy vegetables produced through this process as a more environmentally friendly products.[10,11] As a first step towards this new integrated waste management policy is important to evaluate the applicability of the composting method for the dispose of vegetable crop residues in the island of Crete. In order to achieve this, it was necessary to determine the following:

128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141

(i)

The optimum composting methodology (use or not of bulking agents, nature of the bulking agent, etc.). Vegetable residues are characterised by increased moisture continent (above 70%) which might effect negatively the composting process. If this is the case it is important to identify possible sources of bulking agents among the various agricultural wastes of the island, which could help improve the compostability of both materials. (ii) The quality of the end product especially as far as pesticide remains. According to Storm,[12] all pesticides present in yard waste were decomposed during the thermophylic phase, where remains of only one were detected probably due to the presence of contaminated soil from the roots in the waste mixture. However, vegetable crops, and especially those of greenhouses, are often induced in an excessive use of pesticides, resulting

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

[169–184]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[Page No. 172]


120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

172

Maniadakis et al.

in increased concentration of these chemical in their residues. It is considered as important to estimate the presence of such chemical in the final compost both quantitatively and qualitatively.

142 143 144 145 146 147 148

MATERIALS AND METHODS

149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171

The vegetable crop residues used in this work were produced from greenhouses in the Ierapetra area, in the Southeast coast of the island. Residues from the four most common vegetable crops on Crete: tomato; cucumber; eggplant; and pepper were collected and transported in the Technological Education Institute of Heraklion, where it operates, since 1999, a pilot size composting plant.[13] Greenhouse crop residues were preferred due to their higher pesticide content which would allow the easier application of the relevant control on pesticide remains in the final composts. The area of Ierapetra, is also very densely cultivated with olive trees and vines. It is estimated that more than 50,000 tones of various agricultural wastes are produced annually in the area in addition to the outdoor or indoor vegetable crop residues.[11] An integrated solution on agricultural waste management in the area, would include all these wastes, probably through combined-mixed composting. In an effort to simulate a realistic combination of these different wastes for the production of compost, the bulking agent used were; vine and olive tree branches, olive tree leaves, and olive press cake. A number of random combinations of these materials were used in order to establish the following eleven composting trials which, were carried out using windrows: (i) (ii)

172 173 174 175

(iii) (iv) (v)

176 177 178 179 180

(vi) (vii) (viii) (ix)

181 182

(x)

183 184 185 186 187 188

(xi)

Tomato crop residues—TR. Tomato crop residues mixed with shredded vine branches (in 1:1 by volume mixture, v/v)—TRVB. Tomato crop residues mixed with olive press cake (1:1 v/v)—TROPC. Cucumber crop residues—CR. Cucumber crop residues mixed with shredded olive tree branches (1:1 v/v)—CROTB. Eggplant crop residues—ER. Eggplant crop residues mixed with olive press cake (1:1 v/v)—EROPC. Pepper crop residues—PR. Pepper crop residues mixed with olive press cake and olive tree leaves (1:0.5:0.5 v/v)—PROTL. Mixture of cucumber, eggplant and pepper crop residues (1: 1: 1 v/v)— CEPR, and Cucumber, eggplant and pepper crop residues mixed with shredded olive tree branches (1:1:1:3 v/v)—CEPROTB.

All materials were shredded using a mechanical shredder before establishing the experimental piles. The piles’ volume was approximately 10 m3 and a mechanical

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[169–184]

[Page No. 173]


120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

Composting of Vegetable Crop Residues for Reuse in Cultivation 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209

173

windrow turner was used for turning and mixing. Every two weeks the piles were turned and samples were collected for a number of analysis: (a) pH and electrical conductivity (EC) in water extract, by diluting 1 part of compost by volume, with 1.5 parts of distilled water[14]; (b) Volatile solids (VS) by the ignition at 600 C, for 4 h[15]; (c) Organic carbon[16]; (d) Total nitrogen, by the micro-Kjeldahl method[15]; (e) NH4 -N and NO3 -N, by the magnesium oxideDevarda alloy method; and (f) Mineral elements: potassium was determined by flame emission spectrophotometer, while Ca, Mg, and P concentrations were determined with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer.[16] In order to evaluate the presence of pesticides in the final compost two Multiresidue Gas–Liquid Chromatography method were used. One used electron capture detection (ECD) for the measuring organochloride pesticides (as for example endosulfan sulphate) where the other used nitrogen phosphorous detection (NPD) for measuring organophsophoric pesticides (e.g., acephate). According to Losier and Girard,[17] the methodologies as the one described above often present problems with the accuracy of results with composts, due to the nature of the materials. In order to validate the method with compost, samples recovery tests were carried out with selected pesticides. The analysis was carried out by the Pesticide Residues Lab, of the National Agricultural Research Foundation in Lycovrsi, in Athens. These methods are routinely used by the laboratory for pesticide residue control in fruits, vegetables, or soils and validated for a large number of pesticides.

210 211 212

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235

Table 1, presents the main physiochemical characteristics of the vegetable residues used in this work together with the wastes used as bulking agents. It is important to note in the increased E.C. value of these materials and a rather low content in volatile solids (VS). Both parameters appeared to be effected by the presence of soil in the roots of the plants as those were uprooted after the end of the cultivation period.[12] For this reason the VS concentration was low in comparison to what it was expected to be considering the nature of the wastes. Soil from greenhouse cultivation is extremely rich in fertilizers, used in the growing period, effecting increasingly the EC value of the mixture.[12] This is supported by the large NO3 -N concentration in the residues together with the increased macronutrients concentration as presented in Table 2. The concentration of P, K, Mg, and Ca in all four residues, is considerably higher than those reported by Petsas and Linardakis,[4] and Petsas et al.,[5] for cucumber residues and Petsas and Tsikalas,[6] for tomato residues. This high EC value was estimated to result in an increased EC value of the end product.[18] The increased moisture content of tomato (79.6%), cucumber (72.4%), eggplants (69.1%), and pepper (70.3%) residues could result in effecting negatively the composting process. The use of drier bulking agent, such as shredded vine branches could result in reducing the overall moisture level and decreasing the mixtures density. Table 3, presents the moisture and density of the shredded and mixed materials. It is suggested that where the olive press cake was included in the mixtures, the density was higher, probably due to the small particle size of this

T1

T2

T3

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

[169–184]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[Page No. 174]


120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

174 236 237

Maniadakis et al.

Table 1. Main physicochemical characteristics of vegetable crop residues and other organic residues.

238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251

Raw materials

E.C.a (mS/cm)

C (%)

N (%)

C/N

Volatile solids (%)

NO3-N (ppm)

6.2 7.6 7.3 7.5

7.8 9.7 9.2 5.6

36.0 26.0 38.7 37.1

3.7 3.9 4.8 3.5

9.7 6.7 8.0 10.6

64.9 46.8 69.6 66.8

1.395 1.043 830 680

6.9 6.0 7.0 6.1

0.9 1.5 0.7 3.6

46.0 50.5 53.8 53.3

0.9 1.7 1.4 1.0

50.0 30.2 38.4 50.3

82.9 90.9 94.5 95.9

PH

Vegetable crop residues Tomatoes Cucumber Pepper Eggplants Other organic residues Vine branches Olive tree leaves Olive tree branches Olive press cake

a

— — — —

a

In water extract 1:1.5 v/v.

252 253 254

Table 2.

255 256 257 258 259 260 261

Macronutrient concentration of vegetable crop residues.

Crop residues

P (%)

K (%)

Mg (%)

Ca (%)

Tomatoes Cucumber Pepper Egg plants

0.419 0.661 0.477 0.414

1.78 4.19 3.78 1.76

1.51 0.82 1.37 0.79

15.09 8.31 7.08 12.97

262 263 264 265

Table 3. Weight per volume of prepared mixtures and their moisture at the beginning of composting process.

266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276

Mixtures Tomatoes crop residues with vine branches (1:1 v/v) Tomatoes crop residues with olive press cake (1:1 v/v) Cucumber crop residues with olive tree branches (1:1 v/v) Egg plants crop residues with olive press cake (1:1 v/v) Pepper crop residues with olive press cake and olive tree leaves (1:0.5 v/v) Cucumber, pepper, and egg plants crop residues (1:1:1v/v) with olive tree branches (1:1 v/v)

Moisture (%)

Weight per volume (kg/L)

61.20 59.70 60.70 61.10 60.10

0.24 0.39 0.26 0.38 0.37

54.60

0.33

277 278 279 280 281 282

material.[19] The effect of this adjustment in the composting process, still remained to be determined. Figure 1, presents the temperature profile during the 75 days of the thermophylic phase for the TR, TRVB, and TROPC. It is obvious that the presence of the bulking

F1

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

[169–184]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[Page No. 175]


120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

Composting of Vegetable Crop Residues for Reuse in Cultivation 283

175

70

284 60

285 Temperature (C)

286 287 288 289 290 291 292

50 TR

40

TRVB 30

TROPC

20 10

293 0

294 295

1

15

298 299

43

57

71

Time (days)

296 297

29

Figure 1. Temperature fluctuations during composting process of tomato residues (TR), mixture of tomato residues and vine branches (TRVB), and mixture of tomato residues and olive press cake (TROPC).

300 301 302 303

70

304

60

306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320

Temperature (C)

305

50 40

CR CROTB

30 20 10 0 1

15

29

43

57

71

Time (days)

Figure 2. Temperature fluctuations during composting process of cucumber residues (CR) and mixture of cucumber residues and olive tree branches (TROTB).

321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329

agent increased the thermogenic behavior of the mixture, resulting to higher temperatures in the core of these two piles. At the same time both TRVB and TROPC managed to retain these temperatures for a longer period which, according to Avgelis and Manios,[20] eliminates some of the most persisting plant pathogens. Similar results were recorded in all trials, as presented in Figs. 2–5. In the comparison between mixed and unmixed residues it will be noted that the mixtures presented a far better behavior, reaching temperatures above 55 to 60 C and retaining them for a

F2 –F5

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

[169–184]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[Page No. 176]


120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

176

Maniadakis et al.

330

80

331

70

332

335 336 337 338

60 Temperature (C)

333 334

50 ER EROPC

40 30 20

339 10

340 341 342

0 1

15

29

343 344 345

43

57

71

Time (days)

Figure 3. Temperature fluctuations during composting process of eggplant residues (ER) and mixture of eggplant residues and olive press cake (EROPC).

346 347 348 349 350

80 70

351 353 354 355 356 357 358

60 Temperature (C)

352

50

20 10

360

0

362 363 364

PR-OPC-OTL

30

359 361

PR

40

1

15

29

43

57

71

Time (days)

Figure 4. Temperature fluctuations during composting process of pepper residues (PR) and mixture of pepper residues and olive press cake olive tree leaves (PR-OPC-OTL).

365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376

long period of time. The better structure of the mixed piles, allowing better aeration, and diminution of salinity in addition to the thermogenic ability of the other organic residues used in the preparation of the mixtures explains this substantial difference.[21–23] The frequency of turnings does not seems to play an important role in the materials behavior, something that it was expected since four turnings are considered as adequate for successful green waste composting.[13,21] According to Tables 4 and 5, changes of the physiochemical parameters (pH, Total C, Total N, C/N ratio, and V.S.) in all the mixtures followed the expected course.[21–23] E.C. was found in some cases to be higher in the final compost

T4 T5

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[169–184]

[Page No. 177]


120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003


177

70

378 60

380 381 382 383 384 385 386

Temperature (C)

379

50 40

CR-ER-PR CR/ER/PR - OTB

30 20 10

387 388 389 390 391 392 393

0 1

15

29

43

57

71

Time (days)

Figure 5. Temperature fluctuations during composting process of cucumber, eggplant, and pepper residues (CR-ER-PR) and mixture of cucumber, eggplant, pepper residues, and olive tree branches (CR/ER/PR-OTB).

394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423

compared to the initial E.C. of the mixture, with a respective increase in the concentration of NO3 -N, while in other cases it was found to be lower with a respective decrease in the concentration of NO3 -N. Normally, as composting progresses and with the continual decomposition of the organic material, E.C. increases due to the continual release of inorganic elements, mainly N.[21,24] In the above cases, the decrease of E.C. and NO3 -N concentration in the final composts occurs in the piles that olive press cake was used as a bulking agent. A possible explanation of this phenomenon can be found in the physical structure of the material. Olive press cake is a fine and light material which can be easily washed out either from the rain or the water added in the turnings as suggested by Manios and Balis.[19] The accuracy of the method used to determine the presence or not of pesticides in the final compost was tested through a recovery trial. Table 6, presents the percentage of the original amount added in the compost which was retrieved through this analyses method. These results suggest that with the exception of acephate all other pesticides could be retrieved in a acceptable and satisfactory manner from the compost, a conclusion which is supported by other researchers.[17,25] All eleven final composts, at the end of the maturation phase, were tested for the presence of the pesticides presented in Table 6. In all cases there was a complete failure in finding any amount of the tested pesticides. Similar results are presented by Storm,[12] Buyuksonmez et al.,[26,27] and Brown.[28] They all agree that composting results in significant reduction and even complete absence of pesticides in the final compost. Table 6, also presents both the detection limit of the methodologies used for each pesticide and the amount of pesticides used per kg of compost in the recovery test (fortification level). The probability of none of the mentioned and tested pesticides to have been used was considered as extremely low, since pesticides as primiphos methyl and diazinon

T6

Tomatoes crop residues with olive press cake 60 (end of the thermophylic phase) 120 (end of maturation phase) Cucumber crop residues with olive tree branches 60 (end of the thermophylic phase) 120 (end of maturation phase)

Tomatoes crop residues with vine branches

Mixtures 6.6 7.7 7.3 5.9 6.6 6.8 7.2 5.9 6.8

7.2 7.3 0 (establishment) 8.6 8.2

pH

0 (establishment) 60 (end of the thermophylic phase) 120 (end of maturation phase) 0 (establishment)

Days of composting

30.08 30.08

47.05 46.51 4.9

5.6 12.3 15.1 8.3

— 2.43

— 3.17 31.96

38.91 32.83 31.96 48.94

— 12.37

— 14.67 1.98

2.24 — 2.38 2.60

Total N (%)

54.15 54.15

84.7 83.7 16.14

17.37 — 13.33 18.82

Ratio C/N

— 870.6

— 609.3 57.53

70.05 59.10 57.53 88.1

Organic matter (%)

789.6

1,138.8 — 1,608.8 804.1

NO3-N (ppm)

[169–184]

Total C (%)

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

E.C. (mS/cm)

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

Table 4. Changes of the main physicochemical characteristics of compost during the thermophylic and maturation phase of the mixtures vegetable crop residues with other organic residues.

+ Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part B (PFC)

[Page No. 178]

120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

178 Maniadakis et al.

Pepper crop residues with Olive press cake and olive leaves 60 (end of the thermophylic phase) 120 (end of maturation phase) Cucumber, pepper and egg plants residues with olive trees 60 (end of the thermophylic phase) 120 (end of maturation phase)

Egg plants crop residues with Olive press cake

Mixtures 7.7 7.6 8.4 7.1

6.2 6.1 6.8

7.7 7.9

7.7 8.3 0 (establishment)

8.5 8.9

pH

0 (establishment) 60 (end of the thermophylic phase) 120 (end of maturation phase) 0 (establishment)

Days of composting

28.11 28.06

40.32 40.15 6.1

5.3 3.8 3.1 6.4

— 2.31

— 3.1 32.60

46.51 42.81 41.29 43.59

— 12.14

— 12.95 2.02

2.65 — 3.00 2.5

Total N (%)

50.60 50.52

72.58 72.27 16.13

17.55 — 13.67 17.43

Ratio C/N

753.4

— 610.6 58.68

83.7 77.0 74.3 78.47

Organic matter (%)

660.8

590.9 — 390.8 887.6

NO3-N (ppm)

[169–184]

Total C (%)

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

E.C. (mS/cm)

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

Table 5. Changes of the main physicochemical characteristics of compost during the thermophylic and maturation phase of the mixtures vegetable crop residues with other organic residues.

+ Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part B (PFC)

[Page No. 179]

120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003


+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[169–184]

[Page No. 180]


120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

180

Maniadakis et al. Table 6.

424

Recovery tests from composts.

425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442

Pesticides tested Acephate Chlorpyrifos Chlorpyrifos methyl cyphalothrin Deltamethrin Diazinon a endosulfan b endosulfan Endosulfan sulphate Mecarbam Methamidophos Methidathion Permethrin Pirimiphos methyl Triazophos Vinclozolin

Detection limit in (mg/kg)

Fortification levels in (mg/kg)

Recovery (%)

0.01–0.05 0.01–0.05 0.01–0.05 0.005–0.05 0.005–0.05 0.005–0.05 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.005–0.05 0.005–0.05 0.005–0.05 0.005–0.05 0.01–0.05 0.005–0.05 0.005–0.05

2.50 1.25 1.25 1.25 6.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 2.50 1.25 6.25 1.25 1.25 1.25

51 90 88 92 114 97 88 83 72 82 80 87 94 92 94 85

443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470

are considered as some of the most commonly used pesticides in Crete.[29] According to two review articles by Buyuksonmez et al.,[26,27] organochloride compounds are considered to be the most resistance. However, the only pesticides from the above list that are ogranochlorined are the a endosulfan, b endosulfan, and endosulfan sulphate. As mentioned by Buyuksonmez et al.,[26,27] the use of these chemical is forbidden for vegetables crops for quite some time. Even though the possibility of such pesticides to be still in circulation and use can not be ignored, it is possible these chemical not to exist in the residues used in these trials. The lack of data on the raw materials does not allow us to have a more positive position. According to Buyuksonmez et al.,[26,27] mineralization accounts for only a small portion of pesticides disappearance. Other prominent process include partial degradation to secondary compounds, adsorption, humification, and volatilization. In general the authors suggested that the pattern of pesticides degradation during composting is similar to the degradation observed in soils. With a few important distinctions, composting can be considered a biologically active soil environment in which degradation is accelerated. Slightly different suggestions were made by Brown et al.,[28] who suggested that there was no volatilization of captan and lindane in MSW and biodegradation was responsible for the reduction of these chemical concentration during composting. However, the different nature of the wastes and the different composting method (aerated static piles compared to windrows) does not make these data completely comparable. It is important to mention that in this study analysis for pesticides were conducted at the end of the maturation phase. This (as illustrated in Table 4) adds another 60 days of microbiological decomposing activities in comparison to other experiments where measurements were conducted in composts at the end of the

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[169–184]

[Page No. 181]


120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

Composting of Vegetable Crop Residues for Reuse in Cultivation 471 472 473

181

thermophylic phase. It is possible this ‘‘delay’’ played some role in the complete absence of any of the tested chemicals in the end product, by allowing biodegradation for a longer period of time.

474 475 476 477

CONCLUSIONS

478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489

Vegetable crop residues composting should be considered as successful only when bulking agents were used. The temperature values passed the 55 C, mark, where managed to retain these values for an acceptable period of time. The problem of increased EC should be taken under serious consideration especially when aim of the whole research programme is to produce a good quality and of low cost material which could be used in various agriculture practices, including vegetable crops. This issue is enlarged by the fact that pesticides should not be considered as a problem, since after the composting and maturation phase they drop in under detectable levels. Possible mixture of vegetable crops residues with other agricultural–organic wastes in smaller ratios than those presented here should be considered as a possible solution.

490 491 492

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

493 494 495

This research was funded by the Municipality of Ierapetra, the greater area of which all materials used in our experiments, derived.

496 497 498 499

REFERENCES

500

1. Green, L.W.; Kreuter, M.W. Health Promotion Planning: an Educational and Environmental Approach; Mayfield: Mountain View: CA, 1991. 2. Greek National Statistical Service; www.statistics.gr, 2/4/03, 2003. 3. Blasi, C.; Tanzi, V.; Lanzetta, M. A study on the production of agricultural residues in Italy. Biomass Bioenerg. 1997, 12, 321–331. 4. Petsas, S; Linardakis, D. Nutrient Uptake in Spring-Cultivated Cucumbers Under Greenhouse Conditions, Proceedings of the 5th Hellenic Conference of the Greek Soil Society, Thessaloniki, May, 25–27, 1994; 484–494. 5. Petsas, S.; Linardakis, D.; Loulakis, M. Nutrient uptake in fall-cultivated cucumbers under greenhouse conditions without heating. Geotechnical Sci. Sub. 1996, 7 (3), 35–42. 6. Petsas, S; Tsikalas, P. Nutrient Uptake from Plants of Tomato Cultivated Into Greenhouses Without Heating, Proceedings of the 18th Hellenic Conference of the Greek Horticulture Society, Thessaloniki, Nov. 5–7, 1998; 327–330. 7. Kafatos, A.; Manesis, M.; Viachonikolis, G.; Vasiliou, G.; Ioannou, A.; Katsara, E.; Loumakou, M.; Megreli, C.; Mint, N.; Micheloyannis, I.; Doudounakis, S.; Samara, C.; Sarafidou, E. Epidemiology of chronic pesticides exposure in a rural community. Iatriki 1989, 56 (6), 12–34.

501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[169–184]

[Page No. 182]


120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

182 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564

Maniadakis et al.

8. Cheuck, W.; Fraser, B.S.; Lau, A. On-site composting of greenhouse crop residuals. Biocycle 2002, October, 32–34. 9. British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture, Food & Fishery, www.agf.gov.bc, 2/4/03, 2003. 10. Manios, V.I.; Dialynas, G.; Manios, T.; Papamattheakis, H.; Kokinakis, M. Technoeconomical Evaluation of a Green Waste Composting Site in the Municipality of Mires; Technological Educational Institute of Crete: Heraklion, Greece, 2000. 11. Manios, V.I.; Dialynas, G.; Manios, T.; Papamattheakis, H.; Kokinakis, M. Technoeconomical Evaluation of a Green Waste Composting Site in the Municipality of Ierapetra; Technological Educational Institute of Crete: Heraklion, Greece, 2001. 12. Storm, P.F. Pesticides in yard waste compost. Compost Sci. Util. 2000, 8, 54–60. 13. Manios, T.; Maniadakis, K.; Frantzeskaki, N.; Stentiford, E.I.; Manios, V.I.; Kritsotakis, I.; Sakkas, N.; Dialynas, G. Pilot Scale Sewage Sludge Composting in the Island of Crete, Greece; Submitted in Biocycle, 2003. 14. Sonneveld, C.; Van Den Ende; Van Dijk, P.A. Analysis of growing media by means of a 1:1.5 volume extract. Comm. Soil Sci. Plant An. 1974, 5 (3), 183–200. 15. FCQAO. Methods Book for the Analysis of Compost. Published by Federal Compost Quality Assurance Organization-Bundesgutegemeinschoft Kompost e.v.,; Abfall Now e.v. Publishing House: Stuttgart, Germany, 1996. 16. Sposito, G.; LeVesque, C.S.; LeClaire, J.P.; Chang, A.C. Trace metal chemistry in arid-zone field soils amended with sewage sludge: III. Effect of time on the extraction of trace metals. Soil Sc. Soc. Am. J. 1983, 47, 897–902. 17. Losier, J.; Girard, L. Microwave–assisted extraction method for organochlorinated pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls from compost. Int. J. Environ. An. Ch. 2001, 80, 1–11. 18. Manios, V.I.; Verdonck, O.F.; Kritsotakis, G.K. The relation between phytotoxicity and maturation of olive tree leaves compost. Agric. Res. 1986, 10, 61–73. 19. Manios, V.; Balis, C. Respirometry to determine optimum conditions for the biodegradation of extracted olive press-cake. Soil Biol. Biochem. 1983, 15, 75–83. 20. Avgelis, A.D.; Manios, V.I. Elimination of tomato mosaic virus by composting tomato residues. Neth. J. Plant Path. 1989, 95, 167–170. 21. Manios, T.; Laux, D.; Manios, V.; Stentiford, E.I. Cattail plants’ biomass as a bulging agent in sewage sludge composting and the effect of the produced compost on young cattail plants’ growth. Accepted in Compost Sci. Util. 2003. 22. Stentiford, E.I. Composting-Optimizing the process and keeping the neighbours happy. Compost Net Seminar, June, Athens 2001, 1, 1–8. 23. Reinhart, D.R.; deForest, A.R.; Keely, S.J.; Vogt, D.R. Composting of yard waste and wastewater treatment plant sludge mixtures. Compost Sci. Util. 1993, 1, 58–64. 24. Manios, V.I.; Tsikalas, P.; Verdonck, O. Decomposition of vinecanes in heap and evaluation of the produced compost. Acta Horticulturae 1985, 172, 39–53.

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[169–184]

[Page No. 183]


120027447_PFC39_01_R1_112003

Composting of Vegetable Crop Residues for Reuse in Cultivation 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579

25. Polese, L.; Minelli, E.V.; Jardin, E.F.G.; Ribeiro, M.L. Small scale method for the determination of selected organochlorine pesticides in soil. Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1996, 354, 474–476. 26. Buyuksonmez, F.; Rynk, R.; Hess, T.F.; Bechinski, E. Occurrence, degradation, and fate of pesticides during composting—Part I: composting, pesticides, and pesticides degradation. Compost Sci. Utiliz. 1999, 7 (4), 66–81. 27. Buyuksonmez, F.; Rynk, R.; Hess, T.F.; Bechinski, E. occurrence, degradation, and fate of pesticides during composting—Part II: occurrence and fates of pesticides in compost and composting systems. Compost Sci. Utiliz. 2000, 8 (1), 61–76. 28. Brown, K.W.; Thomas, J.C.; Whitney, F. Fate of volatile organic compounds and pesticides in composted municipal solid waste. Compost Sci. Util. 1997, 5 (4), 6–14. 29. Agrotypos, S.A. www.agrotypos.gr, 2/4/03, 2003.

580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 596 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611

183

Received April 17, 2003

+

[20.11.2003–12:11am]

{MDI}Pfc/Pfc39(1)/120027447_PFC_039_001_R1.3d

[169–184]

[Page No. 184]


CMS ID number (DOI):

ARTICLE INFORMATION SHEET: Contact or Corresponding Author 120027447

Article title: Article type:

Integrated Waste Management through Producers and Consumers Education: Composting of Vegetable Crop Residues for Reuse in Cultivation Article

Classification: Category: Primary subcategory: Subcategpry(ies): Topic(s): Key words: Copyright holder: Author Sequence Number Author first name or first initial:

PRECEDE; PROCEED; Vegetable; Residues; Composting; Pesticides Marcel Dekker, Inc. 5 T.

Author middle initial: Author last name:

Manios1

Suffix to last name (e.g., Jr., III): Degrees (e.g. M.D., Ph.D): Author Status (e.g. Retired, Emeritus) Author e-mail address:

[email protected].

Author fax: Author phone: Primary Affiliation(s) at time of authorship:

Title or Position Department(s) Institution or Company

School of Agricultural Technology, Technological Educational Institute of Crete

Domestic (U.S.A.) or International Suite, floor, room no. Street address City

Heraklion

State/Province Postal code Country Secondary Affiliation(s) at time of authorship:

71500 Greece

Title or Position Department(s) Institution or Company Domestic (U.S.A.) or International Suite, floor, room no. Street address City State/Province Postal code Country

Current affiliation(s):

Title or Position Department(s) Institution or Company Suite, floor, room no. Street address City State/Province Postal code Country

Mailing address:

Department(s) Institution or Company Street address Suite, floor, room no. City State/Province Postal code Country

Recipient of R1 proofs:

Article data:

e-mail address to receive proofs:

[email protected].

Fax to receive proofs: Mailing address to receive proofs:

School of Agricultural Technology, Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Heraklion 71500, Greece

Submission date:

April 17, 2003

Reviewed date: Revision date: Accepted date:

ARTICLE INFORMATION SHEET: Co-Authors

Article title: ISSN: Print ISSN: Web CMS ID number (DOI): Author Sequence / Number Author first name or first initial:

Integrated Waste Management through Producers and Consumers Education: Composting of Vegetable Crop Residues for Reuse in Cultivation 0360-1234 1532-4109 120027447 1 K.


Maniadakis

Suffix to last name (e.g., Jr., III): Degrees (e.g. M.D., Ph.D): Author Status/Biography (e.g. Retired or Emeritus) Author e-mail address: Author fax: Author phone: Primary Affiliation(s) at time of authorship:

Title or Position Department(s)

Institution or Company

School of Agricultural Technology, Technological Educational Institute of Crete


Heraklion


Title or Position Department(s) Institution or Company Domestic (U.S.A.) or International Street address City State/Province Postal code Country



Mailing address:


Greece



Integrated Waste Management through Producers and Consumers Education: Composting of Vegetable Crop Residues for Reuse in Cultivation 0360-1234 1532-4109 120027447 2 K.


Lasaridi



Department of Geography Harokopio University of Athens


Kalithea





Mailing address:


Athens



Integrated Waste Management through Producers and Consumers Education: Composting of Vegetable Crop Residues for Reuse in Cultivation 0360-1234 1532-4109 120027447 3 Y.


Manios



Department of Nutrition and Dietetics Harokopio University of Athens


Kalithea





Mailing address:


Athens



Integrated Waste Management through Producers and Consumers Education: Composting of Vegetable Crop Residues for Reuse in Cultivation 0360-1234 1532-4109 120027447 4 M.


Kyriacou



Department of Nutrition and Dietetics Harokopio University of Athens


Kalithea





Mailing address:


Athens

Author Queries For your forthcoming paper to be published in Part-B-Pesticides, Food contaminates, and Agricultures Wastes 39(1) Article No. 120027447 PAGE Article Opening Page

QUERIES If available please supply: Your fax number, phone number, title, Department, street address and state/province. E-mail addresses, fax numbers, phone numbers, titles, Department, street addresses, state/provinces and postal codes of your coauthors. For all Journal references please provide the following missing information: Article title, journal title, year and volume For all Book references please provide the following missing information: Book title, Chapter title, Year of publishing, Publisher name and Page/page range